i

King thelstan in the English, Continental and Scandinavian Traditions

Of the Tenth to the Thirteenth Centuries

Angela Marion Smith

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

The University of Leeds

Institute for Medieval Studies

June 2014
 ii

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit
has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has
been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation
from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Angela
Marion Smith to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

2014 The University of Leeds and Angela Marion Smith

 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I wish to thank my supervisors, Dr Mary Swan, Dr Alaric Hall and

Dr William Flynn for their unstinting professional support and encouragement. Their

scholarship has enabled me to search and think more widely around the subject, opening

up new ideas and providing further ideas for research. Without their guidance and

support this thesis would never have been completed.

I also wish to thank Professor Andrew Wawn, Professor Ian Wood and Professor

Catherine Karkov for their encouragement and advice at the beginning of this journey

which greatly helped me to have the confidence to proceed and to think positively about

the future. I am grateful to Professor Birgit Sawyer for allowing me to have access to

unpublished material on Saxo Grammaticus and to Professor Simon Keynes for use of

his lecture material on thelstans charters. My thanks also goes to Gareth Williams

who made arrangements for me to spend a splendid day studying the thelstan coins in

the British Museum and kindly dealt with all my queries.

Finally I would like to thank family, friends and colleagues for their continuing

encouragement and interest. There were times when they were a very lifeline and helped

ensure I remained positive even when the going was tough!

 iv

ABSTRACT

Using close textual analysis, this thesis has identified similarities and differences in the

ways in which the Anglo-Saxon king, thelstan, is depicted in narrative sources from

England, the Continent and Scandinavia during the tenth to the thirteenth centuries;

how historical, cultural, and literary contexts influenced their writers and their patrons

and how literary analysis might contribute further to historical understandings of

thelstan and his reign.

Central to my analysis are the concepts of the sources as textual and visual

narratives, deriving contemporary meaning from their intertextuality with other sources

and fulfilling a function of recording and creating social memories for their own time

and for the future.

The thesis does not argue for the historical veracity of any one version over

another but for the individual narrative voices to be heard and understood as part of

their own historical, national and contemporary backgrounds. Based on my literary

analysis of the texts I have questioned some generally held historical interpretations,

suggested some alternative interpretations of my own and identified further areas for

research.

The thesis demonstrates that there are similarities but also significant differences

in the way thelstan is depicted both between and within the English, Continental and

Scandinavian traditions. It identifies a number of narratives within the sources that

provide the basis for further research on thelstan: his Carolingian ambitions, his role

as foster-father to Hkon of Norway, the possibility that he had a second coronation to

confirm his claim to be King of all Britain and the depictions of him as a king-maker

and a friend and ally of the Vikings.

 v

CONTENTS

Introduction.. ..1

Chapter One:

thelstan in the English Tradition: The Tenth Century. .17

Chapter Two

thelstan in the English Tradition: The Anglo-Norman Texts .92

Chapter Three

thelstan in the Continental Tradition..192

Chapter Four

thelstan in the Scandinavian Tradition245

Conclusion..329

Bibliography349
 1

INTRODUCTION
Athelstan deserves study. He was the opener of the door: he made much possible
that he never lived to see. We must do our best to pick up such fragmentary
notices of him as time has spared, and add them to the meagre chronicle of his
victories in war.1

This quotation from Joseph Armitage Robinson identifies one of the key contributions

Robinson made to historical research methodology. Through his work Robinson

provided an example of how a study across sources can provide a more rounded picture

of a person or event. His footnotes bear clear witness to the care he gave to researching

and bringing together material from different sources. Robinsons analysis proved

seminal both in its methodology and its content. His challenge to others to research

thelstan more fully was taken up by other historians, Frank Stenton in his Anglo-

Saxon England, David Dumville in his chapter on thelstan, First King of England in

Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar and, most recently, Sarah Foot in her

biography of thelstan. Each of these works provides an example of how a cohesive

and scholarly analysis of thelstan and his reign can be constructed from a wide range

of apparently disparate sources.2 In addition, the new interest in thelstan which

Robinson helped establish resulted in a body of in-depth research into different aspects

of his reign, his laws, charters, coins and books.3

Thesis Overview

In this thesis I take up Robinsons challenge in a different way. I have not attempted a

historical study of thelstans life and times, nor have I concentrated on analysis of

individual sources for one aspect of his reign. Instead I have opted for a literary analysis

1
Joseph Armitage Robinson, The Times of St Dunstan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923), p. 6.
2
Frank Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp.
339-56. David Dumville, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar (Woodbridge: Boydell
Press, 1992), pp. 141-71. Sarah Foot, thelstan the First King of England (London: Yale
University Press, 2011).
3
This is admirably illustrated in Anglo-Saxon England: A Bibliographic Handbook, ed. by
Simon Keynes (Cambridge: Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, University of
Cambridge, 2005), pp. 116-19.
 2

of how thelstan is depicted in sources from three different traditions, the English, the

Continental and the Scandinavian. Historical research into thelstan has been very

dependent on the tenth-century sources from Anglo-Saxon England and the twelfth-

century Anglo-Norman texts, with some acknowledgement of, but little detailed

comment on, the textual sources from the Continent and from Scandinavia.4 I have

given equal weighting to the sources from all three geographical areas and I have

extended the time-frame to include written sources from the later twelfth and early

thirteenth centuries. This has enabled me to include the later Anglo-Norman historians

and the thirteenth-century written saga and history texts from Scandinavia. In this way I

have been able to compare how thelstan was depicted across three different regions

and take a longitudinal view of how he was depicted within each historiographical

tradition. My analysis has identified that there were similarities in the ways in which the

traditions depicted thelstan but also significant differences both between and within

traditions. As a result, there is not one depiction of thelstan, but many.

In my research I have queried some of the generally accepted scholarly

interpretations of individual sources for thelstans life and suggested alternative ways

of understanding them based on codicology, linguistics and literary style. By comparing

texts across centuries and across traditions I have identified links between sources

which suggest areas for further historical and literary research into tenth-century and

later interpretations of thelstan as a pro-Carolingian King of all Britain, a king-maker,

a foster-father and a friend of Vikings.

Review of Relevant Scholarship on thelstan

The thesis draws on an interdisciplinary range of scholarship to help interpret the

sources and their contexts. In particular I have drawn on the researches of Simon

4
On the difficulties of accessing material on thelstan, see Foot, thelstan, pp.1-9.
 3

Keynes into thelstans books;5 Catherine Karkov on portrayals of thelstan;6 Michael

Lapidge7 on the thelstan poems; the charter analyses by Peter Sawyer8 and Simon

Keynes;9 the work on thelstans coins of Marion Archibald and Christopher Blunt,10

and David Rollasons11 research on Durham and St Cuthbert and thelstans love of

relics. In drawing together research from these different academic disciplines I have

also identified interrelationships which were not immediately evident within the

separate scholarly studies. For example, in Chapter 1 on the tenth-century English

tradition, I demonstrate how the interrelationships between charter evidence, chronicle

narratives and coin inscriptions suggest that thelstan underwent a second ceremony of

coronation as King of all Britain.

My study of the background to thelstan in the Continental and Scandinavian

traditions was greatly helped by the work of Philip Grierson on Flanders,12 Karl

Leyser13 on the Ottonians and Saxony, Rosamond McKitterick14 on the Carolingians

5
Simon Keynes, King Athelstans Books, in Learning and Literature in Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Michael Lapidge and Helmut Gneuss (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1981), pp. 143-201.
6
Catherine, E. Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge: Boydell
Press, 2004), pp. 53-83.
7
Michael Lapidge, Some Latin Poems as Evidence for the Reign of Athlestan, Anglo-Saxon
England, 9 (1981), 61-98.
8
Peter Sawyer, Anglo-Saxon Charters: an Annotated List and Bibliography, Royal Historical
Society, 8 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1968). Available electronically at:
http:www.trin.cam.ac.uk/chartwww/eSawyer.ga/eSawyer2.html
9
Simon Keynes, Register of the Charters of King thelstan, unpublished paper from Toller
Lecture (University of Manchester, 2001).
10
Marion M. Archibald and C. E. Blunt, Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles, 34, British
Museum Anglo-Saxon Coins V, thelstan to the Reform of Edgar 924-c.973 (London: British
Museum, 1986).
11
David Rollason, Saints and Relics in Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989);
Relic-Cults as an Instrument of Royal Policy c.900-c.1050, Anglo-Saxon England, 15 (1986),
91-103; St Cuthbert and Wessex: the Evidence of Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 183,
in St Cuthbert, his Cult and his Community to AD 1200, ed. by G. Bonner and others
(Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1989), pp. 413-24.
12
Philip Grierson, The Relations between England and Flanders before the Norman Conquest,
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 23 (1941), 71-112.
13
Karl Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an early Medieval Society (London: Arnold, 1979);
The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries (London: Hambledon Press, 1994).
14
Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians (London: Longman,
1983).
 4

and the Frankish kingdoms and Birgit Sawyer15 and Peter Sawyer16 on Scandinavia.

From each I was able to derive a scholarly overview of the context of the primary

sources I was studying.

As noted above, there are very few works providing a detailed account of

thelstan and his reign as a whole. One of the first, and one of the most influential, is

Frank Stentons in his Anglo-Saxon England. The main focus of Stentons work was on

tracing how monarchy evolved in England from separate kingdoms into one, and was

then transformed under William the Conqueror into a form of feudal sovereignty.

Stenton interpreted thelstans reign as a major step in this development, built on the

foundations laid by Alfred the Great. His narrative is constructed by combining sources

from across the tenth and later centuries into a seamless narrative. This provides a

scholarly overview of the information available on thelstan but by omitting key

aspects of the contextual background it gives the impression that the sources are all of

equal status and value.

David Dumville also saw the reign of thelstan as deserving further detailed

study and reiterated Robinsons argument for the need to bring together disparate

information from a range of sources.17 His chapter on thelstan, First King of

England in Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar, looks in particular at

thelstans military, political and administrative achievements but also includes aspects

of his connections abroad and his ecclesiastical links. His analysis focuses particularly

on secondary sources and his work provides both a helpful overview of relevant

scholarship and a model for my own critical analysis of primary and secondary material.

15
Birgit Sawyer, Valdemar, Absalon and Saxo, Revue Belgique de Philologie et DHistoire,
63 (1985), 685-705.
16
Peter Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe AD 700-1100 (London: Methuen,
1982).
17
Dumville, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar, pp. 141-43.
 5

Most recently, Sarah Foots work on thelstan has taken research into his reign

into a new area of interpretative biography. In her Prologue Foot comments:

Choosing a biographical treatment (rather than an examination of thelstans

life in the context of his times) has enabled me to put thelstan the individual
at the heart of a narrative of the making of the kingdom of England.18

Foot acknowledges that her version of thelstans life and achievements will be her

personal one, adding, the fact that the man whom my book will create is not a true

person does not render the project of writing his life invalid.19 Although Foot refers to

the Continental and Scandinavian sources she does not undertake any detailed source

criticism of these. Her biographical study of thelstan as a tenth-century king in

England draws on a wide range of scholarly research and her analyses and commentary

illustrate how literary reconstruction can helpfully inform historical interpretation of the

past.

The historical studies outlined above have provided a background for my own

research and given pointers to other relevant sources. However, I found that secondary

analyses often tended to see the primary source texts on thelstan as a given. As a

result, critical comment focused more on the reliability of the historical information

they contained and did not necessarily take into account the implications of the

linguistic and literary features of the sources for our understanding of the texts. As the

focus in my thesis is on how and why the sources depict thelstan in the way they do,

my emphasis is not on their historical accuracy but on how their depictions were

influenced by the writers selection of content, language, style and presentation.

Source Analysis

The primary sources used in the thesis include chronicles, annals, histories, charters,

ecclesiastical texts, coin inscriptions and their accompanying images, book dedications,

18
Foot, thelstan, p. 3.
19
Foot, thelstan, p. 7.
 6

poetry and manuscript portraiture. The range of genre is wide but, through their

different media, the sources all provide information and descriptions of thelstan and

his actions as king. I have therefore opted to analyse them all as examples of forms of

narrative. This includes the coin images and inscriptions and the manuscript paintings as

examples of visual narratives on thelstan as king.20

The written texts are variously described by their authors as Annales, Chronicon,

Gesta, Historia and saga. All, however, claim, implicitly or explicitly, to depict

accurately events from the tenth century. It is often unclear what sources the authors

themselves have used. Some mention using written texts, most indicate only that they

have drawn on reliable oral sources. The reticence of authors about their sources may be

a useful reminder that they may have had very limited access to source material

themselves.

The number of source materials which have survived from the tenth century is

relatively small and it is often not possible to see what use an author has made of a

source by comparing later texts with earlier ones. Comparing the content of the texts

which have survived also has its problems. When a text makes no reference to a person

or event mentioned elsewhere, the reader is left to consider whether the author had no

access to that information, or did not think it important or deliberately ignored it

because it did not fit the overall purpose of the work. Similarly, variations in the details

given by writers for the same event may indicate that they were using different sources

or that they were providing their own edited or individual version of events. As a result,

the reader cannot be sure how far these narrative texts preserve tenth-century traditions

20
Narrative Across Media: The Languages of Storytelling, ed. by Marie-Laure Ryan (Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 2004). On authorial intent and problems of interpretation see the
Introduction in Jason Glenn, Politics and History in the Tenth Century: The Work and World of
Richer of Reims (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 1-16.
 7

or represent the personal views of their authors about the tenth century or provide

examples of how authors or their patrons wished the past to be perceived.

Authors claims to have used trustworthy oral sources have generally been seen

by scholars as a weakness given the fallibility of human memory and the creative nature

of most oral transmissions. However, recent scholarship on the Scandinavian saga

sources has proved particularly helpful in addressing this issue. The relationship

between written saga and oral tradition has long been keenly debated.21 More recently

Gareth Williams has advised a cautious, comparative approach to texts based on oral

sources and characterised as overly simplistic the view that because saga information

cannot be assumed to be historically accurate, it should be discounted:

The fact that a source is not reliable does not necessarily mean that it is
valueless, but that it should be used with caution, and the evidence it contains
evaluated in the light of the overall picture of the period presented by all the
material available.22

Vsteinn lason has adopted a similar approach, arguing that sagas are always

interrelated and defy simple categorisation into one genre or another:

It would be a serious methodological mistake to look at the Icelandic narratives

from the Middle Ages that have been termed sagas as if they were static
phenomena that could be clearly distinguished from other narratives and
categorized unequivocally.23

Using Njls saga as an example he concluded that whether actual events are accurately

reported or not is important but that the real significance of the sagas lies in the record

they provide of social values, attitudes and responses to the past:

21
Historians have largely discounted the idea that saga as a literary form of writing can be
treated as factual material. The following provide useful overviews of the different theories on
saga and oral tradition: Stefn Einarsson, A History of Icelandic literature (New York: Johns
Hopkins University, 1957), pp. 124-33. Diana Whaley, A Useful Past: Historical Writing in
Medieval Iceland, in Old Icelandic Literature and Society, ed. by Margaret Clunies Ross
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 161-202 (pp. 165-69).
22
Gareth Williams, Hkon Aalsteins fstri: Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Kingship in Tenth-
Century Norway, in The North Sea World in the Middle Ages, ed. by Thomas Liszka and Lorna
Walker (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2001), pp. 108-26 (p. 109).
23
Vsteinn lason, The Icelandic Saga as a Kind of Literature with Special Reference to its
Representation of Reality, in Learning and Understanding in the Old Norse World, ed. by Judy
Quinn and others (Turnhout: Brepols, 2007), pp. 27-47 (p. 29).
 8

the sagas more general relation to lived history is much more important. What it
tells us about particular persons and events may be exaggerated, misunderstood,
or invented, but the stories told are a response to something real, to words and
feelings, to memories and fantasies; they are stories with roots in real life.24

Vsteinns conceptualizing of the sagas as lived history provides a useful model which I

have applied to all the sources with which I have been working. It encapsulates a

number of concepts equally applicable to written texts and the visual narratives of

thelstans coins and portraits. First, narratives do not exist in isolation but are linked

intertextually to other narratives; secondly, narrative, even when recording the past, is a

creative activity which reflects the attitudes and values of a particular author, time or

context; thirdly, narrative becomes a statement of historic record in its own right of how

events were to be remembered, both at the time and in the future.

Social Memory, Narrative and Intertextuality

Recent studies of the relationship between history and memory have highlighted how

writing about the past involves using memory creatively. Yitzhak Hen and Matthew

Innes have brought together a range of essays highlighting this creative role of

historians.25 In their introduction, they comment

Those who recorded the past in written form emerge as adaptors and editors of
memory but also as the authors of texts of identity which in turn inform that
memory.26

Geoffrey Cubitt, exploring the role of memory in establishing personal and collective

identity, has noted that, the collective past is always a constructed past (and continually

under construction).27 These observations raise questions as to the extent to which any

24
Vsteinn, The Icelandic Saga as a Kind of Literature, in Learning and Understanding in the
Old Norse World, ed. by Quinn and others, p. 47.
25
The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, ed. by Yitzak Hen and Matthew Innes
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
26
Hen and Innes, The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, p. 7.
27
Geoffrey Cubitt, History and Memory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), pp.
230-31.
 9

history narrative can be regarded as a reliable record of the past and this has been

succinctly expressed by Monika Otter as the fundamental problem of how a text can

represent a past which cannot be directly accessed.28 The problem has led Gabrielle

Spiegel even to query why we continue to hold to a wish for an empirically verifiable,

recoverable past.29

Awareness of the importance of memories for recreating the past and

establishing a sense of shared identity can be found in the source texts on thelstan. In

the tenth century, thelweard in the English tradition wrote his Chronicon so his cousin

Matilda could learn about her family identity and connections with the royal house of

Wessex; Dudo provided a dynastic history for the Dukes of Normandy and Widukind,

in his Res Gestae Saxonicae, wished to help create a sense of regional identity for the

recently formed kingdom of East Saxony. As a result, they selected certain memories

for inclusion, omitted others, whether deliberately or not, and presented their material in

a way designed to meet the overall aim of their work. 30

William of Malmesbury is one Anglo-Norman historian who directly addresses

this question of reliability and veracity in history texts. He resolves it by taking no

responsibility for events before his own time, apart from trying to find trustworthy

sources. The responsibility for the truthfulness of the sources, he says, rests with the

sources themselves and those who provided them. But William goes further and assigns

to his readers responsibility for finally deciding on the trustworthiness and most

28
Monika Otter, Functions of Fiction in Historical Writing, in Writing Medieval History, ed.
by Nancy Partner (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005), pp.109-130 (p. 114). See also, Monika Otter,
Inventiones: Fiction and Referentiality in Twelfth-century Historical Writing (London:
University of North Carolina Press, 1996), pp. 10-18.
29
Gabrielle M. Spiegel, The Past as Text: the Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography
(London: Johns Hopkins University, 1997), p. xxi.
30
Examples are provided and discussed in the following chapters as part of my textual analyses.
For other examples of authorial selective use of memory see Matthew Townend, Whatever
Happened to York Viking Poetry? Memory, Tradition and the Transmission of Skaldic Verse,
Saga-Book, 27 (2003), 48-90. On the writing of dynastic bistories in the twelfth century see
Peter Damian-Grint, The New Historians of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance: Inventing
Vernacular Authority (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1999), pp. 43-67.
 10

reasonable interpretation of the events he narrates.31 William clearly sees the writing of

history as a literary actvivity and his views on the relationship between reader and

writer seem to anticipate later literary theories of reader-reception and reader-response.

Antonia Gransden has shown that medieval historians tended to use a number of

traditional literary topoi in their Prologues, derived from those used by Roman

historians, firmly siting their texts within the framework of classical literature.32 Monika

Otter has pointed out that this was in line with current educational and literary practice

which regarded history as a branch of rhetoric.33 The choice of genres used by medieval

historians for their works of history further confirms that they regarded their work as

primarily one of literature. Thus Hrotsvit and Gaimar write in verse with all the

demands that metre imposed on their choice of vocabulary and forms of expression;

Dudo and Richer include dramatic speeches as part of their historical narrative; Henry

of Huntingdon organises his text around a moral theme, providing an image of England

being scourged five times by invasions as a punishment for its faults.

The prologues and dedications of works of medieval history repeatedly claim

that the author will seek to give pleasure by making his narrative interesting and

avoiding unnecessary detail.34 While historical scholarship has tended to concentrate on

separating fact from fiction in these texts, literary analyses have concentrated on how

writers communicated their version of events through their choice of language and

imagery. This difference is evident in the range of interpretations of history texts

31
As will be seen in Section 3 of Chapter 2 on William of Malmesbury, the picture he gives of
contemporary historians is not complimentary. Too many, he says, over-emphasize the good
and play down the bad in order to win praise and avoid blame.
32
Antonia Gransden, Legends, Traditions and History in Medieval England (London:
Hambledon Press, 1992), pp. 125-26.
33
Otter, Functions of Fiction in Historical Writing, in Writing Medieval History, ed. by
Partner, p. 109.
34
See Chapter 2, Section 3 on William of Malmesbury, for an analysis of medieval history
prologues.
 11

provided by secondary scholarship.35 It can be said that the individuality of the author is

complemented by the individuality of the scholarly readers response. Clearly this does

not mean that a shared understanding of texts is impossible but it highlights the

differences in background, context and culture which exist between writers and readers

from different centuries. An important factor in developing this shared understanding is

an awareness of the intertextuality of narrative forms.

Robert Stein has commented on the importance of recognizing the intertextuality

of sources in three different ways, texts in the culture of the writers time, texts used by

the writer and knowledge of texts brought by the reader.36 Medieval writers on the

whole give very little information about their sources and with the passage of time texts

have been lost. The reader today, however, can draw on a very wide range of textual

material and make connections across many centuries and genres. It is therefore

important to read primary sources as far as possible as part of their own contemporary

context, although as Hen and Innes point out, we only have partial data on which to

reconstruct this.37

As part of this debate, James Fentress and Chris Wickham have argued strongly

that historical analysis needs to be based on an understanding of the rules of narrative

35
Rosamond McKitterick has argued in relation to the Royal Frankish Annals that the
construction of a cohesive narrative of the past to form collective memory was more relevant to
writers and readers than its relation to reality. Rosamond McKitterick, History and Memory in
the Carolingian World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 118. Elizabeth Tyler
and Ross Balzaretti have described narrative as the principle means by which coherence or
order is given to events in the act of shaping an account of them. Elizabeth M. Tyler and Ross
Balzaretti, Narrative and History in the Early Medieval West (Turnhout: Brepols, 2006), p. 1.
Nancy Partner, commenting on the Canterbury Tales, has described narrative as full of
polyvalent meanings, and complexly related strata of meaning, compressed and shadowed
significations, endless ways of conveying more than literal meaning which are understood as
really there [] not merely the clever invention of modern readers. Nancy Partner, The
Hidden Self: Psychoanalysis and the textual unconscious, in Writing Medieval History, ed. by
Partner, pp. 42-64 (p. 58).
36
Robert M. Stein, Literary Criticism and the Evidence for History, in Writing Medieval
History, ed. by Partner, pp. 67-87 (pp. 79-80).
37
Hen and Innes, The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, p. 4.
 12

through which the text was written in its own time, whatever the genre.38 Sarah Foot

has helped develop this idea further through her work on annals and charters as

narrative.39 As noted above, my own analysis of the sources on thelstan takes Foots

wider definition of narrative and adds to it visual narrative in order to include the

dialogue provided with the viewer by thelstans coins and portraits.

Thesis Structure

I have preserved the distinctiveness of the regional historiographical traditions about

thelstan by dividing the thesis into four chapters. The first two analyse respectively

how thelstan is depicted in the English tradition in the tenth century and in the Anglo-

Norman period. The third chapter analyses the sources from the Continent and the

fourth the sources from Scandinavia. The primary textual sources and associated

scholarly research are described and commented on at the beginning of each chapter. By

analysing the sources for each tradition by century, I have been able to identify where

narratives of thelstan changed over time and how certain texts became dominant and

exerted considerable influence on the work of later authors. I have used cross-

referencing to note similarities, differences and possible links between the traditions

while preserving what is specific to each.

In analysing texts I have considered any reasons authors have given for

undertaking their work and how far this is evident in their depiction of thelstan. This

has included considering how an authors depiction of thelstan compares with that

provided in the same text for other kings; the choice of literary, biblical and historical

images; the emphasis given to specific achievements or attributes and whether an event

38
James Fentress and Chris Wickham, Social Memory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 162-63.
Sarah Foot, Finding the Meaning of Form: Narrative in Annals and Chronicles, in Writing
39

Medieval History, ed. by Partner, pp. 88-108.

 13

is presented as central to the narrative or as marginal. In Chapter 1, I have used tenth-

century numismatic and iconographic sources for thelstan and his reign to see to what

extent they provide independent evidence which supports or challenges the textual

accounts. This use of comparative, interdisciplinary material is not intended to prove or

disprove the factual accuracy of the written texts but to help identify further whether

sources provide a representative or a more idiosyncratic view of thelstan and his

reign, where they complement, extend or contradict each other or where they indicate

the existence of separate viewpoints and traditions.

Of the textual sources, the Gesta Regum of William of Malmesbury and the

Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus stand out as different from the other narrative

histories. In his Gesta Regum William of Malmesbury provides a detailed commentary

on the writing of history and the approaches he has adopted in his own work. In his

section on thelstan he identifies and comments analytically on the range of sources he

claims to have used. His narrative is clearly pro-thelstan and includes information not

found elsewhere on thelstans childhood and military achievements and on his

physical appearance, personality and character. By contrast, Saxo Grammaticus gives a

very negative account of thelstan which is completely different from the other

surviving sources. Its negativity gains in clarity and assumes more significance when it

is read as part of Saxos whole narrative on the history of the Danish people from the

earliest times to his own day. Both of these authors make a very individual, a very

important, and in Williams case a very influential, contribution to any scholarly

analysis of thelstan and his reign. I have therefore provided more in-depth analyses of

their work, for William at the end of Chapter 2 on the Anglo-Norman Texts and for

Saxo at the end of the Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition. These two more in-

depth studies enable issues relevant to the whole thesis to be explored in greater detail.
 14

Some Methodological Issues

Textual Transmission

In analysing the written sources, I have acknowledged the difficulties and uncertainties

underlying my own and others analyses of the texts. The conjectured dates of

composition often post-date the events they describe by up to a century or more, while

the surviving manuscripts may post-date composition by several centuries. Because of

rewritings, redactions, scribal emendations and copyist additions and omissions, the

texts we now have may be significantly different from those they claim to reproduce. I

have therefore relied on accepted scholarly theories on questions of text transmission

where these are germane to my analyses. However, my purpose is not to reconstruct an

original text for any of my sources but to explore the textual content as it survives in

existing manuscripts and as edited by modern scholars.

Translation

The textual sources used for this thesis are in Latin, Old English and Old

Icelandic/Norse. Unless indicated otherwise, the translations from the source texts are

my own. The problems of translating and interpreting from one language and culture to

another are challenging and complex. Stenton, in the Preface to Anglo-Saxon England,

has commented on the subtle difficulties inherent in translating terms from Old English

noting that on some occasions the significance to be attached to an episode turns on the

interpretation that is given to a particular Old English word or phrase.40 I found that

this was equally true when translating the Old Icelandic/Norse and the Latin texts.

Where necessary I have discussed alternative translations for texts and the implications

of these for a sources depiction of thelstan. The Latin texts are the most numerous

and pose their own particular linguistic challenges. Latin vocabulary, which had

evolved to meet the needs of a medieval world and Church, could still retain many of its

40
Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. ix.
 15

original classical meanings. An example which illustrates this is the translation of the

Latin diadema. In classical Latin it is used to describe the ribboned headdress worn as a

badge of honour. Imperial coins showing the head of the emperor with a diadema were

widely copied and both Edward and thelstan are depicted on their coins in this way.

However, by the twelfth century diadema was being used of a kings crown. Failure in

both twelfth-century and later translations to distinguish between the two meanings of

diadema has helped blur the distinction between a ceremony of royal consecration and

one of coronation. As will be seen in Chapter 1, this has particular significance for

thelstans claim to have become King of all Britain.

Peter Fisher, describing his own approach to translating the Latin of Saxo

Grammaticus, argues for the importance of readability in a translation. Fisher suggests

that the translator needs to chop up long Latin sentences, while still trying to preserve

something of their elegant variation and balance, and should avoid being too

colloquial in an attempt to render the original into modern English idiom.41 In making

my own translations of the texts for this thesis, I have tried to represent the original

language and style as faithfully as possible while providing a version which does not

distort Standard English. I have not attempted to translate poetry into verse but have

tried to retain the poetic vocabulary and match the content by line wherever possible.

The translation of the idioms and phraseology of skaldic verse clearly poses its own

particular problems. I have therefore set my translation as nearly as possible to mirror

the original text and, following the model used by Kari Ellen Gade, included an

explanation of the more difficult skaldic expressions as part of my commentary.42

41
Peter Fisher, On Translating Saxo, in Saxo Grammaticus: A Medieval Author between
Norse and Latin Culture, ed. by Karsten Friis-Jensen (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press,
1981), pp. 53-64 (p. 54).
42
Poetry from the Kings Sagas 2: From c.1035 to c.1300, ed. by Kari Ellen Gade, 2 vols
(Turnhout: Brepols, 2009).
 16

Overview

In my following analysis of the narrative sources for thelstan, I have taken account of

both the definition of written history as literature and Vsteinns description of orally

based texts as lived history. Both have in common the concept of accounts of the past

as constructs in narrative form which provide memories of the past for their own time

and for future generations. Central to my thesis, therefore, are the concepts of the

primary sources as literary narrative, deriving contemporary meaning from their

intertextuality with other sources and fulfilling a function of recording and creating

social memories. My research addresses the extent to which narrative depictions of

thelstan were similar across traditions during the tenth to the thirteenth centuries;

whether there were significant differences both within and between traditions; how

these similarities and differences reflected historical, cultural, contextual and literary

influences of the writers and their texts and how a comparative, literary analysis of this

kind might contribute to historical understandings of thelstan and his reign.

 17

Chapter One

thelstan in the English Tradition

The Tenth Century

Introduction

Contemporary, or near contemporary, depictions of thelstan are relatively few in

number and are found in a variety of sourceschronicles, charters, coins, book

dedications, letters, poems and saints lives. As it was not possible to cover the full

range of source material within the thesis, I decided to concentrate on three contrasting

groups of sourceschronicles, documentary and numismatic records and verse

representations of thelstan. I have therefore divided this chapter into three main

sections based on the following tenth-century sources:

the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Chronicon thelweardi;

thelstans charters, coins and book dedications;

poetry celebrating thelstan and his achievements.

Together, these groupings provide ecclesiastical, royal and verse depictions of

thelstan through narrative and diplomatic texts, coin inscriptions, book dedications

and Old English and Latin poetry.

The depictions of thelstan in these sources are the result of the choices made

by their authors, or those who commissioned them, either as individuals or as

representatives of a community. These choices include the genre and style of

composition, the actions and events recorded, the descriptors and formal designations

used and any authorial comment added. The written texts are further extended by

pictorial representations of thelstan on his coins and in two manuscripts,1 reflecting

1
One manuscript painting survives together with a recorded description of the other. These are
considered in detail in the section on thelstans Book Dedications.
 18

further choices in terms of design and imagery. My critical analysis examines how these

sources provide a record of the ways in which their authors depicted thelstan as king

in his own time and in the later tenth century.

In this chapter my analysis of the texts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

concentrates on Versions A and B. Their earliest manuscripts have been confidently

assigned to the tenth century but they record thelstans succession differently, their

details reflecting alternative points of view. The Chronicon thelweardi provides

another perspective. thelweard as a descendant of thelstans great-grandfather,

thelwulf, gives his own personal narrative of events. He draws on previous texts but

he also states that he is using family memories and traditions as his source.

The depictions of thelstan through the coins and charters issued in his name

provide formal statements on how he was depicted at different times in his reign. Their

use in diplomatic documents and on the royal currency gives them a legal standing and

a more authoritative status than other sources. The influence of their wording can be

traced in tenth-century book dedications and in later charters which claimed to record

donations made by thelstan.

The verse sources of poetry, and possibly song, provide a variety of celebratory

depictions of thelstan which are influenced by the traditions of the verse forms they

use. These depictions are enriched by the linguistic links they make with other texts,

literary and biblical. While intertextuality is part of the analysis of all the sources for

this chapter, it is most clearly evident in the verse depictions where it is an integral part

of their composition.

The division of the chapter into three sections enables each set of sources to be

analysed as a groupchronicles; charters, coins and book dedications; poetry and verse.

The final section draws together the main findings and suggests some areas for further
 19

research. To provide a pathway through the chapter, each section begins with an

overview of the main primary sources which form the basis of my analysis.

The Tenth-Century Chronicles: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Versions A and B

and the Chronicon thelweardi

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC)

In his overview of the ASC, Simon Keynes has described its title as

a term of convenience applied by modern scholars to a composite set of annals

which provides the basis for the greater part of our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon
history. The understanding of the Chronicle as a literary text is, however, a
matter of great complexity.2

Keyness linking of history and literary text identifies a central difficulty in studying

the ASC as source material. He develops this by pointing out the lack of uniformity and

homogeneity in the surviving ASC texts arising from the copying and continuation of

the manuscripts at different times and at different centres. This means that the ASC as it

survives today cannot be read as a single historical document. Rather it is a

compendium of records and memories gathered together from different sources and at

different times. Keynes has also warned that the reader should not be deceived by the

literary style of the Chronicle by which the author can give the impression of

objectively reporting events. He added that the chroniclers were neither objective nor

necessarily authoritative but recorded events from their own particular point of view

and that as a result, the reliability of any part of the Chronicle as a record of events

cannot be taken for granted.3 Keynes has qualified these statements by suggesting that

some of the information in the Chronicle could be tested against other statements from

2
Simon Keynes, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Michael Lapidge, John Blair, Simon Keynes and Donald Scragg (Oxford:
Blackwell, 2001), p. 35.
3
Keynes, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 35-36.
 20

independent sources.4 He leaves open how sources are to be identified as independent

and, as will be seen in this thesis, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to discount the

influence of some version of the ASC on individual texts, or the use of a shared,

common source.

Literary studies, through analysis of similarities and differences, have identified

ways in which the separate versions of the Chronicle were textually interlinked through

a common core onto which regional variations were built. Janet Bately has summarized

contemporary scholarly agreement on the complex theories of the relationships between

the surviving versions of the ASC:

that the bilingual MS F draws its vernacular material from MS A and an

ancestor of E, that there is a very close relationship between MSS B and C, that
MSS D and E contain what is in effect a revision of the first compilation of the
Chronicle as we know it from MSS A, B and C, and that this compilation has
been extended by a number of continuations, some of which are shared by two
or more manuscripts, are matters not open to question.5

The revisions and continuations to which Bately refers include the insertion of Mercian

and/or northern material in versions B, C and D and of northern material in versions E

and F. Thomas Bredehoft has argued that the research into the complex intertextual

relationships of the ASC has so far not been able to separate the different sources with

any confidence.6 However, the account of thelstans reign in the Chronicle does

provide an example of the interrelationships of the different versions identified by

Bately, with B/C/D providing a Mercian focus lacking in Version A, and Versions E

and F showing access to northern material. The following Table illustrates the variation

in content for thelstans reign across the different versions of the ASC:

4
Keynes, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 35-36.
5
Janet Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Texts and Textual Relationships, Reading Medieval
Studies: Monograph, 3 (Reading: University of Reading, 1991), p. 1.
6
Thomas A. Bredehoft, Textual Histories: Readings in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Toronto:
University of Toronto, 2001), pp. 4-7, 63-71.
 21

Table 1. Entries on thelstans Reign in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A-F

thelstans Death of lfweard. Sihtric. Guthfrith Edwin Expedition Brunanburh

Succession Mercian Election Eamont to Scotland
A, B, C, B, C, D D E, F E A, B, C, D, A, B, C, D,
D, E, F E, F E, F

The Table shows a close relationship between Versions A and F and Versions B, C and

D of the Chronicle texts for thelstans reign, illustrating the pattern Bately identified

within the Chronicle as a whole.7

Batelys analysis of Version A has confirmed the views of previous scholars that

the manuscript was produced at Winchester. This is based on the evidence of the

ecclesiastical information it contains and on the identification of the scribal hand with

that of other Winchester-related manuscripts.8 She has agreed with N. R. Ker that the

section on thelstans reign was most likely written in the mid-tenth century,

commenting that its square minuscule script was typical of the 940s and 950s in

general and the charters of Eadred and Eadwig in particular, and noting that the hand

for the annals of 924-955 suggests they were written as a continuous entry by a single

scribe.9 Simon Taylor has drawn similar conclusions for Version B. His analysis assigns

the copying of all the entries for the years 60-977 to a single scribe working in the last

quarter of the tenth century. His conclusion is based on the evidence provided by the

scribal hand and on his own identification that the last dated entry of 977 was originally

followed by a blank folio ruled for further entries but never used. The place of

composition is debatable but Taylor supports the argument that the most likely centre

7
The earliest surviving manuscripts of Versions C, D, E and F have been dated to the eleventh
and twelfth centuries and their contribution to depictions of thelstan is considered in Chapter
2 on Anglo-Norman Texts. As will be seen in that chapter, the Anglo-Norman writers drew on
Versions A-F of the Chronicle and it is their later accounts which have exerted the greatest
influence on English historical studies of thelstan and his reign.
8
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, 3, MS A, ed. by Janet Bately
(Cambridge: Brewer, 1986), p. xiii.
9
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. xxxv.
 22

was Abingdon, near the border between Wessex and Mercia.10 Later tradition identified

Abingdon as a royal vill established by Alfred and used as a royal centre during the

tenth century. Abingdons position may well have ensured monastic access to records

from both Winchester and Mercia, enabling the scribes to make choices on which text to

adopt or use as a basis for their Chronicle narrative.11

It is not known what textual sources or social memories, oral or written, the

scribes of Versions A and B used for their Chronicle accounts of thelstans reign, or

whether their narratives were newly created at the time of writing. As will be seen later,

it is possible to trace regional preferences in the way thelstan is depicted in these two

texts which reflect traditional and contemporary rivalries between Wessex and Mercia.

The brevity of the entries compared with those for Edward and Alfred is also noticeable

and has given the impression that thelstan and his reign were of little historical

significance.12 However, the work of Bately and Taylor provides a possible explanation

for this. The date 955, for Version A, coincides with the death of Eadred, and the entries

for 924-955 record as one unit the reigns of Edwards three sons, thelstan, Edmund

and Eadred. Although Version As entries on thelstans reign are brief, the entries for

Edmund and Eadred are even briefer. Version B up to 977 is equally brief on the kings

from Edward to Edgar. This suggests that the entries for 924-955 represented a routine

update of the Chronicle as the throne passed from Edwards sons to his grandsons. As

will be seen below, the differences and similarities between the two tenth-century

versions of the Chronicle provide an example of the lack of continuity and homogeneity

noted by Keynes and illustrate how scriptorial centres could influence the selection and

dissemination of information.

10
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, 4, MS B, ed. by Simon Taylor
(Cambridge: Brewer, 1983), pp. xi, xliv-xlvi.
11
John Blair, The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p.
325.
12
Foot, thelstan, p. 2.
 23

While historical studies have tended to emphasize the brevity of the ASC entries

on thelstans reign, literary scholarship has deepened our understanding of the nature

of those entries, providing valuable insights into the ways in which the formulaic

structure and the paratactic style of the Chronicle influence the interpretation of its

information.13 For example, Jacqueline Stodnick has demonstrated how the formulaic

structure used to record deaths, successions, appointments, victories or defeats in battle

was a useful convention in helping to create a sense of order across the Chronicle as a

whole, enabling later events to be interpreted within the context of earlier ones.14 Thus

royal succession could be presented as an orderly progression, while the similarity in

the language for royal and episcopal elections identified them as being of equal status.

As will be seen later, this has implications for how thelstans succession has been

interpreted both by the Anglo-Norman writers and by scholars in the nineteenth and

later centuries. The use of this formulaic structure within a common chronological

framework has given the Chronicle an appearance of overall unity. This is challenged

by the variations in the content and detail included in the separate versions of the

Chronicle and becomes even more apparent when the Chronicles paratactic style is

taken into account.

Janet Thormanns analysis of the use of parataxis in the Chronicle has illustrated

how precise interpretation of the relationship between items is often difficult to

establish with any certainty. Thormann has shown how the apparently simple recording

of events in sequence leaves the reader unsure whether the text is merely providing a

chronological account of events or implying cause and effect or some other hidden

13
For a useful overview of the Chronicle narratives and forms of interpretation, see Alice
Jorgensen, Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Turnhout: Brepols, 2010), pp. 1-28.
14
Jacqueline Stodnick, Sentence to Story: Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Formulary,
in Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. by Jorgensen, pp. 91-111 (pp. 110-11). For an
overview of the relevance of narrative form, ritual formulae and convention in providing
coherence, order and meaning in medieval historical texts, see Narrative and History in the
Early Medieval West, ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, pp. 1-9.
 24

relationship.15 This lack of clarity is particularly evident in the account of thelstans

succession in Version B and, as will be seen below, has given rise to very different

interpretations on thelstans status as Edwards heir and his relationship with the royal

centre at Winchester.

The Chronicle has traditionally been seen as an annalistic list of events. Foot has

argued that the Chronicle should more appropriately be read as a continuous and multi-

textured narrative text.16 As a result of studying the Chronicle as narrative, scholars

have identified a number of subtexts: the story of West Saxon dynastic continuity; the

forging of a sense of national unity and the recording of territorial possession and

expansion.17 The accounts of thelstans reign in both Versions A and B of the ASC

can be interpreted from each of these different perspectives. For example, both Versions

support the subtext of dynastic continuity, using traditional formulae to depict

thelstan as Edwards successor as king and celebrating his success at Brunanburh as a

dynastic victory worthy of a son of Edward; his military expedition to Scotland records

his success in extending his territorial power, while at Brunanburh he is represented as

securing a national victory over hostile invaders from abroad. My textual analysis below

will examine these aspects in greater detail and show how awareness of the formulaic

structure and paratactic style of the Chronicle text are central to understanding its

narrative on thelstan and his reign.

Chronicon thelweardi

thelweards Chronicon was written towards the end of the tenth century with the

earliest manuscript fragments being dated to the early eleventh century. thelweard

provides an example of a well-educated layman who could produce a readable Latin

15
Janet Thormann, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Poems and the Making of the English Nation,
in Anglo-Saxonism and the Construction of Social Identity, ed. by Allen J. Frantzen and John D.
Niles (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 60-85 (pp. 74-75).
16
Foot, Finding the Meaning of Form: Narrative in Annals and Chronicles, in Writing
Medieval History, ed. by Partner, pp. 88-108.
17
Jorgensen, Reading the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 14-15.
 25

narrative which provides an overview of the history of England from the time of its

settlement by the Saxons and the Angles down to his own day. In his Prologus he

describes himself as a son of thelred, one of thelwulfs sons and brother of King

Alfred.18 He is writing his account of the history of England for his cousin Matilda,

abbess of Essen and great-granddaughter of Edward the Elder. The work, he claims is

based on memory and what he had been taught by his parents and this makes it very

much a personal and family narrative.19 His account of the West Saxon marriage links

with leading families on the Continent reflect this. He is an independent source for the

marriage of Alfreds daughter lfthryth to Baldwin II of Flanders and the marriages

between Edwards daughters and Charles the Simple, Hugh the Great and Otto of

Saxony.

The Chronicon has been described as a Latin translation of the ASC,20 but A.

Campbell, in his detailed analysis of the text, has identified a wider range of sources.

These include Bede for Books I and II, knowledge of West Saxon marriages which are

in line with Continental sources, access to material which matches entries in the Annals

of Ulster, or occurs later in Symeon of Durham and Versions E and F of the ASC, and

some information which appears to be from Anglo-Scandinavian material now lost.21

Campbell has commented that the dates which thelweard ascribes to thelstans

succession (926), Brunanburh (939), and thelstans death (941), are not in line with

Version A or B of the ASC and he has suggested that thelweard was using a West

Saxon source now lost. This could explain why thelweards account omits any

reference to thelstans expedition to Scotland found in both Versions A and B.

18
Chronicon thelweardi, ed. by Alistair Campbell (London: Nelson, 1962), Prologus, p. 2.
19
in quantum memoria nostra argumentatur, et sicut docuere parentes, as much as our
memory provides evidence for and just as our parents taught us. Chronicon thelweardi,
Prologus, p. 1. For a discussion of thelweards life and work see Campbell, Chronicon
thelweardi, pp. xii-xvi, xxxvi-xxxvii.
20
Sean Miller, thelweard, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by
Lapidge and others, p. 18.
21
Campbell, Chronicon thelweardi, pp. xxix-xxx.
 26

Campbells theory is further supported by the adjustment thelweard makes in the

dates and length of Edmunds reign, which brings his text back into alignment with the

ASC. 22 However, as will be seen later, although thelweard places thelstans

accession in 926, two years later than the earliest date in the ASC, it is by no means

clear that he is referring to thelstans initial succession to the throne on the death of

his father Edward. As will be discussed later, thelweards choice of language suggests

that he may have been referring to thelstan becoming King of all Britain, which later

versions of the ASC record as occurring after his capture of York in 926/7.

Alternatively, it is possible that thelweard is recounting traditional family memories

of dates rather than using a written source.

thelweard gives a high profile to Edwards achievements.23 His comment on

Edwards death is particularly unusual within the Chronicon as a whole:

Nono etiam anno post transacto migrat et Eaduuerd, rex Anglorum. Hic finis, hic
nomen nec non pertinacia cessit eiusdem.24

When the ninth year afterwards had also been completed, Edward too, King of
the English, passed away. This was the (his) end, here departed his name and
also his achievement.

Despite the difficulties in translating thelweards Latin, there is a clear implication in

his words that Edwards death ended all that had gone before and this is reinforced by

the very brief accounts which follow of the reigns of thelstan, Edmund, Eadred,

Eadwig and Edgar. thelweards comment on Edwards death and his wish to give

special praise to Edward may be in recognition of Matildas direct descent from him; it

may also reflect family tradition or a Winchester version of events. Version A of the

ASC includes a full and very complimentary account of Edwards achievements. As

Michael Swanton has noted, there is a significant break in the manuscript at the year

924 and half a page is left blank. Swanton offers no suggestions as to why the

22
Campbell, Chronicon thelweardi, pp. xlii-xliii.
23
Campbell, Chronicon thelweardi, iv, 4, pp. 51-54 and Introduction p. xviii.
24
Chronicon thelweardi, iv, 4, p. 54.
 27

manuscript should apparently break off at the end of Edwards reign. The half page

would have allowed information on thelstan to be added but instead a copy of the

laws of Ine and Alfred was inserted.25 This gives an appearance of closure which adds

emphasis to the reigns of Alfred and Edward. It may be that thelweard modelled his

own narrative on this.

thelweards account of thelstans reign is very brief. Restricted to one short

paragraph, it places the main emphasis on thelstans victory at Brunanburh. This is

highlighted as a major achievement of great significance, giving thelstan mastery of

both land and sea and establishing an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity in

England. Despite its brevity, the Chronicon thelweardi, together with Versions A and

B of the ASC, provides the only surviving chronicle text from the tenth century. In my

textual analysis below, I draw on both long-established and more recent scholarship to

examine how different interpretations of these narratives have influenced our

understanding of the ways in which thelstan was depicted as king. I have structured

my analysis around the three events recorded for thelstans reign in Versions A and B

of the Chronicle under the section headings: thelstan as Edwards Heir, thelstans

Expedition to Scotland and The Battle of Brunanburh.

thelstan as Edwards Heir

In this section I analyse the similarities and differences in the way thelstans

succession is depicted in Versions A and B of the Chronicle. As a result, I question

historical interpretations that lfweard, not thelstan, was Edwards intended heir on

the grounds that these do not take sufficient account of the literary style and political

purpose of the ASC texts. In order to test this, I examine other evidence for lfweard as

Edwards heir and suggest an alternative interpretation: that the depictions of

25
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, ed. and trans. by Michael Swanton, rev. edn (London: Phoenix
Press, 2000), p. xxi.
 28

thelstans succession in Versions A and B of the ASC reflect political tensions

between Mercia and Wessex over kingship and the rights of election.

thelstans Succession in Versions A and B of the ASC

The texts below can immediately be seen as differing in terms of the amount and type of

information they provide on thelstans succession:

Version A Version B
Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS London, British Library, Cotton MS, Tiberius A
173, fols 1v -32 r III, fol. 178 + A IV, fols 1-34
924/925 Her Eadweard cing forferde, 7 924 Her Eadweard cing gefor on Myrcum t
elstan his sunu feng to rice.26 Fearndune, 7 lfweard his sunu swie hrae
s gefor on Oxnaforda, 7 heora lic licga on
Here King Edward died and thelstan Wintanceastre; 7 estan ws of Myrcum
his son succeeded to the throne. gecoren to cinge.27

Here king Edward died in Mercia at Farndon,

and lfweard his son soon after this died at
Oxford, and their bodies were placed at
Winchester and thelstan was elected king by
the Mercians.

The Winchester Version A, by using the standard formula feng to rice, depicts the

succession from Edward to thelstan as straightforward and in line with custom and

practice. There is no indication that thelstan was other than Edwards intended heir.

Version B places thelstans succession within a Mercian context. Edward dies in

Mercia and the Mercians elect thelstan as king. In between these two events Version

B includes lfweards death and his burial with his father at the royal centre of

Winchester. This ordering of events in Version B is capable of different interpretations.

The paratactic style of the text can be read as a simple chronological sequence of events.

More usually it has been interpreted as implying causation, that thelstan only

succeeded to the throne because of lfweards death and that lfweard was Edwards

26
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. 69.
27
Taylor, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS B, pp. 50-51.
 29

intended choice as king.28 Such an interpretation is questionable on two groundsit

does not take account of the alternative, chronological, interpretation of the text and, as

I argue below, it lacks reliable and independent supporting evidence for lfweard as

heir to the throne.

The recording of a kings death in the Chronicle is usually followed

immediately by the name of his successor. lfweard is recorded in Version B as dying

shortly after his father and, if he had been Edwards intended heir, it would be

reasonable to expect his succession to have been noted in both Versions A and B. While

it could be argued that the recording of lfweards death in Version B supplanted

mention of his succession, such an argument could not be used of Version A. The fact

that Version A makes no mention of lfweards succession, or, more importantly, of

his death, suggests that at least by 955 there was no strong tradition at Winchester of

lfweard as Edwards successor. Evidence for lfweard having been named as king is

hard to find and I would argue that the evidence which does exist is insufficiently

conclusive.

An important aspect of Taylors analysis of Version B is his identification of the

tenth-century regnal list, folio 178, as originally part of the manuscript text. This list,

written in 977/8 or slightly later,29 was also copied into the Liber Vitae of New Minster

and makes no mention of lfweard. Similarly the two lists of West Saxon kings

contained in the Hyde Register name thelstan as king immediately after Edward.

The only specific reference to lfweard ruling as king is in the twelfth-century Textus

Roffensis. This records that he reigned for four weeks.30 On the surface this appears to

28
This interpretation has been widely adopted. Sean Miller, thelstan in The Blackwell
Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp.16-17. Paul Hill, The
Age of Athlestan (Stroud: Tempus, 2004), pp. 101-02. Foot, thelstan, p. 39.
29
David Dumville, The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List: Manuscripts and Texts, Anglia,
104 (1986), 1-32 (p. 9).
30
Dumville, The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List, p. 29. Textus Roffensis, ed. by P.
Sawyer (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger, 1957-62), fol. 8. This length of reign is almost
 30

provide the kind of independent evidence that Keynes suggested should be used to

confirm information in the ASC. However, the fact that the earlier regnal lists do not

record lfweard as king raises a question as to the reliability of the entry in this late

text. One possible explanation is that the scribe of the Textus Roffensis, or his source,

also interpreted the record of lfweards death in Version B as identifying him as

Edwards intended heir. As a result his name was included in the regnal list despite

there being no independent record of his election as king. The ambiguity of the textual

material in Version B and the lack of secure evidence for lfweard as Edwards

intended heir, challenge the view that thelstan was only appointed king because of his

younger half-brothers death. The silence of the Winchester Version A on lfweards

succession and the omission of any reference to his death, is also compelling evidence

for thelstans position as direct heir.

A separate argument has been put forward for lfweard as Edwards heir based

on the record in the Liber Vitae of New Minster of the burial of two of Edwards sons

shortly after Edwards own interment:

Quem etiam egregium patrem duo pignora filiorum eluuerdus . scilicet

atque . lfuuerdus . haud dispari gloria . in sepulturae consortio secuti sunt .
quorum unus clito . alter uero regalibus infulis redimitus.31

This excellent father also, two dear sons, theluuerdus (thelweard) namely,
and also lfuuerdus (lfweard) of no less glory, followed in fellowship of
burial, of whom one was theling, the other, indeed, wreathed with royal fillets.

In his analysis of the Liber text, Keynes took the phrase regalibus infulis redimitus in

strict sequence applying it to lfuuerdus, commenting that it implied he was royal in

status but not yet a crowned king.32 He assigned to theluuerdus the title of theling

a term frequently used to designate the son of a king but without implying he was heir

twice as long as the space of sixteen days between Edwards death and lfweards recorded in
the eleventh-century Version D of the ASC suggesting the scribe of the Textus Roffensis used a
different source or was working from a badly copied ASC manuscript.
31
The Liber Vitae of the New Minster and Hyde Abbey, Winchester, ed. by Simon Keynes
(Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1996), p. 82.
32
Keynes, The Liber Vitae, p. 82.
 31

to the throne.33 However, the Latin use of unus and alter is open to different

interpretations. Keynes assumed unus referred to theluuerdus because he is named

first, and alter to lfuuerdus as the other. But when two (duo) people or things are

further defined as the one and the other, Latin does not necessarily keep to the strict

order of sequence.34 The description of one as theling and the other as wreathed with

royal fillets could, therefore, apply to either theluuerdus or lfuuerdus.

It is possible that the Liber text intended to record that two of Edwards sons

were already helping rule their fathers kingdom in the same way as thelwulfs sons

are recorded as helping their father in the ninth century. However, theluuerdus is not

recorded elsewhere as the name of one of Edwards sons and Foot suggested that the

theluuerdus mentioned in the Liber Vitae was in fact Edwards younger brother, who

died in 922.35 This earlier date for theluuerduss death conflicts with the Latin, in

sepulturae consortio secuti sunt, unless the entry is recording his later internment

alongside Edward and lfuuerdus in a family tomb. If the entry is referring to Edwards

brother, then it is possible that he had exercised some royal power on Edwards behalf

further justifying his being described as regalibus infulis. One possible explanation of

these ambiguities in the Liber text is that an alternative spelling of lfweards name as

theluuerdus for lfuuerdus had confused the scribe of the Liber Vitae so that he

recorded both forms as referring to different sons of Edward.

The textual evidence considered above challenges historical claims that

thelstan was not Edwards intended heir but leaves unresolved a further, closely

related historical theory that Edward intended thelstan only to hold power in Mercia

33
Sean Miller, theling, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by
Lapidge and others, pp. 13-14.
34
Benjamin Hall Kennedy, Revised Latin Primer (Harlow: Longman, 1994), p. 150, n. 2.
35
Foot, thelstan, p. 39, n. 35.
 32

with lfweard as king of the West Saxons.36 This theory also derives from interpreting

the account of lfweards death in Version B of the ASC as causative. It assumes that

thelstan would have ruled as regent under lfweard and that he only assumed overall

kingship because of his brothers death. Both earlier and later textual evidence exists to

support such an arrangement. King Alfreds daughter thelfld and her husband

thelred are described by Asser as ruling Mercia in his name while Edgar is recorded

in Version B of the ASC as first succeeding to the kingdom of Mercia under his elder

brother Eadwig and then, on Eadwigs death, to the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia.37

The silence of ASC Version A on both thelstans election as king by the Mercians and

lfweards death, casts doubt on this theory of thelstan as lfweards regent. The

omission of both these events in Version A suggests that the scribe deliberately chose

not to include them, perhaps because by the mid-tenth century they were no longer seen

as relevant. Alternatively, I suggest that a clue to their omission in Version A and

inclusion in Version B may lie in the Chronicle accounts of the relationship which

existed between Wessex and Mercia.

Mercia versus Wessex

Version A records that, after the death of his sister thelfld in 922 [918], Edward

assumed overall control in Mercia as a result of the whole of Mercia voluntarily turning

to him as their Lord. Version B records it rather differently stating that in 919 Edward

took control in Mercia, depriving thelflds daughter lfwynn of all power and

taking her away into Wessex. The tone of the Mercian material suggests antagonism

towards Edward and Wessex and this is further supported by the omission from Version

36
Ian Walker, Mercia and the Making of England (Stroud: Sutton, 2000), pp. 126-27. Foot,
thelstan, pp. 38-39.
37
Asser, Life of King Alfred, ed. by W. H. Stevenson, rev. edn (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998),
75, 83, pp. 57-58, 69. ASC, B, 957, 959.
 33

B of any mention of Edward winning over-lordship of the North, something which is

described in some detail for the year 924 in Version A. That there was antipathy

between Wessex and Mercia is also conveyed by the omission in Version A of any

reference to the military successes of Edwards sister thelfld following the death in

912 of her husband thelred. These examples of apparently selective use of

information support the idea that Mercia and Wessex deliberately used the ASC to

record and disseminate their own interpretation of shared events. Set against this

background, it is possible to interpret Version Bs depiction of thelstan being elected

king by the Mercians as a deliberate challenge to Wessex claims of the right to appoint

the king of both Mercia and Wessex. This suggests that the different way in which

Versions A and B depict thelstans succession reflects rivalry between Mercia and

Wessex over political status and kingly power.

Rivalry between Mercia and Wessex can be traced back to the eighth century

and the reigns of Penda, Offa and thelbald when Mercian kings are said to have

exercised overlordship of Wessex.38 In the ninth century the ASC depicts Mercia as a

semi-independent kingdom linked to Wessex by marriage agreements but ruled by its

own king or Lord. Although thelred and thelfld are described in Versions C and D

of the ASC as the Lord and Lady of the Mercians, their actual status is far from clear.

They issued charters and their position is represented as royal in a number of sources,

including the Chronicon of thelweard.39 It is also noticeable that Mercian troops are

often identified separately in the ASC as fighting alongside those led by Wessex and, as

will be seen later, the poem on the Battle of Brunanburh specifically identifies and

celebrates their military prowess. These textual recognitions of the Mercians as a

38
Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 202-25.
39
ASC, C, 912, 913; D, 910. For the charters see Electronic Sawyer, S 217-225. Views on the
authenticity of the charters vary as do the designations used. The strongest evidence is provided
by S 221 and S 224. Chronicon thelweardi, iv, 3, p. 50. For further details and discussion see
Simon Keynes, Edward, King of the Anglo-Saxons, in Edward the Elder 829-924, ed. by N. J.
Higham and D. H. Hill (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 40-66 (pp. 43-44).
 34

separate people indicate that during the tenth century the Mercians still retained a sense

of their original independent identity.

Nicola Cumberledges work on relations between Mercia and Wessex has

identified how Mercias semi-independent status was a constant feature of the

relationship between Wessex and Mercia during the ninth to the eleventh centuries and

was particularly evident at times of royal succession.40 She has suggested that it would

have been in West Saxon interests for the ASC to promote a view of a unified Wessex-

Mercian kingdom but that this view would not necessarily be shared in Mercia.41 Her

study provides a reason why the author of the Winchester Version A of the ASC might

wish to omit any reference to thelstans election as king in Mercia while the Mercians

would have every incentive to assert their claim of having decided who should be king

of both Wessex and Mercia. The entry on thelstans succession in Version B of the

ASC can thus be seen as not only challenging Wessex rights to decide the overall

kingship but as reasserting the Mercian rights of independent identity which had been

overridden by Edward when he seized power in Mercia for himself. The fact that this is

the only entry on thelstan where Versions A and B differ from each other, adds

further weight to this argument. If the text of Version B of the ASC is read in this light,

it is possible to argue that the entry is deliberately formulated to claim that the Mercians

were of equal status with the West Saxons: Edward dies in Mercia and the Mercians

ensure that they elect his successor as king.

I suggest, therefore, that the accounts of thelstans succession in Versions A

and B of the ASC are more accurately read as statements of power, reflecting deep-

seated and continuing political rivalry between Wessex and Mercia. As such they

challenge some traditional historical interpretations of thelstans status as Edwards

40
Nicola Cumberledge, Reading between the lines: The place of Mercia within an expanding
Wessex, Midland History, 27-28 (2002-03), 1-15 (pp. 12-13).
41
Cumberledge, Reading between the lines, p. 13.
 35

heir and support later depictions of him as a king who was able to unite England into

one kingdom and one people.

thelstans Consecration as King

Versions A and B of the ASC initially dated thelstans succession to the year of

Edwards death in 924. Version B also records his consecration at Cingestune in that

same year. Sometime later the date of thelstans succession in Version A was changed

to 925 by another hand but with no reference to his consecration.42 The date given in

Versions A and B for thelstans death (27 October 939) and the details of the length

of his rule (14 years and 10 weeks) also support 925 as the start of his reign but it is not

clear whether this refers to his succession on Edwards death or to his consecration as

king. This discrepancy of a year in the dates for thelstans succession and

consecration in Versions A and B has resulted in speculation that the texts depict

thelstan facing serious opposition to his becoming king. It is possible, however, that

the difference in the dates stem from variations in the way years were recorded in

Anglo-Saxon times. Swanton has commented on the difficulties of establishing firm

dates for events recorded in the ASC:

In the absence of any uniform system, chronological discrepancies between and

even within manuscript recensions were inevitable. Clearly, events ascribed to a
year beginning either in September or March might well be dated a year too
early or a year too late by modern reckoning beginning 1 January.43

This suggests that the dating of thelstans accession to 924 or 925 could have resulted

from a scribe using September as the start of the year. Edwards death in July would

then be recorded as occurring in 924 and thelstans consecration in September in 925.

It is also noticeable that neither Version A or B of the ASC suggest any

opposition to thelstans succession and consecration. Their silence on rival claims to

42
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. 69.
43
Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. xvi.
 36

the throne, unrest or rebellion is in stark contrast to their accounts of events at the

beginning of the reigns of thelstans predecessors and successors. Alfred, Edward the

Elder, Edmund and his brothers are all described in the ASC as facing opposition at the

beginning of their reigns. Accounts of unrest at the beginning of thelstans reign are

found only in William of Malmesburys twelfth-century Gesta Regum and the

thirteenth-century Egils saga.44 Finally, as there does not appear to have been any set

timescale within which the kings consecration ceremony had to be held, a gap of a year

was not necessarily extraordinary for the time.45

These problems and uncertainties over how to read the information provided by

Versions A and B of the ASC are also evident in thelweards account of thelstans

accession and the dates for his reign. Following immediately after the entry recording

the death of Edward, thelweard sums up thelstans reign in one fairly short

paragraph. Most of the paragraph describes thelstans achievements at Brunanburh

but it opens with a somewhat enigmatic reference to thelstans coronation as king:46

Anno etiam in quo imperii functus fuerat stefos thelstan rex robustissimus,
transacti sunt anni a gloriosa incarnatione saluataris nostri D C C C C, supraque
uiginti et sex.

In the year also in which the very strong king thelstan had undertaken the
crown of overall rule, there had passed 900, and in addition twenty six years
from the glorious incarnation of our saviour.

The lack of alignment between thelweards date of 926 for thelstans coronation

and the dates in the ASC is noted in the section on primary sources above. However, his

way of depicting thelstans coronation merits careful analysis. While the use of

periphrasis is typical of thelweards style, his choice of language gives a particular

44
ASC A, 871, 901, 942, 946. Details and analysis of the account in Gesta Regum are provided
in Chapter 2, The Anglo-Norman Texts, and for Egils saga in Chapter 4, thelstan in the
Scandinavian Tradition.
45
George Garnett, Coronation and Propaganda: Some Implications of the Norman Claim to the
Throne of England in 1066, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 36 (1986),
92.
46
Chronicon thelweardi, iv, 5, p. 54.
 37

prominence to the event. thelstans reign is dated by reference to Christs birth,

making it part of universal Christian history. The Greek word, stefos is chosen to

describe his coronation suggesting Byzantine traditions and his kingdom has become

imperium instead of the usual regnum used by thelweard of his predecessors and

successors. These words associate thelstan with both imperial Rome and Byzantium,

depicting him more as an emperor than a king and thelweard may be deliberately

recalling by his words some of the designations used to describe thelstan in his

charters. As will be seen later, these depict thelstan as progressing from Rex

Anglorum to Rex totius Britanniae and later Basileus. By his choice of the date 926,

thelweard links thelstans succession with the date given in the later versions of the

ASC for thelstan taking control of Northumbria and beginning the extension of his

power to include Britain as a whole. thelweard provides no other details apart from

his account of Brunnaburh and he makes no reference to thelstans expedition to

Scotland although this is recorded in all the surviving versions of the ASC. Unless he

was depicting thelstan as an exceptionally high status king from the beginning of his

reign, it would seem that thelweard may have been reflecting Wessex family

traditions of thelstan as a king of considerable standing based on the claim that he was

Rex totius Britanniae.

thelstans Expedition to Scotland

Versions A and B of the ASC describe thelstans expedition into Scotland in identical

terms, dating it to 933:47

Her for elstan cyning in on Scotland, ger ge mid landhere ge mid

scyphere, 7 his micel oferhergade.

Here King thelstan went into Scotland both with a raiding land-army and with
a raiding ship-army and ravaged much of it.

47
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. 70. Dated 933 in Versions A-C of the ASC,
the eleventh- and twelfth-century Versions D, E and F dated it to 934.
 38

thelstan is described as carrying out a successful raid using a traditional Chronicle

formula mycel oferhergode. The expedition is included in all six versions of the

Chronicle indicating that it was considered an event worthy of memory. The twelfth-

century writers, John of Worcester, Henry of Huntingdon and Symeon of Durham,

extend this brief narrative, enhancing their account of thelstans achievement either

by drawing on other sources now lost or by providing their own version of events.48 As

will be seen in Chapter Four on the Scandinavian Tradition, it may also be remembered

in the Kings Sagas as an expedition to support thelstans foster-son Hkon returning

to Norway to become king.

The Chronicle records that thelstan used a combined land and naval force for

his expedition but gives no further details. This is the first surviving record of an Anglo-

Saxon joint force being used to confront the enemy, suggesting that, militarily, this was

an ambitious move on thelstans part. The extreme brevity of the Chronicle entry has

meant that historical research into the expedition has been based on the more detailed

accounts provided by the Anglo-Norman writers. However, as will be seen below, the

scholarly commentaries provided on these are equally applicable to the entries in the

ASC.

Taking a political perspective, Sarah Foot has suggested that the expedition

could have been a response to uncertainty in the North caused either by the death of

Guthfrith of Dublin and Eadred of Bamburgh, or by the potential of rebellion under

thelstans half-brother Edwin.49 She also saw the fleets action as indicating there

was a threat of a possible future alliance between the Scots and the Vikings as occurred

at Brunanburh.50 Foot, therefore, interpreted the texts as depicting thelstan acting

prudently and taking preventative action in order to forestall future hostilities. Alex

48
See Chapter 2.
49
Foot, thelstan, p. 165.
50
Foot, thelstan, p. 166.
 39

Woolf has also linked the expedition to the death of Ealdred but suggested the cause

was a power struggle between Constantine and thelstan as to who should take over

control in Bernicia. He therefore interpreted thelstans action as being more

immediately pre-emptive and designed to secure his own hold on Northumbria.51

Woolf has also commented on the considerable planning and far-sighted strategy

needed to ensure a viable route and the safe passage of a large, combined force

travelling great distances into enemy territory.52 Using charter evidence to support his

analysis, he has calculated that the expedition was successfully completed in three

months between the Witans at Winchester on 28 May and Buckingham on 13

September of 934.53 Constantine heads the witness list to the Buckingham charter as

subregulus, and Woolf used this as evidence that he had been brought back south by

thelstan with his army, supporting his theory that the expedition was to check

Constantines growing power in the north.54 Woolfs analysis is heavily dependent on

the reliability of the thelstan charters. Although the Buckingham charter is considered

a genuine charter of thelstan A type it only survives in an eleventh-century cartulary

copy from Glastonbury and the witness list is abbreviated and notes only that

Constantine and many others were present. It may be that Constantines standing made

retention of his name important. It is also possible that Constantine witnessed other

charters now lost and that his alleged presence on this occasion was not of any special

significance.

These scholarly analyses of thelstans expedition suggest that the brief ASC

entry credits him with a remarkable achievement. Rather than defending his kingdom

thelstan is depicted as invading his enemys territory and using, possibly for the first

51
Alex Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, 789-1070 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,
2007), pp. 164-66.
52
Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, p. 165.
53
Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, pp. 160, 166.
54
Anglo-Saxon Charters, ed. by Peter Sawyer: Electronic Sawyer, S 425, S 426.
 40

time, a joint land and sea force. It is not clear whether the land army was separate from

the fleet or whether thelstan was following Viking military practice with the fleet

providing transport and the soldiers disembarking to fight on foot or commandeer

horses to raid more widely.55 Politically, he is depicted as so confident in his position

as king that he was able to leave his own kingdom and travel beyond Northumbria into

enemy territory in Scotland. Militarily, he is depicted as a leader who showed

exceptional skills of strategic planning, organisation and implementation.56 Although

the ASC entry is very brief, it has ensured that a memory of his success in Scotland was

handed down. The fact that it is recorded as one of only three entries on thelstan in

the ASC gives it added importance but its significance has been overshadowed by the

length and quality of the following entry on thelstans victory at the battle of

Brunanburh.

The Battle of Brunanburh

The Brunanburh poem, by celebrating thelstans victory as being the greatest since

the Angles and Saxons first came to Britain, depicts thelstans achievement as the

outstanding event, not only of his reign, but of the whole of the previous history of

England. In its composition the poem draws on both Old English and Scandinavian

traditions of poetry. As a result there is considerable scholarly debate as to whether the

poem was originally a separate poem or whether it was composed specifically as a

Chronicle entry. Bredehoft, based on his analysis of these debates and his own most

recent research, has argued a strong case for assuming that the poem was written

specifically for the ASC. He has argued that the poem was intended to show thelstan

55
P. Griffith, The Viking Art of War (London: Greenhill Books, 1995). See also R. H. C. Davis,
Did the Anglo-Saxons have Warhorses? in Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England,
ed. by Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (Oxford, Oxbow, 1989), pp. 141-44.
56
Alfred is credited with fighting a ship battle against the Vikings and Edward with using his
fleet to transport his troops. ASC, A 896/97, 910/11. thelstans expedition to Scotland appears
to be the first recorded combined operation.
 41

and Edmund as part of the heroic tradition of the Germanic kings of the Saxon race by

depicting their actions and genealogy in heroic verse. The choice of genre, he suggests,

was designed to provide a nostalgic view of the past.57 Certainly, Bredehofts

interpretation would be in keeping with the analogy in the poem of the battle being the

fiercest since the first Saxon invasion of Britain. thelstans achievement at

Brunanburh could then be seen as placing him within a long heroic tradition of warrior

kings.

The fact that Brunanburh is apparently the first example of poetry being

incorporated into the ASC prose text, gives thelstan a pre-eminence within the

Chronicle as a whole. This is in direct contrast to the preceding, meagre account of his

achievements and ensured that memories of thelstan were dominated by his success at

Brunanburh. References to Brunanburh are found in a wide range of texts from the tenth

to the seventeenth century, although many do so without going into detail.58 As detailed

consideration of the ASC poem rightly belongs alongside other examples of poetic

depictions of thelstan, my analysis of the text of the poem is included in the section

on thelstan in poetry. The following section looks at thelweards account of

Brunanburh. Although he is one of the authors who gives only a brief mention of the

battle, he adds his own comments on its importance, its aftermath and the advantages it

brought to England. This forms the major part of his otherwise very brief narrative of

thelstan and it is possible that his personal evaluation of the battles importance may

also reflect family traditions.

Brunanburh in thelweards Chronicon

57
Thomas Bredehoft, The Battle of Brunanburh in Old English Studies, in The Battle of
Brunanburh, ed. by Michael Livingston (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2011), pp. 285-94
(pp. 285-87, 291, 293).
58
Robert Rouse, Romancing the Past: The Middle English Tradition, in The Battle of
Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, pp. 315-23. Joanne Parker, Brunanburh and the Victorian
Imagination, in The Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, pp. 385-407.
 42

thelweard gives prominence to the battle at Brunanburh by making it the major part of

his paragraph on thelstan and his reign. Instead of describing the battle details

thelweard provides a commentary. The huge battle (pugna immanis) fought against

the barbarians (barbaros contra), was still in his day popularly known as the great war

(bellum magnum). He then adds some details which describe the political outcome of

the battle and depict thelstan as supreme on land and sea:59

Tum superantur barbar passim turb, nec ultra dominari; post quos ultra pellit
oceani oris, nec non colla subdunt Scoti, pariterque Picti; uno solidantur
Brittannidis arua, undique pax, omniumque foecundia rerum, nec usque ad istas
motus adhsit sine littora Anglorum foedere classicus.

Then are the barbarian troops vanquished on all sides, nor do they lord it any
longer; afterwards, he [thelstan] drives them [the barbarian troops] beyond the
shores of the ocean, nor do the Scots fail to bend their necks in submission, and
the Picts as well; the fields of the British islands are united in one, on all sides
there is peace, and plentiful supplies of all things, nor, ever since, has a fleet
which has sailed to those islands of ours anchored to its shores without the
agreement of the English.

thelweards text contains several Roman allusions. He does not name the enemy

leaders, Anlaf of Dublin and Constantine of the Scots, but depicts their forces as foreign

and uncivilized barbarians who had previously lorded it over others. thelstan is

depicted as pursuing his defeated enemies and driving them beyond the shores of the

ocean. It is not clear what is meant by oceanus but as it is the name traditionally given

to the ocean surrounding the world it has overtones of thelstan driving his enemies to

the ends of the earth. The phrase colla subdunt describes the Scots and Picts showing

submission using a traditional expression of servitude and military defeat found both in

biblical and Roman texts. By these linguistic associations, thelstan is depicted as an

equal of the successful kings of the Old Testament and the military leaders and

emperors of ancient Rome. Unlike the ASC poem, no mention is made of the part played

in the battle by thelstans brother Edmund and thelstan is depicted as solely

responsible for the victory and for the peace and prosperity which flowed from it. This

59
Chronicon thelweardi, iv, 5, p. 54.
 43

peace extends over the sea as well as the land, brings both unity and plenty and gives an

impression of a golden age in Englands history. Perhaps most importantly, thelstan is

depicted as establishing total dominion over the land and seas of the island of Britain, so

that still in thelweards day ships could only come to anchor with the agreement of

the English.

thelweard describes thelstan as rex uenerandus, a king to be revered. This

term has ecclesiastical and hagiographic overtones which reflect thelstans reputation

as pius rex, a pious king.60 This image of thelstan as a king righteous before God is

also found in the ecclesiastical writings of lfric of Eynsham. In the epilogue to his

translation of the Book of Judges, lfric refers to the battle at Brunanburh and depicts

thelstan, alongside Alfred and Edgar, as one of the three Anglo-Saxon kings who

were militarily successful because they had Gods support, sigefste urh God:

Swa gelice estan, e wi Anlaf gefeaht 7 his firde ofsloh 7 aflimde hine
sylfne, 7 he on sibbe wunude sian mid his leode.61

so also thelstan, who fought with Anlaf and destroyed his army and put him,
himself, to flight and afterwards lived in peace with his people.

lfric, like thelweard, emphasizes Brunanburh as bringing peace to the people. As

thelweard was a literary patron of lfric and commissioned several of his works, it is

possible that lfric drew on thelweards account for his own. However, his depiction

of thelstan as a victorious king because he was pleasing to God is not unique. The

tenth-century charters, book dedications and coin inscriptions produced during

thelstans reign provide, or imply, similar depictions of him as king.

thelstans Charters, Coins and Book Dedications

Sarah Foot has argued persuasively for charters to be read as historical narratives which

60
See the tenth-century poem Rex Pius elstan in the section below on thelstan in Poetry.
61
The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, ed. by S. J. Crawford, Early English Text
Society, 160 (London: Oxford University Press, 1922), p. 416.
 44

reflect a structuralized knowledge of the past, even while copying a record of a

past event from one piece of parchment to another. The texts of charters create a
time-space located in relation both to past and future. One way to read them
would be as historical narratives.62

Foots analysis concentrates on the narrative function of royal land charters recording

donations to ecclesiastical foundations. She has commented that the charters held by an

individual church or monastery were not just a record of legal land tenure, but the

record, designed to avoid any rival claims and ensure that of all the plural memories

and recollections available, only this one story was, and could be, told.63 Foot also

commented that when read as a group of texts, the charters provided their own narrative

version of the foundations history.64 This concept of charter as narrative designed to

provide the incontrovertible version of events can equally be applied to thelstans

charters. But, as will be seen below, when thelstans charters are read as a collective

group they provide a number of different narratives.

As legal records of gifts and their named recipients, the charters depict

thelstan as a generous donor of land to individuals and to ecclesiastical foundations.

When read as complete documents, each charter gives a much fuller picture of

thelstan as king, and when the charters are read in sequence they provide a narrative

for his reign as a whole. For example, through their donor designations of thelstan the

charters trace how his status changed during his reign; the florid Latin of the proems

and curses modelled on Aldhelm, depict thelstan and his court as well-educated and

learned; the content of the proems and curses show thelstan as a Christian king

promoting the religious and moral teaching of the Church; the long witness lists record

the depth of support shown by the Church and the loyalty of his nobles and those

62
Sarah Foot, Reading Anglo-Saxon Charters: Memory, Record or Story?, in Narrative and
History in the Early Medieval West, ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, pp. 39-65 (p. 64).
63
Foot, Reading Anglo-Saxon Charters, in Narrative and History in the Early Medieval West,
ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, p. 63.
64
Foot, Reading Anglo-Saxon Charters, in Narrative and History in the Early Medieval West,
ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, p. 45.
 45

designated as sub-reguli as a result of his military successes; the details of date and

place tell how thelstan made himself visible to his people through the great councils

held in different places across his kingdom.65 The legal status of the charters gives

added endorsement to these depictions of thelstan and helped embed them into social

memory as the version of his kingship while the extended use and copying of

thelstans charters ensured that these depictions of him were perpetuated well into the

thirteenth century and later.66

I found that the arguments Foot advanced for treating charter as narrative can

equally be applied to thelstans coin inscriptions and book dedications. As with the

charters, the designs and the circumscriptions on thelstans coins provide a narrative

describing thelstans progress from King of the English to King of all Britain. Initially

they depict thelstan linking his rule with that of his father by retaining the same

designs as are found on the Edward the Elder coins. Later they become distinctive of

thelstans reign, using the text Rex totius Britanniae and finally introducing his image

as crowned king. Similarly, the book dedications track the story of thelstans pious

generosity to the Church through his donations made at different times throughout his

reign. These three different sources, charters, coins and book dedications, when taken

together, provide a cohesive narrative depicting thelstan as raised by God to be King

of all Britain and achieving a position of royal power which exceeded that of his

predecessors. It is not possible to state definitively that these depictions were devised as

self-presentation by thelstan himself. However, their existence as official designations

of him as king imply either his authorization or at least his agreement to their use. In the

following sections I explore these depictions of thelstan in greater detail and argue

that their narrative reveals aspects of him as king which have previously been

overlooked.

65
Foot, thelstan, pp. 128-36 and Appendix II, pp. 259-265.
66
This is explored further in Chapter 2, The Anglo-Norman Texts.
 46

The Charter Narratives: thelstans Growth in Royal Power and Status

Some seventy charters still survive in thelstans name, more than for any other

Anglo-Saxon king. Scholarly analysis initially identified a large number as spurious,

doubtful or forgeries. More recent research by Keynes has revealed that once spurious

texts and later additions have been removed, thirty-nine of thelstans charters can be

accepted as authentic or trustworthy.67 These he has classified into three groups based

on scribal hand, layout, the content of the proems and curses and the witness lists:

A: Charters of King thelstan, 925-26

B: Charters of thelstan A, 928-35
Group 1 (928)
Group II (930)
Group III (931-33)
Group IV (934-35)
C: Charters of King thelstan, 935-39

Four of these charters survive in manuscripts dated to the first half of the tenth century:

London, British Library, Cotton MS, Ch. viii. 16A. s. x1: Original: Old Minster
Winchester. 12 Nov. 931 Lifton Devon. S 416.

London, British Library, Cotton MS, Aug. ii. 65 s. x1: Original: Archives, Christ
Church Canterbury. 28 May 934 Winchester. S 425.

London, British Library, Cotton MS, Aug. ii. 23 s. x1: Original: Archives, Old
Minster, Winchester. Dated 939. S 447.

London, British library, Cotton MS, Ch. viii. 22 s. x1: Original: Archives, Christ
Church Canterbury. Dated 939. S 449.

The first two of these, S 416 and S 425, belong to Keyness Group B of the charters,

written by the one scribe thelstan A and dated from the middle of thelstans reign to

around the time of his expedition to Scotland in 933/4. The two later charters in Group

C, S 447, S 449, are written by different scribes and dated to 939, two years after the

ASC date for the Battle of Brunanburh in 937. These four charters therefore span the

67
Simon Keynes, Register of the Charters of King thelstan, Toller Lecture (2001), pp. 1-4.
References to specific charters are from Electronic Sawyer.
 47

greater part of thelstans reign and provide contemporary accounts of thelstans

reign, predating the earliest manuscripts of Versions A and B of the ASC by

approximately twenty years. Of special significance is the evidence they provide on

how thelstans designation as king altered during his reign. In his earliest charters

thelstan is named as rex Anglorum or rex Saxonum et Anglorum, King of the

English or King of the Saxons and the English; in the charters for 931 and 934 he is

described as totius Brittanniae regni solio sublimatus, raised to the throne of the

whole of Britain; in the later two, he is given the designations of basileus Anglorum et

eque totius Brittanniae orbis curagulus (or gubernator), supreme ruler of the English

and guardian (or governor) equally of the whole of the territory of Britain. Both

curagulus and gubernator, like basileus, are derived from Greek. While gubernator

(helmsman) is commonly used of kingship, curagulus is an unusual word in western

Latin texts. It is etymologically derived from Justinians and used in the

Codex of Theodosius to describe those responsible for legal and administrative matters

in the Byzantine Empire.68 The adoption of this title depicts thelstan as a Byzantine

emperor but one who personally controls how the state and its laws are administered.

In the Table below, I show how this pattern in thelstans designations is

replicated across the charters listed as trustworthy by Keynes. By aligning the changes

in thelstans designation with the events recorded for his reign in Versions A and B of

the ASC, I identify links between the narrative provided by the Chronicle and the

narrative account in the charters. Through close analysis of the formulae used in the

charters I identify links with parts of the Second English Coronation Ordo and suggest

that these formulae reveal another narrative of thelstan as divinely ordained by God to

be King of all Britain. I argue that the significant changes in the designations of the

68
curago (curagente) take charge, manage. Oxford Latin Dictionary, 2 vols (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1968-1982). Ii quos curagenda[ri]os [] provincialium consuetudo appellat,
those whom provincial custom names as exercising care. Theodosiani, ed. by Thomas
Momsen (Berlin: Weidmann, 1954), p. 290.
 48

charters and in the portraiture on the coins, in both cases evident by the early 930s,

provide strong support for thelstan having undergone a second coronation ceremony

as King of Britain. I support my argument by reference to later textual evidence and to

the Carolingian precedents set by Charlemagne and Charles the Bald with whom

thelstan could claim to be related through the marriages of thelwulf and Eadgifu.69

Table 2. Donor and Signature Designations in thelstans Charters 925-93970

DATE ON CHARTER DONOR DESIGNATION SIGNATURE

Group A: 925-26. Ego Adelstan:
925 rex Saxonum et Anglorum S 394.
ASC A and B: thelstans 925 rex Anglorum S 395.
Accession 924/925 926 Angulsaxonum rex S 396, 397.
Group B: 928-35. Ego Adelstan:
928 rex Anglorum S 399, S 400.
930-935 per eiusdema omnipatrantisb dextram c 930-935
totius Brittanniae regni solio sublimatus: singularis privilegii
through the right hand of the same all monarchiae praeditus
accomplishing God raised to the throne of the rex: king endowed
ASC A and B: kingdom of all Britain. (or enriched) with
thelstans Expedition S 379, 403, 405, 407, 412, 413, 416, 417, the sole rule of
to Scotland 933/4. 418a, 418, 419, 422, 423 (totius Albionis), outstanding
425, 426, 434, 458, 1604. privilege.
Group C: 935-39. Ego Adelstan: Charters S 429 and S
935-939 nodante Dei gratia basileus 430, both dated 935
Anglorum et equae totius Brittanniae orbis and the earliest
curagulus (or gubernator): charters in this
by Gods binding grace King of the English group, retain, only
and guardian (or governor) equally of the for the signatory
territory of the whole of Britain. S 411, 429, designation, the
430, 431, 438, 440, 441, 442, 445, 446, 447, terms rex Anglorum
ASC A and B: Battle of 448, 449. (S 429) or totius
Brunanburh 937. gentis Anglorum rex
938 S 441 basileus industrius Anglorum (S 430).
cunctarumque gentium in circuitu All the others in
persistentium: diligent King of the English Group C use rex
and of all the peoples established in the totius Brittanniae,
surrounding lands. king of the whole of
939 S 445 totius Britanniae privatum Britain.
[primatum?] regalis regiminis obtinens:
holding the primacy of the kingly rule of the
whole of Britain.

The minor differences in wording noted above suggest scribal choice or miscopying:

69
thelstans great-grandfather, thelwulf, married the daughter of Charles the Bald and his
half-sister, Eadgifu, married Charles grandson, Charles the Simple. These family relationships
are considered further below and more fully in Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
70
Charter references are to the entries in the Electronic Sawyer collection.
 49

930-935 Donor Designations:

a
eiusdem omitted: S 412, 413, 1604, 416, 418, 419, 379. bomnitenentis, S 417, 418a;
omnitonantis, S 422, 423; omnipotentis, S 407, 434. (The similarityof these variants
with omnipatrantis suggests scribal miscopying or choice of a more familiar word.). c
quae Christus est added S 407.
930-935 Signature Designations:
e
florentis Brytanniae monarchia, S 416; totius florentis Brytanniae rex, S 422;
(h)ierachia,
S 379, 407, 417, 423, 425, 426; ierachia florentis Albionis, S 434; gerarchia (a neo-
compound or possibly a miscopying of hierarchia), S 413, 1604.

935-939 Variations in the introductory phrase:nodante Dei gratia: divina mihi

adridente gratia: divine grace smiling on me, S 411, 447, 449; divina favente
clementia/gratia: by favour of divine mercy/grace, S 440, 445; desiderio regni coelistis
exardens favente superno numine: burning with a fervent desire of the heavenly
kingdom with the favour of God above, S 441, S 442.

The Table shows there is a remarkable consistency within each of the three charter

groupings in the wording of the designations for thelstan, both as donor and as

signatory, and in the accompanying religious formulae. thelstans donor designations

across the three groups change progressively from a simple rex Anglorum early in his

reign to claims from c. 930 that he was totius Brittanniae regni solio sublimatus and

finally, from 935, basileus Anglorum and curagulus or gubernator totius Britanniae

orbis. The change from totius Brittanniae regni solio sublimatus to basileus is

supported by the four tenth-century manuscript charters, S 416, S 425, S 447, S 449.

Charter S 449 in Group C also retains thelstans earliest title, rex Anglorum, as the

signatory designation while others in the Group use rex totius Brittanniae based on

thelstans designation in Group B. This use of previous designations for thelstans

signature serves as a reminder that, however much his official status had changed, he

was still King of the English and King of all Britain.

The change in royal designation in the charters from c. 930 is accompanied by

other changes in the composition of thelstans charters. A new style of proems and

curses is introduced which draw heavily on Aldhelms Latin works. Michael Lapidge

has commented that certain of the most ostentatious of the royal charters from this
 50

period are virtual centos of Aldhelm.71 The effect is to depict thelstan as a king who

is well-educated in Latin and his court as a place of some learning. In addition, the

identification of a single hand, scribe thelstan A, supports the idea that some form of

central administration was established at this time to ensure commonality of

presentation and style. While Keynes disagreed with Pierre Chaplaiss theory of a single

ecclesiastical scriptorium based at Winchester,72 he did agree that a number of aspects

indicated some form of centralized provision: the use of the same scribal hand;

uniformity in proems and curses; similarity in the witness lists and the use of a similar

style and layout in later charters.73 He preferred, however, to argue for a scriptorial

agency attached to the kings household which was mobile and able to draw up charters

at any of the centres where the king and his councillors met. He suggested that the

variations in the proems and curses of the later charters could be the result of scribes

choosing their texts from earlier charters or perhaps from a set of model texts.74

Whatever the administrative arrangements for the systematic production of thelstans

charters, it is clear that by c 930 both thelstans designation as king and the format of

his charters had been radically changed.75

Historical research has tended to assume that these changes followed

thelstans taking power in Northumbria in 926/7 following the death of Sihtric, the

Norse king of York, and the peace agreement at Eamont. The earliest surviving textual

records for these events are the mid-eleventh-century MS of Version D of the ASC and

the twelfth-century MS of Version E. Neither the tenth-century Versions A and B of the

ASC nor the charters make any direct reference to Northumbria. However, the extended

71
Michael Lapidge, The Hermeneutic Style in Tenth-Century Anglo-Latin Literature, Anglo-
Saxon England, 4 (1975), 67-111 (pp. 73-74).
72
Pierre Chaplais, The Origin and Authenticity of the Royal Anglo-Saxon Diploma, in Prisca
Munimenta, ed. by F. Ranger (London: London University Press, 1973), pp. 28-42 (40-42).
73
Simon Keynes, The Diplomas of King thelred The Unready 978-1016 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 24, 42-44.
74
Keynes, The Diplomas of King thelred, pp. 39-42, 79-83.
75
It is always possible that earlier charters using this new designation have been lost.
 51

form of expression used in the charters to introduce thelstans designation tells the

reader that some event had occurred which was felt to justify a significant change in

how thelstans royal status was depicted. The wording of the new designation is also

significant.

Charter Narratives: A Second Coronation

From c 930 thelstans charters describe him as rex Anglorum, per omnipatrantis

dexteram totius Britanni regni solio sublimatus, king of the English, through the

right hand of the all-accomplishing God raised to the throne of the kingdom of the

whole of Britain. The phrase, regni solio sublimatus, recalls the phrases, in solio

regni, and in solium sublimatus, in the Second English Coronation Ordo preserved in

the Ratold Sacramentary. Similarly the charter phrase, per omnipatrantis dexteram,

echoes the opening of the Benedictio in the Ratold coronation ceremony, extendat

omnipotens deus dexteram suae benedictionis, may the almighty God extend to you

the right hand of his blessing.76 The simplicity of these formulaic phrases in contrast to

the very florid Latin of the proems of the thelstan A charters suggests that they were

intended to be recognized as ecclesiastical quotations from the coronation Ordo. It is

also significant that thelstan is first described as, King of the English, and then as,

raised to the throne of the kingdom of all Britain, implying that this wider sovereignty

came later.

Recently, scholarly support has grown for the Second English Coronation Ordo

to be accepted as the Ordo used for thelstans consecration as king in 925.77 The

Ratold references to the king ruling Saxons, Mercians, Northumbrians and the whole of

76
For detailed analysis see: P. L. Ward, An early Version of the Anglo-Saxon Coronation
Ceremony, English Historical Review, 57 (1942), 345-61. The Claudius Pontificals, ed. by D.
H. Turner, Henry Bradshaw Society, 97 (Chichester: Regnum Press, 1971), pp. xxx-xxxiii.
Nicholas Orchard, Second Anglo-Saxon Coronation Ordo, in The Sacramentary of Ratoldus,
Henry Bradshaw Society, 116 (Cranbrook: Boydell Press, 2005), pp. cxxix-cxxxvi.
77
Janet Nelson, The First Use of the Second Anglo-Saxon Ordo, in Myth, Rulership, Church
and Charters, ed. by Julia Barrow and Andrew Wareham (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 117-
26. For a summary overview see Foot, thelstan, pp. 75-77.
 52

Albion, clearly belong to an English context.78 While this designation as king does not

accurately describe thelstans position at his accession in 924/925, it would be

applicable following thelstans becoming king over Northumbria in 926/7. The

earliest surviving charter describing thelstan as totius Brittanniae regni solio

sublimatus is dated to c 930, some three or four years later, although it is always

possible that earlier charters using this designation have been lost. I suggest that the new

wording of the charters depict thelstan undergoing a second ceremony of consecration

as King of all Britain. This is also supported by changes in the inscriptions and designs

of the coins produced during thelstans reign.

thelstans Coins

The earliest coins of thelstans reign are similar to those of Edwards reign, with the

kings name around the edge of the obverse and in the centre either a cross or the head

of the king wearing a wreath or helmet (diadem). These were followed by coins of a

new design, the Circumscription Cross and Circumscription Rosette. The

circumscription on these coins included the designation of thelstan as Rex totius

Britanniae but usually abbreviated to REX TO BRI or something similar. The final

group of coins introduced a further innovation, retaining the REX TO BRI

circumscription and showing thelstan as a crowned king, the first Anglo-Saxon king

to be depicted on his coins in this way.79 The design of the crown is unusual, a simple

78
MSS K, P1, regnum N. albionis totius, saxonum merciorum nordanhunbrorum sceptra.
These references in the Ratold Ordo led Ward to suggest that the manuscripts preserved
elements of an Anglo-Saxon coronation ceremony which was the basis for Edgars coronation.
Ward, An Early Version of the Anglo-Saxon Coronation Ceremony, pp. 345-50, 352. Nelson
has suggested the English Ordo had both been influenced by, and contributed to, Continental
ordos. Richard A. Jackson has noted that the Benedictio in the Ratold Ordo asks for the king to
be protected by the prayers of Saint Gregory, apostle of the angels, a reference Jackson claims is
unparalleled in the manuscripts of other Continental ordos. He assumes that angelorum was a
misreading for Anglorum, but it is equally possible it was a direct reference to Bedes story of
Pope Gregory describing the young slaves in Romes market-place as angels not Angles.
Richard A. Jackson, ed., Ordines Coronationis Franciae (Philadelphia: University of
Pensylvania, 1995), p. 169. Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. by G. P. Goold, 2 vols (London:
Harvard University Press, 1999), ii, 1, I, 200-01.
79
Archibald and Blunt, Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles 34, pp. xiv-xviii. Plates, I-XII.
 53

band with three stems each surmounted by a small orb. The nearest equivalent identified

so far is in the portrait of Lothar I in London, British Library, Additional MS 37768,

fols 3v-4r. The band on Lothars crown is shown as bejewelled but otherwise it provides

a possible model for thelstans.80

Such a link would not be out of keeping with what is known of thelstans

Carolingian links. Lothar was half-brother to Charles the Bald whose daughter, Judith,

married thelstans great-grandfather, thelwulf, and whose grandson, Charles the

Simple, was married to thelstans half-sister, Eadgifu; the manuscript painting of

Lothar is in a psalter which also links him with Byzantium through a visit from

Byzantine ambassadors in 842; Lothar ruled Lotharingia from his centre at Metz.

thelstan is reputed to have sent Otto of Saxony a Metz Gospel Book around the time

of his marriage to thelstans half-sister Eadgytha and later to have supported his

nephew, Louis IV of West Francia, in retaining the territory of Lotharingia against

Ottos attempts to seize it.81 The choice of Lothars crown as a model for thelstans

would be in line with these Carolingian connections.

Dating of the coins has been difficult. Mostly it has been based on the evidence

provided by the names of the moneyers or from the analysis of coin hoards containing

thelstan coins. Because historically the eleventh-century ASC date of 926/7 has been

accepted as the date from which thelstan took possession of York, the coins carrying

the designation REX TO BRI have generally been dated to this time but there is clearly

a danger of circularity in this, with the ASC and the coins being used to validate each

other. Foot, in her recent analysis of the coins, has revisited this aspect and dated the

coinage with the crowned head to sometime after 930, and thus in line with the charter

designations from 930 onwards.82 The introduction of the crowned head of thelstan on

80
Foot, thelstan, pp. 221-22.
81
For details see Chapter 3, thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
82
Foot, thelstan, pp. 151-57.
 54

his coins after the title, Rex totius Brittanniae, was already being used on his charters,

strongly suggests that thelstan underwent a second ceremony of kingship which went

beyond the previous ceremony of kingly consecration and included a full coronation of

the kind described in the Second English Coronation Ordo.

Other Evidence

Two other pieces of text seem to support this theory of a second ceremony which

included coronation. The first is in the Old English manumission statement written in

the eighth-century Gospel Book British Library Royal 1. B. VII :

elstan cyng gefreode Eadelm forrae s e he rst cyng ws . s ws

on gewitnesse lfheah mssepreost 7 se hired 7 lfric se gerefa 7 Wufno
hwita 7 Eanstan prafost 7 Byrnstan mssepreost . se e t onwende hbbe he
Godes unmiltse 7 ealles s haligdomes e ic on Angelcyn begeat mid Godes
miltse 7 ic an an bearnan s ilcan s ic an fder an :

King thelstan manumitted Eadelm very soon after he first was king. The
witnesses of that were lfheah mass-priest and the household (or community),
lfric the reeve, Wulfnoth the white, Eanstan the provost, and Byrnstan mass-
priest. May he who changes that, have the anger of God and of all the relics
which I, with Gods benevolence, have bestowed copiously on the people of
England and I grant the children the same as I grant the father.

Commenting on the text, Keynes notes the unusual use of, rst:

If rst cyng ws means, literally, first became king, it would imply that a
distinction was understood between that occasion and a later event in the process
by which Athelstan came to power, and thus that the manumission was
associated with the earlier event but drafted after the later one (or in anticipation
of it); but the words could be translated simply, became king, leaving it
uncertain what stage in the process was intended.83

Keynes did not elaborate further on the nature of the first and later events and he made

no reference to thelstans claim of having given copious donations of relics to the

people of England, although this too implies the entry was made some time after

thelstan, first, became king. The ambiguity of rst leaves open, as Keynes has

83
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 186, n. 205. Keynes dismisses the idea that the
manumission entry identifies the book as the one on which thelstan took his oath as king in
925, suggesting instead that the book may have belonged to thelstan and the entry made as a
personal record of the manumission perhaps made at his accession in 924. Keynes, King
Athelstans Books, p. 186-89.
 55

commented, the possibility that it merely distinguishes thelstans action of

manumission on becoming king in 924/5 and its later recording in the Gospel Book. The

transition from third person to first person in the text is also confusing. While it may be

intended to replicate the terms of thelstans original manumission, it may also, as

Keynes suggests, be a contemporary record of his actions to mark a later event, perhaps

by extending the terms of the manumission to Eadelms children. If so, the contrast

made with his first becoming king suggests that this short text may record an act of

manumission to mark thelstans later coronation as king of all Britain.

The second piece of evidence for a second ceremony lies in a thirteenth-century

manuscript of a charter from Abingdon recording thelstans donation to Abbot Cynath

of land at Dumbleton in Gloucestershire. The charter is described in the Historia

Monasterii de Abingdon and Joseph Stevenson has noted that despite the late date of the

manuscript the author could have had access to tenth-century material at Abingdon.84

Stentons work on the Abingdon records suggested that the thelstan charters could not

be accepted without qualification and Keynes, commenting on the complex history of

the Dumbleton estate, noted that the charter might well be a forgery from the tenth or

eleventh century.85 Whatever the charters basis, however, the author clearly wished to

distinguish between thelstans initial consecration as king and his later taking power

in Northumbria and Cumbria:

v anno ex quo nobilissime gloriosus rex Anglosaxones regaliter gubernabat,

tertioque postquam authentice Northanhimbrorum Cumborumque, blanda
mirifici Conditoris benevolentia, patrocinando sceptrin gubernaculum
perceperat virg 86

in the fifth year from which the glorious king was with the greatest nobility
ruling the Anglo-Saxons as king and the third after, with the pleasing favour of

84
Joseph Stevenson, Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, 2 vols (London: Longman, 1858), I,
pp. xiii-xiv, 60-64.
85
Frank Stenton, The Early History of the Abbey of Abingdon (Reading: University College,
1913), p. 38. Keynes, Register of the Charters of King thelstan, Toller Lecture (2001), p. 7.
86
Electronic Sawyer, S 404.
 56

the wondrous Creator, he legally had taken governance of the Northumbrians

and Cumbrians with the protection of his sceptral staff

Taking 924 as the date of thelstans consecration as king, the fifth year of his reign

would be 929. His assuming rule over Northumbria and Cumbria three years before,

gives a date of 926, the date in the mid-eleventh-century Version D of the ASC for his

taking possession of York after the peace agreement at Eamont. The charter, by using

926 as a second regnal date, defines it as a key event in thelstans reign and gives it

equal status with thelstans initial accession in 924.

Examples of a second coronation already existed on the Continent with

Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, and occurred later in England with

Edgar. All reflected a significant change in status or ratified the acquisition of additional

territory. Given thelstans Carolingian connections, a second coronation ceremony

would certainly be a powerful way of depicting thelstan as a king of equal standing

with his Carolingian relatives.

Charter Narratives: thelstan as Basileus

The Charter Table above showed how after thelstans expedition to Scotland in 933/4

his charter designation changed again. From 935 the imperial Byzantine term basileus,

emperor, was used as part of the donor designation together with the titles of curagulus,

guardian, or gubernator governor, of all the territories and peoples of Britain. This

accumulation of titles seems designed to depict thelstan as having consolidated his

position over his previous sub-reguli, Constantine and his allies, the kings of Cumbria

and North Wales. The change to the more imperial style of designation assigns

thelstan a status similar to Charlemagnes who was designated basileus by Byzantium

in 812 but also retained his title of King of the Franks and Lombards.87 The extent of

thelstans power is spelled out in more detail in the designations found in charter

87
Matthias Becher, Charlemagne (London: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 17, 96.
 57

S441, basileus Anglorum cunctarumque gentium in circuitu persistentium,88 and S445,

totius Britanniae primatum<?> regalis regiminis obtinens.89 In these phrases thelstan

is depicted as also exercising primacy of kingship as basileus over neighbouring

peoples around the whole of Britain.

It is possible that the use of the title basileus, with its links to Charlemagne, may

have been intended both to reflect thelstans family connections with the Carolingians

and to emphasize the role he was currently fulfilling as guardian of his nephew, Louis,

sole heir to the Carolingian kingdom of West Francia. Flodoard and Richer, writing on

the Continent in the tenth century, both give accounts of thelstans care in securing

Louiss safe return in 936 to be crowned as Louis IV.90 None of the surviving English

tenth-century sources mention this but it is possible that thelstans adoption of the title

basileus after 935 may be intended to signify his position as sole protector of

Charlemagnes line to the Frankish throne. As basileus he would also be able to claim

precedence in his negotiations with continental rulers for Louiss safe return as king.

Charter Narratives: thelstan as Pius Rex

The repetition of religious formulae which form part of all thelstans charter

designations reinforces the depiction of thelstan as a king who claimed that his

position did not rest solely on his election by the nobles or on his military achievements.

He had been raised by God to be Rex totius Britanniae and basileus totius Britanniae

orbis.91 The charters continue this religious theme, their proems and curses depicting

thelstan actively supporting the teaching of scripture and the practice of Christian

values. Warning against worldliness and the loss of eternal happiness in heaven, the

proems read like brief admonitory homilies from the king, reminding recipients and

88
King of the English and of all the peoples established in the surrounding land.
89
Holding the primacy of the kingly rule of the whole of Britain.
90
See Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
91
This concept of the king as Gods chosen one, finds fuller expression in the coronation
ceremony in the Ratold Coronation Ordo with its references to Abraham, Moses, Joshua, David
and Solomon. Sacramentary of Ratoldus, ed. by Nicholas Orchard, pp. cxxix-cxxxvi.
 58

their witnesses of the Christian values they should uphold, while the conclusions warn

them of the spiritual consequences of contravening the terms of the charter. These

sometimes lengthy passages depict thelstan as a pious, Christian king, both promoting

the scriptural and moral teachings of the Church and, by his charter gift, providing a

practical example of the need to earn everlasting life through proper use of worldly

possessions. The witnessing of the charters by archbishops, bishops and abbots gave

ecclesiastical and monastic endorsement to this depiction of thelstan. Some of the

charters also provide a picture of thelstans personal piety, requiring as part of their

terms that the recipient is to pray for thelstan or to give alms as part of the terms. 92

Through these forms of religious narrative, the charters depict thelstan as the pius

rex, a title which became closely associated with him.

Charter Narratives: Political and Legal

While thelstans royal charters had an overt legal purpose in terms of granting land

and privileges, I demonstrate below that they also had an overarching political purpose

in helping to consolidate the power thelstan had won through his military victories.

thelstans earlier charters are significant for the number of witnesses, ecclesiastical

and secular, from different ethnic groups. For example, charter S 416, delivered at the

Witenagemot at Lifton (931), was witnessed by the archbishops of Canterbury and

York, the subreguli Hywel and Idwal of Wales, seventeen bishops, five abbots, fifteen

duces of whom seven had Scandinavian names,93 and thirty four ministri. Charter S 425

delivered at Winchester (934) was witnessed by both archbishops, the subreguli Hywel

of Dyfed, Idwal of Gwynedd, Morgan ap Owain and Teowdor of Brycheiniog,

seventeen bishops, four abbots, twelve duces and and fifty two ministry.94 The number

and range of witnesses to these charters depict very large gatherings drawn from a

92
Electronic Sawyer: Prayers: S 403, 419, 422, 423, 429, 432, 438, 449; Almsgiving: S 379,
418.
93
Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 351 and n. 2.
94
Five have Scandinavian names: Urm, Inwr, Halfdene, Scule and Hadd.
 59

cross-section of the kingdom and bringing together leading men from across Britain.

These charters, through the size of their gatherings and the range of witnesses, depict

thelstan demanding a public expression of loyalty from his leading men and defeated

enemies which enabled him to portray his kingdom as united under his rule. By 939 the

number of ecclesiastical and lay witnesses is considerably reduced. Charters S 447 and

S 449 are witnessed by the archbishop of Canterbury and eight bishops but only four

duces and nineteen ministri. There is no mention of any subreguli. I suggest that this

depicts thelstan as having established a secure kingdom following Brunanburh, and

one in which he, as basileus, was sole ruler.

Eric John has commented on the way that thelstans charters served as

propaganda, sending a strong message to those who received them and to later

inheritors:

It stands to reason that every charter, in addition to the ostensible

purpose of the particular grant, bears impressive witness to the
subjection of the magnates who sign and the supremacy of the king
who gives. The charters were certain to be cherished and flourished,
and every such occasion was necessarily a tribute to royal authority.
In a world where fear and prestige mattered so greatly it is not probable
that such an opportunity for propaganda would have been neglected. Indeed
the titles of the charters are ample evidence that it was not.95

The success of thelstans charters in promoting this picture of his authority

and standing is perhaps best illustrated by the number of surviving manuscripts from the

Norman period which claim to provide legal evidence of thelstans land grants to

monasteries and churches. There are several reasons why thelstan charters might have

been seen as particularly effective in resisting Norman attempts to appropriate Church

and monastic lands.96 thelstans reign was notable for the number of charters issued;97

given his designations as Rex totius Britanniae and basileus, tracing land back to an

95
Eric John, Orbis Britanniae (Leicester: University Press, 1966), pp. 48-49.
96
H. R. Loyn, The English Church 940-1154 (Harlow: Longman, 2000), pp. 99-101.
97
Some thirty-nine can be considered authentic. Keynes, Register of the Charters of King
thelstan, Toller Lecture (2001), pp 1-5.
 60

initial royal charter in thelstans name could give added status and make challenge by

rivals more difficult; thelstans alleged friendship with Rollo, founder of the Norman

dynasty may also have played a part, ensuring that thelstans name on a charter would

carry more weight in the Norman courts.98 At the same time, these charters ensured that

thelstans depiction as a powerful king and generous donor to the church was carried

forward into the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. A similar function was

fulfilled by the records of thelstans gifts of books to monasteries and churches.

Although only six are known, the dedications they contain in thelstans name reflect

the images of thelstan provided by his charters and coins but also provide further,

more personal depictions of thelstan as king.

thelstans Book Dedications

Table 3. Book Donor Dedications

MS DETAILS DONOR RECIPIENT AND DATE OF

DESIGNATION DONATION DATE INSCRIPTION
London, Lambeth Early charter designation Metropolitan See of Possibly x2
Palace 1370. Gospel Anglosxna rex. Date of Canterbury. Early in
book, IX2 . Probably a presentation and occasion thelstans reign?
gift from Armagh. unknown.
BL Cotton, MS thelt<s>tanus rex. Monastery at Bath: Tenth century,
Claudius B. V. Acts Possibly a gift from Otto in 925-939 contemporary or
of Third Council of 929 but could have been later.
Constantinople. obtained and donated at
Continental c. IXend anytime in thelstans reign.
BL Cotton MS Tiberius Uses the late charter Christ Church 936 to 962/68, by
A. ii, Gospel book. designation Anglorum Canterbury: English scribe.
Continental (Lobbes?) basyleos et curagulus totius 929 - 939.
late ninth or early tenth Brytanniae. Possibly a gift
century. from Otto on his marriage in
929 or on his accession in 936
BL Royal 1. A. XVIII Possibly linked with Alan of St Augustines 10th or 11th, 13th,
Gospel book (Brittany?) Brittany 931-936. Canterbury: 931-939. 16th century.
IX/X.
BL Cotton MS Otho B. Possibly donated on Chester-le-Street: c. 934?
ix. Gospel book. thelstans expedition to 934?
Continental (Brittany?); Scotland 934.
late ninth or early tenth
century. MS burnt.
Cambridge Corpus Donated on, or sometime Chester-le-Street: Later tenth
Christi College 183. after, thelstans 934 934-939 century?
Contemporary MS of expedition to Scotland.
thelstans reign.

98
For details, see Chapter 3, thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
 61

The dedications depict thelstan as a king for whom finely produced books were

suitable gifts which he then piously donated to chosen ecclesiastical and monastic

centres. The recorded donation of two books to Christ Church and one to St Augustines

can be seen as royal recognition of Canterburys leading ecclesiastical role in England

and this is emphasized by the wording of the dedication of the Gospel Book London,

Lambeth Palace 1370 to the Metroplitan See of Canterbury. The donation of two

books to St Cuthberts community in Chester-le-Street depicts thelstan honouring the

Church in Northumbria and both have been associated with his expedition to Scotland

making these very personal gifts. Four of the book inscriptions carry personal messages:

Table 4. Book Dedication Inscriptions

MS Cotton, Claudius B. V Gift made ob remunerationem su anim.
Monastery at Bath: 925-939 Request for prayers for thelstan and his
friends:
Inscription tenth century, contemporary or
et quisquis hos legerit caracteres, omnipotenti
later?
pro eo proque suis amicis fundat preces
and let whoever reads these words pour out
prayers to the Almighty, for him and for his
friends.
MS Cotton, Tiberius A. ii Gift made deuota mente. First person
request for prayers:
Christ Church Canterbury: 929 - 939.
Vos etenim obsecrando postulo . memores ut
uestris mei mellifluis oraminibus consonaque
Inscription possibly added 936-962/68 by
uoce fieri prout confido . non desistatis .
English scribe.
And indeed by entreaty I request, just as I am
A poem Rex pius elstan is written on the confident will happen, that you do not cease
reverse of the dedicatory inscription. to be mindful of me in your mellifluous
prayers and harmonious sound
Royal 1. A. XVIII Gift made deuota mente. Request for
prayers for thelstan and his friends:
St Augustines Canterbury: 931-939?
quisquis hoc legerit omnipotenti pro eo
th th proque suis amicis fundat preces,
Inscription 10 century or 11/13/16
century? let whoever reads this pour out prayers to the
Almighty, for him and for his friends.
MS Cotton, Otho B. ix (Lost). Donation recorded as:
Eathelstan Anglorum piisimus rex
Chester-le-Street: 934?
thelstan, the most pious king of the English.
Portrait and inscription contemporary tenth
century?
 62

As the Tables illustrate, it is unclear whether these inscriptions were contemporary or

added later. If later, they reflect a wish to keep alive thelstans reputation for personal

piety through their request for prayers for thelstan and, in two instances, for his

friends. The use of the first person in MS Cotton, Tiberius A. ii, and the rhetorical

language reminiscent of his charters, also give this request a direct personal touch. The

descriptor pius is used as a formal designation of thelstan both in the transcription of

the lost MS Cotton, Otho B. ix and in the poem Rex pius elstan written on the

reverse of the dedicatory inscription in MS Cotton, Tiberius A. ii. This poem will be

considered in detail in the section below on thelstan in Poetry and Song.

The dedication in Cotton Claudius B. V differs from all the others by giving a

reason for thelstans donation. It was made ob remunerationem suae animae.

Keynes translates this as for the salvation of his soul,99 but the term remuneratio

implies making recompense for some action. The main event in Anglo-Norman

accounts of thelstans life which cast a shadow over his reputation was the death of

his half-brother Edwin. If the inscription is intended to designate the book as a form of

recompense for Edwins death, then it is the earliest surviving Anglo-Saxon reference to

that event. I suggest that a possible reason for its presence at Bath may be because of

links between Bath and the monastery of St Bertin in Flanders. Folcuin, writing in the

tenth century, records that Edwin was buried by the monks of St Bertin and he later

credits thelstan with providing accommodation at Bath for a group of monks from St

Bertin who were opposed to the reformed Benedictine Rule imposed by thelstans

cousin Arnulf, Count of Flanders. This later event is dated by Folcuin to 944 and

therefore to the reign of Edmund but Folcuin presents it as an act of kindness and piety

by thelstan in gratitude for the burial of his brother.100 As will be seen in Chapter 2 on

99
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 160, n. 90.
Cartulaire de LAbbaye de St Bertin, ed. by M. Gurard (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1841), p.
100

145.
 63

the Anglo-Norman Texts, accounts of thelstans involvement in Edwins death vary

considerably. The earlier texts make no allegation of thelstans involvement and it is

only from the twelfth century that thelstan is depicted as personally responsible. Some

of the possible reasons for this are discussed in that chapter.

The book dedications continue the depictions found in the charters and coins of

thelstan as a king of high status noted for his generosity, piety and learning. The dates

of donation are not easy to establish although the range of royal titles used suggests that

they were given at various stages throughout his reign. Two manuscripts, BL Cotton

MS Otho B. ix and Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 183, are the only ones which

appear to have been produced in England. Both included a painting of thelstan

personally presenting his book to St Cuthbert. Karkov has commented that the

prominence given to the books in the portraits was a new and apparently original

Anglo-Saxon addition.101 Only the portrait in MS CCCC 183 has survived together

with a description of the one in MS Otho B. ix, recorded in the Cotton library catalogue

of Thomas Smith (1696) and the catalogue of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts of Humphrey

Wanley (1705). A comparison shows significant differences in how thelstan and

Cuthbert are depicted in each portrait.

The portrait in the lost Cotton, MS Otho B. ix, is described as depicting

thelstan on bended knee, wearing a crown and with a sceptre in his left hand while he

offered a book to St Cuthbert with his right hand. St Cuthbert remained seated, with his

right hand raised in blessing while holding a book in his left hand.102 The book

contained two dedicatory inscriptions and Keynes concluded that the first of these and

the portrait below it were probably intended as the primary dedication of the gift:103

SC CVDBERHTO EPS To Saint Cuthbert, bishop,

EATHELSTAN ANGLO thelstan most pious king

101
Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 58.
102
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, pp. 171, 173-74.
103
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 174.
 64

RVM PIISIMVS REX of the English presents this

HOC EVVANGELIVM OFFE Gospel book.
RT
thelstans royal status is emphasized by his sceptre and crown. Cuthbert remains

seated in his shrine while thelstans kneeling posture depicts him piously and humbly

offering his gift to him as a saint who, as bishop, provided an outstanding model of

episcopal authority within the northern Church. As Cuthbert is also depicted holding a

book, and with his hand raised in blessing, the portrait seems to indicate that

thelstans offering has been accepted. Karkov noted that the surviving descriptions of

the portrait, if accurate, suggested the composition in Otho B. ix reflected Carolingian

models.104 This interpretation fits with the examples of thelstans Carolingian

associations mentioned above. This picture of thelstans humble kingly piety is less

clearly evident in the surviving painting in MS CCCC 183.

In MS CCCC 183 thelstan and Cuthbert are both standing and Cuthberts hand

is raised this time not in blessing but in acknowledgement. As before, both figures are

shown holding books but thelstan is now holding his book open. Karkov commented

that an open book was a common form of display:105

it may be that this open book was intended to signify the very personal nature of
the gift, and the tradition of learning on which it was based; this was, in other
words, a book that had a special relevance to the king as well as to the saint and
his community. It may be also that the depiction of two books, one open and one
closed, was meant to convey the combined moments of giving and receiving, and
to suggest the movement from present to past represented by this particular gift.

The idea of linking past and present seems particularly relevant in this context. As

Karkov suggests, the texts in MS CCCC 183 appear to have been carefully chosen. The

list below is drawn from Karkovs description of the manuscript but I have summarised

the contents in order to provide an overview:

1. folios 2-58 Bedes prose life of Cuthbert and his two posthumous miracles
from the Historia Ecclesiastica.

104
Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 58.
105
Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 59-60.
 65

2. folios 59-67 lists of popes; disciples of Christ; archbishops and bishops

regnal lists and royal genealogies for Britain as a whole.
3. folio 67 arrival of the Saxons; dimensions of Britain from Bede.
4. folios 67-69 a collection of texts providing information on the world
and humankind including numbers and measurements relating
to human kind, the earth and Biblical times and texts.
5. folios 70-92 Bedes verse life of Cuthbert.
6. folios 92-95 Wessex hymn, Mass and rhyming Office of St Cuthbert.

From this, it can be seen that Groups 1, 3 and 5 all contain material from Bede while

Groups 2 and 4 provide wider contextual material, Group 2 on Englands ecclesiastical

and royal history and Group 4 on aspects of the wider world, Biblical and Old

Testament times. The whole book is enclosed by Bedes accounts of St Cuthberts life

in Groups 1 and 5 while Group 6 provides a fitting finale with the Wessex liturgical text

in praise of St Cuthbert.

The book carries no written dedication. If, as in MS Cotton Otho B ix, the

portrait is intended to act as a dedication, then the differences between the two noted by

Karkov are even more relevant. For example, in MS CCCC 183 thelstan and the saint

are both standing and Cuthberts hand is raised in greeting or acknowledgement rather

than blessing. He is also shown as coming out from his shrine where before he was said

to be seated in his shrine. The king holds an open book but his head is bowed and turned

away from St Cuthbert. Rollason has suggested that thelstan is now depicted as

reading his book rather than presenting it. Karkov disagrees, pointing out that figures

when reading are usually shown seated.106 However, closer scrutiny of the painting

could suggest that the depiction of thelstan three-quarter-face towards anyone looking

at the picture is intended to draw the spectator into the action. thelstan can then be

106
Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 59.
 66

seen as a link between the spectator and St Cuthbert, drawing attention to the saints

acknowledgement or acceptance of him and his gift.

The addition of the Wessex hymn, Mass and rhyming Office of St Cuthbert in

folios 92-95 depict the high regard in which St Cuthbert was held in Wessex. This is

further emphasized by Mechthild Gretsch who comments that the form of the Office

indicates it was intended for secular rather than monastic use.107 While this may reflect

a predominance of secular over monastic ecclesiastical centres at the time, it also means

that the prayers and antiphons would have reached a wider public. thelstans gift

shows Wessex as a kingdom already involved in venerating Cuthbert but it also can be

seen as depicting thelstan reinforcing links between Wessex and Northumbria at a

time when national unity was very important.108 Karkov also detected an attempt in the

manuscripts genealogies to encourage national unity by showing that the people of the

different regions shared a common descent.109 Keynes has noted that this idea of unity is

not supported by the ecclesiastical lists in MS CCCC 183 which contain up-to-date

information only on the Archbishops of Canterbury and the bishops for Wessex.110

However, as noted above, Canterbury received three of thelstans book donations and

I suggest that this linking of Wessex and Canterbury may have been designed to depict

thelstan as strongly supporting the primacy of Canterbury over the English Church.

At the same time, the emphasis on common ancestry and the inclusion of the Wessex-

based liturgical material venerating Cuthbert, depict thelstan as strongly committed to

celebrating the importance of St Cuthbert and the Church in Northumbria.

The dates of donation in the Table above for the two manuscripts would further

support this idea. If, as suggested, MS Otho B. ix was presented by thelstan on his

107
Mechthild Gretsch, lfric and the Cult of the Saints in late Anglo-Saxon England
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 85 -88.
108
Rollason, Saints and Relics in Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 150-52.
109
Karkov, The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 66.
110
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, pp. 181-82.
 67

way up to Scotland, then his kneeling pose in the portrait could reflect his seeking the

support of Cuthbert for his expedition.111 The date suggested for MS CCCC 183 places

its donation after his victorious return from Scotland. This may explain why thelstan

is now depicted as standing. Supplication is no longer necessary, victory has been

achieved through Cuthberts help and the saint comes out to greet him and acknowledge

his offering of a second book in thanksgiving. thelstan is shown wearing the same

crown as on his coins. Following his success in Scotland his charters will designate him

as basileus Anglorum et equae totius Brittanniae orbis curagulus. Cuthberts moving

towards him with hand raised may therefore also be intended to represent the saint as

accepting thelstan as basileus.

These depictions of thelstan through his charters, coins and book dedications

are complemented by the celebration of his achievements in poetry and song. The

following section examines four examples which have survived from the tenth century:

the acrostic poem ADALSTAN/IOHANNES, the Chronicle poem on Brunanburh, the

poem Rex Pius written on the reverse of the dedicatory inscription in MS Cotton,

Tiberius A. ii and the fragmentary poem Carta dirige gressus. Together they provide

poetic depictions of thelstan in Latin and in the vernacular which reflect different

traditionsthe royal court, the Church, heroic poetry and Carolingian verse.

thelstan in Poetry

Acrostic Poem ADALSTAN/IOHANNES

This poem was written into a late ninth-century manuscript from North-East France

which contained works by Aldhelm and Prudentius. The acrostic poem foretells that

thelstan will achieve greatness by defeating his enemies and achieving a period of

111
Symeon of Durham claims thelstan sought Cuthberts help and gave many gifts to his
shrine while on his way to Scotland. See Chapter 2 on the Anglo-Norman Texts for details.
 68

peace.112 Michael Lapidge has suggested the poem was possibly written by John the Old

Saxon who helped Alfred with his work of translation and that it was later added to the

manuscript in the mid-tenth century.113 His interpretation that it was written for

thelstan when a young boy has been challenged by Gernot Wieland who argues that

the content is more appropriate to thelstan as king and may have been composed for

his accession in 925.114 As will be seen below, it is also possible the poem may have

been written after the battle of Brunanburh. The structure and language of the poem

pose many difficulties for the translator but its overall purpose is clearly complimentary

and depicts thelstan as destined to be remembered as pious and victorious.

Lapidges translation and commentary on the poem provide a useful starting

point for considering its meaning and significance, but I argue below that the poem can

be seen as providing a richer depiction of thelstan than his analysis suggests:

Archalis clamare, triumuir, nomine saxI. You, prince, are called by the name of
sovereign stone.
Diue tuo fors prognossim feliciter aeuO: Look happily on this prophecy for your
age:
Augusta Samu- cernentis rupis eris elH, You shall be the noble rock of Samuel
the seer,
Laruales forti beliales robure contrA. [Standing] with mighty strength against
devilish demons.
Saepe seges messem fecunda prenotat altam; iN Often an abundant cornfield foretells a
great harvest; in
Tutis solandum petrinum solibus agmeN. Peaceful days your stony mass is to be
softened.
Amplius amplificare sacra sophismatis arcE. You are more abundantly endowed with
the holy eminence of learning;
Nomina orto- petas donet, precor, inclita -oxuS.- I pray that you may seek and the
Glorious One may grant, the [fulfilment
implied in your] noble names.

112
Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson C. 697 (S. C. 12541). The choice of book may
reflect thelstans Aldhelmian links noted in the language of his charters.
113
Michael Lapidge, Some Latin Poems as Evidence for the Reign of Athelstan, pp. 72-81.
114
Gernot R. Wieland, A New Look at the Poem Archalis clamare triumvir, in Insignis
Sophiae Arcator, ed. by Gernot R. Wieland and others (Turnhout: Brepols, 2006), pp. 178-92.
 69

As part of his commentary on the poem, Lapidge quotes two acrostic poems addressed

to King Alfred as earlier examples of the same fumbling attempt to master the acrostic

form that is found in Johns acrostic to Athelstan.115 I suggest that the thelstan poem

is much more enigmatic than the acrostic on Alfred and reads more like a riddle than a

praise poem. For example, as Lapidges analysis explains, the poem twice puns the Old

English form of thelstans name as archalis saxi and augusta rupis, using a mixture

of Latin and Greek vocabulary. Embedded in the augusta rupis is a biblical reference

to Samuels emblematic setting up of a stone to signify Gods support for the Israelites

against the Philistines. Lapidge interprets this as indicating that, just as Samuels

prophecy of the reigns of Saul and David was fulfilled, so will the poems prophecy of

thelstans future reign.116 However, Samuel is also remembered for his task in seeking

out and anointing the boy David as future king of Israel. This could suggest that the

poem was also linking thelstan with David as a model of kingship. The laruales

beliales, referring to the Philistines of the Bible, are easily seen as the Viking invaders,

often referred to in the ASC as pagans. thelstan, as Samuels rock, then becomes the

image of Gods support against these enemies.

The theme of thelstan as rock is taken up again in the phrase petrinum

agmen, literally army of rock. The use of solandum can be seen as indicating that

thelstans army will not need to fight because of the peace and security which his

victories have won, depicted by in tutis solibus and the pastoral phrases denoting

plenty, seges fecunda and messem altam. If this was the meaning intended, it would

suggest that the poem was written towards the end of thelstans reign and that the

prophecy referred to how he would be remembered by future generations. Support for

this may lie in the opening lines where clamare would be more accurately translated as

you are acclaimed rather than called (vocare).

115
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p. 82.
116
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, pp. 73-74.
 70

It is not only in its content that the poem can be read as a riddle, but in the

ambiguity of its language which leaves certain lines open to different interpretations.

For example, the term triumvir, literally one of three rulers, may be acknowledging

thelstan as the third king in line, continuing the heritage handed down by his father

Edward and grandfather Alfred; aevum is ambiguous and can be translated life or

lifetime, or age, depending on whether the poem is seen as foretelling the events of

thelstans life or his reputation in future times; the use of the Greek word sophisma,

often translated as wisdom, is particularly ambiguous as in both Greek and classical

Latin it is used of false wisdom. The use of ortodoxus, the one of truth, in the

following line contrasts with this and raises the possibility that thelstan is being

addressed as one who is richly distinguished by being a bulwark, arx, against false

teaching whom God, author of truth, will support in achieving all the greatness the

wordplay on his name implies. While my alternative translations are tentative, they

illustrate the complexity and ambiguities to be found in the poem. It would seem that

the author was not just writing an acrostic praise poem but a sophisticated verse which

by its language and many allusions depicts thelstan as scholarly, appreciating the

mixture of Latin and Greek vocabulary and enjoying the Biblical references and play on

ideas. thelstan was later remembered as a king of some learning whose court attracted

scholars from Ireland and the Continent. It is possible this poem was at least partly

responsible for establishing that reputation.117

Rex pius elstan

This poem, as noted above, was inscribed on the reverse of the prose dedicatory

inscription in a ninth or early tenth-century Gospel Book, recording its donation by

117
Michael Wood, The Making of King Aethelstans Empire: an English Charlemagne?, in
Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, ed. by Patrick Wormald (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1983), pp. 250-72.
 71

thelstan to Christ Church, Canterbury.118 Lapidge identified the script of this poem as

being in a Continental hand probably of north or north-eastern French origin.119 He

commented that the diction and use of Graecisms were early examples of the Anglo-

Latin poetry more characteristic of the later tenth century.120 However, some examples

he gives of unusual words I have found used in classical Latin literature and in the

Vulgate or early Fathers.121 This suggests that whoever originally composed the poem

was well-grounded in Latin, whether on the continent or in England. As will be seen

below, written in elegiac metre, the poem describes thelstan as pius, famous world-

wide and chosen by God to be king of the English and to subdue other kings to his rule:

Rex pius elstan, patulo famosus in orbe,

cuius ubique uiget gloria lausque manet,
quem Deus Angligenis solii fundamine nixum
constituit regem terrigenisque ducem
scilicet ut ualeat reges rex ipse feroces
uincere bellipotens, colla superba terens.

Pious king thelstan, celebrated in the whole world,

whose glory flourishes everywhere and whose praise endures,
whom God set firm on the foundation of the throne
as king for the English race and leader over earth-born men,
clearly so that he, as king himself, could, powerful in war,
conquer fierce kings treading on their proud necks.

The description of thelstan as King of the English and leader over earth-born men, is

reminiscent of the wording in thelstans later charters as King of the English and

curagulus or gubernator of the surrounding peoples. I suggest that this and the

description of him treading down the proud necks of fierce kings, are deliberately

recalling thelstans victory at Brunanburh. This would date the inscription to

118
BL MS Cotton Tiberius A. ii.
119
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p. 95.
120
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p, 96.
121
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p. 96. bellipotens - Vergil, Aeneid, 11. 8, describing Mars;
Statius, Thebaid, 2. 715, describing Athena; Tertullian, Contra Judaeos, ch. 9.
terrigena - Ovid, Metamorphoses, 3. 118, 7. 141; Heroides, 6. 35, 12. 99; Lucretius, De
rerum natura, 5. 1411, 1427; Statius, Thebaid, 5. 506; Tertullian, Adversum Marcionem, 2. 12;
Vulgate, Ps. 48. 3.
 72

sometime after 937. This date would also align the poem with the likely date for the

prose dedication which uses the same designation for thelstan as his later charters,

Anglorum basyleos et curagulus totius Brytanniae.

Livingston also thought that the poem belonged to the last years of thelstans

reign and has suggested that it was likely to have been written immediately after the

battle at Brunanburh. He has commented that the phrase colla superba terens was

intended to recall the action of Joshua in the Old Testament, who conquered the

Promised Land for Gods chosen people, and ordered his men to set their feet on the

necks of the defeated five kings of Canaan whom he was about to execute. The figure

five, as Livingston pointed out, is also the same as the number of kings said to have

been killed at Brunanburh:

The association of Athlestan with Joshua is an obviously flattering one for both
king and country, as it also associates the English with Gods chosen people, the
Israelites.122

The association with Joshua which Livingston makes is also capable of being extended

to depict thelstan as the one who established England as the land of his chosen

people. Joshua, however, did not himself tread on his enemies necks and the idea of

trampling ones enemies underfoot is found widely both in the Bible and in classical

literature. It is therefore possible that the writer of the poem was combining both

religious and Roman images of military triumph to depict thelstan as victorious over

his enemies.123

The remaining fourteen lines of the poem celebrate thelstans donation of the

book to Christ Church and in particular the very splendid binding and decoration which

he provided for it. thelstan is depicted as inspired by the Holy Spirit to embellish the

122
Michael Livingston, The Roads to Brunanburh, in The Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by
Livingston, pp. 1-26 (p. 24).
123
The Vulgate and classical literature both use the verb calco for treading on a defeated
enemys neck; tero carries the additional sense of repeated action and grinding down. Its use in
this verse may be intended to represent thelstans repeated, or total, victory over his enemies.
 73

book, thereby both personalizing the donation and ensuring that its appearance made it a

worthy royal gift:

quod rex aureolis sacro spiramine fusus

ornauit titulis gemmigerisque locis,
quodque libens Christi ecclesiae de more dicauit
atque agiae sophiae nobilitauit ouans.
hoc quoque scematicis ornarier ora lapillis
auxit ubique micans floribus ut uariis.

[the book] which the king, filled with the sacred breath [of the Spirit] ,
adorned with golden titles and bejewelled parts,
and which he willingly dedicated to the Church of Christ according to
[his] custom
and [this book] of holy wisdom he exultantly ennobled.
this he also endowed, the covers to be decked with fashioned gems
[the book] everywhere gleaming as if with different flowers.124

The Gospel book is described as a book of holy wisdom, a reminder that it contained the

word of God, but this is expressed through the Greek agiae sophiae. The Greek form

may have been chosen for metrical reasons but, certainly today, and perhaps then, the

phrase echoes the name of the great Hagia Sophia basilica in Byzantium, and may have

been included as a reminder of the Byzantine status ascribed to thelstan by the title

Basileus. This is the term used to describe thelstan in the prose dedication of the book

reflecting the language of his later charters.

The poem ends by warning the community and the archbishop to take good care

of the book and threatens with punishment anyone who takes the book away. This also

echoes the content of the English prose inscription in the manuscript which Keynes

considered was earlier than the poem. However, he also noted that Chaplais had

identified the prose hand with that of a scribe responsible for several charters from 944

124
Lapidge comments on the difficulty of the Latin in the lines hoc [] uariis assuming that
auxit is introducing an accusative and infinitive construction. Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p.
96. However, Kennedy notes that in poetry the infinitive can be used to express purpose.
Revised Latin Primer, para. 373, p. 164. The different meanings of augeo are complex. I have
chosen endowed which links to the basic meaning of improving something which already
exists and also incorporates an idea of purpose. Given the cluster of Greek words in this part of
the poem, a possible alternative explanation is to see the sentence modelled on Greek use of the
infinitive to express result.
 74

to 949.125 It therefore becomes increasingly difficult to say whether the prose dedication

or the poem were included first and whether either was contemporary with thelstan

and his reign or added later to celebrate him after his death. Whatever the date, the

function of the poem remains the same, to provide and preserve a depiction of

thelstan as a king of world-wide renown, known for his piety whose kingship and

military success were ordained by God.

Battle of Brunanburh

The poem on the battle at Brunanburh in the ASC follows immediately after the account

of his military expedition into Scotland and is the earliest surviving account of the

battle. The poem has been variously interpreted as praising the whole Wessex royal

dynasty;126 a political statement designed to support the image and power of Edmund,

thelstans half-brother and successor;127 a celebration of the survival of the whole

Anglo-Saxon kingdom directly linked to thelstans claim to be Rex totius

Britanniae.128 As will be seen below, I suggest that the poem is capable of all these

interpretations, but argue that the underlying theme is one of thelstan as a heroic

leader depicted in ways which reflect the traditions of both Old English and Old

Icelandic/Norse poetry.

The opening lines of the poem provide a thumbnail sketch of thelstan as king:

Her elstan cyning, eorla dryhten,

beorna beahgifa, 7 his broor eac,
Eadmund eling, ealdorlangne tir
geslogon t scce sweorda ecgum
ymbe Brunanburh. Bordweal clufan,

125
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, pp. 149-50.
126
Donald Scragg, A Reading of Brunanburh, in Unlocking the Wordhoard, ed. by Mark C.
Amodio and Katherine OBrien OKeeffe (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2003), pp. 109-22
(pp. 116-17). Janet Thormann, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Poems, p. 65.
127
Simon Walker, A Context for Brunanburh?, in Warriors and Churchmen in the High
Middle Ages, ed. by Timothy Reuter (London: Hambledon Press, 1992), pp. 21-39 (p. 31).
128
Joseph Harris, Brunanburh 12b-13a and Some Skaldic Passages, in Magister Regis, ed. by
Arthur Groos and others (New York: Fordham University Press, 1986), 61-68 (p. 67). Sarah
Foot, Where English becomes British: Rethinking Contexts for Brunanburh, in Myth,
Rulership, Church and Charters, ed. by Barrow and Wareham, pp. 127-44 (p. 144). Foot,
thelstan, p. 171.
 75

heowan heaolinde hamora lafan,

afaran Eadweardes, swa him geele ws
from cneomgum, t hi t campe oft
wi lara gehwne land ealgodon,
hord 7 hamas.129

Here King thelstan, leader of earls

ring-giver of warriors and his brother too
Edmund the prince, gained undying fame
in the contest with the swords edges
around Brunanburh. The wall of shields they cleaved through,
their forged swords hacked the lime-wood shields,
the sons of Edward, as was natural to them
from their parents pedigree, so that they often through battle
with any enemy defended land, wealth and homes.

In these opening lines, thelstan is introduced as a warrior king who commands the

loyalty of his followers, is generous in rewarding their service and wins undying fame

through his victory in battle. Both he and Edmund, his brother and heir, are described as

having shown the military prowess expected of them given their pedigree and their

descent as sons of Edward.130 This genealogical aspect has been seen by Thormann as

central to the purpose of the poem and the fact that the poem both begins and ends with

reference to this, provides strong backing for her argument. Thormann developed this

theme commenting that thelstan and Edmund are depicted as actors in a heroic role

they inherit through their genealogy in which success in war is read as a confirmation

of rightful inherited power: violence and the triumph of superior force are the

performance of natural right.131 Their success, therefore, can be seen as justifying the

right of Wessex to rule England.

Joseph Harris has also interpreted the poem as depicting thelstans unique

position as Rex totius Britanniae, commenting that the extant Old English praise

poems appear suddenly and strongly attested in the reign of Athelstan, the first West

129
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, pp. 70-71.
130
As will be seen in Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, Egills drpa in honour of
thelstan also emphasizes his generosity with gold rings and his noble lineage. These
depictions of thelstan exemplifying his royal descent are in direct contrast to Hrotsvits
depiction of him as being of ignoble birth. See Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
131
Thormann, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Poems, p. 65.
 76

Saxon king to claim all Britain.132 However, the poem identifies thelstan only as

cyning, not as king of Wessex. It is only at the end of the poem that Wessex is

mentioned when thelstan and Edmund are described as returning to their land and kin

among the West Saxons:133

Swilce a gebroer begen tsamne,

cyning 7 eling, cye sohton,
Wesseaxena land, wiges hremige.

In the same way, then, the brothers, both together,

king and theling, sought their kin,
the land of the West Saxons, exulting in their valour.

I suggest that this single reference to Wessex emphasizes that thelstan is being praised

first and foremost as an individual who is already established as King of all Britain.

Donald Scragg has argued that the poem should be seen in a wider ASC context

and he has linked it with the later poem on the Five Boroughs. He sees both as

emphasizing the role of thelstan and Edmund in expanding the new order established

by Edward: unity of the English and Danes under one rule, completing the design begun

by King Alfred.134 Simon Walker has also stressed the importance of Edmund in the

poem. He noted that the Brunanburh poem is almost as much in praise of the theling

Edmund [] as of the king himself.135 Based on linguistic evidence and the specific

references to Mercian valour in the battle, he conjectured that the poem could have been

composed in the mid-940s in Mercia, possibly in a Worcester scriptorium and been

intended to bolster Edmunds position as king of Britain.136 However, Walkers

statement that the poem is almost as much in praise of the theling Edmund concedes

that thelstan is the main subject. Although the linking of king and theling gives
132
Harris, Brunanburh 12b-13a and Some Skaldic Passages, p. 67. Harris assumed that the
poem was written 937-939.
133
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. 72.
134
Scragg, A Reading of Brunanburh, p. 117. However, this interpretation is not supported by
the prose entries in Version A of the ASC which give no impression of progression from Alfred
to Edmund but rather of a pattern of repeated acquisition and loss of territory which continued
under thelstans successors.
135
Walker, A Context for Brunanburh?, p. 31.
136
Walker, A Context for Brunanburh?, pp. 34-36.
 77

equal status in the battle to Edmund, it is not unusual for both king and heir to be

celebrated together.137 A pro-Mercian origin for the poem could also be seen as

supporting a pro-thelstan stance given his alleged election as king by the Mercians.

Nevertheless, despite these reservations, the poems later repetition of the close

association of the two brothers suggests that Walker is right in seeing the poem, at least

in part, as a praise-poem of Edmunds achievements as a young prince and heir to the

throne.

The closing lines of the poem have been much debated as evidence that the

poems main purpose was to glorify the English as one nation under thelstan:138

Ne wear wl mare
on is eiglande fer gieta
folces gefylled beforan issum
sweordes ecgum, s e us secga bec,
ealde uwitan, sian eastan hider
Engle 7 Seaxe up becoman,
ofer brad brimu Brytene sohtan,
wlance wigsmias, Weealles ofercoman,
eorlas arhwate eard begeatan.

Never yet in this island

was there ever more slaughter
of people consigned to the swords
edges before this, as books tell us,
old authorities, since there came here
from the east Angles and Saxons,
sought out Britain over the broad ocean,
proud war-smiths overcame the British,
warriors eager for glory invaded the country.

Bredehoft has commented that these lines link the victory at Brunanburh with a heroic

Migration-era past and represent it as one which involves all the Anglo-Saxons.139

Foot agrees and comments that as a result

thelstan appears as heir to the bretwaldas, those earlier English kings who
had also achieved military success against the British, among whom was his
ancestor Ecgberht.

137
David Dumville, The theling: A Study in Anglo-Saxon Constitutional History, ASE, 8
(1979), 1-33.
138
Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS A, p. 72.
139
Bredehoft, Textual Histories, pp. 102, 117.
 78

She adds, however, that the poems generalised description of the battle means that

thelstans contribution is implied but not defined so that Brunanburh is a victory of a

nation, not just of its royal leaders.140 However, the emphasis in the closing lines is not

on victory but on the ferocity of the battle and the amount of bloodshed it caused.

Although thelstan and Edmund are not referred to by name, the use of the phrase

sweordes ecgum echoes the sweorda ecgum in the opening lines. Later they are

described as returning home rejoicing, not in their victory but in their valour. This

serves as a reminder that, whatever the outcome for the nation as a whole, the dominant

theme of the poem is about victorious warriors in battle.

Literary analyses of the poem have highlighted two other significant aspects

which I suggest have an important bearing on how we should interpret the way

thelstan is depicted in the poem. They are the relationship between the poem and

other Old English poetry and the stylistic and linguistic features which show skaldic

influence. Alistair Campbells analysis of the poem identified twenty-one half-lines

found elsewhere in Old English poetry, twenty-three nearly identical half-lines and ten

examples of individual words and expressions which suggest a poetic origin.141 Of the

fifty four examples Campbell gives, forty-two occur in the description of the battle.

Given that the battle forms the major part of the poem, this is not surprising. What is

perhaps more significant is that although the examples are fairly evenly spread they are

not found in lines which refer to the Mercians, the number of kings killed, the

references to Anlaf, the Northmen, Dingesmere and the war-hawk as one of the animals

of death. I suggest that this shows the poem was composed using poetic formulae with

the details specific to Brunanburh added as original composition. It therefore places the

140
Foot, thelstan, p. 171.
141
The Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by Alistair Campbell (London: Heinemann, 1938), pp. 38-40.
Campbell identified that eleven of these forty-four half-lines were also found in Beowulf.
 79

depiction of thelstan and the victory at Brunanburh firmly within a tenth-century

tradition of Anglo-Saxon poetry.

Campbells analysis also identified that for its treatment of the battle, parallels

must be sought among the poems of the Norse skalds rather than in the earlier Old

English poetry.142 This aspect was further explored by Joseph Harris. From his close

analysis of lines 12b-13a of the poem he suggested that there were stylistic and

linguistic parallels with the lausavsa of the tenth-century skald Kormakr and with the

Hfulausn of the tenth-century skald Egill Skallagrmsson.143 John Niles, building on

Harriss work, suggested that the poem is best read within the context of an emerging

tenth-century Anglo-Norse poetics.144 He agreed with Harriss acceptance of Norse

influence in some of the vocabulary and kennings used in the poem and added further

examples.145

Niles also commented on the style of the poem as unusual among Old English

texts because it was a quintessential poem of boasting and scorn, which exulted in the

amount of blood spilled and depicted the enemy as humiliated (wiscmode) and the

victors as gloating in battle (his translation of wiges hremge).146 In conclusion, Niles

agreed with the observations of N. Kershaw that Brunanburh is closer in spirit to the

Battle of Hafsfjord of the ninth-century Norse skald orbjrn hornklofi, than to

surviving Old English verse.147 If Kershaw and Niles are correct in their analysis,

142
Campbell, The Battle of Brunanburh, pp. 37-38. For a summary of more recent scholarship
in this area see Robert E. Bjork, Scandinavian Relations, in A Companion to Anglo-Saxon
Literature, ed. by Phillip Pulsiano and Elaine Treharne (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), pp. 388-99
(p. 393).
143
Harris, Brunanburh 12b-13a and Some Skaldic Passages, pp. 63-65.
144
John D. Niles, Skaldic Technique in Brunanburh, Scandinavian Studies, 59:3 (1987), 356-
66 (p. 356).
145
cnear warship; sceard deprived; guafoc battle-hawk or eagle; felde dnnede / secga
swate the field resounded with the blood of men. He added to these, garmitting spear-
meeting; gumena gemot assembly of men; wengewrixl weapon-exchange and, possibly,
r lg secg mnig /garum ageted there lay many a man poured out with spears. Niles,
Skaldic Technique in Brunanburh, pp. 359-63.
146
Niles, Skaldic Technique in Brunanburh, p. 358.
147
Niles, Skaldic Technique in Brunanburh, p. 359.
 80

thelstan is depicted as linked by skaldic association with Haraldr hrfagri, who was

said to have established himself as the first king of all Norway just as thelstan was

said to have established himself as king of all Britain.148 The linguistic and stylistic

content outlined above, suggest that the poem was aimed at an Anglo-Scandinavian, or

perhaps more specifically an Anglo-Norse, audience.149 Whether or not the audience

recognized the literary connections mentioned above, I suggest they were likely to have

recognized the added status given to thelstan through the use of poetic and skaldic

techniques. Thormann has commented on the Chronicle poems as a way of establishing

a sense of a shared history and a united sense of the present, based on a shared heroic

tradition. The literary links in the Brunanburh poem could certainly serve such a

purpose. It is also more clearly spelled out in the closing lines. In likening the battle at

Brunanburh to the original victorious conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons, the

poem depicts thelstans victory as finally fulfilling and justifying that first invasion by

consolidating all that the Anglo-Saxons had achieved in making England their own.

thelstans success at Brunanburh can be seen as both a warning to anyone who

opposes the rule of Wessex and a reassurance that any future invaders will be similarly

repelled with great bloodshed. This suggests that the poems celebration of thelstans

victory at Brunanburh was as much a celebration of his personal political power as of

his military supremacy. The Brunanburh poem is the first, the longest, and the only one

of the Chronicle poems included in all the Versions A-D. By using thelstan as the

first king celebrated in this way, the Chronicle scribes have given him a unique position

in its historical narrative.

148
As will be seen Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, links between thelstan and
Haraldr hrfagri form a key part of the Norse saga tradition.
149
thelstans charters were increasingly witnessed by ministri with Scandinavian names. For
examples see the section above on Charters, Coins and Book Dedications.
 81

Carta Dirige

The surviving fragmentary text of the Carta dirige gressus has been described as an

example of celebratory verse commemorating the kings territorial authority and

military success.150 I argue there is strong evidence that this text was sung or recited

over a period of time before being committed to writing. Such oral transmission

suggests that the story of thelstans success in the north of England became part of

English historical tradition. The date of composition is unclear but the references in the

verses to Sihtric, Constantine and the Saxons appear to refer to events after the peace

agreement thelstan is said in Version D of the ASC to have made at Eamont in 926.

The content is straightforward. The letter is to take good wishes and news of

thelstans achievements to the court.151 He is described as glorious through his

deeds and depicted as now controlling the whole of Britain. Sihtric is dead and

Constantine of Scotland has hurried to declare his loyalty to thelstan and enter his

service. The verses end with a wish for the well-being and long life of all through Gods

grace.

The simplicity of the content focuses attention on the central aspects of its

depiction of thelstan. He is a king who deserved to be termed gloriosus, a description

of him also found in prose, because he had united the whole of Britain under his rule.

Jayne Carroll has suggested that, as a praise poem, the Carta dirige could have come

from, or at least been approved by, the royal court and may have been specifically

written to promote the concept of thelstans power as king.152 W. H. Stevenson noted

150
Scott Thompson-Smith, Preliorum Maximum: the Latin Tradition, in The Battle of
Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, pp. 269-83 (p. 270).
151
The queen and prince are specifically mentioned and as there is no record of thelstan
marrying it has to be assumed that these are to be interpreted as referring to his step-mother,
Eadgifu, and one of his half-brothers, either Edwin or Edmund.
152
Jayne Carroll, Concepts of Power in Anglo-Scandinavian Verse, in Aspects of Power and
Authority in the Middle Ages, ed. by B. Bolton and C. Meek (Turnhout: Brepols, 2007), pp.
217-33 (pp. 223-26).
 82

in his edition of the verses that they closely reflected a ninth-century poem addressed to

Charlemagne by Hibernicus exul,153 and this suggests that whoever composed the

words may have intended to depict thelstan as like Charlemagne in his achievement.

The poem contains the phrase cum ista perfecta Saxonia, which Lapidge

translates as with this England [now] made whole. Carroll interprets this as meaning

that the boundaries of thelstans power had already been defined thus giving his

achievement a historical context. The phrase is a difficult one. Lapidges interpretation

of Saxonia as referring to England recalls the Saxon invasions and is reminiscent of

the closing lines of the poem on Brunanburh. It is possible, however, that the poem is

referring to the fulfilment of the territorial ambitions of the West Saxon kings with

thelstan, third in line, completing the work begun by Alfred and continued by his

father Edward, reflecting the promise made to Alfred by St. Cuthbert.

The text is preserved in two manuscripts, Durham Cathedral Library, A. II, 17,

pt 1, 31v and British Library, Cotton Nero A. ii, 10v-11v. From the script, Michael

Lapidge has dated these to the late tenth or early eleventh century. He suggested

Northumbria, possibly Chester-le-Street, as the place of origin for the Durham

manuscript and St Germanus in Cornwall as the most likely source for the Cotton MS

Nero A. ii.154 Both places are associated with thelstan, Chester-le-Street through the

contemporary manuscript thelstan donated to St Cuthberts shrine, and St Germanus

by Anglo-Norman sources which claim that thelstan established a bishopric there.

Both areas represented the furthest regions of thelstans kingdom, giving particular

relevance to the survival of the manuscripts in these two areas. However, Lapidge

153
Poetae Latini Anni Carolini, ed. by E. Dmmler and others, MGH, 4 vols (Berlin:
Weidmann,1881-1923), I, 399-400. W. H. Stevensons version of Carta dirige gressus is
printed in The Oxford Book of Medieval Latin Verse, ed. by S. Gaselee (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1928), p. 61.
154
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, pp. 86-87.
 83

considered that neither of the two manuscripts was a copy of the other,155and this

suggests that the words of Carta dirige gressus may have been more widely spread

across the country.

As these are the earliest source for thelstans conquest of Northumbria, I have

included both surviving texts in full together with Lapidges reconstruction and his

translation of the better preserved BL, Cotton MS Nero version. Lapidge noted that the

manuscript was written as prose and the stanza format provided is, therefore, his own.

In addition I have provided excerpts, with my own translation, from the Hibernici

Exulis Carmina which I identify as useful in helping to explain some of the Latin usage

of the Carta dirige gressus texts. As a result of my analysis, I argue that some of the

Latin in the Carta dirige approximates more to a phonetic rendering of the words,

suggesting that the texts preserve an orally transmitted tradition.

155
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p. 87.
 84

CARTA DIRIGE GRESSUS

A: Cotton Nero A B: Durham A. II C: Lapidges Reconstruction D: Hibernici Exulis Carmina
Carta dirige gressus Quarta dirie gressus Carta, dirige gressus Carta, Christo comite
per maris et navium per maria navigans per maria navigans per telluris spatium
tellurisque spatum stellarumque spatium tellurisque spacium ad Caesaris splendidum
ad reges palatum ad regem spalacium ad regis palacium nunc perge palatium
Letter, direct your steps Letter, with Christ as companion
sailing across the seas through the space of the earth
and an expanse of land, to the kings to Caesars splendid palace
burh. now make your way

Regem primum salutem dic, protegat dominus

regem primum salute regem primum salutem
ad reginam clitonem, sic Francos armigeros
regimen et clitanam regem non aditunem
claros quoque comites, regem, clerum, comites,
clarus quoque commitis clerum quoque conditum
armigeros milites milites belligeros.
militis armieros armites milierum
Direct first of all your best wishes Say, may the Lord
to the queen, the prince, thus protect the Frankish men of
the distinguished ealdormen as well arms
the arm-bearing thegns. the king, the clergy, the counts, the
valiant soldiers
Quos iam regit cum ista
quorum regem cum elstanum perfecta Saxonia:
ista perfecta Saxonia uiuit rex elstanus
uiuit rex elstanum per facta gloriosus
perfecta gloriosa
Whom he now rules with this
England [now] made whole:
King thelstan lives
glorious through his deeds!
 85

Ille, Sictric defuncto,

ille Sictric defunctum armat tum in prelio
armatum in prelia illic Sitric defuncto Saxonum exercitum
Saxonum exercitum armature prelio per totum Bryttanium
per totum Britanium sex annum excerssitum He, with Sictric having died, in such
viuit rex Adelstanum circumstances arms for battle
There Sihtric [] the army of the English
throughout all Britain.

Constantinus rex Scottorum

the king lives [thelstan] aduolat Brytannium;
Constantinus rex Scottorum
Constantine Saxonum regem saluando,
et uelum Bryttanium
fidelis seruitio.
salvando Regis Saxonum
fideles seruitia Constantine, king of the Scots, hastens
to Britain:
by supporting the king of the English
[he is] loyal in service.

Dixit rex elstanus

per Petri preconia:
dixit rex elstanus sint sani, sint longeui
per Petri preconia saluatoris gratia dic ut Caesar Karolus
sint sani sint longuevi perpeti praeconio []
King Athelstan said [these things] sint sani, sint longevi
salvatoris gratia
through the announcements of Peter: salvatoris gratia
may they be well, live long, through the
Saviours grace! Say with continuous laudation that
King Charles []
may they be healthy, may they be
86

long-lived by the Saviours grace.

 87

My arguments for interpreting Versions A and B as texts originally sung or

recited can be summarized as follows:

Versions A and B are written in the iambic dimeter catalectic metre. Norberg, identifies

this rhythmic metre as typical of texts written to be sung, quoting Carta dirige gressus

as an example.156

Version A uses the same two final lines as the Carolingian poem, sint sani sint

longuevi salvatoris gratia. This suggests that the perpeti praeconio which precedes

these lines may also have been retained in Version A but reproduced as per Petri

preconia because it represented what was heard.157

The Latin grammar and syntax of Versions A and B cause considerable difficulty and

there are several examples where the form of the Latin suggests that the written text was

based phonetically on the sound of the words. For example, Lapidge has noted the use

of phonetic transcription in the use of dirie for dirige and armieros for armigeros,

representing the palatalization of intervocal -g- in late West Saxon.158

Other examples are:

the final letter of one word being run onto the beginning of the next as in Version B

navigans/stellarum;

the similarity in sound, differently written, in the phrase ad reges palatum(Version A)

and ad regem spalacium (Version B);

the verbal echoes between clerum quoque conditum armites milierum in Version B

and clarus quoque commitis militis armieros in Version A, and Saxonum exercitum

156
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, pp. 87-88. Dag Norberg, An Introduction to the Study of
Medieval Latin Versification, trans. by Jan Ziolkowski (Washington: Catholic University of
America, 2004), pp. 130, 136 and n. 23, 140, n. 38.
157
The retention of this phrase in Lapidges reconstruction of the poem has given rise to
considerable scholarly discussion as to how Peter should be identified. Lapidge, Some Latin
Poems, pp. 92-93. See also Foot, thelstan, p. 66 and n. 12. If my suggestion on the
transcription of per Petri preconia is correct, speculation on the identity of Peter is
unnecessary.
158
Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, p. 88, n. 130.
 88

in Version A and sex annum excerssitum in Version B; the echoes in both texts of the

Carolingian clerum, comites, milites belligeros and possibly the use of dixit in

Version A, if this is modelled on the dic ut of the Carolingian poem.

Version B also seems to have attempted to provide a rhyme at the end of each

line in the manner of the Carolingian model: spatium/spalacium; salutem/aditunem;

conditum/milierum; defuncto/prelio; excerssitum/Adelstanum. These provide an end-of-

line beat like a marching song and help to structure each verse by signalling a breathing

space although the word-endings fail to make good grammatical sense. However two

phrases stand out as being written in correct Latin, uiuit rex, the king lives, and sint

sani sint longuevi salvatoris gratia, may they be well, live long, through the Saviours

grace. The first is very similar to the vivat rex said by all the people at a kings

consecration. The second reads like a set prayer which could have been widely used.

The correctness of their form compared with the rest of the text suggests that the

familiarity of these phrases to those singing or reciting the words, or to a scribe writing

out the text, ensured their correct Latin spelling.

The fact that the text is in Latin and modelled on a Carolingian poem indicates

an original clerical source. Its present form could suggest that Latin learning was in

decline and the peculiarities of the Latin resulted from copyists using poor quality

manuscripts or copying texts which they were unwilling or unable to amend. However, I

suggest it is more likely that the text was handed down orally over a period of time and

the Latin modified in the process. It is also possible that the text was originally

composed as a song. The phonetic characteristics of the text suggest it might have been

used over a period of time, the Latin being orally transformed through accent, dialect

and repetition by those with limited knowledge of Latin. The textual versions which

have survived may have been written down from oral recitation. Alternatively the
 89

scribes may have reproduced the text from memory as they sounded the words in their

heads.

As noted above, the content is straightforward. It does not use extravagant praise

and reads more like a simple reminder of thelstans achievement in bringing the

whole of Britain under his rule. It is the only surviving tenth-century source which

mentions Sihtric, the main sources being the later Version D of the ASC and the Anglo-

Norman historians. However, the details in the poem are very fragmentary and I suggest

that the historical value of the Carta dirige gressus lies less in the information it seeks

to provide and more in its depiction of thelstan as a subject of story and celebration in

song.

Conclusion

The small number of disparate tenth-century sources which has survived illustrates the

chance factors experienced by every scholar of the past and the relevance of Robinsons

advice on the need to bring sources together. However, in this chapter I have shown the

importance of avoiding aggregating information from sources without taking account of

their different contexts. My literary and linguistic analysis of the sources and of their

related scholarship has shown that embedded in the surface information they provide are

more hidden narratives about thelstan and his reign.

The entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Chronicon of thelweard,

although very brief, are important texts in that they are the only tenth-century historical

narrative versions of his reign known to survive, they form the basis for the later Anglo-

Norman historical texts and they continue to be used as essential sources for

thelstans reign today. In my analysis of Versions A and B of the ASC, I have drawn

on both codicological and literary scholarship and as a result I have questioned the

reliability of generally accepted historical interpretations that Winchester was hostile to

thelstan and that his half-brother thelweard was Edwards intended heir for the
 90

throne of Wessex. I concluded that these interpretations should be regarded as

hypotheses rather than historical facts. By relating the texts to their wider contexts, I

added my own hypothesis that the texts contained another narrative, that of political

rivalry between Mercia and Wessex. I supported this by reference to the West Saxon

regnal records and the wider context provided by earlier and later entries in the ASC.

My analysis of thelstans charters, coins and book dedications showed that

these sources have individually received much scholarly attention but that there has

been relatively little attempt to explore how their depictions of thelstan interrelate

with each other and with contemporary and later texts associated with thelstan. I

therefore extended my analysis of the linguistic interrelationship between the charter

designations of thelstan and the Second English Coronation Ordo to include the

relationships between the charters and coins, and between these and the events for

thelstans reign recorded in the ASC tenth-century texts and the Chronicon of

thelweard. Based on this analysis I suggested that thelstan had undergone a later

coronation sometime after 926/7 to legitimize his claim to be King of all Britain. This

was independently supported by the Old English manumission statement in the Gospel

Book British Library Royal 1. B. VII and by thelstans regnal dates on a thirteenth-

century charter manuscript from Abingdon. thelstan is known to have had Carolingian

family links through his great-grandfathers marriage to Charles the Balds daughter and

the marriage of his half-sister Eadgifu to Charless grandson. The examination of

precedents for a second coronation revealed examples of Carolingian second

coronations by Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald to mark the

acquisition of additional titles or territory.

A further narrative was now emerging from the tenth-century sources of

thelstan as Carolingian in his sentiments and actions. This was also supported by the

evidence of Carolingian influences in the designation of Basileus used on his later

 91

charters, the style of the painting of thelstan and St Cuthbert in MS Otho B.ix, the

imagery in the poems on thelstan and the composition of the Carta dirige modelled

directly on a poem addressed to Charlemagne.

While many Anglo-Saxon kings may have been celebrated in poems, it is

mostly those on thelstan which have survived. The fact that one poem has been

incorporated into the ASC, another into an ecclesiastical book dedication and a third

apparently handed down orally over time, depicts him as a king who was particularly

celebrated in poetry, at court, within the Church and more widely. The poems do not

claim to be historical records but as contemporary literary statements they echo many of

the depictions of thelstan found in the chronicles and in the charters, coins and book

dedications. For example he is celebrated as militarily successful and as a pious and

powerful king, who earned Gods favour and that of his saints and brought peace and

unity to his country. The poetic genre empowers their authors to use literary, biblical

and poetic imagery through their references to Old Testament figures and their use of

Roman, Byzantine, Carolingian, Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian analogies. In

these ways they depict thelstan as part of universal history.

Apart from thelweards family-based Chronicon, the other sources are all

drawn from formal, public statementsentries in the ASC, the royal charters, the coin

inscriptions, formal book dedications and praise poems. They are political narratives

drawn up by, or with the authorization of, thelstan in order to promote his prestige in

his lifetime and ensure lasting memories of him in the future. thelstan lacked the

support of a contemporary biographer his grandfather King Alfred had enjoyed. Until

William of Malmesbury in the twelfth century, the formal documentation and poetry

produced during thelstans reign were the main source of memories of his reign. As

the brief entries in Versions A and B of the ASC illustrate, they did not provide the kind

of long-lasting memory their rhetoric suggests was intended.

 92

My analyses in this chapter have illustrated the interdependence of historical

research and literary scholarship and demonstrated how a comparative and multi-

disciplinary approach can contribute to a greater understanding of narrative sources and

their relationship with each other. As a result I have opened up opportunities for further

research, both into ways of reading the tenth-century primary texts on thelstan and his

reign, and into the narrative bases for thelstans second coronation and his Byzantine

and Carolingian aspirations.

 93

Chapter Two

thelstan in the English Tradition

The Anglo-Norman Texts

Introduction

Robert Bartlett has characterised the period 1075-1225 as one of the great ages of

historical writing in England.1 Bartletts list of the more significant literary works

includes those of four authors who have traditionally been seen as important sources for

the study of Anglo-Saxon England:2

William of Malmesbury Gesta Regum

Symeon of Durham Historia Regum3

Henry of Huntingdon Historia Anglorum

Roger of Howden Chronicon

The cause of this flowering of Anglo-Norman literature from the late eleventh to the

thirteenth century has been ascribed to Norman patronage and propaganda and to an

English determination to retain their memories of the past. Elisabeth Van Houts has also

shown how texts written for Norman patrons provided accounts of the past which

legitimized their power by showing how Norman rule built on and continued Anglo-

Saxon traditions.4 Bartlett has argued that the works of Symeon, Henry of Huntingdon

and William of Malmesbury provide pro-English attempts to preserve the memory of

1
Robert Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225 (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2000), p. 616.
2
Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, p. 618. In this thesis I have retained
the older form of designation, Roger of Hoveden.
3
Whether Symeon personally wrote the Historia Regum has been the subject of scholarly
debate. See David Rollason, Symeons Contribution to Historical Writing in Northern
England, in Symeon of Durham: Historian of Durham and the North, ed. by David Rollason
(Stamford: Shaun Tyas, 1998), pp. 1-13 (p. 10).
4
Elisabeth Van Houts, Historical Writing, in A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World, ed.
by Christopher Harper-Bill and Elisabeth Van Houts (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003), pp.
103-121.
 94

the Anglo-Saxon past after the turmoil of 1066 and its aftermath.5 Martin Brett has

argued that the texts were written to protect English ecclesiastical and monastic

possessions against Norman aggression.6 He suggested that by celebrating the

achievements of the Anglo-Saxon kings and recording the royal foundation and

benefices of individual monasteries and minsters, the texts challenged the Normans to

acknowledge these traditional and historical ecclesiastical rights.

The political orientation of an individual work can be partly identified by

looking at how the author portrays the Normans and, in particular, William of

Normandy. The question of the legality of the succession of William of Normandy and

his successors to the English throne was a matter of concern to both English and

Normans.7 William of Malmesbury and Henry of Huntingdon, who both claimed to be

of Anglo-Norman descent, describe Emmas marriage to thelred as providing a direct

familial link of inheritance between the Dukes of Normandy and the English throne;

William is depicted as Edwards named heir and Harold Godwinson as a grasping,

perjured traitor who usurped the throne from personal ambition.8 The ASC and the

Chronicon of John of Worcester present an English version of events. They name

Harold Godwinson as Edwards heir and rightful king of England and depict him

bravely defending his country at Hastings, despite his army not being at full strength,

the location not being favourable to the English and some of his men deserting the field

5
Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, pp. 618-19.
6
Martin Brett, John of Worcester and his Contemporaries, in The Writing of History in the
Middle Ages: Essays Presented to Richard William Southern, ed. by R. H. C. Davis and J. M.
Wallace-Hadrill (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), pp. 101-26 (pp. 125-26).
7
Bartlett has identified the avoidance of succession by illegitimate sons as a significant factor in
royal inheritance in Norman and Angevin times. Bartlett, England under the Norman and
Angevin Kings, p. 9.
8
In this William of Malmesbury and Henry of Huntingdon can be seen as following a Norman
version of events and supporting Norman political aims but their picture is more complex. Both
authors are also critical of the Normans cruelty, their usurpation of land rights and their
secularization of the Church.
 95

of battle.9 Both the ASC and John record that after the battle the English wished to elect

Edgar, grandson of Edmund Ironside, as king and they portray William as burning and

killing his way to the throne. As will be seen below, the pro-Norman or pro-English

stance of these authors does not significantly influence their depictions of thelstan

except in the way in which they address the ambiguities on his succession already noted

in the texts of Versions A and B of the ASC.10

Scholarly analysis of the political, legal and ecclesiastical reasons for historical

writing in England after the Norman invasion has tended to overshadow the other, more

personal reasons, expressed by authors and their patrons. These included many of the

traditional reasons for writing historyan interest in scholarship, the need to close the

gap in English history-writing left unfilled since Bedes Historia, a wish to retain a

record of local events and traditions, and a concern to provide a historical basis for

contemporary events. It can be argued that these reasons are more likely to be quoted by

an author since to give the true reasons could prove counter-productive. My analysis

will show that the Anglo-Norman historians wrote for a number of purposes and were

capable of presenting these in different ways for their different audiences. While the

overall purpose may have been dictated by the wishes of their patrons, the authors

influence is evident through his selection and interpretation of his source materials and

his choice of genre and presentation.

We do not know how many other similar works were written during the same

period and have not survived. It is possible that those listed by Bartlett were the works

which attracted most scholarly attention, were supported by influential patrons or were

produced or conserved in institutions with well-established scriptoria and libraries.

Bartletts list concentrated on those works he identified as examples of literary history.

9
Version D of the ASC for 1066 records that God gave the victory to the Normans because of
the sinfulness of the people, later described as our sinfulness.
10
See the section on thelstan as Edwards Heir in Chapter 1.
 96

For the purposes of this thesis, I have extended the list to include John of Worcesters

Chronicon ex Chronicis, Roger of Wendovers edited selection of earlier texts, the

Flores Historiarum, and the LEstoire des Engleis of Geoffrey Gaimar. These seven

authors were clerics and all, except possibly John of Worcester and Symeon of Durham,

were of Anglo-Norman descent. While John of Worcester, Roger of Hoveden, and

Gaimar chose to use the traditional form of the annal or chronicle, William of

Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon and Roger of Wendover produced extended and

discursive narrative works. Symeon of Durham used both genres. His Historia Regum

provides a brief chronicle of events while his Libellus gives a detailed account of the

history of the Church in Durham. The ASC provided the foundations for all these works

either directly or through an intermediate text. For example, John of Worcester, Henry

of Huntingdon and Gaimar drew directly on the ASC while Roger of Hoveden, Roger of

Wendover and Symeon of Durham in his Historia Regum, used John of Worcesters

text as their basis. Johns Chronicon was therefore a major intermediate source.

Although there is some evidence that William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon,

John of Worcester and Symeon of Durham were aware of, and drew on, each others

work it is not clear to what extent similarities between their texts were the result of

direct contact or their use of common sources.11 What is clear is that the authors each

approached the writing of history in a different way depending on their background,

purpose and aims. Together, these seven texts provide evidence of how, under Norman

rule, information and traditions on Anglo-Saxon England were collated, mediated and

handed down to become part of collective memory.

11
These historical writings were associated with monastic and ecclesiastical centres with a long
tradition of learning and scholarship and Brett noted in particular that the historical research at
Durham, Worcester, Malmesbury and Canterbury was accompanied by a frequent and elaborate
exchange of its results as the work progressed. Brett, John of Worcester and his
Contemporaries, in The Writing of History in the Middle Ages, ed. by Davis and Wallace-
Hadrill, p. 125.
 97

The chapter is divided into three main sections. In the first section I provide a

brief overview of each of the writers. In the second section I provide a detailed analysis

of how thelstan is depicted in their works. This second section concentrates on the

narratives provided by John of Worcester, Henry of Huntingdon and Symeon of

Durham and includes references to Gaimar and to Roger of Hoveden and Roger of

Wendover where they deviate significantly from the other narratives or include

additional information. The third section provides a separate study of William of

Malmesbury. Not only does William provide more information on thelstan than any

other writer but his text has been the subject of more extensive scholarly study and the

source of considerable controversy. Despite the criticisms which have been levelled at

him as an historian, his work continues to be used as one of the most important sources

for Anglo-Saxon history. His role as historian and his narrative on thelstan, therefore,

merit separate treatment.

Section One: The Anglo-Norman Historians

The following overview of the authors used as the primary texts for this Chapter,

considers the context and purposes of their work, the sources they used and the

influences they had on other writers.

John of Worcester d. c.1140

The title of John of Worcesters work, Chronicon ex Chronicis, signalled that his was a

compilation of previous texts based on the ASC. Johns scholarly approach is evident in

his careful translation of his ASC sources but he was also innovative, adopting

Marianuss universal chronicle and more accurate Dionysian dating system as a

framework within which to embed his material from the ASC. This approach appears to

have been initiated by Bishop Wulfstan II of Worcester who was introduced to

Marianuss chronicle through his friend Robert of Lorraine. Johns Chronicon is

 98

therefore an early attempt to present English history as part of European and world

history.12 Johns work became a core text, used by Symeon of Durham for his Historia

Regum and copied almost verbatim by Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover.

Johns main purpose appears to be to produce a more accurate, scholarly history

of Englands past. Martin Brett has described John as a very literal compiler who

modified his sources as little as grammar and brevity would allow.13 This careful

copying also has a plus side in preserving the content of older texts still available in the

eleventh century. As well as the ASC, Marianus Scotus and Bede, Johns initial sources

included Asser, and saints lives, especially those of Oswald and Dunstan. The later

Norman material seems to have been drawn mainly from a copy of the Annals of

Rouen and the Historia Ecclesiastica of Hugh of Fleury.14 Brett has noted that, where

the Worcester Chronicon can be compared with its known sources, it proves to be a

trustworthy, if unimaginative compilation.15

Of the six copies of the Chronicon surviving from the twelfth and thirteenth

centuries, the Bury St Edmunds version is of particular interest. It is closest to the

Worcester manuscript attributed to John but includes additional Continental material,

the Visio Rollonis, also found in the Annals of St Neots, and excerpts from Les Annales

de Flodoard for the period 920-966.16 The inclusion of Continental sources reflecting

Norman traditions, may be connected with King Cnuts re-founding of the abbey at

12
The Chronicle of John of Worcester, ed. by R.R. Darlington and P. McGurk, trans. by
Jennifer Bray and P. McGurk, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), II, pp. xviii-xix.
13
Brett, John of Worcester and his Contemporaries, in The Writing of History in the Middle
Ages, ed. by Davis and Wallace-Hadrill, p. 114. For the possible role of the monk Florence of
Worcester see Simon Keynes, Florence, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge and others, p. 188.
14
Brett, John of Worcester and his Contemporaries, in The Writing of History in the Middle
Ages, ed. by Davis and Wallace-Hadrill, pp. 108-09, 117-18, and John Monk of Worcester in
The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 262-63.
15
Brett John Monk of Worcester, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England,
ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 262-63 (p. 263).
16
The Bury St Edmunds Interpolations in The Chronicle of John of Worcester, Appendix B,
pp. 616-19, 633-40.
 99

Bury St Edmunds in 1020 as a Benedictine community.17 If so, it provides another

example of how Johns initial work was regarded as a significant source to be further

developed and extended.

Although Johns account of events reflects the brevity of the ASC, he has

managed through his use of language to impart something of his own individuality to

the text and included information for which there is no other known source. As will be

seen in the second section of this chapter, this includes some details on thelstan which

are not found elsewhere. His depiction of thelstan is very positive and this may be

linked to another purpose which Brett has identified in his work, that of protecting

traditional monastic land rights in the face of the growing power of diocesan bishops.18

Symeon of Durham fl. 1130

David Rollasons study of Symeons writings identifies him as almost certainly the

principal author of the Libellus de exordio atque procursu istius hoc est Dunhelmensis

ecclesiae and probably of a large part of the Historia Regum. From the handwriting in

his texts he is thought to have been born in Northern France or Normandy. From what

can be pieced together of his life, he appears to have been at Durham by the early 1090s

and to have witnessed the translation of St Cuthberts body to the new cathedral there in

1104.19 The prominence given to Cuthbert in the works ascribed to Symeon reflects this

background.

The Historia Regum includes events from the death of Bede to 1129 in chronicle

form. It is a derivative work which draws together material from Byrhtferth of Ramsey,

John of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, and other chronicle and northern

17
John Blair, Bury St Edmunds, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 76-77.
18
Brett, John of Worcester and his Contemporaries, in The Writing of History in the Middle
Ages, ed. by Davis and Wallace-Hadrill, pp. 125-26.
19
David Rollason, Symeon of Durham, in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge and others, p. 438. Keynes also ascribes preservation of the Second
Set of Northern Annals to Symeon. Simon Keynes, Annals in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia
of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 39-40.
 100

material.20 The work shows its northern origins in the information it contains on

Northumbria and York but the accuracy of the entries, the amount of detail and the style

is variable suggesting that Symeon intended it to be a compilation rather than an edited

text.21 The Libellus de Exordio is a very different work. Described by Rollason as in

part at least propagandist in nature, it covers the history of the community of St

Cuthbert from the time of the founding of Lindisfarne by Aidan to the building of the

cathedral in Durham in 1096. 22 Central to the later part of the narrative is the

description of the murder in 1080 of the Norman bishop Walcher, and the actions of his

successor, William St Calais, who replaced the secular clerks of St Cuthberts

community at Durham with Benedictine monks from Monkwearmouth and Jarrow. The

emphasis given to these events has led Van Houts to describe Symeon as a local

historian whose main purpose in the Libellus was to support Durhams monastic claim

to rights over the monasteries of Jarrow and Lindisfarne in the face of Norman attempts

to appropriate monastic holdings.23 W. M. Aird also interpreted the work as undertaken

to protect land rights but saw this as part of the communitys concern to defend their

monastic independence and ensure that their new bishop, Ranulf Flambard, successor to

William St Calais, conducted himself as the spiritual heir of St Cuthbert was expected

to behave.24

The centrality of Cuthbert for the Libellus de Exordio is emphasized both by the

designation of Symeon as Precentor of the church at Durham of St Cuthbert, or of the

20
Symeon of Durham, Libellus de Exordio, ed. by David Rollason, Oxford Medieval Texts
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), p. xlix.
21
For a fuller discussion see N. K. Chadwick, Some Observations on the Historia Regum
attributed to Symeon of Durham, in Celt and Saxon: Studies in the Early British Border, ed. by
N. K. Chadwick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), pp. 104-19.
22
David Rollason, Symeons Contribution to Historical Writing in Northern England, in
Symeon of Durham: Historian of Durham and the North, ed. by David Rollason, p. 4.
23
Van Houts, Historical Writing, in A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World, ed. by
Christopher Harper-Bill and Elisabeth Van Houts, pp. 111-12.
24
W. M. Aird, The Political Context of Libellus De Exordio in Symeon of Durham: Historian
of Durham and the North, ed. by David Rollason, pp. 32-45 (pp. 42-45).
 101

most holy Bishop Cuthbert, and by his extensive use of Cuthbertine narrative including

material from the Historia de Sancto Cuthberto and the Capitula de miraculis et

translationibus sancti Cuthberti.25 This aspect of his work is particularly apparent in his

treatment of thelstan which centres on West Saxon links with St Cuthbert from the

time of King Alfred and records thelstans generous donations to Cuthberts

community at Chester-le-Street. These details in Symeons work are not found

elsewhere suggesting that Symeon either drew on, or provided, a Northumbrian picture

of thelstan and his reign which portrayed St Cuthbert as a patron of the Anglo-Saxon

kings and a national saint, revered as greatly in southern England as in the north.

Henry of Huntingdon d. 1155

Henry of Huntingdon states that his work was commissioned by Bishop Alexander of

Lincoln who requested a history of the kingdom and origins of the English people and

advised him to use Bedes Historia Ecclesiastica as a major source.26 Diana Greenway

has estimated that approximately 25% of Henrys work is drawn from Bede, often

quoted verbatim, and 40% from the ASC, with a version related to the Peterborough E

text as a main source augmented by material apparently drawn from a C-type version of

the Chronicle.27 Henrys text also shows he had access to Mercian material and possibly

to other versions of the ASC which are now lost.28

Henry uses his prologue to instruct his readers on the role of history and the

purposes behind his own work: history separates rational beings from the stupid or

brutish, for rational men wish to know about their origins and descent and about the

misfortunes and achievements of their fatherland; history has the highest place in

25
Rollason, Symeon of Durham, pp. 2, 8-9.
26
regni gesta et nostre gentis origines. Henry, Archdeacon of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum,
ed. and trans. by Diana E. Greenway (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), i, Prologus, p. 4.
27
Greenway, Historia Anglorum, pp. xci-iii, lxxxv-lxxxix. For Henrys use of John of
Worcester and William of Malmesbury see Greenway, pp. xciv- xcviii.
28
See also Diana E. Greenway, Henry of Huntingdon in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of
Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, p. 232-33.
 102

literature because, like philosophy, it teaches right behaviour and deters from evil

through its account of events and mens actions.29 This concept of history is also evident

in Henrys emphasis on the transience of human life and achievement, and the

emptiness of human glory compared with the true glory of heaven.30

As a member of the secular clergy, Henry did not need, like John of Worcester

or Symeon of Durham, to protect or promote a religious foundation and it is this

didactic role which is particularly strong in Henrys work.31 Henry structured his work

around the five invasions of Britain which he saw as examples of Gods action working

through history, rewarding the good and punishing evil.32 He narrates the histories of

the seven separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and provides an overview of the growth and

spread of West Saxon power. However, it would appear that Henry did not see

thelstan as a major figure in this. Henry gives both Alfred and Edgar the status of

bretwalda but he includes only the briefest of details on thelstan. He credits

thelstans brother Edmund with extending the kingdom of Wessex, describing him as

the first Wessex king to hold Northumbria and the first sole king in England.33 Although

29
Historia Anglorum, i, Prologus, pp. 2-5.
30
Book viii of the Historia Anglorum includes Henrys Epistole de Contemptu Mundi in
which he decries the false values he has observed in his world (pp. 584-619). Nancy Partner has
argued that the Historia Anglorum as a whole should be seen as an example of Contemptus
Mundi literature. Nancy Partner, Serious Entertainments (London: University of Chicago Press,
1977), pp. 28-29, 33-35.
31
Henry claimed he was writing for the many and the less-educated. Historia Anglorum, viii,
Prologus. Given that he was writing in Latin, it is not clear whom he meant by this. Nancy
Partner considered Henry persistsalmost to the point of insultin telling his readers what
they are reading. Partner, Serious Entertainments, p. 22. The number of copies of his work,
dating from the twelfth century and later, suggests that Henrys work was popular. Antonia
Gransden has noted that of the twenty five medieval manuscripts extant, five, and possibly
eight, date from the twelfth century. Antonia Gransden, Historical Writings in England c. 550 to
c. 1307 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974), p. 194.
32
Historia Anglorum, i, 4, pp. 14-15. The five invasions are those by the Romans, the Picts and
Scots, the English (Anglici), the Danes and the Normans. He describes these as plaga blows.
Henrys narrative on thelstan comes in Book V where he describes the Danish invasion as
more extensive and cruel than any of the others.
33
solus diceretur rex in Anglia, he was said to be sole king in England. Historia Anglorum,
v, 21, pp. 314-17. It may be that in this he was reflecting local traditions on Edmund whose
taking of the Five Boroughs from the Danes included Henrys cathedral city of Lincoln and was
celebrated in the poem in ASC A, 942.
 103

praising thelstans achievements he restricts these to the military successes recorded

in the ASC and sums them up in such a way as to suggest he saw thelstans reign as

above all an example of the transience of earthly success:34

Qui regno quidem parum uixit, sed clare gestis non parum splenduit, qui a
fortissimis lacessiri sed bello numquam potuit uinci.

He indeed lived too little a time for his kingdom but clearly by his achievements
he lacked nothing in brilliance, [a king] who could be challenged by the bravest
but never defeated in warfare.

Henrys brief account of thelstan and apparent ignorance of his claims to be King of

all Britain may reflect a specifically pro-Edmund approach. It is however equally likely

that it comes from his dependence on the brief account of events in Version E of the

ASC.

Geffrei Gaimar fl. 1136-1137 or 1141-115035

Little is known of Gaimar. Paul Dalton has suggested that he was a secular clerk who

had served at court before settling in Lincolnshire.36 There Lady Constance Fitz Gilbert

became his patroness. She asked him to write a history of the English in French and

appears to have typified those wealthy land-owning Norman families who wished to

know more about English history while preserving their Franco-culture and language.

Gaimars work is the earliest surviving example of French vernacular literature

in England. His LEstoire des Engleis played an important part in the transmission of

Anglo-Saxon history by making the ASC accessible to French speakers through his

verse translation of the text.37 In the epilogue to his work Gaimar claims to have used

34
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 308-11.
35
Dalton has proposed a later date for the poem than Shorts initial assessment of 1136-37. Paul
Dalton, The date of Geoffrey Gaimars Estoire des Engleis, the Connections of his Patrons, and
the Politics of Stephens Reign, Chaucer Review, 42 (2007), 23-47. Ian Short, Gaimars
Epilogue and Geoffrey of Monmouths Liber vetustissimus, Speculum, 69 (1994), 323-43.
36
Dalton, The date of Geoffrey Gaimars Estoire des Engleis, p. 23.
37
Spiegels comment on the role of vernacular historiography in thirteenth-century France is
also applicable to Gaimars work in England where his LEstoire can be seen as helping to
construct a new vision of history more appropriate to the operation of the emerging national
monarchy. Gabrielle M. Spiegel, Romancing the Past (Berkley: University of California Press,
 104

many English books and many Latin and Romance (French) grammars indicating the

great care he took to produce an accurate translation. His account of his sources gives a

picture of the kind of historical texts which were currently available to the Anglo-

Normans. He mentions a Welsh book on the British kings belonging to Robert Earl of

Gloucester and the Historia Britonum of Geoffrey of Monmouth, both of which he

claims had been lent to him by his patroness, Lady Constance. He also refers to a

history of Winchester from Washingborough in Lincolnshire which he used to correct

an account of early England.

Gaimars poem contains several colourful stories celebrating heroes such as

Havelock the Dane and Hereward the Wake. Despite this access to traditional material

his account of thelstan records only the very brief details found in Version E of the

ASC. Given Geoffreys use of traditional material for the reign of Edgar which is also

found in William of Malmesbury, it would appear that Gaimar either did not have

access to Williams thelstan material or did not regard it sufficiently interesting or

important. As a result he depicts thelstan as an insignificant king, especially in

comparison to Alfred, Edward and Edgar whose reigns are described in much greater

detail.

Roger of Hoveden (fl. 1174 1201) Roger of Wendover (d.1236)

Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover are considered important sources for events

in their own time. Their significance for Anglo-Saxon history lies in the use they made

of existing texts which, through their works, were transmitted as part of the English

historical tradition into the thirteenth and later centuries.

Roger of Hoveden is thought to have been a clerk in holy orders who served

Henry II as a member of his court, was present at the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade

and later acted as a Justice of the Forests in the North of England. Finally he appears to

1993), p. 313. See also Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, p. 497 and
Damian-Grint, The New Historians, pp. 49-53.
 105

have settled at Hoveden (Howden) and to have served there as the parish priest. It was

during this time that he wrote his Chronica, a history of England from 732 to his own

day. At the beginning of his text he outlines his intention to trace the genealogical

descent of the Northumbrian kings down to the time of Bede and later. He states that he

will use Bedes history as the foundation for his work but his initial list of the early

Northumbrian kings differs from both Bede and the ASC suggesting he had access to

other northern material.38 Overall, Rogers text on Anglo-Saxon England is derived

directly from John of Worcester with some direct borrowing from Symeon of Durham.

Stubbs has noted that Rogers strict adherence to the text of his sources was

typical of his time. He has commented that for Roger to seek some authoritative and

well-known work on which to hang his own as a continuation or supplement was in

strict accordance with the practice of the time.39 Scott Thompson Smith has recently

made the same point with reference to the chronicle writers of the thirteenth and

fourteenth centuries but also saw this as one way in which the Latin narratives were

kept alive.40 Roger of Hovedens text proved popular with other scholars well into the

sixteenth century. He was therefore instrumental in carrying John of Worcesters

depiction of thelstan forward in time, making it accessible to a wider audience.

Very little is known about the life of Roger of Wendover. A Benedictine monk

of St Albans he is the first of the chroniclers at St Albans who is known by name.

Rogers history starts with Christ and continues to his own day. The title Flores

Historiarum is derived from Rogers own description of his work as taken from the

38
Rogers use of mainly northern sources reflects Howdens links with Durham. William
Stubbs records that William the Conqueror gave the Manor and church of Howden to the
Norman Bishop of Durham, William Saint Carileph. He kept the Manor and civil rights but
gave the church and its associated parishes to the priory at Durham. William Stubbs, Chronica
Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, 4 vols (London: Longman, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1868), I, p.
xiii.
39
Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, I, p. xxvi.
40
Scott Thompson Smith, Preliorum maximum: the Latin Tradition, in The Battle of
Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, p. 279.
 106

writings of various reputable authors and he likens it to gathering a variety of flowers

which will give interest and pleasure to those of different tastes. His sources include

Bede, Symeon of Durham, Henry of Huntingdon, William of Malmesbury and John of

Worcester. In his section on thelstan, he draws heavily on Johns Chronicon but he

frequently turns a phrase round or uses synonyms so giving his version an element of

individuality. To these sources he adds information taken from the manuscript additions

to the Bury St Edmunds text of Johns Chronicon, Henry of Huntingdon and William

of Jumiges. His work therefore includes some Continental material on thelstans

friendship with Rollo, founder of the Norman dynasty, and the arrangements thelstan

made for his nephew, Louis, to return to Francia as king.41 In his Preface Roger states

that his purpose in writing is both scholarly and moral. He wishes to record the main

events of the past for posterity and for future scholars; he also wishes to provide

admonitory examples of how God punishes evil so that his readers may avoid wrong

doing and instead imitate the examples of good men his history provides. In the

thirteenth century his work was edited and continued under the name of Matthew Paris,

a monk of St Albans. He introduced some additional material into Rogers text but left

Rogers section on thelstan unaltered.

Section Two: Depictions of thelstan in the Anglo-Norman Histories

The following Table lists the main events of thelstans reign recorded in Versions A-F

of the ASC and indicates which are addressed by the Anglo-Norman authors:42

Table 5. Main Events of thelstans Reign in ASC and Anglo-Norman texts

Main Events in the ASC Version Gaimar JoW SoD HoH RoH RoW
Succession A, B, C, D, E, F
Sihtric Marriage D

41
See Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
42
William of Malmesbury is not included in the Table as his work is considered in detail in
Section Three of this chapter.
 107

Guthfrith E, F
Eamont E, F
Scotland A, B, C, D, E, F
Battle of Brunanburh E, F
Brunanburh Poem A, B, C, D
Death of Edwin E MS B

John of Worcester (JoW): Symeon of Durham (SoD); Henry of Huntingdon (HoH);

Roger of Hoveden (RoH); Roger of Wendover (RoW).

The Table also shows that each of the Anglo-Norman authors records the three events

common to the six Versions of the ASC, thelstans succession, his expedition to

Scotland and the battle of Brunanburh. In addition, all except John of Worcester include

an account of Edwins death. This is mentioned only very briefly in ASC Versions E

and F and, as will be seen later, the Anglo-Norman accounts of how Edwin died show a

northern influence which developed over time.43

The Table also illustrates the individual choices made by the different authors.

John of Worcester includes all the events in Versions A-F of the ASC; Roger of

Hoveden and Roger of Wendover include the same content as John of Worcester and, as

will be seen below, draw directly on his text; Gaimar, Symeon of Durham and Henry of

Huntingdon make no reference to Sihtric and Eamont and their depictions of thelstan

as a whole are briefer and more narrowly focused than the others. In my textual analysis

which follows, I relate these individual differences to the context, aims and purposes of

the texts and identify how some of the depictions of thelstan were influenced by the

way in which the authors interpreted their sources. To structure my analysis, I have used

the same order of events as in the Table above but grouped the texts on Sihtric,

Guthfrith and Eamont since they form one narrative. Below, I analyse the ways in

which thelstans succession was depicted by the Anglo-Norman writers. Bold type in

the text identifies where authors use the same or similar terms.

43
Versions D, E and F of the ASC include material on thelstan and Northumbria but only
Version D includes details of thelstans dealings with Sihtric and his peace agreement at
Eamont while Versions E and F merely refer to his driving out Guthfrith.
 108

thelstans Succession as King

ASC, A, E, F: Her Eadweard cing forferde, 7 elstan his sunu feng to rice. Here King Edward
died and thelstan his son ascended the throne.
ASC, B, C, D: Her Eadweard cing gefor on Myrcum t Feardune 7 lfweard his sunu swie hrae
s gefor on Oxnaforda 7 heora lic licga on Wintanceastre 7 estan ws of Myrcum gecoren to
cinge 7 t Cingestune gehalgod. Here King Edward died in Mercia at Feardune and lfweard his
son soon after this died at Oxford and their bodies lie at Winchester and thelstan was chosen as
king by the Mercians and consecrated at Kingston.44
John of Worcester45 and Roger of Hoveden:46 Inuictissimus rex Anglorum Eadwardus Senior []
regni sui anno .xxiiii., in regia uilla que Fearndum nominatur, indictione .xv., ex hac uita transiens,
Athelstano filio regni gubernacula reliquit, cuius corpus Wintoniam delatum, in Nouo
Monasterio regio more sepelitur. Non multo post filius eius Alfuuuardus apud Oxenofordam
decessit, et sepultus est ubi et pater illius.a Athelstanus uero in Kingestone, id est regia uilla, in
regem leuatur, et honorifice ab Athelmo Dorubernensi archiepiscopo consecratur.
a
Non multo [] pater illius, not in Roger of Hoveden.
The most invincible king of the English Edward the Elder [] passing from this life in the royal
township which is called Farndon, in the fifteenth indiction in the twenty fourth year of his reign,
left the governance of the kingdom to his son Athelstan and his body was carried to Winchester and
buried in customary regal style in the New Minster. Not long after, his son lfweard died at
Oxford, and was buried where his father also lies.a But Athelstan at Kingston, that is, at the royal
township, was elevated to the kingship and consecrated with honour by Athelmo, Archbishop of
Canterbury.
a
Not long after [] also lies, not in Roger of Hoveden.
Roger of Wendover:47 rex Anglorum Edwardus, cognomento Senior, [] in villa regia, Farnduna
nuncupata, diem clausit extremum et Wintoni in novo monasterio more regio est sepultus.
Ethelstanus quoque filius ejus primogenitus, apud Kingestonam, regiam villam, rex creatus, ab
Athelmo Dorobernensi archiepiscopo consecratur.
The King of the English Edward, surnamed The Elder, [] ended his days in the royal township of
Farndon, and was buried in customary regal style in the new monastery at Winchester. Ethlestan
also his eldest son, at the royal township of Kingston, having been made king, was consecrated by
Athelm, Archbishop of Canterbury.
Henry of Huntingdon:48 Edwardus rex [] migrauit a corpore apud Ferandune. Et Alfward filius
eius cito post patrem defecit apud Oxeneforde, et sepulti sunt apud Winceastre. [] Adelstan filius
Edwardi electus est rex in Merce et sacratus apud Kingestune.
King Edward [] departed from life at Farndon. And Alfward his son, soon after his father, died at
Oxford and they were buried at Winchester. [] Adelstan son of Edward was chosen king in
Mercia and consecrated at Kingston.
Symeon of Durham:49 Historia Regum: Edwardus rex mortuus est, relinquens imperium filio suo
Ethelstano. King Edward died leaving the ruling power to his son Ethelstan.
Libellus De Exordio: Edwardo rege defuncto, filius eius Aethelstanus suscepta regni gubernacula

44
ASC, Collaborative Editions (Cambridge: Brewer, 1983-2004). Version A, ed. by Bately;
Version B, ed, by Taylor; Version C, ed. by Katherine OBrien OKeefe; Version D, ed. by G.
P. Cubbin; Version E, ed. by Susan Irvine; Version F, ed. by Peter S. Baker.
45
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [924], pp. 384-85.
46
Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, p.53.
47
Roger of Wendover, Flores Historiarum, ed. by Henricus O. Coxe (London: English
Historical Society, 1841), pp. 384-85.
48
Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum, v, 17, p. 309.
49
Symeon of Durham, Historia Regum, ed. by I. Hodgson Hinde, Surtees Society, 51 (Durham:
Andrews & Co., 1868), p. 64. Libellus De Exordio, ii, 17, pp. 132-33.
 109

gloriosissime rexit. After King Edward died his son thelstan ruled most gloriously the governance
of the kingdom he had received.
While Gaimar, reflecting the entry in ASC E, merely observes that after Edwards death

his son thelstan was king,50 the accounts in the prose histories are more developed and

reflect their writers interpretations of the ASC as source. Although John of Worcester

bases his account of thelstans succession on Versions B, C and D of the ASC, he

avoids the ambiguities noted in Chapter 1 of the thesis by clearly depicting thelstans

succession as unproblematic. He states unequivocally that Edward left the governance

of the kingdom to his son thelstan, and by only mentioning lfweards death at the

very end of his account he reinforces this picture of thelstan as his fathers first choice

as heir. He makes the version of events his own by including additional information not

found in the Chronicle, recording that Edward was buried in New Minster and

specifically referring to Farndon as a regia villa, suggesting that this information may

not have been readily known by his readers.

John records that Edward died at Farndon in Mercia but he but makes no

mention of thelstans Mercian election. Given Worcesters long Mercian history, this

seems surprising and suggests that John may have omitted it deliberately in order to

emphasize thelstan as Edwards direct successor to the West Saxon throne.51 Johns

claim that thelstan was Edwards direct heir may be related to his aim of protecting

Worcester monastic land rights mentioned by Brett. Bartlett has noted that, during the

eleventh and twelfth centuries, proof of land-tenure became increasingly important to

protect monastic property rights and estates.52 Julia Barrow describes the contents of the

Worcester cartulary as containing both genuine and forged charters most likely put
50
Puis regnat sun fiz Edelstan. Geffrei Gaimar, LEstoire Des Engleis, ed. by Alexander Bell,
Anglo-Norman Text Society, 14-16 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1960), 3509, p. 112.
51
I argued in Chapter 1 that the Mercian account of thelstans succession reflected Mercias
struggle in the tenth century to keep its semi-independent status with Wessex. By the eleventh
century this was no longer an issue and the concept of Mercia as a separate kingdom had been
superseded by Englands division into shires or counties. Robert Bartlett, England under the
Norman and Angevin Kings, p. 147. The last reference to Mercia in the ASC is the entry for
1049 in Version C.
52
Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, p. 7.
 110

together to prevent seizure of ecclesiastical property by the Archbishops of York and by

the Danish followers of Cnut and his successors. Among these are four eleventh-century

charters in thelstans name, one granting land to St Peters and three to St Marys.53

As noted above, legitimacy of royal succession had become an important issue for the

Norman kings. It is therefore possible that John deliberately depicted thelstan as

Edwards direct and legitimate heir in order to give weight to the validity of the royal

charters in his name at Worcester.

Roger of Hoveden uses John of Worcesters text verbatim while Roger of

Wendover echoes Johns text but indicates that thelstan succeeded to the throne as

Edwards eldest son (primogenitus).54 By emphasizing thelstans right of succession

on grounds of primogeniture, Roger of Wendover may be reflecting the controversies

over legitimate royal dynastic succession current in his own day. This has been

described by Bartlett as a fundamental and recurrent political problem which

influenced claims and counter-claims on succession for the Norman kings.55 As Roger

had previously recorded that thelstans mother was a concubine it would appear that

he is promoting primogeniture as taking precedence over illegitimacy of birth. This

would reflect well on the historical position of William the Conqueror, eldest son but

illegitimate by birth, and provide a further link between Anglo-Saxon and Norman

kingship. It would, however, put Roger at odds with the thinking on legitimacy of royal

succession in his own time.

Symeon of Durham depicts thelstans succession as uncontroversial in both

the Historia Regum and the Libellus de Exordio. He uses similar language to John of

53
S 401, 402, 406, 428. Julia Barrow, Worcester in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-
Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 488-90.
54
This may reflect John of Worcesters description of thelstan as primogenitus in his
account of Edwards wives and children. John of Worcester, The Chronicle, 901 AD (pp. 353-
57).
55
Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, pp. 4-11 (p. 7).
 111

Worcester describing Edward as reliquens imperium filio suo Ethelstano and

thelstan taking up the regni gubernacula. The succinctness of Symeons text makes

it difficult to know to whether Symeons choice of words was intended to convey a

deeper meaning. For example the term imperium is the word chosen by Bede to describe

the power exercised by the early bretwaldas.56 It also carries overtones of imperial

status found in the description of thelstan in his charters as basileus.57 Symeons

depiction of thelstan as Edwards direct heir, links well with his narrative in the

Libellus de Exordio where, as will be seen later, he describes how St Cuthbert fulfilled a

promise he had made to King Alfred that one of his descendants would become King of

all Britain.58

Henry of Huntingdons account of thelstans succession is very different from

the others. He goes beyond the brief details in ASC E and includes the Mercian account

of events found in ASC B, C and D. By retaining the same order of events as these

Versions, he retains thelstans election as king by the Mercians and perpetuates the

idea that thelstan only inherited the throne after the death of lfweard. Henrys use of

this Mercian material and his very brief account of the rest of thelstans reign sets him

apart from the other Anglo-Norman historians considered above. It may be that he

worked in isolation from them or preferred to use only the ASC source easily available

to him. It is possible therefore that he did not have access to material on Sihtric, Eamont

and thelstan taking control in Northumbria. Alternatively he may have chosen to

ignore it. Yet, as will be seen below, its inclusion would have further emphasized

Henrys overall theme of the transience of worldly success.

Sihtric, Eamont and Guthfrith

The account of thelstans marriage agreement with Sihtric in John of Worcester

56
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, ii, 5, I, 224-25.
57
For thelstans charter designations see Chapter 1.
58
Discussed in Chapter 1 in the section on thelstans Book Dedications.
 112

reflects the entry in ASC Version D but with a number of embellishments:

ASC Version D 59 John of Worcester 60

Her elstan cyning 7 Sih\t/ric Norhymbra Strenuus et gloriosus rex Anglorum
cyng heo gesamnodon t Tameweorige . Athelstanus sororem suam cum magno
iii . kalendas, Februarius, 7 elstan his honore et gloria Northymbrorum regi
sweostor him forgeaf. Sihtrico, Danica stirpe progenito, in
matrimonium dedit.
Here King thelstan and Sihtric, King of The vigorous and glorious king of the
Northumbria, met at Tamworth three days English, thelstan, gave his sister in
before the Kalends of February (30 January) marriage with great and honourable
and thelstan gave him his sister in splendour to Sihtric king of the
marriage.61 Northumbrians who was the offspring
of Scandinavian stock.

John again omits the Mercian content of the ASC by making no reference to Tamworth

as the place of the meeting with Sihtric but he retains thelstans role as broker of the

marriage deal. He introduces the terms strenuus et gloriosus to characterize thelstan

and describes the marriage as conducted cum magno honore et gloria as befitted a king

of thelstans standing. Sihtrics designation in ASC D as king of Northumbria is

retained and John adds that Sihtric was of Danish descent.62 This mention of his

Scandinavian background may be included for the benefit of his Norman audience who

also claimed Scandinavian descent and depicts thelstan as actively seeking a marriage

alliance with his Scandinavian neighbour.63

Johns brief account is in line with his annalistic style of writing history and

59
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, 6 MS D, ed. by G. P. Cubbin (Cambridge:
Brewer, 1996), p. 41.
60
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [925], pp. 386-87.
61
The tenth-century ASC Version B entry for 924 that thelstan, geaf his swystor, has
generally been assumed to refer to the marriage arrangement with Henry the Fowler recorded in
D for that year rather than to this arrangement between thelstan and Sihtric.
62
John describes Sihtric as Danish. Darlington and Mc Gurk point out that Sihtric was in fact
Norwegian. John of Worcester, The Chronicle, p. 386, n. 2. However, the use of Danes to
describe anyone of Scandinavian origin seems to have become well-established and been
adopted by later writers. John Haywood, Encyclopaedia of the Viking Age (London: Thames &
Hudson, 2000), p. 52. See also Susanne Kries, Westward I Came Across the Sea: Anglo-
Scandinavian History through Scandinavian Eyes, Leeds Studies in English, New Series, 34
(2003), 47-76 (pp. 66-67).
63
See Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
 113

although thelstan is depicted as the author of the agreement there is no suggestion that

the marriage was other than a typical alliance between kings for their mutual benefit.64

Henry of Huntingdon and Symeon of Durham do not mention the marriage agreement at

all while, as will be seen later, William of Malmesbury gives it considerable

prominence. It was Johns version, however, which was carried forward into the later

twelfth and early thirteenth centuries by Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover.

Roger of Hoveden uses Johns text verbatim; Roger of Wendover omits the description

of thelstan as strenuuus et gloriosus and names the sister Sihtric marries as Eathgita.

Roger may have based this information on a marginal note in the twelfth-century MS B

of John of Worcesters work at Bury St Edmunds. Roger seems also to have taken from

this source the account he gives of Sihtric initially accepting baptism because of his

love of Eathgita followed by a very negative picture of him rejecting soon afterwards

both his Christianity and his wife and reintroducing the worship of idols.65

The Death of Sihtric and the Defeat of Guthfrith

Version D of the ASC records the death of Sihtric in 926 and thelstan succeeding to

the throne of Northumbria:

Her oeowdon fyrena leoman on nordle re lyfte. 7 Sihtric acwl 7

elstan cyning feng to Norhymbra rice. 66

Here fiery rays appeared in the northern quarter of the sky and Sihtric died and
King thelstan succeeded to the kingdom of Northumbria.

The writer records three events in sequence using the Chronicles usual paratactic style

and leaving it to the reader to decide the relationship between them.67 The standard
64
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [901], pp, 353-57. The marriage agreement is discussed
more fully in Section 3 of this chapter on William of Malmesbury.
65
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, Appendix B, p. 635. Roger of Wendover also includes the
further information found in the marginal note of MS B, that Eathgita remained a virgin and
after Sihtrics death spent the rest of her life in fasting, prayer and almsgiving at Polesworth
where veneration of her body became a source of miracles after her death. The source of this
information is unknown but Eathgitas alleged connection with Polesworth may suggest a
northern origin. It is possible that thelstans sister is being confused with King Egberts
daughter Eadgytha. Egbert is said to have founded Polesworth and his daughter was abbess
there. See Foot, thelstan, p. 48.
66
Cubbin, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS D, p. 41.
 114

expression feng to rice in Version D depicts thelstan lawfully inheriting Sihtrics

kingdom of Northumbria. Version D makes no reference to Guthfrith whose expulsion

by thelstan in 927 is recorded only in Versions E and F, while Versions E and F make

no mention of Sihtric. As will be seen below, John of Worcester brings these two events

together. His account is reproduced almost verbatim by Roger of Hoveden, but omitting

the reference to fiery rays, while Roger of Wendover adds a number of details and

variations to Johns text. In the excerpts below, Roger of Wendovers additions are

shown in bold type and the variations in italics:

John of Worcester, Roger of Hoveden 68 Roger of Wendover69

Ignei per totam Angliam uisi sunt radii in ignei per totam Angliam visi sunt radii in
septentrionali plaga celi. Nec multo post aquilonali plaga cli, portendentes
Northanhymbrorum rex Sihtricus uita mortem turpissimam regis Sithrici
decessit, cuius regnum rex thelstanus, supradicti, qui non multo post male
filio illius Guthfertho, qui patri in regnum periit; cujus regnum rex Ethelstanus,
successerat, expulso, suo adiecit imperio. expulso Guthfertho filio ejus, suo copulavit
imperio.
Fiery rays were seen throughout the whole Fiery rays were seen throughout the whole
of England in the northern area of the sky. of England in the northern quarter of the
Not long afterwards Sihtric, king of the sky, foretelling the most disgraceful death
Northumbrians, departed from life, whose of the aforesaid king Sithric, who not long
kingdom King thelstan placed under his afterwards came to an evil end; whose
own sovereign power having expelled kingdom King Ethelstan joined to his own
Sihtrics son, Guthfrith, who had succeeded sovereign power, having expelled
his father as ruler. Guthferth his [Sihtrics] son.

John of Worcester omits the ASC statement that thelstan succeeded as king of

Northumbria on Sihtrics death. Instead he records that Guthfrith succeeded to Sihtrics

kingdom until driven out by thelstan.70 John depicts thelstan as having to use

67
See Chapter 1 for a discussion of the ambiguities of the paratactic style of the Chronicle and
its influence on reader interpretation.
68
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [926], pp. 386-87. Chronica Magistri Rogeri de
Houedene, p. 53.
69
Flores Historiarum, p. 386.
70
John describes Guthfrith as Sihtrics son and this is how he is described by later Anglo-Latin
writers. In the Annals of Ulster Guthfrith is described as a grandson of mar and therefore
 115

military action to secure the power over Northumbria he had tried to achieve peaceably

through the marriage agreement with Sihtric. Johns statement that thelstan regnum

[] suo adiecit imperio, added the kingdom [of Northumbria] to his own dominion,

depicts thelstan as a powerful, high-status ruler whose sovereignty (imperium) is

already more extensive than any individual kingdom (regnum). The term imperium

implies the kind of supreme power ascribed by Roman historians to emperors and by

Bede to the bretwaldas. It is not entirely clear what John intended by the choice of this

word but, as was noted in Chapter 1, thelstans claim to be king of all Britain can be

linked through his charters and coins to his assuming power over Northumbria and John

may have had this in mind. However, as will be seen in the chapter on the Scandinavian

Tradition, Egils Saga also depicts thelstan as a king of high standing from early in his

reign. It is possible, therefore, that both John and the saga writers were drawing on

traditional Anglo-Scandinavian representations of thelstan as King of all Britain

rather than referring to it as a specific event.

By comparing the texts of the ASC, John of Worcester and Roger of Wendover,

it is possible to trace how the original Chronicle record was transformed into a fuller

narrative. While John sets the scene by combining the ASC entries on Sihtric and

Guthfrith, Roger of Wendover develops the story further by interpreting the fiery rays

as a portent of Sihtrics death. The phrase regis Sithrici supradicti and the description

of Sihtrics death as very shameful, turpissimam, and evil, male periit, enables Roger

to remind his readers of the information he had already included on Sihtric as an

apostate who had rejected his Christian wife and his Christian baptism. While Johns

account depicts thelstan as having to abandon his original peaceful plan and resort to

military force to achieve power in Northumbria, Roger of Wendover depicts him as a

Sihtrics brother or cousin. Annals of Ulster, ed. by San MacAirt and Gearid MacNiocaill
(Dublin: Institute of Advanced Studies, 1983), p. 372-73. The confusion may have been caused
by the similarity of names among the Norse of Dublin or by variations in the spelling of names
and inaccuracies in dating events.
 116

Christian warrior king whose actions rescue Northumbria from further Scandinavian

rule, ensuring the continued practice of Christianity in Northumbria and preventing the

reintroduction of pagan idol-worship.

Both Gaimar and Henry of Huntingdon, in line with Version E of the ASC,

make no mention of Sihtric but record thelstan defeating Guthfrith. Gaimars concise

choice of words depicts thelstan facing, and successfully overcoming, significant

military opposition in driving out Guthfrith:71

Bataille tint cuntre Daneis, He then fought such a battle against the Danes,
Si descunfist [Gudfrid li] reis. So he dislodged Gudfrid the king.

Henry of Huntingdon provides his own rhetorical version of events in which he portrays

Guthfrith as making war on thelstan, being defeated and eventually killed:

Curriculo siquidem sequentis anni, Gudfridum regem Dacorum [] bello

lacessitus bello reppulit, repulsum fugauit, fugatum perdidit.72

Indeed in the course of the following year, he [thelstan] having been

challenged in warfare, drove back the Scandinavian king, Guthfrith in war, []
and having driven him back he put him to flight, and having put him to flight he
destroyed him.

While Henrys bello lacessitus bello reppulit, repulsum fugauit, fugatum perdidit

presents a vivid picture of thelstan as a determined and successful warrior, the

information he gives conflicts with that of the other sources and in particular with the

Annals of Ulster which record Guthfriths return to Dublin after only six months

absence and his death in Ireland in 933/4.73 Henrys description, however, fits his

purpose, noted above, of depicting thelstan as a king who although challenged by the

strongest of enemies, could never be defeated in war, qui a fortissimis lacessiri sed

bello numquam potuit uinci.74 The emphasis which Henry places on thelstans

71
Gaimar, LEstoire, 3511-12, p. 112. Gaimar makes no distinction in his poem between the
Danes and the Norse of Dublin and describes Guthfrith as king of the Danes.
72
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 310-11. It is possible that Henry had access to a version of the
ASC Version E which has since been lost.
73
Annals of Ulster, pp. 378-79, 382-83.
74
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 310-11.
 117

military prowess depicts him as very much the warrior king. Henry makes no mention

of thelstans peace agreement at Eamont and his narrative lacks the complementary

emphasis noted in the tenth-century texts of thelstan as a king who brought peace to

his people and as a major source he provides a very one-dimensional picture of

thelstan.

The Peace Agreement at Eamont

John of Worcester again follows the account in ASC D and his account in turn is

followed by Roger of Hoveden and by Roger of Wendover who also makes some

adjustments to the text. Although the differences are minimal, they have the same effect

as the addition of a scribal gloss, extending or interpreting the content of the earlier text.

The following analysis compares the versions from the ASC, John of Worcester and

Roger of Wendover and identifies how a writers interpretation of sources can result in

small but significant changes in the way events are recorded and transmitted.

ASC Version D75 John of Worcester & Roger of Roger of Wendover77

Hoveden76
elstan cyning feng to
Norhymbra rice. 7 ealle a Omnes etiam reges totius Albionis, omnes Angli regulos [] proelio
cyngas e on yssum [] proelio uicit et fugauit. uicit et fugauit.
iglande wron he gewylde,
He also defeated in battle and put to He defeated in battle and put to
[],
flight all the kings of Albion. flight all the lesser kings (reguli) of
King Athlestan succeeded England.
to the kingdom of
Northumbria. And he
subdued all the kings who H/Ii omnes, ubi se uiderunt non hi omnes, cum provincialibus aliis,
were in this island posse strenuitati illius resistere, videntes se ejus strenuitati non
7 mid aum fry pacem ab eo petentes, in loco qui posse resistere convenerunt,
gefstnodon on re stowe dicitur Eamotum [] conuenerunt, petentes pacem ab eo
e genemned is t All of these, when they saw they All of these, with the other peoples
Eamotum [] could not resist his strength, of the provinces, seeing they could
and with oaths they made a seeking peace from him, came not resist his strength came
firm peace in that place together in a place which is called together, seeking peace from him;
which is called Eamotum Eamont

75
Cubbin, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS D, p. 41.
76
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [926], pp. 386-87. Chronica Magistri Rogeri de
Houedene, pp. 53-54.
77
Flores Historiarum, p. 386.
 118

lc deofolgeld tocwdon 7 datoque sacramento, firmum cum atque idololatri renuntiantes

syam mid sibbe tocyrdon eo foedus pepigerunt. foedus cum ipso firmissimum
pepigerunt
and they prohibited all
idolatry and afterwards they and having given an oath, they and moreover renouncing idolatry
parted in peace. struck a firm treaty with him . they struck the firmest of treaties
with him.

The ASC states only that thelstan succeeded to Northumbria and subdued all the kings

of the island. The names of those who met thelstan at Eamont are listed as Hywel of

West Wales, Constantine of the Scots, Owain of Gwent and Ealdred of Bamburgh

implying that these were the only areas which were not already part of thelstans

kingdom.78 The simplicity of the account leaves plenty of room for interpretation. For

example, it is not clear whether the kings named met with thelstan out of duress or

because they too wished to see an end to Viking rule or whether they took the initiative

to avoid military action.

John of Worcester and Roger of Wendover both provide their own interpretation

of these events. They depict the agreement at Eamont as being a result of thelstans

superiority in battle which led his enemies to acknowledge they were no match for him

and so actively to seek peace at Eamont. Roger of Wendover describes the kings named

as reguli or under-kings. This implies that thelstan was already established as the

most powerful king in England but also indicates that he faced rebellion from those he

had previously subdued. Roger adds a vague reference to other peoples of the

provinces emphasizing that it was not just the defeated kings but whole peoples who

submitted to thelstan. Finally, both chroniclers emphasise that the syam mid sibbe

tocyrdon of the ASC was in fact a firm, or very firm, treaty. Roger of Wendover also

includes a reference to renouncing idolatry, reflecting the lc deofolgeld tocwdon of

the ASC, and perhaps providing evidence of his own independent use of ASC material.

78
These names are retained in full by John of Worcester and Roger of Wendover while Roger
of Hoveden omits reference to Ealdred.
 119

There could be several reasons why John of Worcester and Roger of Wendover

opted to interpret Eamont as a major peace treaty resulting from military action: the

ASC account of thelstans reign gives great prominence to his military successes; it is

not unreasonable to assume that a peace agreement automatically indicated the end of

military action; both may also have been aware of William of Malmesburys account of

thelstan taking York by force or Henry of Huntingdons account of Guthfriths defeat

and death at thelstans hands; they may have wished to use Eamont as a reason for

thelstans major expedition into Scotland which they relate next; alternatively they

may have been drawing on other sources, written or oral, and using them to flesh out the

account in the ASC. Whatever factors may lie behind these two later versions, John and

Roger have both produced narratives which read as plausible accounts of thelstans

dominance at Eamont. It is only by comparing their texts with one of their major

sources that it is possible to see how they have altered or added details and so provided

their readers with their own interpretation of events. It is their versions of events,

however, which have been used by later historians and become standard accounts of

thelstans meeting at Eamont.

thelstans Expedition into Scotland

A comparison of the Anglo-Norman accounts of the expedition to Scotland shows that,

apart from Gaimar, their authors used the brief ASC entry on thelstan carrying out a

combined land and naval raid in 933/34 and then added other details. It is not clear

whether they were using other sources, written or oral, or providing their own personal

interpretation of the event. It is clear, however, that in their individual versions they

reflect the different standpoints identified above for their histories as a whole:
 120

ASC A-F
Her for elstan cyning in on Scotland. ger ge mid landhere ge mid scyphere, 7 his micel
oferhergade. Here King thelstan went into Scotland both with a raiding land-army and with a raiding
ship-army and ravaged much of it.
John of Worcester,79 Roger of Hoveden80 and Roger of Wendover81
Strenuusa rex Anglorum Athelstanus quia rex Scottorum Constantinus foedus quod cum eo pepigerat
dirupitb, classica manu perualida et equestri exercitu non modico ad Scottiam proficisciturc, eamque
maxima ex parte depopulatur. Vnde ui compulsus rex Constantinus filium suum obsidem cum dignis
muneribus illi dedit, paceque redintegrata, rex in Wessaxoniam rediit.
a
et gloriosus (RoH). b violaverat, had violated (RoW); fregit, broke (RoH). Roger of Hoveden omits the rest of
this text and adds that of Symeon of Durham, below. cperrexit, proceeded (RoW).

The vigorous king of the English, thelstan, because the king of the Scots, Constantine, broke off the
treaty he contracted with him, set out for Scotland with a very strong naval force and no small mounted
force, and ravaged a very large part of it. As a result, compelled by force, King Constantine gave him his
son as a hostage along with worthy gifts and peace having been restored, the king returned to Wessex.
Henry of Huntingdon82
At uero rex Adelstan [] gentem perfidam Dacorum, et infidam Scotorum, in exterminium traducere
disponens, confertissimum duxit exercitum terra et mari in Nordhymbram et Scotiam. Cui cum non esset
qui resistere inciperet, uel qui resistere persisteret, ubique terrarum progrediens, et pro libitu predans cum
triumphali rediit lauro.
But indeed King thelstan [] determining to bring to destruction the treacherous race of the Danes
and the deceitful nation of the Scots, led a very large army by land and sea into Northumbria and
Scotland. Since there was not anyone who could either begin to resist him, or continue in doing so,
advancing all over the land and plundering at will, he returned with a triumphal victory.
Symeon of Durham, Historia Regum83 and Roger of Hoveden84
rex Ethelstanus cum multo exercitu Scotiam tendens, ad sepulcrum Sancti Cuthberti venit, illius
patrocinio se suumque iter commendavit, multa ac diversa dona, quae regem decerent, ei optulit et terras,
terno igni contradens cruciandos quicumque ei aliquid ex his subtraxerint. Deinde (RoH adds maxima
vi) hostes subegit: Scotiam usque Dunfoeder et Wertermorum terrestri exercitu vastavit, navali vero
usque Catenes depopulatus est.
King thelstan, while making his way to Scotland with a large army, came to the tomb of St. Cuthbert,
committed himself and his expedition to his patronage, offered to him many, different gifts such as
befitted a king, and lands, delivering to be tortured by eternal fire those whosoever took away anything
from these. After this (RoH: with the greatest force) he subdued his enemies: he laid waste Scotland as
far as Dunnottar and Wertemore with his land army and indeed with his naval force he plundered all the
way to Caithness.

John of Worcester adds the information that thelstan made the expedition because

Constantine had broken the treaty he had earlier made with thelstan. The choice of

words, foedus [] pepigerat, recall the foedus cum eo pepigerunt of Constantine and

79
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [934], pp. 388-90.
80
Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, p. 54.
81
Flores Historiarum, p. 389.
82
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 310-11.
83
Historia Regum, p. 64.
84
Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, p. 54.
 121

the Welsh kings at Eamont indicating that it was this treaty which John infers

Constantine had broken. John again characterizes thelstan as strenuus, vigorous.

He reinforces this by using the stronger Latin compound depopulari, to ravage, and

then depicts thelstan using force to compel Constantine to make gifts and give his son

as a hostage. John represents the land-force,landhere, of the ASC as equestri exercitu,

a cavalry or mounted army/force. This appears to be anachronistic. There is no clear

evidence that the Anglo-Saxons fought on horseback although horses were used to

convey men and equipment to the battlefield.85 If John had information on Anglo-Saxon

warfare he may have been referring to this practice, taking into account the distance

thelstans men had to cover. Alternatively it is perhaps more likely that he is

reflecting the military practice of his own day. Finally, he portrays thelstans victory

as so complete that peace was restored and he could safely leave Scotland and return to

Wessex. Johns depiction of thelstans superiority as military leader is consistent with

his portrayal of him at Eamont and later at Brunanburh. In this he captures and retains

the picture provided by the brief entries in the ASC which depict thelstan as chiefly

notable for his military victories.

Henry of Huntingdon provides a very different picture. He does not relate

thelstans expedition to any former event but sees it as a wish to destroy the Danes

and Scots, both of whom he describes as treacherous. As no-one was prepared to oppose

thelstan, the whole expedition is presented as a show of thelstans military might.

He plunders at will and returns victorious, triumphali lauro, in the manner of a

successful Roman general. The ease with which thelstan overawes his enemy is in

line with Henrys overall depiction of thelstan as a very successful warrior king.

Symeon includes geographical details, claiming in the Historia Regum that the

85
R. H. C. Davis, Did the Anglo-Saxons have Warhorses, in Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-
Saxon England, ed. by Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, pp. 141-44. See also Nicholas Hooper, The
Anglo-Saxons at War, in Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England, ed. by Sonia
Chadwick Hawkes, pp. 191-202 (p. 200).
 122

army reached Dunnottar (Dunfoeder) and Fortriu (Wertemore) while the fleet sailed as

far north as Caithness, and Roger of Hoveden adds this information verbatim to his

transcription of John of Worcesters account. Dunnottar is a peninsular with very strong

natural defences which is recorded in the late twelfth or early thirteenth-century

Chronicle of the Kings of Alba as part of the kingdom of Constantine and his family.86

Symeons inclusion of Dunnottar can, therefore, be interpreted as consistent with John

of Worcesters statement that thelstans intention was to curb Constantines power.

Caithness was linked to Viking territory in Orkney on the trade route between Norway

and the western isles and Symeons statement that the fleet sailed to Caithness has given

rise to various scholarly interpretations.87 One possibility which has not so far been

considered is that Symeon is drawing on Anglo-Scandinavian traditions of links

between thelstan and Norway. As will be seen in the chapter on the Scandinavian

Tradition, it is possible that Symeons text may reflect Norse saga and historical

accounts of thelstan supporting his foster-son, Hkon to return to Norway to inherit

the throne of his father, Haraldr hrfagri.

In the Libellus de Exordio, Symeon depicts thelstans successful expedition as

the direct result of his having visited St Cuthberts shrine at Chester-le-Street where he

sought and received the patronage of St Cuthbert. This part of Symeons text contains

much repetition. He recounts the story that Cuthbert appeared to Alfred at Athelney and

promised him victory over the Danes and greatness for his successors and does so

twicefirst in his account of Alfreds reign and later where he describes Edward telling

the story to thelstan and urging him always to honour St Cuthbert. Symeon

86
Woolf, From Pictland to Alba 789-1070, pp. 122-23. Barbara Crawford records that
Dunnottar was taken by the Vikings towards the end of the ninth century. Barbara E. Crawford,
Scandinavian Scotland (Leicester: Leicester University, 1987), p. 56. It is unclear whether the
Vikings still held Dunnottar in thelstans reign, leaving uncertain whether thelstans
expedition was directed solely at Constantine or was also linked with the presence of the
Vikings in Scotland.
87
See Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, pp. 165-66. Anna Ritchie, Viking Scotland (London:
Batsford, 1993), pp. 30-32, 72, 75-6. Foot, thelstan, p. 166.
 123

emphasizes the links between the St Cuthbert community and the kings of Wessex

recording that Alfred sent gifts to St Cuthbert through Edward, listing the gifts

thelstan brought and later mentioning those donated by thelstans brother Edmund

when king.88 He refers more than once to Alfred and his descendants having remained

faithful to St Cuthbert and to Cuthbert fulfilling his promise to Alfred by enabling the

kings of Wessex to extend the boundaries of their kingdom more widely than ever

before. This, he says, was most notably achieved through thelstan:89

Que tamen in nepote ipsius Aelfredi Aethelstano maxime sunt completa, qui
primus regum Anglorum subactis ubique hostibus, totius Brittannie dominium
obtinuit,
These [promises] however were especially fulfilled in thelstan, grandson of
Alfred himself, who first of the kings of the English held absolute power over
the whole of Britain, having everywhere subdued his enemies.

thelstans success is depicted as resulting, not from his military prowess, but from his

pious obedience to the admonitions of his father, Edward, that he should hold the

church of St Cuthbert in particular affection and honour:90

Hec pii patris monita Aethelstanus libenter suscipiens, libentius regno potitus est
executus. Denique ante illum nullus regum ecclesiam sancti Cuthberti tantum
dilexit, tam diuersis tamque multiplicibus regiis muneribus decorauit. Vnde
hostibus passim emergentibus ubique preualens, omnibus illis uel occisis uel
seruitio sibi subactis uel extra terminos Brittannie fugatis, maiori quam ullus
regum Anglorum ante illum gloria regnabat.

88
Symeon quotes from a cartulary list the gifts recorded in thelstans name which were still in
the church at Durham, including the book donated by thelstan discussed in detail in Chapter 1.
He also quotes from a charter donating twelve vills to the community, claims thelstan asked
his brother Edmund to bring his body back to be buried at St Cuthberts church should he be
killed on the expedition to Scotland and states that thelstan confirmed the historic links
between Wessex and St Cuthbert by affirming that the laws and customs of the saint, which his
grandfather, Alfred, and Guthrum had jointly established, should be strictly observed in
perpetuity: Leges quoque et consuetudines ipsius sancti quas auus eius rex Elfredus et
Guthredus rex instituerant, ipse approbauit, et inuiolabili firmitate in perpetuum seruandas
censuit. Libellus de Exordio, ii, 10, 15, 17, 18, pp. 110-13,128-29,132-37 and n. 103. Rollason
suggests that Symeon derived this information from the anonymous Historia de Sancto
Cuthberto. This contains the stories of St Cuthbert, Alfred and Edward, the list of thelstans
gifts, the terms of his land charter, details of Alfred and Guthrums donations and the later
reaffirmation of all these gifts and privileges by successive kings of Wessex. Historia de Sancto
Cuthberto, ed. by Ted Johnson South, Anglo-Saxon Texts, 3 (Cambridge: Brewer, 2002), 16-
19a, 25-27, pp. 54-59, 64-69, 108-10.
89
Libellus de Exordio, ii, 10, 17, pp. 110-13, 132-33.
90
Libellus de Exordio, ii, 17, pp. 134-35.
 124

thelstan, willingly adopting this advice of his pious father, carried it out more
willingly when he gained the throne. Then none of the kings before him loved
the church of St Cuthbert so much, adorned it with such varied and numerous
royal gifts. As a result, being superior to his enemies arising on all sides, all of
them either having been killed, or subdued into serving him, or put to flight
beyond the boundaries of Britain, he reigned with greater glory than any of the
kings of the English before him.

Having placed himself under Cuthberts patronage, thelstan is depicted as rewarded

with military victory through the saints protection and help:

Fugato deinde Owino rege Cumbrorum et Constantino rege Scottorum, terrestri

et nauali exercitu Scotiam sibi subiugando perdomuit.91

Then Owain, king of the Cumbrians, and Constantine, king of the Scots, having
been put to flight, he made himself complete master by subjugating Scotland
with his land and naval force.

The hagiographical style of Symeons narrative linking St Cuthbert so closely

with the kings of Wessex can be interpreted in a number of different ways. Perhaps

most importantly from the communitys point of view, it depicts Cuthbert both as a

powerful saint and a national saint who intervened in Wessex to support Alfred in his

time of need and continued to be revered and honoured by his descendants. It also

provides an example of how kingly pious devotion to St Cuthbert and his community

gained victory over the enemy, not only for the king as ruler and military leader but for

his people and country. The repeated emphasis on thelstan as the fulfilment of

Cuthberts promise depicts him as specially chosen to extend Wessex rule across Britain

while his success gives added status to the royal gifts and charter in his name.

Symeons depiction of Cuthbert as a powerful national saint and thelstan as

rewarded for his piety by becoming king of all Britain further supports the

interpretation, noted above, that Symeons work was intended to promote the status of

Cuthberts shrine at Durham and prevent appropriation of the wealth and lands of the

91
Libellus de Exordio, ii, 18, pp. 136-39. The phrase terrestri et nauali exercitu recalls the
landhere and scyphere of the ASC but the main content of Symeons narrative focuses on the
account of the links between St Cuthbert and Wessex found in the Historia de Sancto
Cuthberto.
 125

Cuthbert community by the Norman Bishop Ranulf and his barons. This becomes even

more evident from the terms of thelstans land charter. This assigned to St Cuthberts

community estates at Tynemouth and Jarrow, an area which later suffered depredations

by the Norman Bishops of Durham.92

A different story of saintly support for thelstans expedition to Scotland is

narrated by lred of Rievaulx. Writing in the twelfth century lred describes how

thelstan, while travelling north, heard from local people of the power of their saint,

John of Bevereley. thelstan sent his troops on ahead while he turned aside to spend a

night in prayer at St Johns shrine. He left a knife with the saint, promising to return for

it if successful. This he did and the monks of Beverley subsequently claimed that

thelstan made a gift of land and monastic privilege to their community in

thanksgiving for the saints help and confirmed it by a charterthe validity of which

was hotly disputed by the Archbishops of York.

It is possible that the role assigned to Cuthbert in supporting thelstans

expedition was unknown to lred of Rievaulx or perhaps he chose to ignore it. lred

includes the story in his account of the English kings which he wrote in order to provide

the future Henry II with models of good Christian kingship for him to follow.93 lred

opens his account of thelstan by praising his piety and slightly adapting the words

92
South has noted the reciprocal benefit of the royal benefactions for the St Cuthbert
Communityand for the kings of Wessex. He has commented that the Historia de Sancto
Cuthberto was written to support the legitimacy of the Communitys claims to their possessions
and land while the Community itself, through its formidable political and economic force in the
region, provided support for the kings of Wessex in establishing their rule in Northumbria.
Historia de Sancto Cuthberto, ed. by Ted Johnson South, pp. 3, 11. Rollason has also argued
that the Earls of Bamburgh and the Community of St Cuthbert managed on the whole to retain a
degree of independence and were not subject to any significant degree to Viking dominance, the
main Viking threat being directed at Cumbria and Lancashire from the Vikings of Dublin.
David Rollason, Northumbria 500-1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p.
213.
93
Aelred of Rievaulx: The Historical Works, trans. by Jane Patricia Freeland, ed. by Marsha L.
Dutton, Cistercian Publications (Michigan: Kalamazoo, 2005), pp 10-18. lred, Genealogia
regum Anglorum, in Opera Omnia Beati Aelredi, ed. by J.-P. Migne, Patrologia Cursus
Completus, 217 (Paris: 1844-64), 195 (1855), 711-30 (pp. 711-13).
 126

used in the Old Testament Book of Kings to describe King Josiah who was regarded as

one of the best of Judahs kings and famed for his religious reforms:94

ambulavitque in viis patrum suorum, non declinavit ad dextram neque ad

sinistram.

He walked in the ways of his fathers (replacing of his father David) and did not
turn aside to the right or to the left.

lreds account of thelstan stresses his pious behaviour and states that by following

the best Christian example of his predecessors, he earned victory over his enemies:95

eamdem in Deo fidem, in subditos gratiam, circa ecclesias devotionem, circa

pauperes misericordiam, circa Dei sacerdotes retinens reverentiam. Contra hunc
reliqui Dacorum more suo nefandum erigunt caput, sed contriti sunt sub
pedibus eius et redacti in pulverem.

[he kept] the same faith in God, the same graciousness towards his subjects, the
same devotedness to the Church, the same pity for the poor, the same respect for
Gods priests. Against him the remnants of the Danes in their usual manner
raised their wicked heads, but they were trodden down under his feet and ground
to dust.

By his story of thelstans prayerful vigil at St Johns shrine, lred depicts thelstan

as part of a tradition of successful Christian kings who achieved great things because of

their humility, their reliance on prayer and their pious respect for the saints of the

Church. Elizabeth Freeman, commenting on lreds role in advising the young prince

Henry, sees his story of thelstan as providing an example of how the private

activities of Englands kings could carry wider public significance. She points out that

success is promised to thelstan and to his people as a result of his act of piety,

demonstrating that the individual actions of kings stand in for the actions of all the

people.96 lreds depiction of thelstan presents him as a model of kingly power and

responsibility, a king who fulfilled his role as Christian monarch in a most exemplary

fashion.

94
2 Kings 22. 2. lred, Genealogia regum Anglorum, p. 724.
95
lred, Genealogia regum Anglorum, p. 724.
96
Elizabeth Freeman, Narratives of a New Order: Cistercian Historical Writing in England
1150-1220, Medieval Church Studies, 2 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2002), pp. 64-65.
 127

lreds linking of kingly piety with military success echoes lfrics praise for

thelstan written a century earlier.97 These two texts, together with Symeons account

above, illustrate how ecclesiastical depictions of thelstan continued to keep alive his

reputation as a rex pius. As will be seen later, these hagiographical accounts of

thelstan are further extended by William of Malmesbury who recounts how St

Aldhelm rewarded thelstans piety by coming to his help at the battle of Brunanburh.

The choice of thelstan as a role-model for Christian kingship by lfric, Symeon and

lred suggests that a tradition of his piety had already been established.98 The

prominence given to this by these twelfth-century writers may reflect their wish to

provide a royal role-model whose life and actions could be used both to oppose the

Norman usurpation of Church property locally and counter national tensions which had

arisen between the Norman and Angevin kings and the Archbishops of Canterbury.99

Battle of Brunanburh

The variety of presentation and comment on Brunanburh in the Anglo-Saxon texts was

noted in Chapter 1 of the thesis. There it was noted that the ASC poem concentrated on

the battle-slaughter and the glory won by thelstan and Edmund; thelweards

Chronicon depicted the victory bringing peace and prosperity and lfric placed

thelstan alongside Alfred and Edgar as a king who with Gods support was successful

against his enemies. By contrast, the ASC entries in the twelfth-century barely mention

Brunanburh. Version E merely states Her elstan cyning ldde fyrde to

97
See Chapter 1.
98
For accounts of thelstans relationship with, and support for, the Church, see Blair, The
Church in Anglo-Saxon Society, pp. 348-50; Foot, thelstan, pp. 94-110. On thelstans love
of relics and devotion to the saints see Section 3 below on William of Malmesbury.
99
The sources of continual tension and disagreement between the kings and archbishops were
authority over ecclesiastical appointments, Church property and judicial powers. Bartlett
identifies in particular the serious conflicts involving exile, murder or anathema between
Anselm and William Rufus, Anselm and Henry I, Becket and Henry II, Stephen Langton and
King John. Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, pp. 402-12.
 128

Brunanbyrig, Here king thelstan led his army to Brunanbyrig.100 That the poem was

known to the later Chronicle writers can be deduced from Version F. This appears to

draw on the Chronicle poem by recording that thelstan was accompanied by Edmund

and that five kings and seven earls were killed. It adds a Christian note lacking from the

Chronicle poem by adding that thelstans victory was Criste fultumegende, and

auxiliante Christo, with Christs help.101 The brevity of the later ASC entries seems

to assume that the reader will know the details and this may indicate that by this time

the poem on Brunanburh was already treated as an independent text. This is further

supported by Henry of Huntingdons comments. He attempts his own translation of the

poem describing it as a kind of song, carmen, written in strange forms of language but

he makes no reference to it being part of the Chronicle or any other text.

The longer Anglo-Norman accounts draw on the ASC but also vary in the way

they present Brunanburh. John of Worcester provides a summary which reflects the

main information in the poem:

The battle lasted from dawn to dusk; of the enemy, five kings and seven earls were

killed; more blood was shed than in any war in England; Anlaf and Constantine were

forced to flee and returned home with few men; King thelstan and the theling

Edmund returned to their own kingdom exuberant in victory.102

John adds the information that the invading forces entered by the mouth of the Humber.

He describes Anlaf as the heathen, paganus, king of the Irish and of many islands and

son-in-law to Constantine whom he claims urged Anlaf to invade Britain.103 Although

100
ASC E, ed. by Susan Irvine, p. 55.
101
ASC F, ed. by Peter S. Baker, pp. 79-80.
102
John uses the word tripudio, literally an energetic dance, used to signify the kind of
celebration due to the magnitude of the victory. John of Worcester, The Chronicle, [937], pp.
392-93.
103
Hiberniensium multarumque insularum rex paganus Anlafus, a socero suo rege Scottorum
Constantino incitatus, ostium Humbre fluminis ualida cum classe ingreditur, The pagan king
of Ireland and the many islands, Anlaf, driven on by his father-in-law Constantine king of the
 129

the tenth-century texts represent Anlaf as the leading protagonist, Johns version

suggests a source which depicted the invasion as the work of Constantine.104

As in the poem, Johns account depicts thelstan with his brother Edmund the

prince, clito, as equally responsible for the death of the five kings and seven earls and

for the overall victory. Unlike the poem, he makes no reference to their family descent

as sons of Edward or to their returning to Wessex, and his summary of the bloodshed

differs from the poem in making no comparison with the Saxon invasions:

tantumque sanguinis quantum eatenus in Anglia nullo in bello fusum est

fuderunt.

they shed as much blood as had so far not been shed in any war in England.

While there is nothing to suggest that these differences are anything other than Johns

simplification of details in line with his normal Chronicle style, they effectually remove

both the dynastic Wessex element stressed in the poem and the place of the battle within

Saxon historical tradition. thelstan is depicted by John, not as a tenth-century King of

Wessex, but as a king of England who successfully repulsed a Scots initiated invasion

which, if successful, would have given the pagan Vikings of Ireland rule over the

English.

Symeon of Durham includes details not found in John and this may indicate he

was drawing on local traditions. He gives three alternative names for the site of the

battle, Wendune, Et Brunnanwerc and Brunnanbyrig. This has not helped scholars to

locate the battlefield but, as will be seen in Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, the

name Wendune has been seen as possibly linking Brunanburh with the battle of

Vnheir in Egils saga. Symeon also states that the invaders came in 615 ships and he

Scots, entered the mouth of the Humber river with a strong fleet. John of Worcester, The
Chronicle, [937], pp. 392 and 393, n. 9.
104
These variations may indicate that different local names existed for the site. Symeons
account linked thelstans expedition to Scotland with Dunottar and the east coast. It is
possible that John is reflecting this when he describes the invading force coming from the east
to enter Britain via the Humber.
 130

includes the King of the Cumbrians alongside Constantine and Anlaf (or Olaf) as one of

the kings involved. He does not describe the battle or the numbers killed, nor does he

describe Anlaf as a pagan but, in keeping with the theme already noted, he depicts

thelstan as victorious because of the trust he had placed in the patronage provided for

him by St Cuthbert. Symeon continues the tenth-century theme of thelstan as a

bringer of peace, noted in Chapter 1, and draws a contrast between this and the terror

thelstan inspired in his enemies:105

At ille sancti Cuthberti patrocinio confisus, prostrata multitudine infinita reges

illos de regno suo propulit, suisque gloriosum reportans triumphum; hostibus
circumquaque tremendus, suis erat pacificus, et in pace postmodum uitam
terminauit.

But he [thelstan], having placed his trust in the patronage of St Cuthbert and a
vast number beyond counting [of the enemy] having been laid low, drove those
kings from his kingdom, winning for his people a glorious triumph; an object of
terror to his enemies on all sides, he was a bringer of peace to his own people
and afterwards he ended his life in peace.

Gaimar refers to the battle at Brunanburh as an event which will always be

remembered. This however is for the number killed rather than the valour shown by

thelstan and his brother.106 Alexander Bell comments that the Chronicle poem on

Brunanburh appears to be unknown to Gaimar. However, he may, as Paul Cavill has

pointed out, have drawn on Symeon of Durham or related material for the name of the

battle as his choice of the form Bruneswerce closely models Symeons Brunnanwerc.107

Aprs un an ne mei[n]s ne plus After a year, no less nor more

A Brunewerce ot le desus At Brunewerce he had the upper hand
Sur les Escoz e sur Cumbreis, Over the Scots and the Cumbrians,
Sur Galweiens e sur Pecteis; Over the Welsh and over the Picts;

Gaimars inclusion of the Cumbrians also echoes Symeons account above. A reference

to the Picts is also found in thelweards Chronicon. The Welsh, however, seem to be

105
Libellus de Exordio, ii, 18, pp. 138-39.
106
Iloc en furent tant ocis,/Crei que parole en ert tut dis, In that place there were so many
killed/I believe mention will always be spoken of it. Gaimar, LEstoire, 3521-22, p. 112.
107
Gaimar, LEstoire, 3517-20, pp. 112, 249. Paul Cavill, The Place-Name Debate, in The
Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, pp. 327-49 (pp. 329, 334).
 131

Gaimars own contribution. It would seem that Gaimar drew on a range of sources to

expand the brief details also found in ASC Version E, perhaps reflecting those most

easily available to him locally and through his patroness.

Henry of Huntingdon is the only Anglo-Norman writer who attempts to

reproduce the content of the Brunanburh poem. He describes Brunanburh as preliorum

maximum, the greatest of battles. He makes no mention of Constantine but states that

Anlaf increased his forces from among those of Scots and Danish descent living in

England.108 He therefore depicts thelstan as facing rebellion from within as well as

from outside his kingdom. As will be seen later, this idea that thelstan faced civil war

as well as invasion from abroad is also hinted at by William of Malmesbury and depicts

thelstan as a more vulnerable king than the image of him as Rex totius Britanniae and

basileus in the tenth-century texts.

Henry attempts a Latin translation of the Old English Brunanburh poem,

explaining some of the difficulties he faced but justifying his decision on the grounds

that his readers need to understand the enormity of the event for people at the time:109

De cuius prelii magnitudine Anglici scriptores quasi carminis modo

proloquentes, et extraneis tam uerbis quam figuris usi translatione fida donandi
sunt. Vt pene de uerbo in uerbum eorum interpretantes eloquium ex grauitate
uerborum grauitatem actuum et animorum gentis illius condiscamus.

Concerning the magnitude of this battle, the English writers, as if

communicating in the manner of a song, have used both foreign words and
images and they must be represented through a faithful translation. So that by
giving expression to their eloquence almost word for word, we may, from the
dignity of the words used, together learn of the dignity of the deeds and courage
of that race.

108
Qui uires suas gente Scotorum et Dacorum in Anglia conuersantium adauxerat, Who
(Anlaf) had increased his own forces with descendants of Scots and Danes living in England.
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 310-11.
109
Historia Anglorum, v, 19, pp. 310-315. A. G. Rigg, counters criticism of the accuracy of
Henrys translation arguing that he achieved a remarkable coalescence of the very different
techniques involved in Latin metrical poetry and Old English rhythmic verse. A. G Rigg,
Henry of Huntingdons Metrical Experiments, Journal of Medieval Latin, 1 (Turnhout:
Brepols, 1991), 60-72 (pp. 68-69).
 132

Despite the serious motive he gave for including his translation of the poem, Henry later

describes it as having been inserted as light relief before he returned to the task of

writing history.110 It is not that Henry is averse to including poetry in his Historia

Anglorum. Greenway has identified several places where Henry incorporates lines from

lost Latin poems which celebrate the battle successes of the Wessex kings Aethelwulf,

Alfred, Edward and Edmund. In each of these examples, the king is depicted as

supported by God in achieving victory.111 As noted in Chapter 1, the Old English poem

on Brunanburh is singularly lacking in Christian references and Henrys translation

captures this. The strangeness of his Latin and the images of thelstan as decus

ducum, the glory of military leaders, and nobilibus torquium dator, giver of rings

to the nobles, depict thelstan as a pagan, heroic king of the past who belonged to a

very different culture from that of the twelfth century.

Death of Edwin

The earliest reference to the death of Edwin is found in the texts of the Continental

tradition. Folcuin, writing in the early 960s, records that thelstan had welcomed to

Bath a group of monks from St Bertin who were opposed to the introduction in their

abbey of the Benedictine reforms. Folcuin explained that thelstans action reflected

his gratitude to the monks of St Bertin

[] quia frater eiusdem incliti regis Edwinus rex in monasterio Sancti Bertini
fuerat tumulatus. Siquidem anno Verbi incarnati 933. idem rex Edwinus, cum,
cogente aliqua regni sui perturbatione, hac in maris parte ascensa navi vellet
devenire, perturbatione ventorum facta navique collisa, mediis fluctibus absortus
est. Cuius corpus cum ad litus esset devectum, Adalolfus comes, quoniam
propinquus ei carnali consanguinitate erat, cum honore sumens, ad Sancti
Bertini monasterium detulit tumulandum.112

110
His causa recreandi interpositis, ad historiam redeamus, having interposed these [verses]
to provide refreshment, let us return to history. Historia Anglorum, v. 19, p. 314.
111
Historia Anglorum, ii, 30, pp. 114-15; ii, 34, pp. 120-21; iii, 33, pp. 184-85; iii, 34, pp. 188-
89; iii, 39, pp. 194-95; iv, 29, pp. 262-63.
112
Folcuin, Gesta Abbatum Sancti Bertini Sithiensium, ed. by O. Holder-Egger, MGH
Scriptores, 13 (Hannover: Hahn, 1881), pp. 607-35 (p. 629).
 133

Because the brother of that same celebrated king, King Edwin, had been buried
in the monastery of St Bertin. Since indeed in the year 933 of the Word
Incarnate, when the same King Edwin, some disorder in his kingdom making it
necessary, had embarked on ship and wished to come to land in this part of the
sea, a turmoil of winds having arisen his ship was wrecked and he was
swallowed down in the middle of the waves. When his body had been washed to
the shore, Count Adalolfus, since he was a kinsman of his closely related by
blood, received it with honour and brought it to the monastery of St Bertin for
burial.

Folcuins account does not suggest that there was anything suspicious about Edwins

death. The reason why Edwin felt it necessary to leave England is only vaguely stated

but he is twice referred to as rex. Scholarship has provided various theories as to why

Edwin left England. Charles Plummer has suggested that he might have been under-

king of Kent and suspected of fomenting rebellion.113 However, other theories are

equally possible. For example, it has always been unclear how Northumbria was

governed after Eamont, especially as thelstans charters suggest that he spent most of

his time in the southern parts of the country. One possible answer would be that Edwin,

the only half-brother old enough to have challenged for the kingship, acted as under-

king of Northumbria. If so, given the vulnerability to invasion of this northern region, it

is easy to surmise that Edwin may have been represented as dealing with the enemy, as

was Archbishop Wulfstan of York. In Edwins case this may have resulted in exile,

whether voluntary or enforced. This may also help to explain later accounts of Edwins

death which seem to have originated from Northumbria.

The following Table compares the accounts of Edwins death in the ASC and

Anglo-Norman histories. This reveals the existence of two very different versions. One

makes no mention of thelstan while the other accuses him of ordering Edwin to be

drowned.

113
Charles Plummer, Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1892-99), II, 137-38.
 134

Table 6. Accounts of Edwins Death

thelstan Accused No Direct Accusation

Twelfth Century Texts Twelfth Century Texts
Symeon of Durham, Historia Regum:114 ASC Version E:
933 rex Ethelstanus jussit Eadwinum fratrem 933 Her adranc dwine eling on s.
suum submergi in mare.
Here the aethling Edwin was drowned at sea.
King thelstan ordered his brother Edwin to
be drowned in the sea.
Roger of Hoveden: (934)115
Henry of Huntingdon: 117
Nec multo post, aduersa perculsus fortuna fratrem
As above. suum Edwinum, magni uigoris et bone indolis
iuuenem, maris fluctibus flebiliter amisit.
Not long after, stricken by bad fortune he
sorrowfully lost to the waves of the sea his brother
Edwin, a young man of great energy and good
disposition.

John of Worcester, Marginal Note in John of Worcester, MS C of The Chronicle:

MS B of The Chronicle: 116
Middletunensem ecclesiam fecit rex No mention of Edwins death.
Athelstanus pro anima fratris sui Edwi(n)i,
quem pravo corruptus consilio Anglia eiecit.
King thelstan built the church at Milton for
the soul of his brother Edwin whom he,
seduced by distorted advice, drove out of
England.
Thirteenth Century Texts
Roger of Wendover: (934) 118
As in Symeon of Durham, but gives as a stated
reason that thelstan, being of low birth,
feared Edwins claim to the throne.

The earliest surviving account of thelstan as responsible for his brothers death comes

from the Historia Regum, attributed to Stymeon of Durham, and is given further

prominence by being repeated verbatim in the summary Historiae Recapitulatio.119 No

114
Historia Regum, in Opera et Collectanea, ed. by Hodgson Hinde, p. 64.
115
Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, p. 54.
116
John of Worcester, The Chronicle, Appendix B, p. 394.
117
Historia Anglorum, v, 18, pp. 310-11.
118
Flores Historiarum, p. 389-90.
119
Historiae Recapitulatio, in Opera et Collectanea, ed. by Hodgson Hinde, Surtees Society,
51 (Durham: Andrews & Co., 1868), pp. 67-77 (p. 77).
 135

reason is given for thelstans action but the text dates the event to 933, just before

thelstans recorded expedition to Scotland and his visit to Chester-le-Street,

supporting the idea that it represents a Northumbrian version of events. Of the later

chroniclers only Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover follow the Northumbrian

version, with Roger of Wendover ascribing political reasons for Edwins death. This, he

relates, was the result of thelstans anxiety over the status of his own birth and his fear

that as the young Edwin grew into manhood he would challenge for the throne:

consecratus autem Ethelstanus, fratrem suum Eadwinum, quem de legitimo

matrimonio cognovit generatum, nigerrimo perstrinxit odio, metuens ne per
ipsum quandoque a regni solio privaretur.120

However, thelstan, after his consecration, marked with the blackest hatred his
brother Edwin, whom he knew was the son of a legitimate marriage, fearing that
through him at some point he might be deprived of the throne of the kingdom.

It is not known whether Roger was using a written source for this information or

drawing on the kind of popular versions of thelstans birth and succession mentioned

by William of Malmesbury and considered in the section on William below. If the

latter, it is perhaps indicative of the strength of such popular stories that they apparently

were still current in the early thirteenth century.

Version E of the ASC is the only entry on Edwins death in the Chronicle. This

represents it as an accidental event. Henry of Huntingdon emphasises this further by

describing Edwins death as an ill-fortune suffered by thelstan. John of Worcester

makes no mention of Edwins death in the main manuscript C but a marginal note in the

Bury St Edmunds MS B, depicts thelstan as responsible for his brothers exile but on

the basis of false information. These texts, which reflect more kindly on thelstan, are

120
Flores Historiarum, p. 390. Rogers account of thelstans birth is the same as in William of
Malmesbury but William does not link it with Edwins death. Instead he ascribes Edwins exile
and drowning to malicious and false rumours which caused thelstan to suspect his brothers
loyalty. For details see Section 3 below.
 136

more in line with Folcuins contemporary version of events rather than the

Northumbrian-based accounts which accuse thelstan of causing his brothers death.

Overview

These accounts of Edwins death particularly illustrate how the versions provided by the

Anglo-Norman writers depended on their choice and use of existing sources. Roger of

Hoveden perhaps provides the best example. He mainly uses John of Worcester as his

source but draws on Symeon for Edwins death, which Johns original text does not

mention. For thelstans reign as a whole, it is noticeable that Symeon of Durham and

Henry of Huntingdon both provide individualized versions which reflect the aims of

their work. Thus the thelstan of Henry is a highly successful military leader who dies

young, illustrating his overall theme of the transiency of worldly success. Symeons

thelstan is a pious, generous and humble king whose devotion to St Cuthbert earns

him victory over his enemies and the crown of all Britain, fulfilling Cuthberts promise

to King Alfred. At the same time as Henry and Symeon were writing their accounts,

John of Worcester was compiling his scholarly chronicle. Although based closely on the

ASC, there is evidence of John editing his material by combining or altering the order of

events to fit his own purposes, omitting some details and adding his own interpretation,

for example in his account of thelstans succession.

Johns use of several versions of the ASC gives his work greater breadth and the

use of his text as a main source by Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover both

endorses what he has written and gives it greater permanency. Gaimar can be said to

have done the same for the ASC, making it accessible in French for a Norman audience.

However, like Henry of Huntingdon, he draws almost exclusively on Version E of the

Chronicle and, as a result, both provide a very limited account of thelstan and his

reign.
 137

William of Malmesbury is the only Anglo-Norman historian who sets out to

produce a detailed account of thelstan by drawing on a wide range of sources. He is

also a historian who shows concern about how history should be written and shares this

with his readers. William indicates he had several purposes for his work. He wishes to

provide a trustworthy account of thelstan as a person as well as king, win patronage

and financial support for his abbey of Malmesbury where thelstan was buried and

please the patrons to whom he had dedicated his work. In the following section I

analyse how these purposes are evident in Williams depiction of thelstan and how his

narrative on thelstan and his reign illustrate his approach to writing history.

Section Three: William of Malmesbury

Introduction

Opinions on Williams standing as a historian differ widely.121 He is variously described

as having produced a popular and standard history;122 one of the last major figures in

a tradition of Christian scholarship dominated by Benedictine monasticism;123 a

treacherous witness of unconfirmed historical material;124 creative, entertaining,

humorous and, from a scholars point of view, subversive;125 a writer of studied

ambiguity and paradox.126 While this range of views reflects something of the variety

of content and style to be found in Williams work, it also illustrates how scholars have

121
For an overview of William as historian see Gransden, Historical Writings in England,
pp.166-85.
122
De Gestis Regum Anglorum Willelmi Malmesbiriensis Monachi, ed. by William Stubbs, 2
vols (London: HMSO, 1887), I, p. xci. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed.
and trans. by R. A .B. Mynors, completed by R. M.Thomson and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998-99), II, pp. xliii-xlv.
123
Rodney M. Thomson, William of Malmesbury in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-
Saxon England, ed. by Lapidge and others, pp. 476-77.
124
Dumville, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar, p. 146.
125
Julia Barrow, William of Malmesburys Use of Charters, in Narrative and History in the
Early Medieval West, ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, pp. 67-89 (pp. 72, 81).
126
Paul Antony Hayward, The Importance of Being Ambiguous: Innuendo and Legerdemain in
William of Malmesburys Gesta Regum and Gesta Pontificum Anglicorum, Anglo-Norman
Studies, 33 (2010), 75-102 (p. 75).
 138

responded as readers, their specialist knowledge focusing them on certain aspects of the

text. Yet despite these differences there is also a measure of agreement that William

showed great industry in gathering together material from disparate sources. As a result

his work is still recognized today as a significant source for thelstan and his reign.127

While the opinions of others may vary, there is no doubt that William regarded

himself as a serious, scholarly historian. In his Gesta Regum William claims to have

fulfilled his aim of following in Bedes footsteps and providing a work which will be of

benefit to future historians:128

priuatim ipse michi sub ope Christi gratulor, quod continuam Anglorum
historiam ordinauerim post Bedam uel solus uel primus. Si quis ergo, sicut iam
susurrari audio, post me scribendi de talibus munus attemptauerit, michi debeat
collectionis gratiam, sibi habeat electionis materiam.

I personally congratulate myself under Christs help, that I either alone, or first
since Bede, have narrated in order a continuous history of the English; If
anyone, therefore, as already I hear is whispered, attempted after me the task of
writing about such things, he would owe thanks to me for collating the material,
the thanks for its selection he would have for himself.

However, Williams letters on the dedication of his work suggest that he had another

main aim which influenced his writing. The first letter celebrates the encouragement

given to his writing of the Gesta Regum by Queen Matilda during her lifetime; the

second dedicates the work to her daughter, addressed as the Empress Matilda. This

records that Queen Matilda had requested the work wishing to know more of her family

connections with St Aldhelm, founder of Malmesbury.129 Following the death of the

Empress Matilda, William introduced at the end of Book Five an epilogue in praise of

her half-brother, Robert Earl of Gloucester, whom he praises for his known support for

Tewkesbury Abbey and to whom he promises to dedicate his Historia Novella. Later he

dedicates the Gesta Regum to Robert in a separate letter originally appended in the

127
Foot, thelstan, p. 258.
128
Gesta Regum Anglorum, v, 445, I, 796-97.
129
Gesta Regum, I, 2-9.
 139

manuscripts at the end of Book Three. 130 These dedications indicate that William hoped

to secure royal support for his work. There is no evidence that this happened but it may

help to explain his moderate, and at times sympathetic, treatment both of the reign of

Roberts father, Henry I, and of thelstan who was buried at Malmesbury. This bias in

favour of the Abbey of Malmesbury is particularly evident in his section on thelstan

where William repeatedly refers to thelstans devotion to St Aldhelm, records his

generous gifts and support for the Abbey and his choice of Malmesbury for his own

burial and that of his two cousins killed at Brunanburh.

Williams Presentation of Himself as Historian

William tells his readers a great deal about his approach to history in the separate

Prologues at the beginning of each of the five books of the Gesta Regum. Taking the

Prologues as a starting point it is possible to identify how William saw his role as

historian and how he disassociated himself from practices of historiography he criticised

in others. His Prologues provide a framework for looking at Williams text as a whole.

As Robert Stein has argued, by looking at a text rather than through it,131 we are able

to avoid concentrating on what seems plausible (or of specialist interest) and look

instead at how the author seeks to gain his readers trust in his representation of events.

In the Gesta Regum William does this by spelling out his own very clear views both on

historical truth and on the importance of his readers responses to his text.

Williams Prologues

The following analysis of Williams prologues is based on Gransdens identification of

the key topoi used by Latin historians of the twelfth century.132 From this it will be seen

130
Gesta Regum, I, 10-13, 446-49, 798-801.
131
Robert M. Stein, Literary Criticism and the Evidence of History, in Writing Medieval
History, ed. by Partner, pp. 67-87 (p. 72).
132
Gransden defines twelfth-century Latin historical prologues as a genre rooted in Greek and
Roman literary traditions, designed to introduce the writer to his audience, make the reader
 140

that William presents himself as a reflective, critical historian. He uses his prologues to

address the question of the veracity of his work, express his opposition to contemporary

expectations of the historian and outline the complementary role which he expects of his

readers. By comparing the content of the separate prologues it is possible to chart

changes in the way William portrays himself against the criteria identified by

Gransden.133 This is particularly evident in the transition from his self-confident

approach in Prologues I and II to that of greater self-analysis and justification in the

Prologues to Books III-V.

receptive, provide information on the purpose and range of the work and show some rhetorical
skill. Gransden, Legends, Traditions and History in Medieval England, pp. 125-51.
133
Gransden, Legends and Traditions, pp. 125-26.
 141

Table 7. Examples of Historical topoi in William of Malmesburys Gesta Regum Prologues, Books I-V
Topoi (Gransden). Gesta Regum:Books I-II Gesta Regum: Books III-V
1. Dedication to important person. 1. Dedication to Matilda provided in a separate 1. Separate letter of dedication to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, son
letter. of Henry I.

2. Author persuaded to write. 2. Bk, I. Writing from love of country and respect 2. Bk. IV. As a result of criticism he had retired. Now he has
for authority of those enjoining the task, he wishes decided to continue his history from love of study, the inability to
to make good the break in historical writing since do nothing or spend time on worthless activities, and encouraged
Bede. by his friends.

3.Modestly claims to be unequal to the 3. Bk.V. Henrys achievements require an abler hand. To record
task cant write good enough prose to only what he knows could weary the most eloquent and overload a
do justice to subject. library. Matters require more leisure than he has. Cicero and
Vergil could not do it justice.

4. Bk. I. Will achieve his aim if divine favour 4. Little time to be spent on things useful to no-one, boring to the
4. Promises to write briefly and simply.
enables him to avoid the kind of language which reader and producing hatred towards the writer.
wrecked thelweards work.
5. Bk. I. Hopes for a future reputation, if not of 5. Bk. IV. Does not claim his account of the Christians journey to
5. Will compensate by industry.
eloquence, then of diligence. Jerusalem will be more fitting than those of previous writers.

6. Sometimes mention previous authors 6. Bk. I. Praises Bedes learning, humility and
and discuss sources. good style; castigates thelweards Latin;
Eadmer brief on times before William. Challenges
readers to see if they can find other early sources.
Bk. II. Sought out chronicles but found them
unsatisfactory.
7. Bk. IV. Many think it unwise he wrote of contemporary kings.
7. Special difficulty of contemporary Truth leads to upset, falsehood meets with support. The indolent
history. consider him unequal to so great a task and distortedly censure the
 142

undertaking with their insults. His limited knowledge and his

omissions could detract from Henrys standing. His weakness
prevents him recounting all Henrys actions and to do so would
provide readers with a surfeit.
8. Bk. III. The Normans praise William I excessively; the English
give undeserved reproach. Always there are some ready to detract
8. Bk. I. Gives little weight to the judgement of
8. Subject to accusations of malice and from the actions of the noble. Bk. IV. Everything inclines to evil.
his contemporaries. Looks forward to a time when
flattery. Writers pass over the bad from fear and fabricate the good to win
love and envy no longer play a part.
plaudits.
9/10. Bk. III. His account of William I will be in proportion so
that it is not blamed as false and does not over-censure or over-
9/10. Bk. I. Does not vouch for the truth of his praise. Different interpretations are possible but the time will
9. Primary duty to tell the truth account of long past events. Truth rests with his
10. Narrative to be accurate, facts right come when the reader decides for himself.
sources. His account of later times is based on Bk. IV. In writing of William II, he will avoid exciting hatred or
and free from bias. what he himself has seen, or heard from falsifying the truth. Some matters may be omitted, but he will not
trustworthy men. Bk. II. Asks readers to send him conceal his opinions.. Bk. V. In writing of Henry I he does not
information he should know so he can add it in the trust doubtful accounts and includes only a few events; concerned
margin. Hopes that although the first book may this may mean the hero suffers.
give rise to doubt for some, truth will not be
shamed. 11. Bk. V. He will relate a few deeds.Fame will disseminate the
rest and memory successfully carry them to posterity.
11. Bk. I. Claims to fill a gap of 223 years from
11. Purpose often given as preserving the time of Bede. 12. Bk. III. Includes things which will spur on the indolent,
memory of past for posterity. provide an example to the energetic, be useful to the present age
12. Bk. II. Has been influenced by his study of and pleasing to posterity. He will spend Bk. IV. Includes the
12. History provides examples of good ethics which promotes the living of a good life.
& bad behaviour for reader to follow. or crusade because of its fame and as a spur to valour.
The examples of history inspire readers to pursue
eschew. good and beware of evil.
 143

13 Shows Gods dominion & how he

punishes wrongdoers.
 144

In his prologues William addresses his readers as fellow scholars and potential critics,134

bemoaning his lack of Latin sources since the time of Bede, challenging his readers to

see if they are more successful,135 seeking their forbearance if he includes nothing new

and asking them to send him any further information so he can add it in the margins of

his text.136

He anticipates the criticisms which his selection of material may generate but

justifies his decisions citing as reasons the importance of moderation, his limited access

to contemporary information and the need to avoid boring his reader with unnecessary

detail. Major digressions he excuses on the grounds that they provide information which

his readers should have or which was not previously available to them. In line with

tradition, he sees history as having a moral purpose, inspiring valour and encouraging

good behaviour and the avoidance of evil.

The prologues show that William was not afraid to communicate his personal

standpoints on the writing history to his readers. His comments also indicate that he

knew others would have different points of view. In Prologue I William refers to the

existence of love (amor) and envy (livor) among his contemporaries and claims not

to care about their opinions, but in Prologue IV he states that criticism had caused him

to break off his work which he only resumed because of his love of study and the

support of his friends. His Prologues to Books III-V reflect the difficulties he faced in

134
In his prologue to Book IV, William quotes St Jeromes on his readers, si placet, legant; si
non placet, abitiant, if [my work] pleases them, let them read it; if it does not please them, let
them depart, adding, et ego haec non tediosis ingero, sed studiosis [] consecro, I too do not
present these [writings] to those who find such things irksome but dedicate them to those who
are devoted to studying. Gesta Regum, I, 540-41.
135
post eum non facile, ut arbitror, reperies qui historiis illius gentis Latina oratione texendis
animum dederunt. Viderint alii si quid earum rerum uel iam inuenerint uel post haec inuenturi
sint, after him [Bede], you will not easily, as I think, find those who have given their attention
to producing histories of that [the English] race in the Latin language. Let others see if they have
either already found anything of those things or are going to after this. Gesta Regum, i,
Prologue, I, 14-15.
136
immo, dum uiuo, michi cognoscenda communicet, ut meo stylo apponantur saltem in
margine quae non occurrerunt in ordine, By all means, while I live, let him communicate to
me those things I ought to know about so that those which have not appeared in the text may at
least be added by my pen in the margin. Gesta Regum, ii, Prologue, I, 152-53.
 145

recounting the actions of the Norman and Plantagenet kings so soon after the actual

events. His criticisms of the work of other writers as emotionally charged and open to

serious bias and distortion, paints a vivid picture of the influences William believed

historians faced:

Prologue: De Willelmo rege scripserunt, diuersis Both the Normans and the English have
Book III incitati causis, et Normanni et Angli. written about King William, but spurred
Illi ad nimias efferati sunt laudes, on for different reasons. The Normans
bona malaque iuxta in caelum have been unrestrainedly roused to
predicantes; isti, pro gentilibus excessive praise, lauding to the sky
inimicitiis, fedis dominum suum good and bad alike; the English,
proscidere conuitiis. because of inherited animosity, have
reviled their lord with foul abuse.

Satis superque suffitiunt qui genuino There are enough people, and more,
molari facta bonorum lacerent. who, through their inbuilt habit of
grinding the facts, mangle the deeds of
the good.
Prologue: quippe presentium mala periculose, It is dangerous to speak of the bad
Book IV bona plausibiliter dicuntur. Eo fit, deeds of those still alive while to speak
inquiunt, ut, quia modo omnia magis of their good deeds wins applause. And
ad peius quam ad melius sint so it happens, men say, that, because
procliuia, scriptor obuia mala propter now everything is more inclined to the
metum pretereat, et, bona si non sunt, worse than the better, the writer omits
propter plausum confingat. through fear the evil he meets, and, if
there are no good things to report,
invents them because of the applause
they bring.

William states that he will avoid the pitfalls he outlines in Prologue III by courageously

following a course of moderation, avoiding excessive praise or blame. He claims that,

judged correctly, his readers will see that he is aware of potential criticism but can be

moderate without making any sacrifice to style:137

Michi haec placet prouintia, ut mala quantum queo sine ueritatis dispendio
extenuem, bona non nimis uentose collaudem. De qua moderatione, ut estimo,
ueri qui erunt arbitri me nec timidum nec inelegantem pronuntiabunt.

137
Gesta Regum, iii, Prologue, I, 424-25; iv, Prologue, I, pp. 540-41.
 146

For me, this is the position which seems right, that, as far as I can, I play down
evil without losing the truth; the good I strongly commend but not too inflatedly.
Those who will judge this moderation truly, will, I reckon, proclaim that I am
neither cowardly nor lacking in stylishness.

Perhaps conscious some readers will see his claim to play down evil and strongly

commend the good as bias, he qualifies it; the good will be suitably emphasized but not

over-inflated while evil will be presented in a moderate light quantum queo sine

ueritatis dispendio, as far as I can without losing the truth.

William presents himself as very concerned with questions of veracity and

reliability in his own text and in his sources. He addresses this issue in a number of

ways. He makes it clear that he expects his readers to be critical and make their own

assessment of the credibility of his material. Referring to the content of his first book,

William expresses his hope that his readers will find it a truthful account but anticipates

there will be some who will also question it:

in quibus, ut spero, non erubescet ueritas, etsi forte alicui suboriatur dubietas.

in which, as I hope, truth will not have cause to blush, although perhaps for
anyone doubt may arise.

He explains that responsibility for the veracity of events from the past rest with the

authors of his sources and not with himself:138

sciat me nichil de retro actis preter coherentiam annorum pro uero pacisci; fides
dictorum penes auctores erit.

Let him know that I make no covenant respecting the truth concerning things
done in the past other than the sequence of years; the credibility of what is
recorded will be with their authors.

Not infrequently, William shares his own reservations on the acceptability of his source

material. For example, he questions the reliability of some early traditions and dismisses

138
Gesta Regum, i, Prologue, I, 16-17; ii, Prologue, I, 150-51. Gransden draws a parallel
with Bedes statement in the Prologue to the Historia Ecclesiastica where he states that any
error should not be imputed to him because he has tried to ensure the very best reliability for his
sources. Williams statement is much stronger, absolving himself of any responsibility for the
accuracy of his source material. Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, I, 8-11. Gransden, Legends,
Traditions and History, p. 142.
 147

the work of thelweard because of its extravagant style;139 he queries some of Bedes

statements, directly or indirectly;140 in his section on thelstan he queries or challenges

the veracity of some of the traditional material he uses.141 Sometimes he quotes directly

from a source text rather than paraphrasing it, stating that he wishes to preserve the

accuracy of the content and style of the original.142

William is also aware that different interpretations can exist for the same events

and sees the reader as having a responsibility for making up his or her own mind on

these. He leaves it to his readers to resolve the difference in dates given in the Chronicle

and in Bede for the reign of Ethelbert of Kent, claiming it was sufficient he had drawn

attention to it.143 Writing of William Is younger son in Prologue III he points up

different ways of looking at historical outcomes:

Si expeditiones attendas, ignores cautior an audatior fuerit, si fortunas aspitias,

hesites beatior aut boni eventus indigentior fuerit. Sed de talibus tempus erit cum
lector arbitretur.

If you were to concentrate on his military expeditions, you would not know
whether he was more cautious or more daring; if you were to consider how
things turned out for him, you would be uncertain whether he had been more
blessed or more in need of a good outcome. But there will be a time when the
reader makes a decision about such things.

In his summing up towards the end of Book V, William returns to this issue again and

claims that whatever alternative versions of events exist, he has chosen to use those he

considered were based on sources worthy of trust. This, he says is the true law of

history writing:144

139
Gesta Regum, i,Prologue, I, 14-15; i, 57, I, 86-87.
140
Gesta Regum, i, 9; i, 33; ii, 208, I, 28-29, 46-47, 388-89.
141
See analysis below.
142
Williams reasons for including Bedes own account illustrates this particularly well: ipsius
uerba lector recognoscat licebit, ne meis sermonibus, uel plus uel minus, ipsa nouae formae
procudat necessitas, the reader will be allowed to examine the words of [Bede] himself, so as
to avoid the need for them to be cast, either more or less, into a new form by my discourse.
Gesta Regum, i, 54, I, 84-85.
143
Gesta Regum, i, 9, I, 28-29.
144
Gesta Regum, iii, Prologue, I, 424-25; v, 445, I, 796-97.
 148

Et quidem erunt multi fortassis in diuersis regionibus Angliae qui quaedam aliter
ac ego dixi se dicant audisse uel legisse. Veruntamen, si recte aguntur iuditio,
non ideo me censorio expungent stilo; ego enim, ueram legem secutus historiae,
nichil unquam posui nisi quod a fidelibus relatoribus uel scriptoribus addidici.

And indeed, there will perhaps be many, in different parts of England, who say
they have heard or read certain things differently from what I have said;
nevertheless, if in their judgement these are correctly done, let them not for that
reason strike me off with their pen like a censor; for I, following the true law of
history, have never set down anything unless I have learnt it from trustworthy
narrators or writers.

While this passage is reminiscent of Bedes claim to follow the vera lex historiae in

his Preface to the Historia Ecclesiatica, there are also significant differences.145 Where

Bede refers to the possibility of his readers finding things in his faithful transmission of

tradition which are contrary to the truth, William refers only to their finding information

which differs from that in his sources. The historian has to make choices and William

continued this theme, pointing out that anyone who undertakes a similar task to his own

in the future would also need to decide what material to include and what to omit.146

While Williams prologues reflect many of the historical topoi identified by

Gransden, they go further. William uses them to share with his readers his experience as

an historian, his philosophical position on what constitutes veracity in a history text

and his expectations of his readers. As the examples above illustrate, he continues to

address these themes through the discourse of his text, conversing with his readers both

as historian and narrator. In this, his style exemplifies many of the literary techniques

identified by Partner as typical of a narrative form of history:

Medieval texts that approached their contemporary readers, and us, claiming to
be non-fictional works of history nevertheless drew fully on the paradigms of

145
Lectoremque suppliciter obsecro, ut si qua in his quae scripsimus aliter quam se veritas
habet posita repererit, non hoc nobis imputet qui, quod vera lex historiae est, simpliciter ea quae
fama vulgante collegimus ad instructionem posteritatis literis mandare studuimus, And I
humbly beg the reader, that if he finds anything included in what we have written contrary to
how the truth exists, he would not impute this as a fault to us who, because it is the true law of
history, have striven to entrust straightforwardly to our text those matters made known by
tradition which we have gathered for the instruction of succeeding generations. Bede, Historia
Ecclesiastica, I, 8-11.
146
Gesta Regum, v, 445, I, 796-97.
 149

contemporary fiction. They made use of the same techniques of narrative

structure, were conscious of their relations with other texts and played with the
poetic resources of language in ways we associate with works of fiction. 147

The sections on thelstan in the Gesta Regum provide many examples of

Williams abilities as a narrative historian. Within the text he assumes the role of

narrator, frequently using the first person, reminding his readers of information he has

already given, signposting what is to follow and giving his opinion and personal

interpretation of events. He is anxious to avoid boring his readers with too much detail,

lengthy digressions or a bombastic style typical of some of his sources. He identifies the

intertextuality of his narrative by identifying his sources whether oral, story, poetry,

song or written documentation.

Williams detailed narrative on thelstan forms part of his history of the

English kings, the Gesta Regum. However, his history of the Bishops, the Gesta

Pontificum, includes some material which adds to, or further extends, the depictions of

thelstan in the Gesta Regum. For my analysis of Williams depictions of thelstan,

therefore, I draw on both texts as a source.

thelstan in the Gesta Regum and the Gesta Pontificum

In his Gesta Regum and his Gesta Pontificum William depicts thelstan both as a

person and as a king. He achieves this partly through the range of information he

provides, drawing on different sources, partly through his choice of language and

personal comments. Williams narrative on thelstan in the Gesta Regum falls into four

overlapping sections. He makes no comment on the sources for the first section which

combines material from the ASC with a saga-type story about Anlaf and Brunanburh;

the second section is based on material which William claims to have found in an old

book; in section three William recounts the story of the thegn Alfreds death, quoting

147
Partner, Writing Medieval History, pp. xiv-xv.
 150

from a charter in thelstans name donating Alfreds lands to Malmesbury Abbey;

section four contains stories taken from old songs about thelstans birth and his

brother Edwins death.

Williams use of an old book and old songs are found only in his account of

thelstan and this may reflect the dearth of source information on thelstan noted in

Chapter 1. By combining material from four different sources William creates an

extended narrative which contrasts with his much briefer accounts of Edmund, Eadred

and Edwy. Only the sections on Edgar and Edward the Confessor are longer. It would

appear that William wished to give considerable prominence to thelstan whose

connections with Malmesbury Abbey are repeatedly mentioned. This aspect is further

extended in the Gesta Pontificum, where William writes from an ecclesiastical

perspective. Although he complains at the lack of written records and stories of saints

lives, he supplements the sources he uses by descriptions of the monasteries, shrines and

religious sites he had visited and the relics and sacred objects he saw there. In both

works thelstans love of relics, his generosity towards the Church and his patronage

and special commitment to Malmesbury Abbey, are described in some detail. Given

that one of Williams purposes in writing his Gesta Regum was to gain further royal

patronage for his community, it is not surprising that he wishes his readers to recognize

thelstan as one of the greatest of the Wessex kings.

The following summary of the content on thelstan in the Gesta Regum and the

Gesta Pontificum shows where the texts overlap and where they provide different

information. The same events are repeated more than once in the Gesta Regum and this

can appear unnecessarily clumsy to the reader unless the structure of Williams account

is considered as a whole. The first section provides an overview which the other

sections enhance or extend. In addition, four central themes can be traced in the Gesta

Regum some of which are further touched on or developed in the Gesta Pontificum.
 151

They are, the legitimacy of thelstans right of succession; his success and

magnanimity as a warrior king; his piety and love of relics, and his particular devotion

to St Aldhelm and Malmesbury Abbey. These themes are highlighted in the summary

below leaving in normal type the additional material provided in the two texts:148

148
Gesta Regum Anglorum, ii, 131, 133-35, 136-38, 138-40, I, 206-29. William of Malmesbury,
De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum, ed. and trans. by M. Winterbottom and R. M. Thomson, 2 vols
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2007), v, 246-250, I, 592-603.
 152

Table 8. Summary of Main Content on thelstan in the Gesta Regum and Gesta Pontificum

Gesta Regum: Section 1 Old Book: Section 2 Charter: Section 3 Songs: Section 4 Gesta Pontificum
Edward died. thelstan Edward died at Farndon. thelstan Edward reigned twenty years; thelstan
succeeded. He reigned sixteen acclaimed king; heir in his fathers will. King succeeded his father and reigned
years. thelweard died and Alfred invested thelstan as a warrior; sent sixteen years. thelstan was related to
was buried at Winchester. him to Mercia to be trained for kingship; his Aldhelm and devoted himself to his
education; coronation after death of his service.
father and brother.
Opposition from the thegn Thegn Alfred accused of thelstans birth and
Alfred on grounds of trying to blind thelstan; rule of Britain foretold in
thelstans birth from a collapsed in St Peters Rome, a dream. Edwards
concubine. after swearing his innocence; legitimate son
died. thelstan gave him thelweard dies.
Christian burial. thelstan inherits.
Opposed by Alfred.
thelstans generosity to thelstans links with Malmesbury: his In thanksgiving thelstan Charter giving Alfreds lands to
monasteries. half-sisters marriages and his gifts of relics gives Alfreds possessions Malmesbury. thelstans built
from Hugh the Great; the burial of his to Malmesbury. Buries monasteries; gave relics to Middleton,
cousins at Malmesbury; thelstans wish to there his two cousins killed Malmesbury and Milton. Letter and
be buried there. at Brunanburh. relics from Radbod of Dol. Obtained
relics in Brittany and Normandy with
Rollos help. Built shrine at
Malmesbury.
Sihtrics marriage to Terror of thelstans name subdued all
thelstans sister. Sihtric England except Northumbria. Sihtrics
died and thelstan took marriage and death; thelstan took
Northumbria. Northumbria by right.
thelstan subdued Idwal and Dacre peace treaty with Constantine and thelstan drove the Britons from
Constantine. thelstan Owain. thelstan took York. Treated Exeter and fortified the city.
magnanimously restored them Guthfrith magnanimously. Imposed tribute He set the boundary with Scotland.
 153

to their kingdoms. on North Wales; expelled the Britons from

Exeter, fortified the city,Taemar the
boundary.
Edwin exiled and dies at thelstan founded Mulcheney and
sea. thelstan did seven Milton Abbeys in memory of Edwin,
years penance. Cup- exiled through crooked advice.
bearer punished.
Anlaf invaded; thelstan Anlaf invaded and, accustomed to peace and
deliberately gave way. Anlaf leisure, thelstan initially took no notice of his
spied on thelstan who was peoples suffering.
warned by Anlafs ex-man and
moved camp. Anlaf destroyed
the camp of a bishop and his
household.
Anlaf attacked thelstans thelstans sword restored by Bishop
camp. thelstan saved when Odos prayers. Theodred, Bishop of
his sword was restored by his London present. In memory of the
praying to God and St event thelstan buried his cousins at
Aldhelm. Malmesbury.
thelstans fame abroad, the embassies he
received and his sisters marriages.
Brunefeld: thelstans victory. Battle of Brunefeld. thelstans victory and thelstan supported by bishops Odo
Anlaf fled; Constantine killed. his soldiers sufferings in battle. and Theodred at Brunanburh.
Buried at Malmesbury. thelstan buried at Malmesbury.
 154

Williams Sources on thelstan in the Gesta Regum

Section One: Chronicle and Saga Material

William does not state which sources he used for this opening section. Thomson and

Winterbottom in their commentary align Williams accounts with Version E of the ASC,

largely based on the information he provides on thelstans succession and on

Brunnaburh. However, it is difficult to align Williams narrative with any of the existing

versions of the ASC. For example, Version E makes reference to Guthfrith and to

Edwin, neither of which William includes in his first section, narrating them instead as

part of the old book and songs. It is also possible to see parallels between Versions B, C

and D of the ASC and Williams references to Sihtrics marriage and death, his account

of thelstan taking Northumbria and his description of thelstan establishing his

supremacy over Constantine and the Welsh kings. Yet he makes no mention of

thelstans election in Mercia or of his expedition to Scotland both of which occur in

Versions B, C and D of the ASC. It is possible to argue that William was using a

different version of the Chronicle from those available today. Alternatively, as will be

suggested below, he may have been deliberately selective in the information he used,

passing over entries which did not easily fit with his overall plan. As the summary

above shows, the first section of his text introduces each of the four central themes I

have identified and the later sections contribute further to them.

Section Two: An Old Book

William next introduces an old book he claims to have found, which was written during

thelstans reign. William criticizes the books bombastic style and extravagant praise

of thelstan but excuses the latter as showing the affection in which thelstan was

held, and explains the former as typical of the style of thelstans time. He tells the

reader he will recount in ordinary language some of the information from the book. He

makes it clear that his intention is to enhance thelstans reputation by sharing the
 155

books eulogistic praise of thelstan. William provides no further details on his source

and this has given rise to considerable scholarly debate as to when the book was written,

whether it existed at all or whether thelstan created it in order to provide his own

narrative in praise of thelstan.

The idea of an old book turning up with useful information for the writer was

not new.149 Williams contemporary, Geoffrey of Monmouth, claimed to have been

given an old book by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford. Geoffrey stated he had translated

it from the British language into Latin in his own homely style, avoiding the rhetoric

which he considered would have bored his readers.150 There are parallels between

Geoffrey and William; both were writing during the same period 1125-43; both

dedicated their work to Robert Earl of Gloucester and both claimed to have acquired an

old book and translated it into reader-friendly language. These similarities have been

part of the continuing debate over the status of the information in Williams book and

whether it was merely a literary device used by William to introduce his own version of

events. The answers to these questions have considerable implications both for how we

read this section on thelstan and how we interpret the work of later historians who

used Williams work.151

Thomson and Winterbottom have pointed out that the material from the old

book repeats some of the information in the first section of Williams account of

thelstan and suggested that this supported Williams claim to have inserted the

material from the book he had found.152 It is clear from Williams comments that he

149
Thomson and Winterbottom in their commentary suggest that Williams use of uetusto may
refer to the script which William saw as old, rather than to the age of the book itself. Gesta
Regum, II, 118, n. 132.
150
Geoffrey of Monmouth, De Gestis Britonum, ed. by Michael D. Reeve, trans. by Neil Wright
(Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2007).
151
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 116-18. Michael Wood, In Search of England
(London: Penguin Books, 2000), pp. 149-68. For a recent overview of the arguments for and
against the authenticity of the old book, see Foot, thelstan, Appendix 1, pp. 251-58.
152
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 116.
 156

was aware of the overlaps in his sources but by retaining them he creates a sense of

consensus which helps give validity to his narrative.

The narrative from the old book contains several pieces of information for which

William is the only source: King Alfred investing thelstan with a sword, bejewelled

scabbard and red cloak as a warrior;153 his upbringing and education with his aunt and

uncle in Mercia; his coronation feast and his military successes in taking York,

imposing tribute on North Wales and driving the Britons out of Exeter. The additional

information on thelstans military successes has prompted the suggestion that the

book might be a copy of the Bella Etheltani Regis, Wars of King thelstan, listed in a

thirteenth-century Glastonbury library catalogue.154 While no trace of this book has so

far been identified, Williams close connections with Glastonbury could support such a

theory.155 Despite the uncertainties over the status of Williams book, its material

continues to be widely used as a historical source. Most recently Foot has included its

material in her biography of thelstan and suggested that, despite all the reservations

which have been expressed, the text should, guardedly, be accepted as a useful source

for thelstan and his reign.156

Section Three: The Malmesbury Charter

William includes a Malmesbury charter verbatim in order to complete the story

introduced at the beginning of his narrative of Alfreds opposition to thelstan on

153
This has been interpreted as thelstan being invested as a knight on the basis of later
medieval usage of miles. As a result the text has been used either to argue for a late date of
composition or for chivalry as an earlier concept than previously thought. The problem does not
exist if militem is given its normal meaning of soldier. The red cloak, jewelled belt and Saxon
sword conferred status and indicated wealth but did not, on present evidence, indicate
knigthood in Anglo-Saxon times. Gale Owen-Crocker has commented that archaeological
evidence indicates madder-red as a colour particularly popular with the English and the Anglo-
Scandinavians of York, and this may also suggest a northern origin for the book. Gale R. Owen-
Crocker, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004), p. 320.
154
Foot, thelstan, p. 256-57.
155
William spent time at Glastonbury researching and writing up its history. William of
Malmesbury, De Antiquitate Glastonie Ecclesie, ed. by J. Scott (Woodbridge: Boydell Press,
1981).
156
Foot, thelstan, p. 258.
 157

grounds of birth. In his opening section William promised to do this so his readers could

learn what had happened in the kings own words.157 William uses the charter in both

the Gesta Regum and the Gesta Pontificum to illustrate thelstans commitment to

Malmesbury, but he also adapts his use of the charter to suit the overall purpose of each

work. In the Gesta Regum William includes only that part which describes Alfreds

death and its aftermath, using it as evidence of Alfreds treachery against his future king

and thelstans wisdom and piety in showing him mercy. In Gesta Pontificum, where

William is providing a history of Malmesbury Abbey, he quotes the whole charter,

giving details of the estates and their boundaries. The use of what is claimed as a legal,

Latin document in the kings own words, lends status to Williams account. Foot has

suggested that charters which include narrative of this type were specifically designed to

solve disagreements and prevent challenges in the future.158 If so, William may have

had a further reason for ensuring that the full charter was included in the Gesta

Pontificum. He recounts in his later Historia Novella that Malmesbury had been

appropriated by Bishop Roger of Salisbury, although its ancient rights and privileges

were afterwards restored by King Henry.159 An thelstan charter making a donation of

land to Malmesbury would have been helpful in designating the boundaries of the lands

claimed by the Abbey in this later period.

Although modern scholarship has largely discounted the genuineness of the

charter,160 opinions vary as to whether William himself believed in its authenticity,

included it regardless of whether it was genuine, or even constructed it himself, basing

157
He uses the same technique with Leutheres charter in favour of Malmesbury stating, ut
omnem sermo noster dubietatis deprecetur offensam, uerba eius hic aliqua intexam, so that our
discourse may avert all displeasure arising from uncertainty, I will include here some of his
words. Gesta Regum, i, 29, I, 44-45.
158
Foot, Reading Anglo-Saxon Charters in Narrative and History in the Early Medieval West,
ed. by Tyler and Balzaretti, pp. 39-65 (p. 62).
159
Stubbs, De Gestis Regum Anglorum, II, 481-82, 559-60. Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta
Regum, II, 7.
160
Electronic Sawyer lists S 436 as spurious and a compilation made from Malmesbury charters
S 434-5. S 434 is generally considered genuine and S 435 doubtful.
 158

it on tradition and monastic memories of the past.161 Julia Barrow has suggested a

further possibility. She argues that Williams use of charters, including this one, can be

seen as William poking fun at his scholarly audience. By quoting charters which were

known to be constructs, William was able to use monastic sleight of hand, conferring

respectability on a charter which he and his audience knew was undeserved.162

Although the question of what William knew or believed about the thelstan charter

remains unclear, his including it as evidence falls well within his criteria, noted above,

of reporting his sources while taking no responsibility for their veracity.

Section Four: The Cantilenae

Carmina is the more usual Latin word for songs in both classical and medieval Latin.

Cantilenae was often, but not exclusively, used of scurrilous or gossipy songs but it is

not clear how William intended the word to be interpreted in the Gesta Regum. He

justifies including the stories of thelstans birth and Edwins death from the songs

because they were traditional. This suggests that their content was sufficiently available

in his own day to make it difficult for him to ignore them:

sequentia magis cantilenis per successiones temporum detritis quam libris ad

instructiones posteriorum elucubratis didicerim. Quae ideo apposui, non ut
earum ueritatem defendam, sed ne lectorum scientiam defraudem.163

The following matters I may have learnt more from songs impaired by the
passages of time, than from books diligently worked on for the instruction of
future generations. These details I have added in for this reason, not to defend
their truthfulness but to avoid cheating my readers out of knowledge.

161
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 126, n. 137.
162
Barrow, William of Malmesburys Use of Charters, in Narrative and History in the Early
Medieval West, ed by Tyler and Balzaretti, pp. 67-85 (pp. 75-81). Barrows evidence rests on
her interpretation of Williams introductory phrases to charters, especially his use of first person
comment. In the case of the thelstan Malmesbury charter, William passes responsibility for its
trustworthiness to his source claiming that the charter is in the kings own words.
163
Gesta Regum, ii, 138, I, 224-25. William uses songs elsewhere in his Gesta Regum and
similarly qualifies their inclusion as untrustworthy. See Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta
Regum, II, 127, n. 138 (2). C. E. Wright also identifies cantilenae as the probable source for
Williams accounts of Anlaf disguising himself as a minstrel to spy on thelstan at Brunanburh
and Alfreds attempt to blind thelstan to prevent his succession as king. The Cultivation of
Saga in Anglo-Saxon England (London: Oliver and Boyd, 1939), pp. 30-31, 144-46, 156-57.
 159

Williams comments can again be seen as an example of his making available all the

information he has found to his readers while leaving responsibility for its veracity to

the source itself and his readers own judgement. His own negative view of the

reliability of the cantilenae is conveyed through his description of them as impaired

by the passage of time and lacking the status of scholarly books. However, as will be

seen below, his inclusion of the material enables him both to present thelstans birth

and future greatness as predestined and to challenge the accusation that thelstan was

responsible for his brothers death.

Williams use of parallel source material can make his narrative account of

thelstan appear disjointed. However, through his introductory comments on their

relevance and trustworthiness, he encourages the reader to see them as accumulative

rather than fragmented. In this way he is able to extend and reinforce his positive

depictions of thelstan. My following analysis of how William presents his four central

themes examines the literary strategies which William uses to convince his readers of

the reliability of his account of thelstan as Edwards heir, a highly successful warrior,

a Christian king noted for his piety and generosity to the Church and a worthy royal

patron of Malmesbury Abbey.

thelstan as Edwards Heir

While the Gesta Pontificum records only that thelstan succeeded to the throne, the

Gesta Regum provides conflicting accounts of thelstans succession from different

sources. William undertakes the role of guide for his readers, emphasizing certain

aspects, questioning and challenging others and making clear his personal view of

events:

Section 1: Based on Williams own Research

Anno Dominicae incarnationis In the nine hundredth and twenty fourth
nongentisimo uicesimo quarto, year of the Lords incarnation thelstan
 160

Ethelstanus filius Edwardi regnare cpit, son of Edward began to reign, and he held
tenuitque regnum annis sexdecim. Frater the kingdom for sixteen years. His
eius Elwardus, paucis diebus post patrem brother, thelweard, departing life a few
uita decedens, sepulturum cum eodem days after his father, had earned the right
Wintoni meruerat. Itaque magno to be buried with him at Winchester. And
consensu optimatum ibidem Ethelstanus so with the great agreement of the nobles
electus, apud regiam uillam quae uocatur thelstan was elected in that same place
Kingestune coronatus est. 164 and crowned at the royal township called
Kingston.

This account includes much of the information found in the ASC versions B, C and D:

lfweard dies shortly after his father Edward, both are buried at Winchester and

thelstan is crowned at Kingston. Williams ordering of these events suggests he

wished to be true to his sources even to the extent of reflecting the ambiguity in the

Chronicle on whether thelstan only inherited the throne because of his brother

lfweards death.165 William, however, omits any reference to a Mercian election.

Instead he states that thelstan was elected with the great support of the nobles at

Winchester. By omitting the Mercian election William depicts thelstans succession

as a normal part of the established dynastic succession in Wessex, based on his direct

descent from Edward the Elder and accepted and supported by the kingdoms leading

men.166 Then William introduces a negative note.

William is the only Anglo-Norman source to include an account of organised

opposition to thelstans coronation led by the thegn Alfred and based on the allegation

(ut ferunt, as they say) that thelstans birth was illegitimate:

164
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-07.
165
See section on thelstan as Edwards Heir in Chapter 1. Williams use of itaque, and so,
to introduce thelstans election is ambiguous. Itaque can be used merely mark a sequence of
eventsthe royal funerals of his father and brother at Winchester took place and thelstans
formal election as king at Winchester, ibidem, followed their funerals. Alternatively
itaquecan be used to imply cause and effect. If this meaning is taken, Williams statement
implies that thelstan was only elected because of lfweards death.
166
His calculation of the length of thelstans reign as sixteen years is out of line with the
fourteen years ten months of the ASC Versions A-D but correct if the dates of accession and
death in the ASC are used as a basis. Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 114-15, n.
131.
 161

quamuis quidam Eluredus cum factiosis suis, quia seditio semper inuenit
complices, obuiare tentasset [] Occasio contradictionis, ut ferunt, quod
Ethelstanus ex concubina natus esset; sed ipse, preter hanc notam, si tamen uera
est, nichil ignobile habens, omnes antecessores deuotione mentis, omnes eorum
adoreas triumphorum suorum splendore obscurauit. Adeo prestat ex te, quam ex
maioribus, habere quo polleas, quia illud tuuum, istud reputabitur alienum.167

although a certain Alfred with his faction had tried to block it because sedition
always finds accomplices. [] The reason for this opposition, as they say, was
that thelstan had been born of a concubine; but he himself, apart from this
blemish, if indeed it is true, possessing nothing ignoble overshadowed all his
predecessors in devoutness of mind and put all their glories in the shade by the
splendour of his own triumphs. So superior is it to have what makes you
powerful from your own self than from your ancestors because that will be
credited to you which otherwise will be ascribed to another.

Williams robust response is an attempt to guide his readers on how to interpret these

events: the support for Alfred reflected individuals love of sedition rather than genuine

concern over thelstans birth; thelstans personal qualities and achievements were

more important than any power or reputation inherited by birth. Williams clear support

for thelstan, irrespective of his birth, is in line with the praise he gives to thelstan

throughout his narrative. However, the fact that William felt the need to include the

information on thelstans birth and then disparage it, suggests that it was a strong

tradition in his day. As will be seen, this is further borne out by his returning to the

theme several times, in his account of the contents of the old book, the Malmesbury

charter and the story of thelstans birth as it was handed down in song.

Williams account of thelstans succession in the old book is very similar to

his initial description but lacks the direct reference to opposition to thelstan on

grounds of his illegitimate birth. It also repeats the ambiguous order of events found in

the Chronicle, placing thelstans coronation after the deaths of his father and brother.

This is immediately followed by an extended description of thelstans childhood and

education something which is not found in any of the other surviving sources. thelstan

is depicted as having been identified by his grandfather, King Alfred, as a future king

167
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-207.
 162

while still a child, to have been invested by him with the royal regalia of a warrior king

and sent to Mercia to be brought up by his aunt, thelfld, and educated in the schools

there.168 However, the Latin phrase used, ad omen regni altus, brought up for the

kingdom which had been fore-destined, does not define whether the kingdom was

Mercia or Wessex. William then makes it very clear that the old book depicted

thelstan succeeding to the throne of Wessex as a result of Edwards express

instructions and in accordance with the terms of his will:169

Section 2: The Old Book

[Rex Edwardus] apud Ferdunam uillam, [King Edward] touched by ill-health at
tactus ualitudine, uitam prsentem the town of Farndon, departed this
exivit; et Wintoni, ut prdixi, humatus present life; and, as I have already said,
est. Tunc, jussu patris et testamento, was buried at Winchester. Then, on his
Ethelstanus in regem acclamatus est, fathers orders and by his written will,
quem iam tricennalis aetas et sapientiae thelstan was acclaimed king, his age
maturitas commendabant. [] post then of thirty years and the maturity of
mortem patris et interitum fratris in his wisdom commending him. []
regem apud Kingestune coronatus.170 After the death of his father and the
decease of his brother he was crowned
king at Kingston.

The reference to thelstans age and wisdom commending him as the next king

reinforces the point William made earlier, that thelstan had all the qualities which

merited his being elected as king. This justification of thelstans consecration as king

is further developed in the next section of Williams narrative.

168
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 119. The section on thelstans education is
in verse and contains praise of thelstan and a description of the coronation feast. The
Mercian background has been interpreted by Thomson and Winterbottom as supporting the
theory that thelstan was not first choice as king of Wessex and was opposed by the nobles at
Winchester.
169
The use of a will to name an heir is also found in Saxo Grammaticus. As will be seen in
Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, Saxo depicts thelstan setting aside his grandfathers
will in order to seize power for himself and using his own will to name Hkon of Norway as his
own heir.
170
Gesta Regum, ii, 133, I, 210-11.
 163

In Section Three, William returns to the story of Alfreds opposition. The

charter quoted as drawn up by thelstan recounts the death of Alfred in Rome where he

had been sent to answer to the Pope on a charge of attempting to blind thelstan to

prevent him becoming king. Although the charter makes no direct reference to

thelstans birth, its story of Alfred recalls it to mind. Alfreds collapse and death after

swearing his innocence in St Peters, is seen as proof of his wickedness and so

undermines Alfreds accusations of illegitimacy against thelstan. William does not

draw attention to this but instead uses the episode as an example of thelstans

wisdom and piety:171

regis sapientiam et pietatem eius in Dei rebus suspicere par est: sapientiam, quod
animaduerteret iuuenis presertim non esse Deo gratiosum de rapina
holocaustum, pietatem quod munus ultione diuina collatum Deo potissimum non
ingratus rependeret.

It is equally possible to recognize his wisdom and his piety in matters relating to
God: his wisdom because, especially as a young man, he was aware that an
offering gained through theft was not pleasing to God, his piety because, above
all, not lacking in gratitude he paid back to God a gift which had been conferred
on him as a result of divine retribution.

In section four, William returns once more to the theme of thelstans

succession and birth and narrates the story as it had been handed down in song. He

introduces the material with the following statement:

Itaque rege Edwardo defuncto, filius ejus Elwardus, ex legitima coniuge creatus,
patrem cita morte secutus. Tunc omnium spebus in Ethelstanum erectis []172

And so, after King Edward died, his son Elwardus [lfweard] born of his lawful
wife, quickly followed his father in death. Then the hopes of all were built on
thelstan

171
Gesta Regum, ii, 138, I, 224-25.The charter records thelstan giving Alfreds lands to God
and St Peter, qui emulum meum in conspectu omnium cadere fecerunt, et michi prosperitatem
regni largiti sunt, who caused my enemy to fall in the sight of all and endowed me with the
prosperity of my reign. Gesta Regum, ii, 137, I, 224-25.
172
Gesta Regum, ii, 139, I, 226-27.
 164

The order of events again mirrors that of Versions B, C, and D of the ASC, but the use

of Tunc, Then, at the beginning of the final sentence suggests that thelstan was

only regarded as future king after the death of Elwardus [lfweard].173 The qualifying

phrase describing Elwardus/lfweard as ex legitima conjuge creatus also suggests

that thelstans birth was considered illegitimate, making thelstan of lower status to

his younger half-brother.174 The songs therefore provide a picture of lfweard as

Edwards intended heir with thelstan only succeeding because of lfweards death

and because there was no other suitable candidate. William counters this by retelling the

songs story of how thelstan came to be born. The main points can be summarized as

follows:

A beautiful girl, a shepherds daughter, dreamt that a light shone from her stomach and

filled all England with its light. Edwards old nurse heard of this and decided to bring

the girl up herself so that she could be part of aristocratic society. Edward unexpectedly

visited his nurse, fell in love with the girl, spent the night with her and so she conceived

his son, thelstan.175

This story contains several literary topoi; the prophetic dream; the choice of

unlikely agents as the catalysts of anothers greatness; the birth of a special baby

destined to achieve great things. The song suggests that a strong popular tradition had

been created about thelstans birth which was still accessible in the twelfth century,

although Williams retelling of the details may imply that its content was not so well-

remembered by his day. However, the existence of the songs provided him with an

173
William uses two forms of name for this son: Ethelwardus and Elwardus. The similarity and
possible confusion of the forms theluuerdus and lfuuerdus was commented on in the section
on thelstan as Edwards Heir in Chapter 1. There it was noted that the New Minster Liber
Vitae records both names as those of two of Edwards sons who were buried at New Minster
with their father.
174
The status of thelstans birth is an issue raised by Hrotsvit of Gandersheim in her Gesta
Ottonis written c. 960 where she twice refers to thelstans mother as being of inferior stock.
Her work is considered in detail in Chapter 3 on the Continental Tradition.
175
Gesta Regum, ii, 139, I, 224-25.
 165

opportunity to retell the story of thelstans birth, reinforcing the idea initially

introduced by the old book that thelstan had been clearly marked out for kingship.176

Whereas King Alfred had recognized in the boy a future king, his mothers dream had

predicted that he would rule over the whole of Britain.177

Despite the ambiguities William encountered in his sources over thelstans

succession, he managed to bring together a sufficient variety of material to challenge

those who questioned thelstans position and to support his preferred interpretation of

thelstan as Edwards chosen and direct successor and a worthy royal patron of

Malmesbury Abbey. Williams repeated references to thelstans birth and his right of

succession suggest that these were a matter of some concern to him and his presentation

contains different emphases on how events should be interpreted. First he challenges the

assertion that thelstan was the son of a concubine; he then discounts it, if true, on the

grounds that thelstans innate greatness and suitability to be king made it irrelevant;

he shows how Alfred was punished by God for trying to prevent thelstans

coronation; he provides information both supporting and challenging the belief that

thelstan only inherited the throne because of lfweards death; he declares that

thelstan was Edwards named heir and finally he includes an account of thelstans

predestined greatness foretold in a dream.

There could be a number of reasons for Williams approach. He may have been

reflecting twelfth-century concerns over legitimacy in royal succession. It was noted

earlier that avoiding the succession of illegitimate sons to the throne was a significant

factor in Norman and Angevin times. Bartlett has commented that it was specifically

176
nam cum ille pueritia mortua in adolescentiam euaderet, magnam spem regiae indolis dabat,
preclaris facinoribus approbatus, for when, his boyhood passed, he progressed into young
adulthood, he gave rise to great expectations of his royal qualities which he proved by his
outstanding achievements. Gesta Regum, ii, 139, I, 226-27.
177
Huic per uisum monstratur prodigium, lunam de suo uentre splendere, et hoc lumine totam
Angliam illustrari, A great sign was shown to her through a dream, that the moon was shining
from her womb, and by this light the whole of England was illuminated. Gesta Regum, ii, 139,
I, 224-225.
 166

ruled out in the agreements on succession made between William Rufus and earl Robert

in 1091 and Henry I and earl Robert in 1101 and this was formally recorded in Version

A of the ASC for those years.178 It may be that William was doing no more than

protecting the reputation of Malmesbury as a royal site. The eleventh and twelfth

centuries were a time when many monastic centres were trying to prevent their lands

and possessions from being abrogated by Norman barons and charters claimed as copies

of lost originals abounded as legal evidence of royal donations and right of tenure.

While the written evidence provided by a royal charter gave strong support to a land

claim, the legitimate status of the king who made the initial donation could be equally

important, especially when the Normans, as a new dynasty, were trying to establish

their own legitimate rule as heirs of the Anglo-Saxon kings. From Williams point of

view, and that of Malmesbury, thelstans legitimacy by birth and as Edwards heir

was potentially of great significance.179

thelstan as Warrior King

As will be seen from the summary below, Williams depiction of thelstan as military

leader is based mainly on the chronicle and saga material of the first section and the old

book of section two. The main focuses are on thelstans successes in Northumbria and

his defeat of Anlaf at Brunefeld. The narrative on Northumbria includes examples of

thelstans magnanimity towards his defeated enemies while that on Brunefeld gives

prominence to thelstan being saved from death, first by the actions of his servant and

then through his prayers to God and St Aldhelm. As noted above, the miracle of the

178
Bartlett, England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, pp. 7-9.
179
William of Normandy was illegitimate and his greatness too was said to have been foretold
in a dream. Williams later patron was Robert of Gloucester whose father was an illegitimate
son of Henry I. It could be that these factors played a part in Williams determination to show
that personal qualities were the more important and illegitimacy no bar to royal status.
 167

sword is credited to the prayers of Bishop Odo in the Gesta Pontificum which, together

with the old book, also includes brief references to thelstans other military successes:

Table 9. thelstans Military Successes in the Gesta Regum and Gesta Pontificum

Williams Own Account Old Book Gesta Pontificum

thelstans sister marries thelstans name subdued all
Sihtric. Sihtric died. England except Northumbria.
thelstan took Northumbria. After Sihtrics death thelstan
took Northumbria by right.
thelstan subdued Peace treaty at Dacre with thelstan drove the Britons
Constantine and Idwal. Constantine and Owain. from Exeter and fortified the
He magnanimously restored thelstan took York. He treated city. He set the boundary with
them to their kingdoms. Guthfrith with magnanimity. Scotland.
He imposed tribute on North
Wales and expelled the Britons
from Exeter. He fortified the city
setting Taemar as the boundary
with the Britons.
Anlaf invaded. thelstan Anlaf invaded and, accustomed to thelstan supported by the
initially gave way. Anlaf peace and leisure, thelstan bishops Odo and Theodred at
entered thelstans camp as a initially took no notice of his Brunanburh.
spy. thelstan warned by one peoples suffering.
of Anlafs ex-men and moved
camp. Anlaf destroyed the
camp of a bishop and his
household.
thelstan attacked by Anlaf. thelstans sword restored
He was saved from death through Bishop Odos prayers.
when his sword was restored
by his praying to God and St
Aldhelm.
Battle of Brunefeld. Battle of Brunefeld. thelstan
thelstan victorious. Anlaf victorious. His soldiers suffered
fled. Constantine killed. greatly in the battle.

Northumbria

Both of Williams accounts of thelstan gaining control of Northumbria start from the

arranged marriage of thelstans sister with Sihtric, the Scandinavian ruler of

Northumbria. In section one, thelstan is depicted as the main actor:

cum Sihtrico rege Northanimbrorum, data ei in matrimonium una ex

 168

sororibus, uicturum fedus perculit; quo post annum mortuo, prouintiam illam
sibi subegit, expulso quodam Aldulfo qui rebellabat.180

Having given Sihtric one of his sisters in marriage, he [thelstan] made with
Sihtric, king of the Northumbrians, an agreement which would bring him
victory. When after a year he [Sihtric] died, he [thelstan] subdued that
province for himself having driven out a certain Aldulfus who was in rebellion.

William does not name thelstans sister but in his section on Edward the Elder, he

identifies her as the child of Edward and Egwina. thelstan is therefore depicted as

personally giving his own sister, of identical parentage with himself, in marriage to

Sihtric in order to establish a familial bond between them.181 By describing Sihtric as

King of Northumbria William portrays this as a royal marriage of a status similar to

those of thelstans other sisters.182 Williams choice of the future participle victurum

may imply thelstan deliberately made a marriage agreement which he intended would

eventually bring him victory over Northumbria, or he may be using it to signal that this

was what happened. Either way, William depicts thelstan as taking the initiative and

seeking a long-term, political settlement with Northumbria in preference to military

conquest.

Following the death of Sihtric a year later, thelstan is depicted as taking

military action and overcoming opposition from Adulfus to take control of Sihtrics

kingdom.183 thelstans negotiated settlement has now been replaced by military

180
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-07.
181
Gesta Regum, ii, 126, I, 198-99.
182
Sheila Sharp has identified such marriage arrangements with potential enemies as something
of a tradition in Wessex and a powerful way of exerting influence without resorting to costly
and difficult military campaigns. Sheila Sharp, The West Saxon Tradition of Dynastic
Marriage with special reference to Edward the Elder in Edward the Elder, ed. by Higham and
Hill, pp. 79-88 (pp. 79-82).
183
William makes no reference in section one to Guthfrith, but his mention of Adulfus
rebellion may ultimately be derived from the Chronicle reference to Eadwulf of Bernicia. In
their commentary Thomson and Winterbottom correct the name to Ealdred, son of Eadwulf of
Bamburgh, in line with ASC version D for 926. Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II,
115, n. 3. Guthfrith is mentioned in ASC 927 Versions E and F where he is said to have been
driven out by thelstan but no details are given.
 169

conquest. This aspect is developed much more fully in Williams second account which

he assigns to the old book.

The account from the old book does not give Sihtric the title of King of

Northumbria but describes him as a leader of the Northumbrians. It dwells negatively

on Sihtrics Scandinavian background. He is portrayed as a potential threata

barbarian, a kinsman of the formidable Guthrum who had shown contempt for other

kings.184 The narrative then enhances thelstans standing by describing Sihtric as

acting out of character towards him. He does not thumb his nose at thelstan, instead

he is described as taking the initiative in seeking a marriage alliance with him and then

pursuing it humbly and with persistence:

Transacta consecrationis celebritate, Ethelstanus, ne spem ciuium falleret

et inferius opinione se ageret, omnem omnino Angliam solo nominis terrore
subiugauit, preter solos Northanimbros. Nam preerat illis Sihtritius quidam,
gente et animo barbarus cognatus illius Gurmundi de quo in gestis Elfredi regis
legitur, qui, cum antecessorum regum potentiam rugatis naribus derisisset, huius
affinitatem ultro suplicibus nuntiis expetiit. Ipse quoque, festino pede
subsecutus, uerba legatorum asseruit; quare et sororis copula et multiplicibus
xeniis muneratus, perpetui federis fundamenta iecit.185

The ceremony of consecration having taken place, thelstan, so as not to

disappoint the hopes of the citizens, or act less honourably than they expected,
subdued practically the whole of England solely by the terror of his name,
except for the Northumbrians alone; For their (the Northumbrians) leader was a
certain Sihtric, a barbarian both in race and mind-set, a kinsman of that
Gurmund who is read about in the accounts of King Alfred. Sihtric, although he
had turned up his nose and derided the power of previous kings, on his own
initiative humbly sought through messengers some closer relationship with
thelstan, and he himself too, swiftly followed this up and confirmed the words
of his envoys. And so, honoured with the hand of thelstans sister in marriage
and numerous gifts, he laid the foundations of a lasting agreement.

The reason for Sihtric seeking an alliance with thelstan is implied in the first sentence

of the paragraph. After his coronation, thelstan is said to have established his military

184
The description of Sihtric as a kinsman of Guthrum links him with Williams earlier account
of Guthrum submitting to Alfred and being appointed by him to rule Northumbria and East
Anglia. Gesta Regum, ii, 121, I, 184-85. For comment on Williams statements that Guthrum
and his successors retained Northumbria and East Anglia until thelstans reign see Thomson
and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 96.
185
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 212-13.
 170

superiority across England in order to fulfil his subjects expectations of him as king.

This he had achieved purely through the fear his name caused. Sihtrics actions suggest

that he also stood in fear of thelstan but, rather than submit, he sought a marriage

alliance as a way of establishing peace between them. In this account it is Sihtric, not

thelstan, who initiates the action although thelstan remains the dominant actor,

acceding to Sihtrics request and giving him many gifts. It therefore supports the

account in section one that in Northumbria thelstan initially preferred a negotiated

political settlement to military conquest.

The old book narrative claims that, once Sihtric was dead, Northumbria

belonged rightfully to thelstan on two counts:

Sed, ut predictum recolo, post annum uita deturbatus occasionem Ethelstano

exhibuit ut Northanimbriam suae parti iungeret, quae sibi et antiquo iure et noua
necessitudine competeret.186

But, as I remember it was previously stated, a year later, thrust from life, he
[Sihtric] presented thelstan with the opportunity to add Northumbria to his
own sphere of power, since this was his due by ancient right no less than by his
new relationship.

The reference to thelstans right to dominion over Northumbria may be linked to

Williams earlier claims that Alfred ruled Northumbria through his son-in-law thelred

of Mercia and that Northumbria was part of Edwards kingdom.187 However, the use of

the adjective antiquo implies a long-established right and may refer to a familial link

derived from Bedes account of Oswald standing as godfather to Cynegils, King of

Wessex, and later marrying Cynegilss daughter.188 thelstans new relationship

186
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 212-15. In their commentary Thomson and Winterbottom assign the
whole of this passage and the following story of Guthfrith and thelstans generosity to his
enemies to Williams old book but as can be seen from this quotation it is not always clear when
William is quoting and when he is speaking in the first person. Thomson and Winterbottom,
Gesta Regum, II, 114.
187
Gesta Regum, ii, 121, 125, I, 186-87, 196-97.
188
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iii, 7, I, 354-57. ASC Version A also records Cynegils
baptism; Versions C and D record Oswalds body being transferred from Bardney to Mercia
during the reign of Edward the Elder, in 909 or 906. Hrotsvit also refers to Wessex links with
 171

through the marriage agreement with Sihtric is presented as equally supporting his right

to Northumbria and he is depicted as having a claim to the kingdom on two different

grounds. Williams use of the old book enables him to record a tradition linking Wessex

with Northumbria which is also found in Symeon of Durhams account of the reigns of

Alfred, Edward and thelstan and is celebrated in the tenth-century manuscript painting

of thelstan presenting a book to Cuthbert at his shrine.189

thelstan Consolidates his Rule in the North

The differences in emphasis and detail noted above in sections one and two of

Williams work, continue in the accounts both sections provide of his further conquests.

Following his account of Sihtric in section one, William depicts thelstan as so fired by

his success in Northumbria and so driven by his spirited nature that he went on to force

Constantine of Scotland and Idwal of Wales to hand over to him their kingdoms

virtually making him king of all Britain:

Et quia nobilis animus, semel incitatus in ampliora conatur, Iudualum regem

omnium Walensium [et] Constantinum regem Scottorum cedere regnis compulit.
Quos tamen non multo post, miseratione infractus, in antiquum statum sub se
regnaturos constituit, gloriosius esse pronuntians regem facere quam regem
esse.190

And because a noble spirit, once roused strives for greater achievements, he
compelled Idwal king of all the Welsh and Constantine king of the Scots to give
up their kingdoms. Not long after, however, assuaged by pity, he restored them
to their former positions, to reign under him as kings, declaring it more glorious
to make a king than to be one.

thelstan is depicted as initially driven by ambition which turns to pity,

compassionately restoring his defeated rivals to their kingdoms. However, it is evident

that this is only on condition they lose their independence and serve as subreguli under

him. The words attributed to him, gloriosius esse [] regem facere quam regem esse,

are consistent with the idea that making Constantine and Idwal his client kings brings

Oswald in her account of Ottos marriage to thelstans sister Eadgytha in Chapter 3. For a
useful Family Tree see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, pp. 284-87.
189
Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 183.
190
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-07.
 172

him the greater glory. In the Continental and Scandinavian texts thelstan is similarly

depicted as a king-maker, restoring his nephew Louis to West Francia, Alan

Twistedbeard to Brittany and Hkon to Norway. These latter events are not included in

Williams narrative but his attribution to thelstan of the glory to be gained by making

someone king may reflect this wider tradition.

In his excerpt from the old book William gives a version of events which

provides a different explanation for thelstans action against Constantine and refers to

Eugenius, King of Cumbria, while making no mention of Idwal of Wales:

Fugit tunc Analauus filius Sihtrici Hiberniam, et Godefridus frater eius

Scottiam; subsecuti sunt e uestigio regales missi ad Constantinum regem
Scottorum et Eugenium regem Cumbrorum transfugam cum denuntiatione belli
repententes.191

Then Anlaf, son of Sihtric, fled to Ireland and Guthfrith his brother to Scotland;
royal envoys followed hard on their heels, sent to Constantine of the Scots and
Eugenius, King of the Cumbrians, demanding back the fugitive on threat of war.

In this passage, thelstan is seen as strategically securing his victory in Northumbria by

ensuring that Guthfrith cannot find a safe haven in Scotland or Cumbria from which to

launch a future attack. The death of Sihtric is now portrayed as having the potential to

precipitate a large-scale military uprising involving both Scotland and Cumbria.

thelstan is again depicted as powerful enough militarily to subdue his enemies by the

mere threat of war. As a result Constantine and Owain willingly submit at Dacre.192

thelstan orders Constantines son to be baptized and stands as the boys godfather. By

establishing a link with his enemy, this time of Christian kinship, thelstan is again

shown as seeking a political solution by establishing a familial alliance designed to

make rebellion more difficult: 193

191
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 214-15.
192
ASC Version D records the event as taking place at Eamont in 926.
193
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 214-15. Joseph Lynch explores the role of Christian baptism as a
means of establishing familial and political alliances. Joseph Lynch, Christianizing Kinship
(London: Cornell University, 1998), pp, 222-23, 226-228.
 173

Nec fuit animus barbaris ut contra mutirent; quin potius sine retractatione, ad
locum qui Dacor uocatur uenientes, se cum suis regnis Anglorum regi dedidere.
In cuius pacti gratia filium Constantini baptizari iussum ipse de sacro fonte
suscepit.

The barbarians had no inclination to murmur against this; but rather, coming
without hesitation to a place called Dacre they surrendered themselves and their
kingdoms to the king of the English. In acknowledgement of this agreement
thelstan himself stood godfather to Constantines son, whom he had ordered to
be baptized.

There could be much significance in Dacre being designated as the place of

submission. Situated at the confluence of the Lowther and Eamont rivers it lay near the

boundary between Cumbrian and Northumbrian territory. Bede also mentions Dacre as

a place where one of St Cuthberts posthumous miracles took place.194 The naming of

Dacre as the site of the peace agreement and rite of baptism dignifies both by relating

them to a major northern saint closely associated with thelstan. As has already been

seen, thelstans military successes were repeatedly presented in both historical and

ecclesiastical sources as a reward for his piety.

With the following story of Guthfrith and Turfrith, Williams old book continues

to reinforce the picture it has given of thelstan as a formidable warrior king who can

also be merciful towards his enemies. The style of narrative for Guthfriths adventures

is reminiscent of oral story-telling.195 The plot includes a treacherous enemy who is

foiled in his attempt to seize power and a heroic king, generous in rewarding others and

magnanimous to his enemy:

Euasit tamen Godefridus [] fuga cum quodam Turfrido, diuersarum partium

duce, lapsus; moxque Eboracum obsidens, oppidanosque nunc precibus nunc
minis ad defectionem sollicitans, et neutrum pro uoto expediens, abscessit. Nec
multo post, in quodam castro ambo conclusi, custodientium perspicatiam
fugiendo luserunt; quorum Turfridus mature diem obiit in pelago naufragus,

194
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iv, 32, II, 192-95. For thelstans devotion to St Cuthbert and
the protection the saint is said to have given to him, see thelstans Expedition to Scotland in
Chapter 1.
195
For an analysis of saga material in the English chronicles see C. E. Wright, The Cultivation
of Saga in Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 245-49. Despite its similarity in content and language to
saga narratives, Wright does not include the Guthfrith story as an example.
 174

preda piscibus expositus. Godefridus, multis miseriis terra marique iactatus, ad

postremum supplex curiam uenit. ibi pacifice a rege susceptus, quattuorque
diebus profusissime cum eo conuiuatus, naues suas repetiit, pirata uetus, et in
aqua sicut piscis uiuere assuetus.196

However Guthfrith escaped [] having slipped away in flight together with a

certain Turfrith, a leader of a different faction; and soon, laying siege to York,
he incited the townspeople to rebellion, now with entreaties, now with threats,
and as neither achieved what he desired, he withdrew. Not long afterwards, both
were confined in a certain stronghold and made a sport of their guards sharp
sightedness by fleeing; of them Turfrith soon met his end, shipwrecked at sea,
exposed as prey for fishes. Guthrith, after being tossed by many afflictions by
land and sea, at last came as a suppliant to the royal court. There, he was
received peaceably by the king, and after feasting very lavishly with him during
four days, he made his way back to his ships, a pirate of long standing and used
to living in the water like a fish.

The inhabitants of York are shown as remaining loyal to thelstan despite the siege,

and the threats and appeals of Guthfrith and Turfrith. The surrender of Guthfrith is

presented as his last resort but the narrative depicts thelstan as generous in victory,

hospitably entertaining Guthfrith and then letting him go to resume his career as a

pirate. This description of Guthfrith portrays him as a marauder rather than a serious

military threat but having acted nobly towards him thelstan immediately shows

caution by destroying the Scandinavian fortress in York to prevent it being used in the

future as an enemy base. Rather than taking the booty he finds there for himself, he is

said to show generosity by distributing it to individuals.197 William had already warned

his readers that the old book was excessive in its praise of thelstan and this seems to

be apparent in the description of thelstans treatment of Guthfrith. It is also difficult

196
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 214-15. Symeon of Durham refers to this obliquely in his Historia
Regum, noting that Ethelstanus rex de regno Brittonum Gudfridum regem fugavit, King
thelstan put King Guthfrith to flight from the kingdom of the Britons (ie Strathclyde).
Historia Regum, p. 64.
197
Ethelstanus interea castrum, quod olim Dani in Eboraco offirmauerant, ad solum diruit, ne
esset quo se tutari perfidia posset: preda quae in castro reperta fuerat, et ea quidem amplissima,
magnifice et uiritim diuisa, thelstan meanwhile demolished down to the ground the
stronghold which some time ago the Danes had fortified in York, so that it might not be a place
where treachery could defend itself; the booty which had been found in the stronghold - and it
was indeed very extensive - was generously distributed to each man separately. Gesta Regum,
ii, 134, I, 214-15.
 175

for a modern reader to be convinced that generosity rather than self-interest led

thelstan to dispense booty freely to chosen individuals.

By drawing on Chronicle, saga and the old book for his accounts of thelstan

and Northumbria, William conveys the impression that thelstan was celebrated in

story and poetry, as well as chronicle records, as a highly successful warrior king. He

inspired fear by his prowess in battle, could be magnanimous in victory and used

political and familial agreements, as well as military strategy, to secure his power. This

picture of a successful warrior king is further developed and modified by Williams use

of his sources to describe thelstans wider conquest of England and his victory at

Brunanburh.

thelstans Wider Conquests

In section two from the Old Book, William describes thelstan compelling the rulers of

North Wales to meet him at Hereford where he forced them to surrender to his rule. In

addition he is said to have imposed on them a hefty annual tribute of twenty pounds of

gold and three hundred pounds of silver and to have demanded twenty five thousand

head of oxen and as many hounds and birds of prey as he wanted. 198 William

comments, ita quod nullus ante eum rex uel cogitare presumpserat, ipse in effectum

formauit, thus, what no king before him had presumed even to think of, he himself

made happen.199 This account of thelstans treatment of the Welsh seems out of

keeping with the merciful treatment he is said to have shown to Constantine, Idwal and

Guthfrith. However, the old book continues this theme of thelstan as a ruthless

military leader, describing how thelstan campaigned in the south west, forcing the

198
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I. 214-17.
199
Although the other chroniclers make no reference to this event, the poem Armes Prydein
Vawr has been interpreted as a possible Welsh response, seeking through its prophecy to
achieve vengeance for the harsh tribute imposed by the Great King. The date of the poem is
unclear but it could be as early as c. 930 and so be intended to refer to thelstan. Foot certainly
interprets it in this way. Foot, thelstan, pp, 163, 226. David Dumville argues for a later date in
the tenth century and sees the poem as mythological rather than political. David Dumville,
Brittany and Armes Prydein Vawr, tudes Celtiques, 20 (1983), 145-59.
 176

Britons of Cornwall to leave Exeter and fortifying the city with a wall and towers.

thelstan is also credited with securing his conquests by setting firm territorial

boundaries, the River Tamar in the South West and the River Wye for North Wales.200

The Gesta Pontificum repeats verbatim the description in the Gesta Regum of thelstan

taking control of Exeter and adds that he also set the boundaries with Scotland.201

Although William does not describe thelstan as King of all England his quotation of

the Alfred charter in the Gesta Pontificum uses the late charter designation, rex

Anglorum, per Omnipotentis dexteram totius Britanniae regno sullimatus,202 while his

accounts of thelstan depict him as the king whose actions in the South West and with

Wales and Scotland set the boundaries of his kingdom so as to enclose most of the

country.

Brunanburh

Williams first account of the Battle of Brunanburh includes a saga-like story centred on

Sihtrics son, Anlaf.203 It tells of Anlaf entering thelstans camp as a spy dressed as a

musician. This narrative has all the drama of a saga and the focus on Anlaf as the main

character suggests that William was drawing on Anglo-Scandinavian or Norse

traditions.204 thelstan is portrayed as over-confident. Relaxed and off his guard he

suspects nothing. He is warned of Anlafs deceit by a servant who had once been in

service with Anlaf but was now one of thelstans men. thelstan first tests the mans

loyalty and then moves camp but is still confident enough to sleep soundly. When Anlaf

suddenly attacks in the night, thelstan is unable to find his sword. Inserted into this

narrative is a brief hagiographical episode in which thelstan at last realises his

vulnerability and like a good Christian king, he turns to God and St Aldhelm in prayer

200
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 216-17.
201
Gesta Pontificum, v, 246, I, 594-95.
202
Gesta Pontificum, v, 250, I, 600-01.
203
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-09.
204
Egils saga mentions only Anlafs unexpected attack on the English camp and his attempt to
kill thelstan. See C. E. Wright, The Cultivation of Saga in Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 144-46.
 177

and his sword is miraculously restored to its scabbard. The Gesta Regum claims this

was in response to thelstans prayers; the Gesta Pontificum assigns the miracle to the

prayers of his bishops, Oda and Theodrod, reflecting Williams different audiences for

the two works. William comments that encouraged by Gods support in restoring his

sword, thelstan attacked the enemy and fought tirelessly for victory.205

William may have attempted to explain thelstans failure to assess the serious

threat posed by Anlaf by describing him initially enticing Anlaf further into England as

a deliberate strategy so that he might win greater glory in defeating him:

Postremum illi bellum cum Analauo fuit, Sihtrici filio, qui spe inuadendi regni
cum supradicto Constantino iterum rebellante terminos transierat. Et Ethelstano
ex consulto cedente, ut gloriosius iam insultantem uinceret, multum in Angliam
processerat iuuenis audacissimus et illicita spirans animo206

His last battle was with Anlaf, Sihtrics son, who had crossed the countrys
boundaries in the hope of invading thelstans kingdom together with the
aforementioned Constantine who was again in rebellion. And while thelstan
was deliberately giving way so that he might more gloriously defeat an enemy
already acting insolently, the extremely rash young man, setting his mind on
what was unlawful, had advanced far into England.

Williams story may reflect a Scandinavian tradition. Egils Saga relates that, following

advice from his counsellors, thelstan strategically withdrew in order to lure Anlaf into

a false sense of security while giving the Anglo-Saxons time to gather their forces.

However, the reason William gives in his narrative for thelstans supposed strategy is

so opaque as to suggest that it was his attempt to excuse thelstans inaction and

counter the criticisms of the king found in the version of events in the second section in

the old book. There, thelstan is roundly criticised for his lack of concern for the

suffering of his subjects and the wholesale devastation being caused by Anlaf and

Constantine. thelstan is described as young, hot-headed, overconfident and grown too

205
Hoc Dei dono fretus, relying on this gift from God. Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 208-09.
206
Gesta Regum, ii, 131, I, 206-07.
 178

use to leisure having retired from warfare.207 The language used to describe Anlaf and

his troops further highlights the seriousness of thelstans inaction. They are described

as a plague and poisonous pest; they are barbarians and Anlaf a pirate, invading the

land, and uttering savage and unlawful threats in Bacchic fury.208 It is only thelstans

fear of disgrace which finally drives him to action:209

Exciuit tandem famae querimonia regem,

ne se cauterio tali pateretur inuri,
quod sua barbaricae cessissent arma securi.

The complaints brought by rumour at last roused the king

not to allow himself to be branded by disgrace of this kind
that his arms had yielded to the barbarian axe.

This unflattering picture of thelstan is the only example of negative criticism of the

king which William does not directly challenge suggesting that it was too well ingrained

in tradition to be easily dismissed. It would appear that however much the writer of the

old book wished to praise thelstan, it was impossible to ignore thelstans failure to

respond more quickly to Anlafs invasion. Once roused, however, thelstan is depicted

as opposing the invaders with all the vigour of a Roman general:210

Section Two: The Old Book

Nec mora: uictrices ducentia signa cohortes There was no delay: he unfolded to the
explicat in uentum, uexilla ferotia centum; wind the emblems leading his victorious
cruda uirum uirtus decies bis milia quina cohorts, a hundred fierce standards; the
ad studium belli comitantur preuia signa. raw courage of ten times twice five
thousand men follow to the pursuit of war
the banners leading the way

207
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 220-21. [] rex noster, fidens alacrisque iuuenta,/emeritus pridem
detriuerat otia lenta, our king, a confident, energetic youth, long retired from active service,
had passed his time in untroubled leisure.
208
lues, plague; Europae noxia labes, the poisonous pest of Europe; fera barbaries,
fierce barbarians; pelago pirata relicto, a pirate who had abandoned the sea; illicitas
toruasque minas Analauus anhelans, Analauus emitting unlawful and savage threats;
Bacchanti furiae, in raging Bachanalian frenzy. Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 220-21.
209
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 220-21.
210
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 220-21.
 179

The account of the battle in the old book is very brief. The noise and sight of the

advancing English army turns the invaders to flight. Only Anlaf escaped to trouble

England again in the future:211

Hic strepitus mouit predatorum legiones, This uproar upset the plunderers
terruit insignis uenientum fama latrones, legions, the outstanding reputation of
ut posita preda proprias peterent regiones. those approaching terrified the
At uulgus reliquum, miseranda strage robbers, so that dropping their booty
peremptum infecit bibulas tetris nidoribus they made for their own lands. But the
auras. common people left behind, destroyed
by a pitiful slaughter tainted the thirsty
Fugit Analauus, de tot modo milibus unus, breezes with foul stench. Anlaf fled,
depositum mortis, fortunae nobile munus, just one from so many thousands, a
post Ethelstanum rebus momenta daturus. remnant of death, a renowned gift of
fate, destined to provide disruption to
events after thelstan.

Thomson and Winterbottom comment that the note of foreboding at the end of the poem

contains two phrases which echo phrases in Lucans poem on the civil war between

Caesar and Pompey, fortunae nobile munus and rebus momenta daturus.212

If these phrases were intended as a literary reference, rather than just poetic phrases,

then the poem not only draws a parallel between thelstan as the victorious Caesar and

Anlaf the defeated Pompey, but compares the battle at Brunanburh to the violence and

horror of civil war. The picture of the abandonment and pitiless fate of the ordinary

soldiers then takes on an added significance and forms a stark contrast to the exultation

of their leaders and the glorification of bloodshed noted in the ASC poem. A similar

example of pity for the suffering caused by the battle can be found in the record of

Brunanburh in the Annals of Ulster. This annal entry is also very different in tone from

211
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 222-23. These lines have been taken to indicate that the poem was
composed after thelstans death but Lapidge has argued that the Latin suggests the poem
belongs to a much later date, either the late eleventh or the early twelfth century, so disproving
Williams comment that the old book dated from thelstans reign. Such a late date, however,
does not rule out the use of traditional material. Lapidge, Some Latin Poems, pp. 64-71.
212
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 126.
 180

the ASC poem. It not only records the great loss of life suffered caused by thelstans

victory but provides the same kind of contrast between men and leader as the old books

Latin poem.213

937 Bellum ingens lacrimabile atque horribile inter Saxones atque

Norddmannos crudeliter gestum est, in quo plurima milia
Nordmannorum que non numerata sunt, ceciderunt, sed rex cum pauci
euasit, .i. Amlaiph. Ex altera autem parte multitudo Saxonum cecidit.
Adalstan autem, rex Saxonum, magna victoria ditatus est.

A very great, lamentable and terrible war was cruelly waged between the
Saxons and the Northmen in which very many thousands, which cannot
be counted, of Northmen fell, but the king Amlab escaped with a few
men. Moreover on the other side a great number of Saxons fell.
thelstan, however, king of the Saxons, was enriched by a great
victory.

thelstan as Pious Christian King and Patron of Malmesbury

Early in section one of his account, William describes thelstan as outstripping all his

predecessors in piety and founding new, magnificent monasteries while also enhancing

practically every old monastery in England with buildings, ornaments, books or land.214

Some independent evidence for thelstans gifts exists in his book dedications, the

sacramentary list of his gifts to the St Cuthbert community and the monastic land

charters which have survived.215 However, the details William himself provides in his

Gesta Regum and his Gesta Pontificum do not back up his statement of thelstans

extensive donations and monastic foundations. The following Table summarizes the

information he provides and illustrates the pre-eminence he gives to thelstans links

with Malmesbury:

213
Annals of Ulster, ed. by MacAirt and MacNiocaill, pp. 384-86.
214
omnes antecessores deuotione mentis [] obscurauit. [] Noua monasteria quot et quanta
fecerit, scribere dissimulo; illud non transiliam, quod vix aliquod in tota Anglia uetustum fuerit
quod non uel edifitiis vel ornamentis aut libris aut prediis decorauit. He eclipsed all his
predecessors in piety of mind. How many and how great the new monasteries he founded I
leave unwritten; the one fact I will not pass over is that there was scarcely any long-established
monastery in the whole of England which he did not adorn either with buildings, or decorations,
or books or estates. Gesta Regum, ii. 131, I, 206-07.
215
See the sections on thelstans charters and book dedications in Chapter 1.
 181

Table 10. thelstans Monastic Donations and Foundations

Gesta Regum Gesta Pontificum

Monastic Mulcheney and Milton Abbeys in
Foundations memory of Edwin.
Gifts and donations Gave to his successors the sword Gave relics to Middleton, and
of Constantine with nail from Milton.
the cross; spear of Charlemagne To Milton he gave many relics
said to be the lance which acquired from Brittany, including
wounded Christs side; the the bones of St Samson,
banner of St Maurice of the Archbishop of Dol.
Theban Legion, which were all
given to him by Hugh King of
the Franks.216
Malmesbury thelstan related to St Aldhelm. Related to Aldhelm and devoted
Gave to Malmesbury part of the himself to his service.
holy cross and crown of thorns Gave altar cloths, a gold cross, gold
he received as gifts from Hugh reliquaries, a piece of the cross
King of the Franks. given to him by Hugh, King of the
Called on St Aldhelm who Franks.
restored his sword. Built a shrine at Malmesbury for
Buried his cousins Elwin and the relics of St Paternus.
Ethelwin at the head of St Buried in St Marys Malmesbury,
Aldhelms tomb and stated his his two cousins, killed at
own wish to be buried there. Brunanburh, in memory of St
Gave many lands to Aldhelms action in miraculously
Malmesbury; these included restoring his sword.
Alfreds estates given in thelstan gave Alfreds forfeited
thanksgiving to God. lands to St Peters Malmesbury on
Buried under the altar at behalf of the souls of his cousins
Malmesbury. killed at Brunanburh.
thelstan buried at St Marys
Malmesbury under the altar in the
tower.

The Table shows that, although details may vary, William used the same basic

information about thelstan and Malmesbury in both his works. Only the Gesta

Pontificum names two monastic foundations directly credited to thelstan, Milton and

Mulcheney, founded on behalf of the soul of his brother Edwin.217 Williams account of

thelstans involvement in Edwins death is more developed than in the other Anglo-

216
William refers to Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, as rex in both works, implying
greater honour for thelstan as recipient.
217
Gesta Pontificum, ii, 85, 93, I, 292-93, 312-13.
 182

Norman historians. He provides the following narrative claiming that he is using the

cantilenae as his source:218

Edwin is accused of plotting against thelstan. Despite denying the charge on oath,

thelstan drives Edwin into exile and virtually condemned Edwin to death by having

him cast adrift in a rickety old boat without oars or oarsmen. Edwin is accompanied by

an attendant but when the sails no longer coped with the fierce winds, Edwin, unable to

endure the situation any further, ends his own life by leaping overboard. The attendant

manages to propel the boat to land with his feet and brought Edwins body to land.

William has already pointed out to his readers the unreliability of the cantilenae as a

source, thereby immediately creating some doubt as to the accuracy of its information.

He comments that the story of Edwins death may seem plausible to some but that it is

out of keeping with thelstans known affection for his family:

Haec de fratris nece, etsi ueri similia uidentur, eo minus corroboro quod
mirabilem suae pietatis diligentiam in reliquos fraters intenderit; quos cum
pater puerulos admodum reliquisset, ille paruos magna dulcedine fouit et
adultos regni consortes fecit.219

These details of his brothers death, although they seem credible, I do not at all
endorse, the less so because of the remarkable dutifulness of the affection which
he showed towards the rest of his brothers, whom, when their father had died
leaving them still small boys, he cherished as little children with great charm
and as young men made them sharers in his kingdom.

William rounds off his account by relating that thelstans cup-bearer was

revealed as responsible for false accusations against Edwin. thelstan punished his

cup-bearer and showed remorse for his own treatment of Edwin by undertaking seven

years of penance.220 As Edwins death is generally dated to 933, this means that,

counted inclusively, thelstan is depicted as doing penance until 939, the year of his

death. William also depicts thelstan piously founding two monasteries to pray for the

218
Gesta Regum, ii, 139, I, 226-27.
219
Gesta Regum, ii, 140, I, 228-29.
220
Gesta Regum, ii, 139, I, 226-27.
 183

soul of his brother and he provides other examples of thelstans Christian concern for

the souls of the dead. thelstan is said to have allowed the thegn Alfred Christian burial

in response to requests from the nobles and from Alfreds family and to have given

Alfreds estates to Malmesbury on behalf of the souls of his two cousins buried there.

thelstans personal piety is further emphasized by Williams accounts of thelstans

commitment to gathering relics for personal and public veneration.

Relics

William lists the sacred relics presented to thelstan by Hugh the Great when seeking

thelstans half-sister in marriage. He uses the high status of the relics to depict the

high esteem in which thelstan was held. Not only do the relics include those closely

associated with Christs passion and death but their association with Constantine and

Charlemagne imply that thelstan was of comparable standing. According to William,

thelstan gave Malmesbury Abbey two of the most sacred relics, part of Christs cross

and crown of thorns which William claims to believe still continued to give new life to

the monastic community despite all the difficulties it faced. His narrative serves not

only to show how highly thelstan valued Malmesbury but how his gift of these relics

had conferred status on the Abbey and helped sustain it, through Gods support, into

Williams own day.

William gives particular prominence to thelstans love of Breton relics. He

claims that thelstan had endowed his foundation of Milton with the bones of Saint

Samson of Dol together with other Breton relics. At Milton, William states, he came

across a letter from Radbod, Prior of Dol, sent to thelstan with gifts of the relics of

SS. Senator, Scubilion and Paternus and details of the dates for their veneration.221

thelstan had given the bones of St Paternus to Malmesbury and had a shrine made for

221
Radods letter indicates that thelstans links with Dol certainly go back to his fathers time
and possibly his grandfathers. He refers to Edward the Elder as a confrre of Dol and Asser
describes King Alfred providing financial support for churches in Brittany. Gesta Pontificum, v,
249, I, 596-99. See also Asser, De Rebus Gestis lfredi, 102, p. 89.
 184

them. William also refers to thelstan obtaining relics in Brittany and Normandy with

the help of Rollo and mentions Breton relics being carried at the head of thelstans

funeral procession.222 While thelstans love of relics is mentioned in other sources,223

William particularly stresses thelstans love of Breton relics and comments that

thelstan, in response to a dream, had spent large amounts of the wealth he inherited

from his father on obtaining his Breton relics. It would seem from Williams version of

events that the traditions linking Wessex with Brittany deserve more thorough scholarly

study than can be provided in this thesis.

thelstans Personality and character

William provides a number of brief pen-pictures of thelstan through which he depicts

his personal qualities and physical appearance. William states that he had heard

thelstan was of average height, slim in build and with fair hairsomething which

William claims to be able to endorse having seen the kings body himself. He notes an

English tradition that no ruler was more observant of the law or more educated than

222
Williams reference to Rollo depicts a friendship between Rollo and thelstan which is also
referred to by Roger of Wendover but not mentioned in the other Anglo-Norman sources. It is
described in detail in William of Jumiges Gesta Normannorum based on Dudos tenth-century
history of the Dukes of Normandy and this may be the source used by William. See Chapter 4,
thelstan in the Scandinavian Tradition.
223
Mention was made in Chapter 1 to thelstans claim in his manumission statement to have
provided relics for the people throughout England. An eleventh-century entry in the Leofric
Missal lists relics at Exeter from the Holy Land, the eastern Mediterranean, Italy, Gaul, Brittany
and England held at the monastery of St Mary and St Peter and notes: maximam partem
gloriosissimus et uictorissimus rex Athelstanus, eiusdem scilicet loci primus constructor, illuc
dedit, the greatest part, the most glorious and victorious king thelstan gave there, for of
course he was the first to build that same place. Leofric Missal, ed. by Nicholas Orchard, II, 8-
13. Rollason has suggested that the Exeter list of relics could be read out to the congregation,
perhaps on days when the relics were displayed for veneration and that this would remind
people of the piety, power and wealth of the donor. David Rollason, Saints and Relics in Anglo-
Saxon England, p. 160. Royal gifts of relics gave added prestige to the churches which had been
chosen to receive them. Donations by thelstan are also recorded for the monasteries at
Abingdon, Glastonbury, and Winchester. Foot, thelstan, pp. 198-200. William of
Malmesbury, De Antiquitate Glastonie Ecclesie, 54, pp. 112-15. Robinson described
thelstans reputation for collecting relics as unique. He has pointed out that the records of
thelstans donations cannot be substantiated but that, what matters is that as we turn the
pages of list after list of our English monasteries we find thelstan among the greatest of the
donors. Robinson, The Times of St Dunstan, pp. 72-73, 75.
 185

thelstan.224 The description of the lavish celebrations for thelstans coronation in

the old book also depicts thelstan as a strong personality who brought hope to some of

his subjects and fear to others. His followers are described as keen to show their support

and loyalty to him. In return thelstan is depicted as welcoming their honouring of him

and responding in an appropriate social manner:225

Rex non inuitis oculis hunc haurit honorem,

omnibus indulgens proprium dignanter amorem.

The king drinks in this honour with eager eyes,

conferring courteously on all a proper affection.

This depiction of thelstan as skilled in relating effectively to others is further

developed through a series of contrasting statements. He can be courteous, agreeable,

modest and courageous but also unremitting towards his enemies:226

Deo famulantibus pronus et dulcis, laicis iocundus et comis, magnatibus pro

contuitu maiestatis serius, minoribus pro condescensione paupertatis deposito
regni supercilio affabiliter sobrius. [] Ciuibus ammaritione fortitudinis et
humilitatis percarus, rebellibus inuicta constantia fulmineus.

He was favourably disposed and agreeable to the servants of God, to the laity,
pleasant and courteous, to important people, serious in keeping with the

224
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 214-15. De hoc rege non inualida apud Anglos fama seritur, quod
nemo legalius uel litterarius rempublicam amministrauerit, concerning this king a strong
reputation is established among the English that no-one more law-abiding or more educated has
governed the state. Gesta Regum, ii, 132, I, 210-11. Patrick Wormald notes the extensive
legislation attributed to thelstan. Patrick Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred
to the Twelfth Century (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 290-95. For thelstans laws see F. L.
Attenborough, Laws of the Earliest English Kings (New York: Russell & Russell, 1963). That
thelstan continued to be credited with the set of law codes which still carry his name is an
indication of the continuing reputation he had established as a law maker. It may also be
reflected in the saga accounts of his foster-son Hkons reputation as a law-maker but it is
challenged by Saxo Granmmaticus in his account of thelstan illegally seizing the kingdom.
See Chapter 4, thelstan in the Scandinavian Tradition. Williams description of thelstans
reputation as an English tradition may indicate that the Normans too had a different view.
Malmesbury Abbey possessed a copy of the Gesta Normannorum Ducum written by William of
Jumiges in which he depicts thelstan as gentle, ineffective and inferior in every way to Rollo,
founder of the Norman race. See Chapter 3, thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
225
Gesta Regum, ii, 133, I, 212-13. See Chapter 4 Section Three where Saxo Grammaticus
depicts thelstan as over-concerned with social niceties. The old book contains a description of
thelstans coronation and feast which William quotes as verse. The nobles are said to place
the diadema on his head while the bishops declare the disloyal accursed. While this
description does not reflect the actual coronation ceremony, it fits with Williams earlier and
later prose accounts of thelstans succession being supported by the nobles and the thegn
Alfred suffering divinely ordained punishment for his attempt to blind thelstan.
226
Gesta Regum, ii, 134, I, 214-15.
 186

appearance of his royal position, to lesser men, in keeping with his recognition
of their limited circumstances, he was kindly and restrained having put on one
side the pride of kingship. [] To his citizens he was very dear because of their
admiration for his courage and humility, to rebels he was a lightning stroke of
unconquerable firmness.

Above all, the old book depicts thelstan as enhancing his distinguished royal familys

descent and providing a model of moral rectitude:227

Regia progenies produxit nobile stemma,

cum tenebris nostris illuxit splendida gemma,
magnus Adelstanus, patriae decus, orbita recti,
illustris probitas de uero nescia flecti

The royal offspring advanced his noble line,

when, a brilliant jewel, he illumined our darkness,
great Adelstanus, the glory of his fatherland, an example of righteousness,
of famed uprightness, not knowing how to be diverted from the truth.

This is echoed in, or perhaps modelled on, the opening lines of the epitaph for

thelstan at Malmesbury Abbey, which William quotes in his Gesta Pontificum:228

Hic iacet orbis honor, patriae dolor, orbita recti,

iustitiae fulmen, munditiae specular.

Here lies the honour of the world, the grief of his fatherland,
an example of righteousness, a thunderbolt of justice, a glass of purity.

In the Gesta Pontificum William also makes a comparison between thelstan and King

Edgar, in which he claims Edgar built on what thelstan had achieved relying on the

227
Gesta Regum, ii, 133, I, 210-11.Williams emphasis on thelstans noble lineage is also
found in the ASC poem on Brunanburh and in the Aalsteins drpa in Egils saga of the
Scandinavian tradition. It contrasts with the denigration of his status in the Continental tradition
by Hrotsvit in her Gesta Ottonis. See Chapter 3, thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
228
Gesta Pontificum, v, 246, I, 594-95.There is a striking similarity in the references to
thelstan as a thunderbolt, fulmen and fulmineus and in the language of the old book and
thelstans epitaph. Thomson and Winterbottom have suggested that these similarities could
show the old book dated from the tenth century or could be evidence of William editing the old
book wording to reflect the epitaph. Winterbottom has also argued that the epitaph was quite
possibly written by William himself. Gesta Pontificum, II, 296. Thomson and Winterbottom
have identified the opening line of the epitaph as the same as one used for Charles the Bald.
Thomson and Winterbottom, Gesta Regum, II, 120. Given thelstans family links with
Charles the Bald and his Carolingian aspirations, deliberate use of a Carolingian model, whether
by William or by others, is a genuine possibility. For thelstans access to, and use of,
Carolingian material, see Rodney Thomson, William of Malmesbury (Woodbridge: Boydell
Press, 1987), pp. 139-57.
 187

wise counsel of men. He credits thelstan with being the courageous innovator who

had confidence in himself and in Gods support:229

succedente Edgaro fratre, omnium antecessorum, nisi Ethelstanus palmam

preoccupasset, facile primo. Denique nescias quem preferas, nisi quod iste
tenuerit, ille inceperit, ille fortior, iste fortunatior, ille Dei et suo auxilio nisus,
iste prudentium uirorum consilio credulus.

His brother Edgar succeeded him [Eadwig], of all who had gone before easily
the most outstanding, if only thelstan had not attained the palm before him.
And so you would not know whom you should put first, except that Edgar
possessed what thelstan had begun. He was more courageous and Edgar more
fortunate. thelstan relied on Gods help and his own, Edgar trusted in the
advice of wise men.

Although William in the Gesta Regum describes Edgar as excelling all other Kings of

England, it seems that in the Gesta Pontificum he did not wish Edgar to overshadow

thelstan as the English King who had given the greatest support to Malmesbury.

Overview

In both the Gesta Regum and the Gesta Pontificum, William carefully selects and

presents his material so as to guide his readers assessment of thelstan as a person and

as a king. In keeping with his approach to writing history outlined in his prologues,

William appears to let his sources tell their own story, including criticism as well as

praise of thelstan. However, he does not entirely leave responsibility for the sources

veracity with their authors, or with his readers, but questions, challenges and casts doubt

on the negative depictions of thelstans birth and his treatment of Edwin. His use of

different sources in the Gesta Regum gives an impression of disjointedness but allows

him to reinforce the positive through repetition. The cumulative effect of Williams

narrative is to give the reader the impression that there is a weight of evidence

229
Gesta Pontificum, v, 251, I, 602-03. King Edgar (959-975), thelstans nephew, was
credited with introducing the Benedictine Reform into England. John Blair comments, The
narratives of the reform present Eadgars reign as a golden age which transformed the English
Church. John Blair, The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society, p. 351.
 188

supporting his main thesis that thelstan was a king whose personal qualities and

achievements proved his right to rule.

The high and ambiguous profile given to the question of thelstans birth is

very noticeable and suggests that this was seen as an issue in Williams day. Given

twelfth-century concerns about the legitimacy of Norman and Angevin kings, the stories

about thelstans birth had the potential to damage thelstans standing and deter

further royal patronage for the Abbey. William therefore stresses the qualities which

made thelstan a good choice as king and supports this with the story of the dream

foretelling thelstans destined greatness, the foresight of his grandfather Alfred who

saw the makings of a king in the young thelstan from an early age, and the evidence

of the Malmesbury charter which recorded Gods punishment of the thegn Alfred for

claiming on oath that he had not tried to prevent thelstans coronation on grounds of

his birth.

Williams range of literary and charter sources is found only in his works. This

may reflect his more energetic research for material connected with thelstan but his

use of the sources to present thelstan in as favourable light as possible suggests the

kind of flattery which he criticised in others. As a result, his standing as a reliable

historian has fluctuated. Stenton drew on him extensively for his account of thelstan;

Dumville has characterized his work as treacherous and posing real problems for

todays historians; Wood has strongly supported William as a source on thelstan; and

most recently Foot has taken a measured view which recognizes the value of William as

a source while taking account of his work as one of literature as well as history. My

own analysis has argued that rather than a work of history, Williams narrative should

be seen as his personal biography of the Anglo-Saxon king most closely connected with

Malmesbury and a piece of special pleading for recognition and patronage of the abbey

and community at Malmesbury.

 189

Conclusion

The Anglo-Norman histories provide accounts of Anglo-Saxon England which could

appeal to both the conquered English and the conquering Normans. The aim of

celebrating the Anglo-Saxon past was common to both peoples. The Normans sought

current and future status based on the continuity they claimed with the Anglo-Saxon

kings; the English wished to preserve their history and traditions and so safeguard their

position under Norman rule. But the Anglo-Norman writers also had their own

particular aims for their works, both scholarly and practical.

My analysis shows how the Anglo-Norman writers used their tenth-century

sources to promote their own general and particular aims. As a result, their depictions of

thelstan are individualized. This is particularly evident in the works of John of

Worcester, Symeon of Durham and William of Malmesbury. The title of John of

Worcesters work, Chronicon ex Chronicis, signalled that his was a scholarly

compilation of previous texts. His scholarly approach is evident in his adoption of the

chronicle of Marianus as a framework which provided a broader context and more

accurate dating system for his recording of English History. However, my analysis also

identified how John, by his ordering of events, avoided controversy over thelstans

succession. I suggested that this could be related to the aim identified by Brett, of John

seeking through his work to preserve Worcester land holdings, some of which were

based on thelstan charters.

The use of history to safeguard traditional monastic status and possessions is

more clearly evident in the works of Symeon of Durham and William of Malmesbury.

In his Libellus de Exordio, Symeon of Durham depicts thelstan as the fulfilment of

Cuthberts promises to King Alfred that one day a descendant would rule the whole

country. In his narrative, the decisive event is not thelstans taking of Northumbria

after Sihtrics death, but his expedition to Scotland under Cuthberts patronage. The list
 190

of thelstans devotion to St Cuthbert and his gifts to the community of St Cuthbert

serve to reinforce the national status of the saints shrine following the communitys

move to Durham.

William of Malmesbury is much more overt about his aims and methods. His

letters of dedication to Matilda and to Robert of Gloucester make clear his wish for his

work to win their patronage for Malmesbury Abbey. His account emphasizes

thelstans generosity as patron of the Abbey and the importance of Malmesbury as the

burial place of the king. William also emphasizes that his work is based on painstaking

scholarship. In his prologues he specifically addresses the issues of veracity, bias and

prejudice faced by the historian. In his account of thelstan, William provides the

reader with material drawn from a range of sources and through his comments provides

guidance on the key issues of thelstans birth and his involvement in Edwins death. It

seems that despite his awareness of bias in others, William deliberately sets out to

provide a very positive picture of thelstan for his audience. By including descriptions

of the kings personality and appearance, his work reads more like a biography designed

to win hearts as well as minds.

By contrast, Henry of Huntingdons account of thelstan is very brief and very

individualistic. Henrys history is about the English as a people. Henry makes clear the

didactic and moral purpose of his work by organizing it around the five invasions the

people have suffered from Saxon to Norman times. Perhaps from a limited, or selective,

use of the ASC sources Henry depicts thelstans military success as his main

achievement, yet makes no mention of thelstans successes in the north or his claim to

be King of all Britain. The expedition to Scotland is portrayed by Henry as something

of an empty victory and his account of thelstan focuses mainly on the battle of

Brunanburh. His Latin translation of the Brunanburh poem is included partly for

scholarly purposes, so his readers may be aware of the strange language and imagery of
 191

the original, and partly to provide an interlude before he returns to events following

thelstans reign. The overall effect is to depict thelstan as part of a heroic culture

and a king whose early death illustrated Henrys main theme of the transience of

worldly achievement.

The more focused approach illustrated by John of Worcesters Chronicle is also

found in the works of Gaimar, Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover. These

writers closely follow the content of the ASC. They do not question the accuracy or

veracity of the information they provide and make no comment on the content.230 Their

main purpose is the transmission of information about the past for instruction and as a

basis for their own, more lively and more critical, representations of contemporary

events.

The Anglo-Norman texts are drawn from, and build on, earlier texts but my

analysis has also shown how their depictions of thelstan derive much of their meaning

from the longer narratives in which they are embedded. Gaimar, John of Worcester,

Roger of Hoveden and Roger of Wendover have written chronicle-style texts which

draw directly on memories of thelstan already available through the ASC. The tenth-

century entries on thelstan can now be seen as fairly minor records within a much

broader canvas of events. Henry of Huntingdon also draws on the ASC but re-positions

the information it provides within his broader narrative of the moral import of historical

events. Symeon of Durham retells episodes from the history of St Cuthbert and his

community showing how thelstan fulfilled Cuthberts prophecy but also by his

actions provided an example of humble royal patronage which others might follow. As

a result, their authors depict thelstan in ways in which he is already remembered, and

230
Their authors face the same problems over the veracity of their sources as any modern-day
historian, that of deciding whether a source accurately represents a past which cannot be directly
accessed. Otter, Functions of Fiction in Historical Writing, in Writing Medieval History, ed.
by Partner, p. 114.
 192

in ways in which they and their communities or patrons, wish him to be remembered in

the future.

Leah Shopkow has pointed out that among the twelfth-century Norman

historians there was no shared definition of what constituted historical truth and

writers varied in their level of concern on this. William of Malmesbury resolved his

concerns by claiming to have used what were considered to be reliable sources but left

responsibility for the veracity of their information with the source writers themselves.231

It may be that this was the approach adopted by other Anglo-Norman writers, but not

articulated by them. Christopher Given-Wilson has succinctly summed up the dilemma

for modern historians in his comment that accuracy was what chroniclers claimed for

their chronicles; trustworthiness was what they claimed for themselves.232 Through my

analyses I have shown that making choices based on later theoretical criteria on the

historicity of sources and their content runs the risk of decontextualizing the content

which their authors selected for a different purpose.233 As Robert Stein has commented,

we discover that by taking into account not merely the things that are being said
directly by our documents [] but also the linguistic mechanisms that allow
them to be said and said in the particular way they are [], we discover that the
reality we are engaged in understanding becomes thicker, less rarefied, more
nuanced and multi-dimensional. And as we extend our inquiry outwards from
the single source into examining the textual contexts and the intertextual play
inseparable from the particular document on which we happen to be working,
we uncover the continual social and cultural pressure on what is being said, how
experience is being formulated, what is included and what is left out.234

The pattern of continuity, adaption and innovation found among the Anglo-Norman

writers is also evident in the texts which provide the source material for the next chapter

231
Leah Shopkow, History and Community (Washington: Catholic University of America Press,
1997), p. 135.
232
Christopher Given-Wilson, Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England
(London: Hambledon Press, 2004), p. 6.
233
Partner, Writing Medieval History, pp. xi-xiii.
234
Robert Stein, Literary Criticism and the Evidence for History, in Writing Medieval History,
ed. by Partner, pp 81-82.
 193

on the Continental Tradition. In this, I will show how the different ways in which

thelstan is depicted reflect national, regional and dynastic interests and as a result

include memories of thelstan which are not found in the tenth-century or Anglo-

Norman texts of the English Tradition.

 194

Chapter Three

thelstan in the Continental Tradition

Introduction

In this chapter I examine how thelstan is depicted in Continental texts from the tenth

to the twelfth centuries in the regions associated with his reign, Saxony, Francia,

Brittany and Normandy. My analysis reveals significant regional variations. The Saxon

sources include only brief mentions of thelstan, either in connection with the marriage

of his half-sister Eadgytha to Otto, or as a generous benefactor to the Saxon

monasteries. The texts from West Francia and from Brittany portray thelstan as

actively involved in the safe return of Louis to inherit his fathers throne in West

Francia, and of Alan Twistedbeard to assume the position of power in Brittany once

held by his grandfather, Alan the Great. The texts from Normandy also describe

thelstans involvement in these events, but as a friend and ally of the Scandinavian

Vikings.

I show how the portrayal of thelstans involvement in Continental matters

stems from his family and friendship links with Continental leaders and rulers. I argue

that the Continental sources depict thelstan as pro-Carolingian in his sympathies,

aware of the complex power struggles taking place following the break-up of the

Carolingian empire and prepared to involve himself politically in order to achieve his

own objectives. I demonstrate how the ways in which the authors of the tenth-century

Continental texts depict thelstan give expression to the separate national identities

emerging among the regions which had previously been part of the Carolingian empire,

and how their accounts influenced the work of later writers in the eleventh and twelfth

centuries.
 195

The Continental texts were written for different audiences and from different

national, dynastic and political perspectives. When read together, they illustrate how

concentration on only one, or one group of texts, provides a picture of people and events

very specific to a particular writer, nation or time. By bringing the Continental sources

together and examining the ways in which thelstan has been depicted in the different

texts, it has been possible to identify a range of authorial voices and contrasting

representations, both within the Continental tradition and between the Continental,

English and Scandinavian traditions.

 196

thelstans Continental Links

The diagram below provides an overview of thelstans familial and friendship links

with rulers and leaders on the Continent as recorded in the Continental sources from the

tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries:

Charles the Bald

856 thelwulf m Judith m Baldwin I of Flanders

Great-Grandfather

Louis 893/9 lfthryth m Baldwin II of Flanders

THELSTAN Aunt
(Annales Blandinienses) Arnulf) First
Adelulf ) Cousins
Charles the Simple (Folcuin, Annales
Blandinienses)
Brother-in-law
m
919 Eadgifu 926 Eadhild 929 Eadgyth ?
half-sister half-sister half-sister half-sister
(Flodoard) m m m
Hugh the Great Otto of Saxony Conrad of Burgundy?
Brother-in-law Brother-in-law Louis of Aquitaine?
(Flodoard ) (Hrotsvit, Widukind)

Rollo of Normandy Alan Twistedbeard of Brittany

Friend and Ally Godson
(Dudo, William of Jumiges, (Flodoard, Chronique de Nantes)
Robert of Torigni, Wace)

- Ninth Century - Tenth-Century - Eleventh-Century - Twelfth-Century

 197

The diagram shows that thelstans Carolingian family links originated with the

marriage of his great-grandfather, thelwulf, to Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald

and great-granddaughter of Charlemagne. Her subsequent marriage to Baldwin I, Count

of Flanders, established a family link which was later reinforced by the marriage of

Alfreds daughter lfthryth to Count Baldwin II of Flanders. The Continental sources

suggest that this Wessex-Flanders link, with its Carolingian origins, continued to be

close during the ninth and tenth centuries.1 As will be seen below, sources also describe

active links between Wessex and the abbey of St Bertin where, in the tenth century,

thelstans cousins, Adelulf and Arnulf, became lay abbots and where his brother

Edwin was buried.

thelstans Carolingian family links were further strengthened by the marriage

of his half-sister Eadgifu to Charles the Simple, grandson of Charles the Bald and

Carolingian King of West Francia. The Continental sources depict thelstan actively

supporting the Carolingian royal line by providing a place of safety for Charless son

the future Louis IV. The later marriages recorded for thelstans other half-sisters

established familial links with Hugh the Great, Duke of Francia, and Otto King of

Saxony. As a result, thelstan was at the same time brother-in-law to Charles the

Simple, Hugh the Great and Otto of Saxony, three Continental rulers whom the sources

describe as being in constant territorial rivalry with each other, especially over the

region of Lotharingia. Their disputes also drew in thelstans cousin Arnulf of Flanders

whose support for Louis, Hugh or Otto is often depicted as reflecting his own territorial

and political ambitions.

1
Philip Grierson has noted that of lfthryths family, two of her four children and one of her
grandchildren were named after her side of the family; her second son Adelulf was called after
her grandfather Ethelwulf and her elder daughter Ealswith after her mother, the wife of King
Alfred, while Egbert, the second son of Arnulf, was named after his more distant ancestor, King
Egbert of Wessex (died 839). Philip Grierson, The Relations between England and Flanders
before the Norman Conquest, pp. 85-86.
 198

This Continental aspect of thelstans kingship has largely been ignored in the

secondary scholarship. Where it has been addressed it has been from an Anglo-Saxon or

Anglo-Norman perspective. Thus Sharp, commenting on the marriages of thelstans

half-sisters, has characterized these as showing how highly thelstan was rated by

Continental rulers:

The pool of appropriate royal partners within the whole of western Europe was
very small, and made even smaller by the extension of rules on consanguinity
and affinity. It was additionally aggravated by the refusal of the Carolingians to
marry out of the three parts of their empire. Edward and, more particularly,
thelstan, were seen, by later writers at least, as highly prestigious connections
by contemporary rulers on the continent, and their advances do seem to support
this view. Perhaps this helps explain why several foreign magnates sought
English wives in the first half of the tenth century.2

Sharps comments appear to be based on the writings of William of Malmesbury who

stated of thelstan that:

tota Europa laudes eius predicabat, uirtutem in caelum ferebat; felices se reges
alienigenae non falso putabant si uel affinitate uel muneribus eius amicitias
mercarentur.3

All Europe proclaimed thelstans merits and praised his qualities to the sky;
kings of other races thought, correctly, that they were fortunate if they purchased
an alliance with him either through a marriage agreement or by their gifts.

The Continental sources, however, in describing the marriages as prestigious do so, not

on the grounds that they were with thelstans sisters, but with the daughters of

Edward the Elder. In this way they established a direct link back through Edward to

Alfred and to thelwulf and his marriage with Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald and

suggest that thelstans Continental reputation derived more from his lineage than his

own achievements.

Sharps analysis of the purpose lying behind the Continental marriage

agreements is also open to question. She sees them as helping to gain or strengthen an

2
Sheila Sharp, The West Saxon Tradition of Dynastic Marriage, in Edward the Elder, ed. by
Higham and Hill, p. 82. By marrying Eadgifu, Charles the Simple clearly did marry outside the
Carolingian Empire but still within the family connections already established through the
marriage of thelwulf to Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald.
3
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 216-17.
 199

alliance against a common enemy, by providing thelstan with access to the leading

ruling families among his neighbours across the Channel.4 This may be a valid

interpretation from an Anglo-Saxon perspective, but the Continental sources present the

marriage agreements as part of a complex series of political alliances driven by

individual leaders personal ambitions as part of the power struggles which followed the

break-up of the Carolingian Empire. This depiction of the marriages as driven by

political convenience is also apparent in the later accounts of both Hugh the Great and

Louis marrying sisters of Otto of Saxony, perhaps in an attempt to achieve a balance of

political power between them underwritten by familial loyalties.

thelstans links with Normandy and Brittany were not based on direct family

connections. His contacts and influence with the Dukes of Normandy are depicted in the

Continental sources as based on friendship and military alliances. These are said to have

been initiated by Rollo, the founder of the Norman dynasty, and to have continued into

the reign of his son, William Longsword. thelstans links with Alan the Greats family

are less clearly defined. The texts suggest that this was a connection inherited from his

fathers time when Alan the Greats family sought safety from the Normans at the

Wessex court. thelstan is said to have stood as godfather to Alans grandson, the

future Alan Twistedbeard, so forming a bond of spiritual kinship with Alan and his

family.

The tenth-century Anglo-Saxon sources contain little information on

thelstans links with the ruling families of Western Europe. As noted in Chapter 1,

thelweard lists the marriage alliances in the Prologue to his Chronicon and Version B

of the ASC for 924 may have included a reference to Ottos marriage to Eadgytha. Of

the Anglo-Norman historians, William of Malmesbury is the main source on the

Continental marriage agreements with Wessex but he provides no information on

4
Sharp, The West Saxon Tradition of Dynastic Marriage, in Edward the Elder, ed. by Higham
and Hill, pp. 82-86.
 200

thelstans involvement in Continental politics. This only becomes part of the Anglo-

Norman tradition with the introduction of excerpts from Flodoards Annales in the Bury

St Edmunds manuscript of John of Worcesters Chronicle. By contrast, the tenth-

century Continental sources depict thelstan playing an active, and sometimes pivotal,

role in political events. They do so from their authors different perspectives but my

analysis has identified a measure of agreement between them in their depiction of

thelstan as driven by Carolingian ideals which found their most powerful expression

in his support for his nephew, Louis, son and heir of Charles the Simple.

Primary Continental Sources

The majority of the Continental sources for thelstan date to between 960 and the year

1000. The texts are not contemporary with the events they describe but their authors

provide accounts of recent past events based on their knowledge both of historical

tradition and of later political and national developments. The emergence of separate

kingdoms following the break-up of the Carolingian Empire encouraged the production

of texts designed to promote a sense of regional or national identity and foster loyalty to

the new leading families and rulers. In my analysis of the texts I consider how this

influenced their depictions of thelstan and his reign. The following Table lists the

Continental sources used for this section by the geographical area for which their

authors provided a narrative account. The range of titles of the individual works

indicates those texts which were thought of as part of the established tradition of annals,

chronicles or histories. Others, for example Dudos De Moribus et Actis Primorum

Normanniae Ducum, suggest a more informal approach while Hrotsvits Gesta Ottonis

and Waces Roman are written in verse. Despite the differences in nomenclature and

genre, their authors indicate that they intended their works to be accepted as

authoritative accounts of the people and events they described.

 201

Table 11. Primary Continental Sources by Geographical Area

Century Saxony Francia Flanders Brittany Normandy

Tenth Hrotsvit Flodoard Flodoard Flodoard Flodoard
(Gesta Ottonis) (Annales)
Richer Richer Richer
Widukind Richer
(Res Gestae (Historiae) Dudo
Saxonicae) (De
Libri Moribus et
Confraternitatum Actis)
Sancti Galli
Eleventh Thietmar Folcuin Folcuin La Chronique William of
(Chronicle) (Gesta) de Nantes Jumiges
(Gesta)
Historia
Francorum Wace)
Senonis (Roman)
Twelfth Annalista Saxo Robert of
Torigni
(Gesta)

The shifting patterns of territorial dominance on the Continent in the tenth century

resulted in writers including accounts of events in neighbouring territories, especially

where they posed a threat to the security of their own region. Thus Flodoard and Richer

are a source for events in Flanders, Brittany and Normandy as well as West Francia

while Folcuin records events in both Flanders and Francia. Dudo, Hrotsvit and

Widukind write from a narrower geographical perspective, Dudo focussing almost

entirely on Normandy and Hrotsvit and Widukind on events in Saxony. For my analysis

of how thelstan is depicted in the Continental sources, I have adopted the

geographical divisions outlined above so as to retain the texts within their authors

contemporary and historical contexts.

thelstan and Saxony

Hrotsvit: Gesta Ottonis

 202

The main Continental source for thelstans links with Saxony is the poem Gesta

Ottonis written c.960-65 in honour of Otto I by Hrotsvit of Gandersheim. Hrotsvit states

that the poem was written at the request of her abbess, Gerberga, who was Ottos niece.5

Katharina Wilson has commented on the reputation Gandersheim enjoyed in the tenth

century as a spiritual and intellectual centre of learning and culture. She also records

that in 947 Otto

freed the abbey from royal rule and gave the abbess the authority to have her
own court of law, keep her own army, coin her own money, and hold a seat in
the Imperial Diet.6

Hrotsvit was, therefore, part of an aristocratic religious community closely associated

with the Saxon royal family. She would have been aware that Gerbergas father, Duke

Henry of Bavaria, had initially challenged Ottos succession on the grounds that Otto,

although he was the elder son, had been born before his father had become king. Duke

Henry argued that Otto, unlike himself, was therefore not of royal birth. Jay T. Lees has

seen this as having a significant influence on Hrotsvits poem commenting that

one of her goals in the Gesta was to undermine Henrys pretension by

emphasizing the principle of clear-cut primogeniture unencumbered by the idea
of being first-born to a reigning king.7

Lees suggested that Hrotsvits purpose was not to attack Henry directly but to secure the

principle of primogeniture for the future.8 The poem, therefore, had a political

background and possibly a political purpose. In the following analysis, I trace how this

is reflected in Hrotsvits depiction of thelstan and the marriage alliance between

Saxony and Wessex.

5
The earliest surviving manuscript, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Clm 14485, dates
from the end of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.
6
Katharina M. Wilson, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim: A Florilegium of her Works (Cambridge:
Brewer, 1998), pp. 6-7.
7
Jay T. Lees, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim and the Problem of Royal Succession in the East
Frankish Kingdom, in Hrotsvit of Gandersheim, ed. by Phyllis R. Brown and others (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 2004), pp.13-28 (p. 20).
8
Lees, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim and the Problem of Royal Succession, in Hrotsvit of
Gandersheim, ed. by Brown and others pp. 23-24.
 203

In the Gesta Ottonis Hrotsvit describes how Henry the Fowler of Saxony

decided to seek thelstans half-sister, Eadgytha, as a suitable wife for his son and heir

and sent diplomatic messengers with many gifts on a secret mission to England to make

a marriage alliance. Hrotsvit links the need for secrecy to Henrys decision not to seek a

bride for Otto from his own kingdom but gives no indication as to why Henry turned to

England and thelstan.9 The eleventh-century Vita Antiquior Mathildis Reginae

provides one explanation. There, Otto is said to have married a royal bride ab Anglis

Saxonibus, from the English Saxons.10 thelstan and his sister are thus depicted as

related to Henry and his son by race and this may explain why Hrotsvit places great

emphasis on Eadgythas virtues and royal lineage, further enhancing Henrys choice of

a Saxon bride from England.

Other interpretations have seen the marriage as part of wider Continental

politics. Stenton has suggested that Henry wanted to establish links with thelstan

because he was currently acting as guardian for Louis, heir to Charles the Simple of

West Francia. He commented that Henry had recently taken advantage of Charles the

Simples imprisonment to seize control of the Lotharingian region of Francia. Because

the traditional loyalty of the Lotharingians for the house of Charlemagne was still seen

as a threat, it was in Henrys best interests to establish friendly relations with thelstan

as guardian of the heir to the Frankish throne.11 Foot has suggested that the marriage

arrangement would have brought advantages to both kings, boosting the status of Henry

9
Karl Leyser has noted that by seeking a bride for his son from overseas, Henry was breaking
the long tradition of Saxon rulers marrying from within their own people. He suggested that
Henry may have done this to avoid internal rivalries and subsequent challenges to his dynastic
line and that a bride from England may have been seen as an acceptable alternative given the
historic links between the two countries and their claims to shared Saxon descent. Karl Leyser,
The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, pp. 69, 78.
10
Die Lebensbeschreibungen der Knigin Mathilde, ed. by Bernd Schtte (Hannover: Hahn,
1994), p. 119.
11
Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 346.
 204

the Fowler in Saxony and enabling thelstan to form a useful Continental alliance.12

Both these interpretations of the marriage alliance assume that Henry already saw

thelstan as a king of some influence in Continental politics. This, however, does not

fit easily with Hrotsvits account of events.

Hrotsvit credits Henry with initiating the marriage agreement but makes it clear

that the choice of Ottos bride was made, not because she was a sister of thelstan, but

because she was a daughter of King Edward and his queen. Edward she describes as a

noble king and Eadgytha as the descendant of a distinguished royal line. She also adds

that Eadgytha (Edith) was said to be descended from the martyr-king, St Oswald:

Nobilitate potens, primis meritis quoque pollens,

Edita magnorum summo de germine regum;
[...]
Nec mirum, meritis si lucebat bene primis,
Germen sanctorum quam producebat avorum:
Hanc tradunt ergo natam de stirpe beata
Oswaldi regis, laudem cuius canit orbis,
Se quia subdiderat morti pro nomine Christi.13

Mighty in her nobility, strong too in her outstanding merit,

Edith (Eadgytha) from the most exalted stock of mighty kings;
[]
Nor is it amazing if she shone brightly with outstanding merit,
[she] whom the stock of saintly forebears produced:
because men say that she was born from the blessed lineage
of King Oswald, whose praise the world sings,
because he had subjected himself to death for Christs name.

Hrotsvit does not mention Eadgythas Saxon descent but her references to the

high status of Eadgythas royal forbears and her links with St Oswald suggest that her

readers were already familiar with Eadgythas family history. Hrotsvits source for

tracing Eadgythas lineage back to St Oswald is unknown. The use of tradunt indicates

that Hrotsvit was drawing on a traditional source whether oral or textual and it is always

possible that such a tradition was based on Eadgythas own account of family links.

12
Foot, thelstan, p. 48.
13
Hrotsvithae Opera, ed. by Paulus de Winterfeld (Berlin: Weidmann, 1902), 85-86, 93-97, p.
207.
 205

Alternatively, a family link may have been extrapolated from Bedes Historia

Ecclesiastica where Bede records that Oswald was present at the baptism of Cynegils,

King of Wessex, accepted him as his godson and later married Cynegilss daughter.14

Bede also mentions that by the mid-seventh century the fame of Oswald had

spread as far as Germany through Willibrord as Archbishop of Frisia.15 There is

evidence that during the later tenth century the feast of St Oswald was widely

commemorated in Saxony and Leyser has pointed out that this was certainly true of

Essen where Matilda, thelweards cousin and Eadgythas granddaughter, was

abbess.16 Dagmar Riain-Raedel has suggested that Eadgytha herself may well have

been instrumental in promoting this interest in the saint in Saxony,17 and this would

suggest that Oswald was particularly venerated in Wessex. Perhaps too little scholarly

account has been taken of the references in the ASC of thelred and thelfld of

Mercia transferring Oswalds body from Bardney to Gloucester in 906 (Version D), or

909 (Version C). Alan Thacker has linked this event and thelstans reputation for

collecting and donating relics and suggested that thelstan may have played a part in

disseminating relics of St Oswald in England and through this helped to develop the

story of his familys descent from the saint. So far, however, the evidence for Wessex

14
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iii, 7, I, 354-57. Roger Ray has commented on the extensive
copying of Bedes works on the Continent from the eighth century onwards and especially in
France and Germany. Roger Ray, Bede in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon
England, ed. by Lapidge amd others, pp. 57-59 (p. 57). Given Gandersheims intellectual
reputation for learning noted above, it is quite likely that Bedes works would have been known
to Hrotsvit.
15
Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iii, 13, I, 386. Alan Thacker comments that: English and
Frisian liturgical material combined to make knowledge of Oswald as a Christian saint
comparatively widespread in Frisia and parts of Germany along the Rhine in the eighth and
ninth centuries. Membra Disjecta: The Division of the Body and the Diffusion of the Cult, in
Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint, ed. by Clare Stancliffe and Eric Cambridge
(Stamford: Paul Watkins, 1995), pp. 97-127 (p. 121 and n. 150).
16
Leyser, The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, p. 78.
17
Dagmar Riain-Raedel, Edith, Judith, Matilda: the Role of Royal ladies in the Propagation
of the Continental Cult, in Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint, ed. by Stancliffe
and Cambridge, pp. 210-229 (p. 216).
 206

family links with Oswald remains inferential and no convincing explanation can be

given for Hrotsvits claim.18

Whatever the reason for Hrotsvit linking Eadgytha with St Oswald, she clearly

saw it as enhancing Eadgythas standing within Saxony. It did not, however, enhance

thelstans standing. While recognizing him as Edwards son and heir, Hrotsvit never

uses thelstans name, referring to him only as Eadgythas brother and describing him

as being of inferior birth on his mothers side:19

Fratre suo regni sceptrum gestante paterni;

Quem peperit regi consors non inclita regni,
Istius egregiae genetrix clarissima domnae,
Altera sed generis mulier satis inferioris.

Her brother was now wielding the sceptre of his fathers kingdom;
whom a consort who was not illustrious bore to the king of the kingdom,
the mother of that outstanding lady [Eadgytha] was very distinguished,
but the other was a woman of quite inferior descent.

Foot commenting on Hrotsvits criticism suggested that: 20

Hrotsvitha did not intend to denigrate thelstan or his mother, but rather to
emphasize the status of the parents of Ottos future wife; she never implied that
thelstan was illegitimate, or his mother a concubine,

While Hrotsvit certainly stresses the nobility of Eadgythas parentage she also gives

considerable emphasis to thelstans ignoble birth by mentioning it twice. It is not

clear how consors non inclita is to be interpreted but Hrotvits additional description

of thelstans mother as generis mulier satis inferioris, a woman of quite inferior

descent, leaves no doubt that she intended thelstans royal status to be seen as

derived solely from his fathers side. It is possible that this may explain why

thelstans name is either not remembered or not recorded by Hrotsvit.21

18
Thacker, Membra Disjecta, in Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint, ed. by
Stancliffe and Cambridge, p. 121.
19
Gesta Ottonis, 79-82, p. 207.
20
Foot, thelstan, p. 30.
21
Hrotsvits statement is the earliest surviving textual reference to thelstan being of inferior
birth. The status of thelstans mother remains obscure in the English sources. As noted in
Chapter 2 on the Anglo-Norman Histories, William of Malmesbury describes her as illustris
 207

Hrotsvits account of thelstans response to Henrys embassy depicts him as

seeing the marriage proposal as an honour. He is depicted as flattered, using subtle steps

to persuade Eadgytha to agree to the marriage and going to great efforts to gather a huge

array of costly gifts to send to Otto in Saxony:

Moxque suae dulci narrabat voce sorori,

Exortans illam regi parere fideli,
Illam qui propriae proli voluit sociari.
Cumque suae monitis menti instillaret amicis
Oddonis dulcem, pueri regalis, amorem,
Collegit innumeras summo conamine gazas.22

And soon, in a sweet voice he told his sister [of the request]
encouraging her to obey the loyal king
who wished her to be joined to his own offspring.
And when, by his friendly advice, he inspired in
her heart sweet love of the royal youth,
he gathered with the greatest exertion treasure beyond number.

In addition thelstan is said to have provided Eadgytha with a suitable entourage and to

have sent her summo honore, with the greatest honour, to Saxony together with one

of her sisters quo sic maiorem prorsus conferret honorem Oddoni, so that in this way

he might confer greater honour on Otto.23 By the repetition of honore and honorem

Hrotsvit emphasizes her depiction of thelstan acknowledging the greater standing of

the Saxon royal family.

This negative depiction of thelstan may have been linked to Hrotsvits

political aim of justifying Ottos claim to the throne on grounds of primogeniture. In her

account of the reign of Ottos father, Hrotsvit comments that although both Otto and his

femina, a woman of distinction, but also records the tradition that she was Edwards
concubine. Gesta Regum, ii, 126, 131, I, 198-99, 206-07. As Pauline Stafford has pointed out,
the two need not have been mutually exclusive and she has noted a number of circumstances in
which a concubines son succeeded as royal heir. Pauline Stafford, Queens, Concubines and
Dowagers (London: Batsford, 1983), pp. 64-65.
22
Gesta Ottonis, 102-107, p. 207. The only evidence thought to survive from this display of
wealth and power is the eighth-century Metz Gospel Book which may have been presented to
Otto by thelstan. Ivory bound and with fine illustrations, it was placed at Gandersheim for
safe keeping.
23
Gesta Ottonis, 109, 114-15, pp. 207-08. This sisters name is variously transcribed as Adiva,
Eadgifu and lgifu. thelweard, at the end of his Prologus to his Chronicon, also mentions
this second sister and asks his cousin Matilda if she has information on this sisters marriage.
Chronicon thelweardi, p. 2.
 208

brother Henry were brought up in the royal manner (regali more) his father regarded

Otto as his first born and heir.24 There are significant similarities between the position

of Otto as king and thelstan as king. Both were born before their fathers became king;

both could claim the right to inherit the throne on the grounds of being the kings eldest

son; both could be challenged by a younger brother who was royally born on both sides.

Hrotsvits references to thelstans lowly birth on his mothers side emphasize that

while he and Otto both inherited the throne as eldest sons, Otto could also claim that

both his parents achieved royal status, while thelstan could not. As a result, Ottos

standing and claims to kingship on grounds of primogeniture could be seen as so much

stronger.

It would seem that the popular story of thelstans birth, ignored in the

surviving English texts until recounted by William of Malmesbury, was already known

on the Continent in the tenth century. By mentioning it, Hrotsvit seems to signal that it

was too well-established to ignore but she was determined to show that it did not detract

in any way from Eadgythas royal standing or from the splendour of Ottos marriage.

As the poem was dedicated to Otto and written long after Eadgythas death, Hrotsvits

account would appear to have had Ottos approval while avoiding the possibility of

giving any offence to Eadgytha herself.

William of Malmesbury, writing from a pro-thelstan perspective, gives a

completely different account of the marriage alliance. He describes Henry seeking the

marriage because of thelstans noble descent and inherent greatness:25

Henricus primus filius Conradi (multi enim huius nominis fuere), rex
Teutonicorum et imperator Romanorum, sororem eius filio Ottoni
expostulauit, tot in circuitu regibus pretermissis, progeniei generositatem et
animi magnitudinem in Ethelstano e longinquo conspicatus.

24
Hrotsvit does not mention Henrys earlier son by a concubine but describes Henry seeking a
worthy bride for Otto, suo primogenito regique futuro, his firstborn and future king. Gesta
Ottonis, 66, 70, p. 206.
25
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 216-217.
 209

Henry the First, son of Conrad (for there were many of this name), king of the
Teutons and emperor of the Romans, having passed over so many kings around
him, energetically begged for his [thelstans] sister for his son Otto, having
espied in thelstan from afar his nobleness of descent and greatness of spirit.

Williams depiction of thelstan is in sharp contrast to Hrotsvits. He retains the idea

that it was Henry who instigated the marriage alliance but depicts it as with a sister of

thelstan rather than a daughter of Edward, giving thelstans family descent as one

of the reasons. Unless William knew of Hrotsvits version of events and was

deliberately countering it, these very different accounts illustrate how the same event

was interpreted from opposite points of view and handed down to form separate

national traditions of the past.26

The portrayal of Saxon superiority in Hrotsvit may also have been challenged in

the exchange of gifts of books said to have taken place between Otto and thelstan. As

noted in Chapter 1 of this thesis, the Gospel Book which thelstan is thought to have

received from Otto, MS Tiberius A. ii, was some time afterwards dedicated by him to

Christ Church Canterbury. The dedication uses the designation found in thelstans

later charters which would fit with Keyness suggestion that Otto sent his gift to

thelstan either at the time of his marriage in 929 or to celebrate his accession and the

consecration of Eadgytha as queen in 936.27 The name of Ottos mother, the queen

Matilda, is also included but placed second, perhaps indicating that Otto was now king

and that the book was inscribed after Henrys death and Ottos coronation in 936.

26
Foot, perhaps because her main focus is on thelstan, credits him with negotiating a treaty
and brokering an alliance with Henry although this conflicts with both Hrotsvits and
Williams account of Henry as the initiator. Foot, thelstan, p. 48.
27
See the discussion on BL, Cotton MS, Tiberius A.ii in the section on thelstans Book
Dedications in Chapter 1 for details of the book thelstan is thought to have received from
Otto. Keynes has noted that the Metz Gospel Book was at Gandersheim from the early eleventh
century, and may have been there earlier, perhaps given by Otto into the keeping of his niece,
the Abbess Gerberga II. Keynes, King Athelstans Books, pp. 192-93.
 210

The Metz Gospel Book at Gandersheim is thought to have been the book sent to

Otto by thelstan. It carries the following inscription which has puzzled scholars:

+ eadgifu regina :- elstan rex angulsaxonum

7 mercianorum :-

Keynes has commented that the inscription was probably written by an Englishman and

the use of and 7 would certainly support this. Commenting on the designation of

thelstan as rex angulsaxonum 7 mercianorum, Keynes described it as anomalous

by the time of Ottos marriage. He agrees that it could be said to represent thelstans

position as king between 924/5 and 927 but that it would probably be dangerous to

press this point too far.28 Keynes does not explain his reasons for saying this but it may

be based on the assumption that both books were exchanged at the time of the marriage

in 929. However, Version D of the ASC records thelstan giving his sister in marriage

to Otto in the same year as Edward died, 924/25. The use of the earlier designation of

thelstan as angulsaxonum could suggest that thelstan sent the book to Otto as a

gift at that earlier time.

Keynes has provided a detailed analysis of the inscription, suggesting three

different theories as to which Eadgifu is named and how the book came to

Gandersheim. He has expressed considerable doubt as to whether Eadgifu refers to

Edwards wife and therefore Eadgythas mother and has also queried why her name

comes first.29 However, if the book was sent in the year of Edwards death, or as part of

the gifts Hrotsvit states accompanied Eadgytha to Saxony, it would not be unreasonable

for Eadgifus name to have been put first. As Eagythas only surviving parent, her name

28
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, pp. 189-90.
29
His own preference was to take Eadgifu regina as a reference to thelstans half-sister, the
wife of Charles the Simple. He suggested that she might have taken the book back with her to
the Continent and somehow it finally found its way to Gandersheim, but he conceded that this
preference could not be expressed with much conviction. Keynes, King Athelstans Books,
pp. 189-93.
 211

provided living continuity for Eadgythas royal link with Edward, a lineage which

Hrotsvit strongly emphasizes.

Comparing the two inscriptions, Keynes noted that both were written at, or near,

the bottom of the folio page and that this could fulfil several purposes, providing a

record of the donors, showing them honour and enlisting prayers for them.30 He pointed

out, however, that the inscription in Tiberius A. ii was superior to that in the

Gandersheim Gospels, both in the type of script used and in its placement on the folio

page. This would seem to be in keeping with the claims of higher status for Otto made

by Hrotsvit, but it is possible that thelstan by his choice of book may also have been

making a statement of precedence.

At the end of his article, Keynes commented that it was strange of thelstan to

send Otto a German book, although he qualifies his statement by suggesting that

thelstan might not have realised the books origin.31 There are, however, reasons why

thelstan might have deliberately chosen a Metz Gospel Book as a gift for Otto. Metz,

in Lotharingia, has been described as the cradle of the Carolingian dynasty. It was the

place chosen by Louis the Pious for his re-coronation as emperor in 835 and where he

was buried. His son, Charles the Bald, father-in-law to thelstans great-grandfather

thelwulf of Wessex, held his coronation at Metz in preference to Aachen.32 It is

possible, therefore, that thelstans choice of book depicts him celebrating his own

Carolingian family connections while at the same time sending Otto a clear warning that

he was not to have designs on Lotharingia which was Carolingian territory and part of

Louiss future inheritance.

30
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 193.
31
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 193.
32
Pierre Rich, The Carolingians: A Family who Forged Europe, trans. by Michael Idomir
Allen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), pp. 158, 198.
 212

Hrotsvits poem has been described as one of the most successful tenth-century

attempts at a Christian epic.33 Eadgytha is a model queen and Otto is shown to be the

ideal type of Christian emperor. By the 960s, when Hrotsvit was writing her poem,

Frankish texts were also portraying Otto as a powerful and successful ruler of the

kingdom of Saxony. Hrotsvits work is the earliest and most detailed of the surviving

Saxon sources which refer to thelstan. The next work to do so is that of Widukind

who completed his first text of the Res Gestae Saxonicae in 967/68, shortly after

Hrotsvits poem was written.

Widukind: Res Gestae Saxonicae; Thietmar: Die Chronik des Bischofs

The Res Gestae Saxonicae is a history of Saxony from the period of conquest and

settlement to the establishment and maintenance of the East Frankish kingdom of

Saxony. It includes some of the early, oral history of the region and covers the reigns of

Henry I (Henry the Fowler) and his son Otto I in detail, ending with the death of Otto in

973. A member of the monastic community of the royal centre of Corvey, Widukind

dedicated his work to Matilda, Ottos daughter by his second marriage, who as a child

was designated abbess of the royal Abbey of Quedlinburg. Sverre Bagge has suggested

that Widukinds choice of dedicatee reflected the tension in the two main aims for his

workfirst and foremost to provide a history of the peoples of Saxony and secondly a

celebration of the achievements of the regions first two great kings, Henry I and Otto. 34

Widukind makes only a passing reference to thelstan. In his narrative he

makes no mention of Henrys embassy to thelstan and only briefly records Ottos

marriage. This he describes as celebrated with great magnificence shortly after the

Saxon victory at Lenzen in 929:

33
Wilson, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim, p. 12.
34
Sverre Bagge, Kings, Politics, and the Right Order of the World in German Historiography
c. 950-1150 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 25-30, 93.
 213

Itaque recentis victoriae laetitiam augebant nuptiae regales, quae eo tempore

magnifica largitate celebrabantur. Nam rex dedit filio suo Oddoni coniugem
filiam Ethmundi regis Anglorum, sororem Adalstani,35

And so the joy of the recent victory was increased by the royal nuptials which
were celebrated at that time with magnificent liberality. For the king gave to
his son Otto as his wife, the daughter of Ethmund king of the English, and
sister of thelstan.

Eadgytha is not named but identified only by her male connections as the sister of

thelstan and the daughter of the King of the English. Widukind erroneously calls her

father Ethmund and by describing him as King of the English implies that the

marriage was arranged before Edward died in 924/5. In his later account of Eadgythas

death, Widukind refers generally to her noble, English descent but he does not name her

father or any of her family:

Haec nata ex gente Anglorum non minus sancta religione quam regali
potentia pollentium stirpe claruit.36

She, born of the English race, was no less distinguished by her holy reverence
for God than by her descent from the royal power of mighty ancestors.

By this extremely brief and inaccurate account, Widukind effectively wrote thelstan

and the West Saxon kings out of Saxon history. This may reflect his strong commitment

to narrating events in Saxony rather than Saxon contacts overseas. Conversely it can be

asked why he mentioned thelstan at all. One possibility is thelstans Carolingian

connections. In the Frankish sources thelstan is remembered for his role in reinstating

his nephew, Louis, as king in West Francia and later supporting Louis militarily in order

to foil Ottos attempt to take Lotharingia for himself.37 Alternatively, it may have been

that Widukind simply included thelstans name from using family records or from the

Metz Gospel Book at Gandersheim, mentioned above. Widukinds text became a

35
Die Sachsengeschichte Des Widukind Von Korvei, ed. by Paulus Hirsch and H.-E. Lohmann,
5th edn, (Hannover: Hahn, 1935), i, 37, p. 54.
36
Widukind states that Eadgythas death in 946 was a catastrophe which caused grief
throughout Saxony. Widukind, ii, 41, pp. 99-100.
37
Flodoard, Annales, ed. by Philip Lauer (Paris: Picard et Fils, 1905), p. 73.
 214

seminal source for later writers. Thietmar in the eleventh century based his account of

Ottos reign on Widukind while the twelfth-century author of the Annalista Saxo

followed Widukinds narrative almost verbatim.38

Thietmar was bishop of Merseburg and a descendant of a noble family. He

recounts that his grandfather was imprisoned by Otto for taking part in a plot against

him, but later pardoned. Although critical of Otto, Thietmar also represented his reign

as a golden age apparently seeing the fits of anger and acts of ruthlessness ascribed to

Otto by Widukind, as an inevitable part of kingship.39 Thietmars reference to

Eadgythas marriage is included as part of his description of Eadgythas consecration as

queen and is even briefer than Widukinds:

Otto coniugem suam Eadgytham, Ethmundi regis Anglorum filiam, bene

timoratam, quam patre suo adhuc vivente duxerat, consecrari precepit.40

Otto, ordered to be consecrated [as queen] his wife Eadgytha, daughter of

Ethmund king of the English, a very devout lady, whom he had married while
his father was still alive.

Thietmar retains Widukinds use of Ethmund for Edwards name but makes no mention

of thelstan.41 Widukind and Thietmar were both concerned to record and celebrate

the history of the people of Saxony and the achievements of their kings and Eadgytha as

Ottos queen was part of that story. Their treatment of Edward and thelstan indicate

that they regarded Ottos connection with the kings of Wessex as tangential to Saxonys

history and of little significance.42 While Eadgythas piety and good works continued to

38
Augebant hanc leticiam regales nuptie, que celebrantur tunc magnifica largitate. Rex enim
filio Othoni dedit coniugem filiam Ethmundi regis Anglie, sororem Adelstani. Annalista Saxo
ed. by Georg Waitz, MGH SS 6 (Hannover: Hahn, 1844) pp. 542-777 (49, p. 597).
39
Karl Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an Early Medieval Society, pp. 34-37.
40
Thietmar, Die Chronik des Bischofs, ed. by Robert Holtzmann (Berlin: Weidmann, 1935), ii,
1, p. 38.
41
The use of Ethmund for Edward is puzzling. Widukind may have been using an oral source or
the misnomer may have arisen from a faulty entry in a written source.
42
For discussion of the evidence for continuing family and state links between Wessex and
Saxony in the tenth century and later, see K. J. Leyser, Medieval Germany and its Neighbours
900-1250 (London: Hambledon Press, 1982), p. 192, and The Carolingian and Ottonian
 215

be praised in writings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the details of Eadgythas

Wessex family connections were lost from Saxon records.43 The depiction of thelstan

which survives is one of a king of no importance. This negative view, however, is

countered by the tenth-century monastic records of St Gallen and its linked abbeys of

Reichenau and Pfafers. These depict thelstan as a Christian king of considerable

status.

Ecclesiastical Texts

Eadgythas marriage to Otto I is recorded as having taken place in 929 both by

Widukind and by the Annals of the Ottonian foundation at Quedlinburg.44

Independently, the Confraternitatum Syngraphae at St Gallen records that on 15

October 929 Cenwald, Bishop of Worcester, visited the monastery.45 The St Gallen text

states that Cenwald visited monasteries throughout the whole of Germany with a

generous gift of silver to which the king of the English had added a comparable

amount.46 Cenwald is said to have stayed a few days with the monks and to have

celebrated the feast of St Galls depositio with them:

Quique gratissime a fratribus susceptus et eiusdem patroni nostri festivitatem

cum illis celebrando quatuor ibidem dies demoratus est. Secundo autem

Centuries, pp. 93-94, 102-04; Versions B and C of the ASC, record in 982 the death of Otto son
of Liudolf, the son of Otto the Elder and King Edwards daughter. John of Worcester, drawing
on Byrhtferths tenth-century Vita Oswaldi, records that when Edgar succeeded to the throne in
959, Otto sent him wonderful gifts and affirmed peace between them. Byrhtferth, Vita Oswaldi,
ed. and trans. by Michael Lapidge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2009), pp. 106-110. John of
Worcester, The Chronicle, p. 412.
43
Annales Quedlinburgenses, ed. by Martina Giese (Hannover: Hahn, 2004), pp. 457, 463.
But see the descriptions in praise of Eadgytha in Die Lebensbeschreibungen der Knigin
Mathilde, ed. by Bernd Schtte (Hannover: Hahn, 1994), pp. 124, 169-72.
44
Widukind states that at her death in 946 Eadgytha had been queen for 10 years and resident in
Saxony for nineteen, that is, from 927. Widukind, ii, 41, p. 100. Version D of the ASC records
the marriage arrangement as taking place in 924. It is always possible that the marriage was
agreed then but given the hostilities between Saxony and Hungary did not take place until 929.
45
The date has been taken to indicate that Cenwald may have been sent by thelstan to help
escort his sisters safely to Saxony under the marriage arrangement. Foot, thelstan, p. 101.
46
Keonwald venerabilis episcopus profectus ab Anglis omnibus monasteriis per totam
Germaniam cum oblatione de argento non modica et in id ipsum a rege Anglorum eadem sibi
tradita visitatis in Idibus Octob venit ad monasterium sancti Galli. Confraternitatum
Syngraphae, in Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi, Appendix A, ed.
by Paulus Piper (Berlin: Weidmann, 1884), pp. 136-37.
 216

postquam monasterium ingressus est, hoc est in ipso depositionis sancti Galli
die, basilicam intravit et pecuniam copiosam secum attulit, de qua partem altario
imposuit, partem etiam utilitati fratrum donavit. Post hec eo in conventum
nostrum introducto omnis congregatio concessit ei annonam unius fratris et
eandem orationem, quam pro quolibet de nostris sive vivente sive vita decedente
facere solemus, pro illo facturam perpetualiter promisit.47

He was welcomed very kindly by the brethren and by celebrating with them the
feast of our own patron saint, he spent four days there. But on the second day
after he entered the monastery, that is on the day itself of [remembrance of] St
Galls burial, he entered the church and brought with him a large amount of
money, from which he placed part on the altar and gave part also for the use of
the brothers. After this, when he had been brought into our assembly, the whole
congregation allotted him the daily food ration of one monk and promised to
offer for him in perpetuity the same prayer[s] which we are accustomed to make
for any one of our brethren whether during their lifetime or when departing from
life.

Cenwald is said to have asked for the following names to be entered in the Liber Vitae:

Hec sunt autem nomina que conscribi rogavit: Rex Anglorum Adalstean.
Keonowald episcopus. Wighart. Kenvun. Conrat. Keonolaf. Wundrud.
Keondrud.48

By placing thelstans name first, Cenwald not only gives him precedence but

identifies him as the king of the English who had contributed equally to the gift of

money to the German monasteries. The Liber Vitae itself has another twenty two names

added and ends cum ceteris. The full list includes archbishop Wolfhelmus

(Canterbury), the bishops Elwinus (Menevia), Eotkarus (Hereford), Wunsige

(Dorchester), Sigihelm (Sherborne), Oda (Wilton), Fridosten (West Saxons) and

Cunifrid (Rochester), the abbots Kenod (Evesham) and Albrich.49 It is not clear how

many of these names were added in absentia and how many were intended to be read as

having accompanied Cenwald on his visit to the monastery.50 Nevertheless the number

47
Confraternitatum Syngraphae, in Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis,
Fabarienisi, ed. by Piper, p. 137.
48
However, these are the names he asked to be enrolled: the King of the English Adalstean,
Keonowald Bishop. Wighart. Kenvun. Conrat. Keonolaf. Wundrud. Keondrud.
Confraternitatum Syngraphae, in Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi,
ed. by Piper, p. 137.
49
Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi, ed. by Piper, p. 100.
50
Simon Keynes has commented that an entry in a book of confraternity does not necessarily
imply a visit. Simon Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 201, n. 15.
 217

and range of the names depict thelstan as a pious Christian king of considerable

status. His envoys had honoured the community at St Gallen by taking part in one of

their major feasts and by donating money to their church and community. As a result,

Cenwald was admitted to their confraternity and thelstan and his senior clerics

enrolled in the Liber Vitae to be prayed for in perpetuity.

The entry of thelstans name in the St Gallen Liber Vitae depicts him as a king

of equal status alongside the names of the Continental rulers entered in the book, to

several of whom he was related through family marriages - Henry I of Saxony and his

queen Matilda, Otto and his brother Duke Henry and most of the Carolingian rulers

from Pippin and Charlemagne down to Charles the Fat.51 A briefer entry appears around

the same time in the Liber Vitae of Reichenau apparently made by Wighart who is also

listed as having visited St Gallen with Cenwald:

Aethelstaenum regem cum Wlfelmo archiepo et nostris fidelissimis vivis ac in

pace quiescentibus vestro servitio in Christi nomine commendamus. Wighart.52

We commend to your service of prayer in the name of Christ, King thelstan

together with Archbishop Wulfhelm and our most loyal followers living and
resting in peace.

The use of the royal We and the reference to our most loyal followers may be

intended to depict thelstan as the original author of the wording for this entry. The

Liber Vitae of Pfafers contains a much briefer reference to thelstan. Written in the

mid-tenth century, the entry reads:

Athalsten rex, Otmundus rex, Odgiva, Odo archiepiscopus.

Given the reference to Edmund as king and the inclusion of Odo (Oda) as archbishop,

Keynes has suggested that the entries in the Pfafers book may be connected with a later

visit to the abbey by Archbishop Oda and his retinue, perhaps on their way to or from

51
Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi, ed. by Piper, pp. 15, 84, 227,
383.
52
Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi, ed. by Piper, p. 238.
 218

Rome, or possibly as part of a visit of Odas own to the German monasteries, and if so,

this would indicate that the direct contact with the German monasteries at the time of

Eadgythas marriage were maintained, and extended, by his successors.53

Dumville has cautiously suggested that Eadgythas marriage may have made

longer-term ecclesiastical links between England and Saxony more likely, perhaps

helped by Cenwalds contacts with the monasteries there. However, he points out that

from the time when Alfred brought John the Saxon to England to help reinstate

learning, names of German origin can be detected in some of the royal charters

indicating that a number of Saxon clerics were resident and working in England.54

Dumville has also commented that the names of German clerics become more evident

during the tenth century citing evidence from Abingdon, New Minster, London and

Canterbury. Nevertheless, while noting that no doubt England and Germany drew

closer in Ottos reign, he suggested that any increase in the number of German clerics

should be seen more as a natural extension of existing practice rather than a deliberate

policy.55 Michael Wood disagreed and suggested that recruitment of clerics might also

have formed part of Cenwalds mission.56 Leyser has drawn attention to the textual

evidence of continual contacts between the courts of Wessex and Saxony in the later

tenth century following Eadgythas marriage.57 The picture he paints, however, is one of

a fluctuating relationship increasingly dictated by political needs.58 While thelstan can

be seen as having helped establish, and possibly develop, closer ecclesiastical and royal

links between Wessex and Saxony, it would seem that Hrotsvits disparagement of

53
Libri Confraternitatum Sancti Galli, Augiensis, Fabarienisi, ed. by Piper, p. 363. Simon
Keynes, King Athelstans Books, p. 201.
54
Dumville, Wessex and England, p. 160.
55
Dumville, Wessex and England, pp. 159-160. See also Foot, thelstan, p. 101.
56
Michael Wood, The Making of King Athelstans Empire, in Ideal and Reality in Frankish
and Anglo-Saxon Society, ed. by P. Wormald, p. 261.
57
Leyser, The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, pp. 93-94.
58
Leyser, The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, pp. 102-04.
 219

thelstan, and Widukind writing thelstan out of Saxonys history, may also reflect

something of the ambiguities and difficulties associated with foreign marriage alliances.

The divergent accounts of thelstan in the Saxon sources reflect the very

different purposes of those recording them. By comparison, the textual sources from

West Francia, Flanders and Brittany provide a consistent picture of thelstan as an

influential king who played an active part in Continental politics. In the following

section I show how these Frankish sources present thelstan as pro-Carolingian in his

sympathies and depict him taking a leading role in events in Francia, Flanders and

Brittany.

thelstan and West Francia, Flanders and Brittany

The sources used for this section are the Annales and Historia Remensis Ecclesiae of

Flodoard of Reims (894-966), the Historiae of Richer of Reims (c.995-96), Folcuins

Gesta Abbatum Sithiensium (c. 961-62) and the eleventh-century La Chronique de

Nantes. Of these works, Flodoards has proved particularly influential. He was a

contemporary of thelstan and of the tenth-century events of thelstans reign and was

used as a major source by later writers. Because of the breadth of his work, he is also an

important source for events in Flanders and Brittany.

Flodoard had first-hand experience of political life in West Francia during the

reigns of both Charles the Simple and his son Louis IV. In their recent translation of

Flodoards Annales, Steven Fanning and Bernard Bachrach noted that Reims was an

important political and ecclesiastical centre. As archivist of the church in Reims

Flodoard had unique access to manuscripts and records and was also involved in acting

as a diplomat for the church and the king of West Francia.59 As a result he was able to

provide in his Annales and Historia Remensis Ecclesiae a contemporary, or near

59
The Annals of Flodoard of Reims, ed. and trans. by Steven Fanning and Bernard Bachrach,
(Ontario: Broadview, 2004), pp. viii-xiii.
 220

contemporary, account of events both in West Francia and in the neighbouring regions

of Flanders and Brittany which had only recently acquired their independence from

Carolingian rule. Commenting on Flodoards reliability as a historian, Fanning and

Bachrach concluded that, despite charges of bias in favour of Reims, Flodoards work

remains a useful source for the tenth century:

Flodoards Annales may well be considered a useful example of the work of a

medieval author who strove to get the facts right for his readers. In short,
modern scholars regard him as consistently providing accurate information
concerning political and ecclesiastical matters. This would appear to be the case,
it is claimed, despite Flodoards clear personal bias in favour of vindicating the
rights of the church of Reims.60

In style, Flodoard adopts an annalistic approach, listing events in a linear fashion and

allowing his readers to make connections and draw their own conclusions. In general,

the picture Flodoard provides of tenth-century politics on the Continent is one of

constant intrigue, treachery and changing loyalties. The value of Flodoards work was

acknowledged by later writers and especially by his near contemporary, Richer of

Reims, who used his works extensively as a source for the early tenth century.

Richer (c.950-1000) was the son of one of Louis IVs councillors and military

leaders and grew up as part of the Carolingian political world. In his Historiae he states

that he is writing his narrative of events at the request of his patron Gerbert of Aurillac,

Archbishop of Reims. While he acknowledges his debt to Flodoards Annales he claims

that his text will be more rhetorical in style.61 A comparison of the texts of the two

writers shows that Richer closely follows the information provided by Flodoard but

embellishes his narrative with more detailed descriptions of events and characters,

including their motivation and speeches, together with his own authorial comments.

Eric Christiansen, critical of Richers approach to writing history, has seen his style as

over-elaborate commenting that Richer

60
Fanning and Bachrach, The Annals of Flodoard, p. xiii.
61
Richer of Saint-Rmi, Histories, ed. and trans. by Justin Lake, 2 vols (London: Harvard
University Press, 2011), I, Prologus, pp. 2-5.
 221

succeeded in infusing his subject-matter with drama, rhetoric, poetic licence, and
classical echoes to a greater extent than any prose historian since Paul the
Deacon.62

While Richers style has tended to detract from his reputation as an historical source, his

stated aim was to invest events with the same kind of dignity and pride as can be found

among the Roman historians. If read in this way, Richer can be seen as replacing the

annalistic recording of events adopted by Flodoard with a narrative which describes the

same events but invests them with a sense of drama and national pride.

The narratives provided by both Flodoard and Richer give a similar picture of

the politics of the time. They describe the break-up of the former Carolingian Empire

resulting in a series of power struggles marked by the emergence of several powerful

leaders, Hugh the Great and Heribert of Vermandois in West Francia, thelstans

cousin Arnulf in Flanders, Alan the Great in Brittany and Henry the Fowler and his son

Otto in East Francia. In West Francia, Charles the Simple is depicted as granting

territory to Rollo and the Vikings in Normandy to help ease Viking raids but, as a result,

leaving Brittany vulnerable to further Viking expansion. To the north, Lotharingia is

described as the object of repeated invasions from West or East Francia resulting in a

series of changing political alignments between Hugh the Great, Otto of Saxony and

Louis IV of West Francia. This is the troubled and complex background Flodoard and

Richer provide for their accounts of thelstan and his involvement in Frankish politics.

Folcuin of Lobbes was a monk at St Bertin during the mid-tenth century where

his great-uncle was bishop. He was later appointed Abbot of Lobbes and was said to

have been inaugurated at Cologne before the Emperor Otto I. St Bertin was noted for its

scholarship. Fulk, archbishop of Reims and abbot of St Bertin, is recorded as having

chosen to send to King Alfred the monk Grimbald of St Bertin to help with Alfreds

62
Dudo of St Quentin, History of the Normans, ed. and trans. by Eric Christiansen
(Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1998), p. xx.
 222

educational aims.63 Later, Arnulf, Count of Flanders, assumed the lay abbacy of St

Bertin and thelstan was credited with providing refuge at Bath for a group of monks

who opposed the Flemish monastic reforms Arnulf introduced. Folcuins main work

was the history of the Abbots of St Bertin which he researched using documentary

rather than oral evidence, which he distrusted. His work also includes accounts of

events in Flanders of more general historical interest, including the return of Louis, son

of Charles the Simple, from thelstans court to assume the throne of West Francia.

thelstan and West Francia

The diagram earlier in this section, of thelstans Continental connections, showed

how his family links with the Carolingian royal family of West Francia dated from the

time of thelwulfs marriage to Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald and were further

extended by the marriage of his half-sister Eadgifu to Charles the Simple. Folcuin,

Flodoard and Richer all recount the defeat, imprisonment and death of Charles the

Simple in 923, following a rebellion among the Frankish nobles, and describe how his

kingdom was then taken over by Raoul of Burgundy with the support of Heribert II of

Vermandois and Hugh the Great.

Folcuin states that following Charless imprisonment, his son and heir, Louis,

was sent to England by his mother Eadgifu in order to prevent him falling into the hands

of Heribert of Vermandois and his men:

Uxor vero eius regina nomine Odgeva, genere transmarina, cum et ipsa multas
insecutiones fuisset sub hoc tempore passa, filium suum Hludowicum puerum ad
Anglos direxit tuendum; nam et ipsum querebant interficiendum

But the queen Odgeva his [Charless] wife, of overseas race, since she had
herself too suffered much persecution at this time, sent her son Louis straight to
the English for his protection; for they were seeking to kill him too.64

63
Dorothy Whitelock, English Historical Documents (London: Eyre Methuen, 1979), pp. 883-
86.
64
Folcuin, Gesta Abbatum S. Bertini Sithiensium, MGH, 13 (Hannover: Hahn, 1881), p. 626.
 223

Flodoard and Richer also mention Louis being with thelstan from an early age

and their account is echoed in the eleventh-century Historia Francorum Senonis, where

Louis is described as exulentem et profugum, an exile and fugitive.65 Richer also

names Herbert of Vermandois and Hugh the Great as Louiss main enemies and

explains that Louis was in England

eo quod illuc delatus infans ad avunculum Adelstanum regem fuerit, ob Hugonis

et Heriberti insectationem, eo quod ipsi patrem eius comprehendissent, ac
carceri trusissent.66

for the reason that he had been taken there as a baby to his uncle King
thelstan, on account of the hostility of Hugh and Heribert because they were
the ones who had seized his father and thrust him into prison.

Louiss birth is recorded in 920. He was, therefore only some three years old when he

came with his mother to Edwards court in 923. As Louis was Charless only son, these

Continental sources all depict thelstan as the guardian and protector of the future

Carolingian line in West Francia and responsible for Louiss upbringing and education.

The next significant event recorded by Flodoard is the marriage in 926 of Hugh

the Great, Duke of Francia, with thelstans half-sister Eadhild. Flodoard describes

Eadhild as filiam Eadwardi regis Anglorum, sororem conjugis Karoli, the daughter of

Edward King of the English and sister of the wife of Charles [the Simple].67 It is

noticeable that Flodoard does not mention thelstan in connection with this marriage.

Instead the emphasis, as with Eadgytha in Saxony, is on the brides descent from

Edward and, on this occasion, her relationship with Eadgifu, wife of Charles the Simple.
65
quem rex Alstannus, avunculus ipsius, nutriebat, [Louis] whom king thelstan, his uncle,
was bringing up. Flodoard, Historia Remensis Ecclesiae, ed. by Martina Stratmann, MGH 4
(Hannover: Hahn, 1998), iv, 26, p. 417. Richer, Histories, ii, 1, I, 158-59. The eleventh-century
Historia Francorum Senonis also records Louis being in England with his mother, Ogiva, who
had sought safety with her father, the king of the English, because of her fear of Heribert and
Hugh. Unlike the tenth-century sources, there is no mention of thelstan. This may be the
result of the concise style of the text or may reflect that by the eleventh century Frankish interest
in thelstan had waned.Historia Francorum Senonensis, ed. by George Henry Pertz, MGH SS
9 (Hannover: Hahn, 1851), pp. 364-69 (p. 366). Fanning and Bachrach provide a concise
overview of these events, The Annals of Flodoard, pp. xvi-xix.
66
Richer, Histories, ii, 1, I, 158-59.
67
Flodoard, Annales, p. 36.
 224

William of Malmesbury again presents a different picture. He quotes Hugh as another

example of a powerful ruler wishing to be associated with thelstan because of the

kings status among the ruling families of Europe.68 He describes Hugh going to

extraordinary lengths to achieve his aim. He enlists the help of thelstans cousin

Adelulf of Flanders to plead his cause and provides a range of extremely rich gifts and

an abundance of priceless relics. thelstan is depicted as responding with gifts of equal

magnificence, apparently completely won over by Hughs strategies.69

Both Williams and Flodoards account suggests that Hugh hoped to achieve

political power and influence in Francia through marriage with Eadgifus sister. Stenton

has interpreted the marriage from thelstans point of view, commenting that he also

might have seen it as a convenient way of gaining support for Louis who would need

the backing of a powerful figure like Hugh if he was to succeed as king.70 In making

this interpretation, Stenton may have been drawing on Flodoards later description of

the influence Hugh was said to have exerted over the young Louis in the earliest years

of his reign. Foot describes the alliance as one of strategic significance for thelstan

but queries Williams interpretation on the grounds that thelstan had not yet achieved

the military success which would have merited his being seen as high status in Europe.

However, I suggest that Williams description of the marriage arrangement with Hugh,

and the lavish gifts he claims were exchanged, does not require independent historical

evidence but is better read as part of Williams overall portrayal of thelstan as a king

of high status whose friendship was eagerly sought by others.

The Continental sources suggest that Louis remained with thelstan until the

death of Raoul in 936 when Hugh the Great became the dominant leader in West

Francia. The accounts in Flodoard and Richer of Louiss return to inherit his fathers

68
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 216-17.
69
Gesta Regum, ii, 135, I, 218-221.
70
Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 345.
 225

throne emphasize the great care thelstan took to ensure the continuation of the

Carolingian line. Flodoard in his Annales describes Hugh as the instigator in arranging

for Louis to return to succeed to his fathers throne:

Hugo comes trans mare mittit pro accersiendo ad apicem regni suscipiendum
Ludowico, Karoli filio71

Count Hugh sent across the sea for the purpose of summoning Louis, Charless
son, to take up the highest power in the kingdom.

The choice of apicem suggests that, in keeping with earlier Carolingian practice,

Louis, as a direct descendant of Charlemagne, was to be regarded as holding the senior

position among those ruling the former Carolingian territories. Flodoard gives no reason

for Hughs action but as Fanning and Bachrach have pointed out, Flodoards later

account stresses Hughs influence over Louis until the return of Eadgifu to West Francia

in 937. Flodoard then describes Louis adopting a more independent approach, alienating

Hugh and helping to spark off a round of new alliances between Hugh, Heribert and

Otto of Saxony.72

thelstans reaction to the request for Louiss return from his brother-in-law, is

depicted by Flodoard as being extremely cautious:

quem rex Alstanus, avunculus ipsius, accepto prius jurejurando a Francorum

legatis, in Franciam cum quibusdam episcopis et aliis fidelibus suis dirigit; cui
Hugo et ceteri Francorum proceres obviam profecti, mox navim egresso, in ipsis
littoreis harenis apud Bononiam, sese committunt, ut erat utrinque depactum.73

King thelstan, his [Louiss]uncle, having first received from the Frankish
legates their word on oath, sent him to Francia with certain bishops and other
loyal followers; Hugh and the rest of the Frankish nobles set out to meet him and
soon after he had disembarked from the ship, committed themselves to him on
the sandy seashore itself at Boulogne, as had been agreed by both sides.

71
Flodoard, Annales, p. 63.
72
Flodoard, Annales, p. 65. Fanning and Bachrach, The Annals of Flodoard, pp. xvii,
73
Flodoard, Annales, p. 63. In the Historia Francorum Senonensis there is again no mention of
thelstan. The archbishop William is depicted as successfully negotiating Louis return dealing
directly with Louis mother Ogiva, giving her hostages and promises on oath. Historia
Francorum Senonensis, p. 366.
 226

Flodoard portrays thelstan as mistrustful of Hugh and the Franks: he required oaths,

sent his own escort with Louis and made sure the Franks would give immediate pledges

of loyalty to Louis on his arrival. These actions depict thelstan as well aware that

Louis was returning to rule a kingdom where the threat of treachery was ever-present as

part of the changing patterns of loyalty between rival leaders.

Richer of Reims follows Flodoards main account of events but considerably

embellishes it. First he provides an account of the political background to Louiss return

which can be summarised as follows:

Following the death of Raoul the Franks are divided; some want Hugh as king in

West Francia, some want Louis. Hugh is afraid to accept the kingship for two main

reasons: his own father (Robert, Count of Paris) had been killed because of his

over-bearing manner and he therefore feared for his own safety; Louis had been taken to

England to avoid any violence from Hugh and from his ally Heribert (Count of

Vermandois) who had been jointly responsible for Charles the Simples capture and

imprisonment. Hugh therefore speaks in favour of restoring the Carolingian line of

Charles the Simple. He piously states that Charless imprisonment and death as king

was not acceptable to God and he argues that every effort should be made to remove

anything which might have offended Gods majesty.74

Richers analysis of why Hugh did not wish to accept the kingship, and the

speech he assigns to him, presents Hugh as calculating and manipulative. This is further

extended by Richers account of how Hugh planned his strategy for obtaining Louiss

return. He draws on Flodoards account of events but turns them into part of Hughs

strategy, describing Hugh directing the legates to give thelstan oaths guaranteeing

Louiss safe passage and instructing them to say that Louis will be acknowledged as

king as soon as he disembarks on the shore. In this way Richer not only presents Hugh

74
Richer, Histories, ii, 1-2, I, 158-61.
 227

as a clever politician and negotiator but implies that Hugh knows that thelstan will be

distrustful and require firm assurances of Louiss safety.75

The legates are described as meeting thelstan in York where he is attending to

state affairs with Louis. This sole reference to Louis being at York with thelstan on

state business depicts thelstan not only providing protection, but personally involved

in preparing Louis for kingship. Richer depicts thelstan as distrustful of the legates,

just as Hugh had anticipated. He is said to have regarded them as barbarians, implying

that they could not be trusted to act in a civilized and Christian manner.76 He first made

them swear in his presence to the trustworthiness of their words which they did. Having

agreed a time for formal consultation, thelstan sent the legates back with gifts and

messages of thanks to Hugh, and promises of his friendship in return for Hugh ensuring

Louiss consecration as king. Louis, however, did not return with the legates but

remained with thelstan in England.77

Richers description of thelstans distrust and extreme caution depicts him as

very well aware of the potential political intrigues which could lie behind his brother-in-

laws approach. This is further emphasized by Richer describing thelstan personally

overseeing Louiss embarkation and taking extraordinary steps to ensure everything

went to plan. The arrangements for Louiss return are described in dramatic and military

style. Fires were to be lit on both sides of the channel to indicate that both parties were

ready to proceed; thelstan is portrayed as riding to the shore with his royal horsemen

(regio equitatu) and then dispatching his own legate, Bishop Oda, to check out that all

was well before he sent Louis back. Richer recounts as follows the message thelstan

ordered Oda to give to Hugh and the Franks:78

75
Richer, Histories, ii, 2, I, 162-63.
76
barbaris non satis credens, not sufficiently trusting the barbarians. Richer, Histories, ii, 3,
I, 164-65.
77
Richer, Histories, ii, 2-3, I, 162-67.
78
Richer, Histories, ii, 3-4, I, 166-69.
 228

Ludovicum sese libenter missurum mandans, si tanto illum in Galliis honore

proveant quanto ipse a suis provectus est, cum illi etiam non minus id facere
valeant, idque iureiurando se facturos confirment. Quod si nolint, sese ei
daturum suorum aliquod regnorum, quo contentus et suis gaudeat et alienis non
sollicitetur.

Enjoining that he [thelstan] would willingly send Louis, on condition that they
exalted him with as much honour in Gaul as he himself had been exalted by his
own people, since they too were no less able to do that, and they were to confirm
it by an oath. If they were unwilling to do so, he would himself give Louis some
of his own kingdoms, which he would be happy with and where he would give
joy to his people and not be troubled by those hostile to him.

Richer depicts thelstan leaving Hugh and the Franks in no doubt of his mistrust of

them but he also provides a pen-picture of thelstan as King of England. thelstan can

claim to be held in high honour by his people and to have at his disposal a number of

kingdoms where both Louis and his subjects could be happy and enjoy peace free from

the threat of enemies. This has echoes of thelweards description of Britain after

Brunanburh in his Chronicon where he claims thelstan established peace and plenty

everywhere and no fleet could enter harbour without first receiving permission.79 This

picture of England under thelstan is in vivid contrast to the disarray and political

turmoil Richer describes as the background to Louiss return.

Richer describes Hugh, along with the other leaders, agreeing to thelstans

conditions but adding one of his own, that Louis, if he became king, should not refuse to

use his advice. On this basis, the oath thelstan sought was given and Richer now

depicts thelstan as trusting, untroubled, and reassured by the oaths which had been

given. As a result, he sends Louis back but with suitable ceremony, accompanied by his

leading men and a great display of marks of honour.80

Folcuin describes events on Louiss arrival at Boulogne in Flanders, the port

chosen for Louiss return. He states that Arnulf, Count of Flanders and thelstans

79
See Chapter 1, Brunanburh.
80
si rex creatus a suis consiliis non absistat, if, having been made king, he would not ignore
his advice. cum iis qui apud se potiores erant multa insignium ambitione, accompanied by
those who were more powerful at his court with much display of marks of honour. Richer,
Histories, ii, 4, pp. 168-69.
 229

cousin, was there to greet Louis and Folcuins account suggests that thelstan was

adroitly using his family connections for political ends, both helping to ensure Louiss

safe return and at the same time securing Arnulfs allegiance for Louis as king of West

Francia: 81

Ipsique Francorum proceres episcopique et comites Bononiam usque civitatem

cum maximo honore regem suscepturi obviam pergunt; inter quos erat Hugo dux
Francorum inclitus Heribertusque deceptor fraudulentissimus, et Adalolfus
markisus. Suscipientesque regem, Lugduno civitate cum honore maximo
deducunt ibique eum in regem elevant et ungunt.

The leading men of the Franks themselves, and the bishops and nobles
proceeded all the way to the region of Boulogne to meet and acknowledge the
king with the greatest honour; among whom was Hugh the distinguished leader
of the Franks and Heribert the most deceitful of fraudsters, and Adalolfus the
marquis. And acknowledging the king, they escorted him with the greatest
honour to the city of Laon and there they raised him to the position of king and
anointed him.

Folcuin, unlike Flodoard and Richer, disassociates Hugh from Heriberts crimes,

describing Hugh as inclitus, distinguished, and branding Heribert as a double deceiver

who tricked and imprisoned Charles the Simple and intended to do the same to Louis. In

this he perhaps reveals his personal belief that in seeking Louiss return Hugh was

showing genuine loyalty to the Carolingian cause.

All three historians take a pro-Carolingian approach in their narratives and all

three depict thelstan as the king who provided a place of safety for Louis, prepared

him for kingship and took great care to ensure his safe return as the last heir to

Carolingian rule in West Francia. Their positive picture of thelstan is paralleled by

their representations of the threats to Louis as king posed later by the machinations and

changing allegiances of Heribert, Hugh and Otto of Saxony. Their narratives depict

thelstan as continuing to be concerned for Louis and events in Francia and in the last

year of his reign thelstan is described as taking military action to support Louis in his

claim to the traditionally Carolingian region of Lotharingia.

81
Adelulfs death is recorded in 933 and if Folcuins version is to stand, then for Adelulf we
must read Arnulf. Folcuin, Gesta Abbatum S. Bertini Sithiensium, p. 626.
 230

Flodoard and Richer record that in 939 Arnulf of Flanders acted for Louis with

Otto in order to reach an agreement on Lotharingia. At the same time, thelstan sent a

fleet to support Louis. Richer describes the fleet as carrying troops to fight against those

living on the coast who were causing Louis trouble but, as no-one resisted them and

Louis had gone to Germany, the fleet returned home. Flodoard gives a different picture.

He claims that the fleet failed to carry out the purpose for which it had been sent and

turned to raiding on the Flemish coast instead. Very few details are provided but the

overall effect is to depict thelstan as sufficiently involved in Continental politics to

justify his taking military action to oppose his brother-in-law Otto of Saxony in support

of his nephew Louis as the Carolingian ruler of Lotharingia and West Francia.

After 939, Arnulf of Flanders is depicted by Flodoard and Richer as allying

himself more and more with Otto and against Louis. No reason is given for this change

of allegiance. Rosamond McKitterick has interpreted the hostile action of thelstans

fleet as the cause.82 Alternatively, Arnulfs action may merely reflect his political

judgement that Ottos growing power made alliance with him more advantageous than

continuing to support Louis. It is also possible that Arnulfs change of allegiance was a

direct result of the death of thelstan in 939/40. This may have severed the family

connection between Wessex and Flanders which the sources depict as close and

effective during thelstans lifetime.

thelstan and Flanders

McKitterick traces the development of Flanders as a separate territorial region and

attributes this largely to the actions of King Alfreds son-in-law, Baldwin II. She

comments that Flanders as a region was different from the rest of Francia in retaining

much of its original Germanic character and language.83 Although Flodoard depicts

Baldwin II as generally supportive of Charles the Simple, McKitterick notes that by the

82
McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, p. 251.
82
McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, p. 249.
 231

time of Baldwins death in 918 Carolingian royal influence was no longer evident in the

region.84 Arnulf became Count of all Flanders in 933 on the death of Adelulf, his elder

brother and Flodoard portrays him as playing an active role in the complex pattern of

changing allegiances which existed between Louis, Otto, Hugh the Great and Heribert II

of Vermandois. At the same time Arnulf is shown seeking to extend his own territory to

the south and coming into conflict with the Counts of Monteuil and Ponthieu and with

the Northmen of Rouen.85

The Continental sources present thelstans contacts with his Flemish cousins

as part of formal negotiations or direct political action, although it is also possible to see

them as based on family loyalty. Mention was made above of Hugh the Great using

thelstans cousin Adelulf to help him make a marriage agreement with thelstans

half-sister Eadhild, and thelstan ensuring Arnulfs support for Louiss return to

Francia. Both actions depict thelstan as being on close terms with his cousins. The

Continental sources also depict thelstan helping Arnulf in his efforts to secure

Flanders southern boundaries. Both Flodoard and Richer state that in 939 Arnulf

captured the fortress at Montreuil through the act of a traitor and sent the wife and

children of Hlouin, the Count of Montreuil, as hostages to thelstan for safe keeping.

Shortly afterwards they record that Hlouin recaptured the fortress having gathered a

not inconsiderable military force of Northmen.86 It is difficult to know how to interpret

this portrayal of thelstans willingness to support Arnulf by holding hostages for him.

It may reflect family loyalty. Alternatively thelstan could be seen as holding the

hostages as a way of ensuring a future peace agreement between Arnulf and Hlouin so

helping protect Louis against possible conflict on his western boundaries. thelstans

action could also be interpreted as self-interest. The reference to Hlouin returning with

84
McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, pp. 250-51.
85
For a summary of Arnulf as Count of Flanders see Fanning and Bachrach, The Annals of
Flodoard, pp. xx-xxii.
86
collecta Nordmannorum non modica manu. Flodoard, Annales, p. 72.
 232

a force of Northmen suggests that Viking invasion into the coastal regions of Ponthieu

and Montreuil was seen as a distinct possibility, posing a threat not only to Flanders and

West Francia but also providing a base for future invasions of England. Whichever

interpretation is preferred, they all depict thelstan able and willing to influence events

across the Channel.

Flodoard portrays Arnulf as initially supporting Louis as king. His entries for

938 and following describe Arnulf and Louis spending time together, record Arnulf

negotiating a truce between Louis, Hugh the Great and Heribert, and speak of an

agreement between Louis and Otto which was brokered by Arnulf.87 As Arnulf was

descended from Charles the Bald through his grandmother, Judith, this account of his

support for Louis could be interpreted as loyalty towards his own Carolingian relatives.

Alternatively, as mentioned above, it could be seen as reflecting thelstans personal

influence with his cousin.

As noted above, McKitterick interpreted the action of thelstans fleet raiding

the Flanders coast in 939, as resulting in Arnulf withdrawing his support for Louis and

ending the friendship between the ruling families of Flanders and Wessex. She cites in

support of this the lack of evidence of continuing family contact. However, textual

evidence exists of continuing contact between Flanders and England, especially at an

ecclesiastical level. A letter sent in 961 by Count Arnulf II to Dunstan, then Archbishop

of Canterbury, speaks of the tradition of friendship between the rulers of Flanders and

England and in the early eleventh century Adelard of Ghent writes to Elfege,

Archbishop of Canterbury, about the Vita Dunstani he had written at Elfeges request.88

87
Flodoard, Annales, pp.71-72.
88
Memorials of Saint Dunstan, ed. by William Stubbs (London: Longman, 1874), pp. 359-61.
Adelard, Epistola Aderladi ad Elfegum Archiepiscopum de Vita Sancti Dunstani Auctore
Adelardo, in Memorials of Saint Dunstan, ed. by Stubbs, pp. 53-68. An account of Dunstans
family and royal court connections with thelstan can be found in Vita Sancti Dustani:
Auctore B., in Memorials of Saint Dunstan, ed. by Stubbs, pp. 3-52. For commentary on
thelstans links with Dunstan see Foot, thelstan, pp. 22, 107-09.
 233

Four other letters survive from 980-991, written to archbishops of Canterbury from

abbots of Flemish monasteries with close links to the Counts of Flanders. Steven

Vanderputten points out that these

not only document the increasing exchanges between England and Flanders in
the late tenth century, but also suggest liaisons that had clearly been operative
for several years, if not decades.89

Whatever the level and nature of later links between England and Flanders, the

narratives of Folcuin, Flodoard and Richer depict thelstan in close and friendly

contact with Arnulf and directly involved in continental politics through his support for

Louis. I have suggested above that thelstan may have secured Arnulfs loyalty in

neighbouring Flanders as part of his strategy for protecting Louiss position as king of

West Francia. I argue below that the accounts of his relationship with the family of Alan

the Great and his support for the return of Alan Twistedbeard to Brittany can also be

interpreted as depicting thelstan ensuring a ruler friendly to Louis on Francias

southern borders.

thelstan and Brittany

Linguistic evidence suggests that the Bretons were mostly of non-Frankish origins and

that West Brittany was settled by peoples from Wales and Cornwall, although the

details and dates of settlement are unclear.90 McKitterick has noted that Armorica or

Brittany had strong Carolingian links in the ninth and tenth centuries and she credited

Louis the Pious with helping to unite the western and eastern parts of Brittany by

establishing Nominoe c. 831 as his nominated ruler.91 However, Version A

89
Steven Vanderputten, Canterbury and Flanders in the Late Tenth Century, ASE, 35 (2006),
219-244 (p. 234) and Appendix, pp. 235-44. Continuing trade links are noted by David
Nicholas, Medieval Flanders (London: Longman, 1992), p. 53. For a more detailed analysis of
links between England and Flanders see Veronica Ortenberg, The English Church and the
Continent in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries: Cultural, Spiritual and Artistic Exchanges
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. 23-40.
90
McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, pp. 228, 241.
91
McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, p. 242.
 234

of the ASC records in 884/85 that Charles the Fat succeeded to all the West Kingdom of

Francia except for Brittany suggesting that the direct Carolingian links had ended. Later

Chronicle references record incursions by the northmen, the Bretons defeating a

raiding-army which had moved from the Seine to St L (890),92 and the Vikings using

Brittany as a base for future raids on England.93

Flodoard and Richer are the main Continental sources on Brittany together with

the eleventh-century Chronique de Nantes. As noted in the chapter on the Anglo-

Norman texts, close ecclesiastical links seem to have existed between Wessex and

Brittany from at least the time of King Alfred and the Continental sources name

England as a place of safety for Bretons escaping from Viking raids.94 Among those

said by Flodoard to have fled to England were the daughter of Alan the Great together

with her husband Mathedoi Count of Poher, and her son the future Alan Twistedbeard.

La Chronique de Nantes claims that thelstan, either before he was king or early in his

reign, stood as godfather to Alan Twistedbeard thereby forming a link of Christian

kinship with the future leader of the Bretons:

Fugit autem tunc temporis Mathuedoi, comes de Poher, ad regem Anglorum

Adelstanum cum ingenti multitudine Britonum, ducens secum filium suum,
nomine Alanum, qui postea cognominatus est Barbatorta,quem Alanum ex filia
Alani Magni, Britonum ducis, genuerat, et quem ipse rex Angliae Adelstannus
jam prius ex lavacro sancto susceperat. Ipse rex pro familiaritate et amicitia
hujus regenerationis magnam in eo fidem habebat. 95

There fled, however, at this time, to the king of the English, Mathedoi, Count of
Poher with a very great number of Bretons, taking with him his son, named
Alan, who afterwards was given the nickname Twistedbeard. This Alan had
been born of the daughter of Alan the Great, Duke of the Bretons, and the king
of England himself, had earlier stood as godfather at his baptism (raised him
from the sacred font). The king himself because of the kinship and friendship
arising from this baptism had great faith in him.

92
ASC A, 890.
93
ASC Version D records for 910 that a great raiding ship-army came from Brittany and raided
along the Severn. Version A for 918 (914) and Version D for 915 (914) record a great raiding
army from Brittany with jarls Ohtor and Hroald.
94
Flodoard, Annales, p. 63.
95
La Chronique de Nantes, ed. by Ren Merlet (Paris: Alphonse Picard et fils, 1896), pp. 82-
83.
 235

La Chronique de Nantes records that Alan was brought up at thelstans court. He is

described as being physically strong, brave and daring and an excellent huntsman,

indicating that his education included the manly skills expected of those nobly born.96

In 936, the year of Louis return to Francia, Alan Twistedbeard is said to have returned

to Brittany with thelstans support via Dol and to have established himself as Duke of

the Bretons in his familys former territories of Vannes and Nantes.97

Congregata navium parvitate, cum his Brittanis, qui adhuc superstites erant,
venit per licentiam regis revisere Britanniam.

A small fleet having been assembled, [Alan] along with those Bretons who
were still with him, came with the permission of the king back to Brittany.98

La Chronicle de Nantes describes the return of Alan Twistedbeard as being per

licentiam regis, with the kings permission; Flodoard uses the phrase Alstani regis

praesidio, with the kings protection, implying that thelstan had a more active, and

possibly military, involvement.99 In both texts thelstan is depicted as a central figure

ensuring Alans safe return. The descriptions of thelstans direct involvement depict

him ensuring that Brittany, a close neighbour of West Francia, was governed by a ruler

with whom he had close personal links. In this way, he could hope to exercise some

influence in ensuring that Brittany remained on friendly terms with Louis.100

I have argued that the Continental sources on West Francia, Flanders and

Brittany considered above, depict thelstan taking an active role in enabling Louis to

inherit his fathers throne. I have also argued that they support a view of thelstan

ensuring, through his family and kinship links, that Louis had friendly neighbouring

96
La Chronique de Nantes, p. 88.
97
La Chronique de Nantes, pp. 88-89. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 348. For links
between Dol and Wessex see Chapter 2, Section 3, William of Malmesbury.
98
La Chronique de Nantes, pp. 88-89.
99
Flodoard, Annales, p. 63.
100
Alan Twistedbeard and his nobles are said to have become loyal allies of Louis IV. Michael
Jones, The Capetians and Brittany, in Between France and England: Politics, Power and
Society in Late Medieval Brittany, ed. by Michael Jones (Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum
Reprints, 2003), p.5.
 236

territories to the west and south in Flanders and Brittany. What influence, if any,

thelstan had with Otto in the territories north and east is unclear although the textual

evidence is that his cousin Arnulf acted as mediator between Louis and Otto at least

until thelstans death in 939. To these accounts can be added the tenth-century

narrative of thelstans links with Rollo and the Vikings of Normandy written by Dudo

of St Quentin. Dudo also includes an account of Louiss return to West Francia and

Alans to Brittany but from a different perspective from the versions considered above.

thelstan and Normandy

Dudo of St Quentin wrote his De Moribus et Actis Primorum Normanniae Ducum

sometime between 996 and 1020 at the request of his patrons, Richard I and Richard II,

Dukes of Normandy. His work is a dynastic history in praise of the deeds of the Dukes

of Normandy. His main source for this was a family member, Count Rodulf Ivry, the

stepson of William Longsword. Elisabeth Van Houts describes the De Moribus as very

much a work of propaganda written to legitimize the viking settlement and written in a

style designed to show off Dudos knowledge of difficult and obscure words.101 His

narrative is openly eulogistic and includes extravagant praise for the roles and exploits

of the Viking leader Hasting, Rollo founder of the Norman dynasty, and his descendants

William Longsword and Richard I. Although Dudo was himself from Francia, he

depicts the Normans throughout as superior in every way to the Franks who are forced

to accede territory and status to the northern newcomers and former pagans.102

Eric Christiansen, in his translation of Dudos work, has acknowledged that

Dudo did not have a fund of written sources he could use as a basis for his work but he

has identified a long list of literary influences. These include Vergil, John Scotus

101
Gesta Normannorum Ducum, ed. and trans. by Elisabeth Van Houts, Oxford Medieval Texts,
2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992-95), I, pp. xx, xxxv, lix.
102
Dudo, History of the Normans, ed. by Eric Christiansen, pp. xiii-xv.
 237

Eriugena, Boethius, Venantius Fortunatus, Martianus Capella, Fulgentius and various

works of hagiography. Christiansen argued that, in narrating the lives of Hasting, Rollo,

William Longsword and Richard I, Dudo was attempting an original piece of literary

composition in which he portrayed the four men as a sequence of four interwoven

studies of a tyrant, a redeemer, a martyr, and a confessor.103 Dudos narrative often

includes episodes which read like saga material, for example the stories of Rollos exile

and viking adventures, his prophetic dream and its realisation, and his friendship and

military alliance with King thelstan.

Dudo, whether he was drawing directly on saga or on family traditions, makes it

clear that his work was intended to support as legitimate the dynastic and territorial

claims of the Dukes of Normandy.104 Given the obvious literary and political character

of the work, Christiansen dismisses Dudo on the grounds that he is not a serious source

of historical information:

Anachronism, mistaken identity, and misinformation are woven into the

narrative, quite apart from political partisanship, rhetorical exaggeration, and
hearty plagiarism; all the faults of a great historian, but none of the virtues of a
monkish chronicler. Dudo is not a reliable source for the early history of the
Normans; nor did he know of any; nor do we.105

However, Dudos work proved very popular. Some fourteen manuscripts survive and

his narrative was continued and passed down by William of Jumiges in the eleventh

century and by Robert of Torigni and Maistre Wace in the twelfth century.

William was a monk at the abbey of Jumiges refounded during the reign of

William Longsword. His Gesta Normannorum Ducum drew extensively on Dudos

work to which he added an account of the achievements of the Dukes Richard I,

Richard II and William II. His account of the origins of the Normans differs from

Dudos in suggesting their descent from Ragnarr Lobrk, reflecting Scandinavian

103
Dudo, History of the Normans, ed. by Eric Christiansen, pp. xxi-xxiii.
104
Dudo, History of the Normans, ed. by Eric Christiansen, p. xxii. Emily Albu, The Normans in
their Histories: Propaganda, Myth and Subversion (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2001), p. 10.
105
Dudo, History of the Normans, ed. by Eric Christiansen, p. xv.
 238

sources.106 His work proved very popular. Some forty seven manuscripts survive, the

earliest being from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Robert of Torigni re-edited the

Gesta Normannorum Ducum restoring to the text several sections from Dudo which

William had omitted and adding an account of the reign of Henry I and a short history

of Le Bec. The autograph manuscript of his work survives from c. 1139. Initially Prior

at Le Bec, Robert became Abbot at Mont-St-Michel and there met with Henry of

Huntingdon who stayed at Mont-St-Michel on his way to Rome. He is said to have

introduced Henry to the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth and it is likely that this contact

helped to make Roberts version of the Gesta Normannorum Ducum known in

England.107 In his book on Henry I, Robert writes that he is thinking of including a Vita

of St Margaret to show that her daughter, Queen Matilda II, was of Anglo-Saxon royal

descent. In this he seems to reflect the wish of the Norman kings of England to be seen

as natural successors to the English throne.108 This aspect is illustrated more clearly in

the Roman de Rou of Maistre Wace.

A cleric, born in Jersey, Wace came from a family whose ancestors may have

served in the ducal royal household. The verse chronicle of the Roman de Rou was

possibly commissioned by Henry II and intended to justify the right of the Norman

kings to rule in England, something which was still being challenged by some English

nobles.109 For his sources up to the time of William the Conqueror, Wace drew heavily

on Dudo and William of Jumiges. He has been described as, a good poet and an

excellent storyteller, a historian and a moralist, who used dramatic and rhetorical

techniques to good effect in portraying people and events and a writer whose use of the

French vernacular created a wider audience for his work on both sides of the channel

106
Gesta Normannorum Ducum, ed. by Van Houts, I, p. xxxvii.
107
See Henry of Huntingdon in Chapter 2, The Anglo-Norman Historians, Section 1.
108
Gesta Normannorum Ducum, ed. by Van Houts, I, pp. lxxxvii-lxxxviii, II, viii, 10, pp. 216-
17.
109
Glyn S. Burgess, The History of the Norman People: Waces Roman de Rou (Woodbridge:
Boydell Press, 2004), pp. xi, xvi-xvii.
 239

and helped to develop the concept of Romance as a vehicle for dynastic history.110 The

following Table based on the work of Van Houts shows how Wace, William of

Jumiges and Robert of Torigni used Dudos earlier text to depict thelstans

involvement in Continental events. These fall into two groups: those relating to

thelstan and Rollo and those relating to thelstan and William Longsword.

110
Burgess, The History of the Norman People, pp. xxxi, xxxiii-xxxiv.
 240

Table 12. Comparative analysis of the later use of Dudos texts111

Dudo of St Quentin William of Jumiges Robert of Maistre Wace

Torigni
1. Dream directs Rollo to Rollo sails to England.
England. The English resist He defeats the English.
him and his men.
2. Rollo sends men to thelstan sues for
thelstan to request a peace.
truce and promises to
leave for Francia in the
Spring.
3. thelstan meets Rollo Firm friendship pact. No
and offers lasting mention of helping each
friendship. They pledge to other or of gifts.
help each other as needed
and exchange gifts.
4. thelstan sends Support for Danes
supplies and men to Rollo gathering an army.
in Walcheren.
5. Rollo sends thelstan
gifts and a pledge of
service.
6. thelstan asks Rollo
for help against English
rebels; Rollo
leaves the siege of Paris to
give support.
7. thelstan promises him thelstan offers
half his kingdom and half Rollo half his
his possessions in thanks. kingdom.
8. The English ask Rollo to Rollo takes hostages. Rollo takes Rollo asked by
reconcile them to hostages. the English to
thelstan. econcile them
Both take hostages. with thelstan.
9. Rollo refuses the offer of Rollo given rich gifts. Rollo given rich Rollo refuses
half the kingdom in order gifts. thelstans
to return to Francia; offer of half his
thelstans offer to go kingdom.
with him is refused.
10. Rollo dies and his son Alan rebels.
William Longsword Alan goes to
inherits. William defeats thelstan who
the Bretons and Alan flees brings about a
to thelstan. reconciliation.
11. At thelstans request Return of Louis and Return of Louis
William arranges for Louis Alan achieved with the and Alan
to return to Francia and support of Hugh the achieved with
Alan to Brittany. Great. the support of
Hugh the Great.

111
A tick indicates that Dudos text is used virtually verbatim.
 241

All four authors depict thelstan as the one who initiates a pact of friendship with

Rollo. As a result, both men assist each other in their military actions, thelstan

sending supplies and men to the Continent and Rollo returning in person to England to

help thelstan defeat a rebellion. The reference to Rollo leaving the siege of Paris to

help thelstan dates the first group of details to the reign of Alfred. As a result Van

Houts interprets the name thelstan as referring to Guthrum/thelstan of East Anglia.

While Dudo may well have confused the two names, his description of the thelstan

who forges a friendship with Rollo does not fit Guthrum but does reflect the

designations used in the tenth century of thelstan son of Edward the Elder:

Eo namque tempore rex Anglorum christianissimus, nomine Alstemus,

omnium bonorum titulis exornatus, sacrosanct Ecclesi prdignus advocatus,
habenas regni Anglorum moderabatur piissimus.112

For at that time a most Christian king of the English, named thelstan, adorned
with titles of all kinds of goodness, an outstandingly worthy advocate of most
holy Church, was with great piety guiding the reins of the kingdom of the
English.

thelstan is depicted throughout Dudos work as kindly, generous and a very Christian

king. He repeatedly urges Rollo to be baptized but without success. More importantly,

from a Norman perspective, thelstans gratitude to Rollo for helping to put down the

English rebellion results in him offering Rollo half his kingdom and half his wealth as a

reward. Rollo refuses these as he is set on achieving the much greater fame in Francia

promised to him in two separate dreams (or visios). Although written before the

Norman invasion of 1066, the idea that their ancestor Rollo could have controlled half

the English kingdom must have seemed prophetic to the later Dukes of Normandy.113

Compared with Rollo, thelstan is portrayed as rather gentle and ineffective.

Rollo repeatedly takes the initiative and makes decisions for them both. His dominance

is so strong that thelstan is prepared to accompany him back to Francia to assist him
112
Dudo of St Quentin, De Moribus et Actis Primorum Normanniae Ducum, ed. by Jules Lair,
La Socit des Antiquaries de Normandie (Caen: F. Le Blanc-Hardel, 1865), 7, p. 147.
113
Albu, The Normans in their Histories, p. 60.
 242

in his siege of Paris. Rollo refuses his offer reminding him that, as a king, his duty lay in

England.114 This depiction of thelstan as well-disposed, but dependent on outside help

and lacking a proper awareness of his kingly role, is in direct contrast to the image of

him created by the tenth-century English texts and the Continental texts of Flodoard and

Richer.115 From a Norman perspective it serves to enhance their superiority and that of

Rollo who, through his sense of royal duty, his honourable behaviour and his military

prowess, is made to appear more like a king than thelstan.

The friendship thelstan is said to have established with Rollo is extended also

to Rollos son, William Longsword. Like his father, William is portrayed as the

dominant partner. In Dudos text, William Longsword as Duke of Normandy is said to

be the leader of the Viking forces responsible for the Bretons seeking safety overseas in

England. As a result, he is described as the only one who can agree their return.

thelstan is depicted as recognizing Williams good qualities and, being well-disposed

towards him, appeals to him for help to secure the return of Alan Twistedbeard to

Brittany and Louis to Francia. Dudo portrays William Longsword as willing to agree to

thelstans request but only because of thelstans long and close friendship with

Williams father, Rollo.

Two main themes emerge in Dudos version of the return of Louis and Alan to

positions of power. It is William Longsword, not thelstan, who has the greater

political influence on the Continent. thelstans family connections with Charles the

Simple and Hugh the Great are irrelevant in securing the return of both Louis and Alan

and Dudo does not even mention them. Secondly, thelstans influence with William

derives solely from his earlier friendship with Williams father, Rollo. I suggest that this

emphasis on the importance of Anglo-Saxon-Normandy friendship reflects the

114
Dudo, De Moribus et Actis Primorum Normanniae Ducum, ed. by Jules Lair, 19, p. 160.
115
In Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, thelstan is also depicted as dependent on
Viking help and generous in rewarding it.
 243

contemporary desire of the Dukes of Normandy to maintain a family link with Anglo-

Saxon royalty. King thelred of England had recently married Emma, sister of Richard

II, Dudos main patron. Dudos depiction of William providing help and support for

thelstan was being partly relived as he wrote his work by Richards support for

thelred and his sons in exile in Normandy. The texts of William of Jumiges, Robert

of Torigini and Maistre Wace build on Dudos work and carry his version of tenth-

century events forward into the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In this way Dudos

narrative account of thelstan and his links with Rollo and William Longsword became

an established part of Norman history.

The popularity of the works of Dudo, William of Jumiges, Robert of Torigini

and Maistre Wace may indicate that they were seen as fulfilling a useful political

function. Mention has already been made of the Norman kings desire to be seen as

legitimate successors to the English throne in continuity with the earlier Anglo-Saxon

kings of England.116 By including thelstan offering Rollo half his kingdom, Dudo and

Wace can be seen as providing the first Anglo-Saxon endorsement of the right of the

Dukes of Normandy to rule England.117 While neither writer develops the idea that

Rollo ruled in England, Dudo describes Rollo as having helped thelstan subjugate

England in the face of rebellion and Wace portrays Rollo handing back the land to

thelstan as if he had already possessed it.118 William of Jumiges and Robert of

Torigini omit all reference to thelstans offer to Rollos of half his kingdom. As a

result their texts stress that William of Normandys claim to rule England was as

Edward the Confessors legitimate heir.119

116
This is considered in more detail in Chapter 2 on the Anglo-Norman Texts.
117
As will be seen in Chapter 4 on the Scandinavian Tradition, Saxo Grammaticus also depicts
thelstan as ready to hand his kingdom over to be ruled by Hkon of Norway.
118
Dudo, De Moribus et Actis Primorum Normanniae Ducum, ed. by Jules Lair, 20, p. 160.
Wace, The Roman de Rou, ed., by A. J. Holden, trans. by Glyn S. Burgess (St Helier: Socit
Jersiaise, 2002), ii, 651-54, 661-62, pp. 26-27.
119
For more detailed discussion of these aspects see Nick Webber, England and the Norman
Myth, in Barrow, Myth, Rulership, Church and Charters, pp. 211-228 (pp. 218-219).
 244

Conclusion

Written from different national, regional and dynastic perspectives, the Continental

sources illustrate how concentration on only one, or one group of texts, provides a

picture of people and events which is very specific to a particular time and political

scene. For example, if the monastic records of St Gallen were our only source, we

would know of thelstan only as King of England and a generous benefactor of the

German monasteries, whose visiting representatives ensured his name was duly

inscribed in their Libri Vitae. If we only had the historical text of Widukind, we would

know the name of thelstan only as the brother of Ottos queen, Eadgytha. From

Hrotsvit, we would learn that Eadgythas brother, unnamed, was a low-born son of King

Edward of England, who, flattered by the request from Henry the Fowler for a bride for

his son Otto, sent two of his sisters to Saxony so Otto could choose one as his wife.

These low-key depictions of thelstan are in sharp contrast to the regional texts

of West Francia, Flanders and Brittany. They provide a very positive picture of

thelstan, depicting him as the dominant agent in achieving the accession of his

nephew, Louis, as king in West Francia, and ensuring rulers friendly to Louis in the

neighbouring regions of Flanders and Brittany. The dynastic texts of the Dukes of

Normandy also refer to thelstans role in these events but depict him as secondary and

dependent for his success on his relationship with William Longsword, Duke of

Normandy and son of Rollo.

From this comparative summary it becomes clear that the different regions

developed and perpetuated very different memories of thelstan. The Continental texts

were written shortly after the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire and reflect the

desire of the newly established kingdoms in East and West Francia and Normandy to

have their separate identities recognized and respected through their own histories. In

Saxony thelstan is depicted as no rival for Otto whose own birth gives him a much
 245

higher status as king of the Old Saxons. Similarly, Dudos portrayal of thelstan as a

well-disposed but rather ineffectual king emphasizes the strategic power of William

Longsword in deciding who shall be the future ruler in West Francia. The Frankish texts

depict thelstan as a strong and loyal guardian of the rights of the Carolingian kings,

bringing Louis up in safety at his court and ensuring his triumphant return to become

king of West Francia. In each case their depictions of thelstan reflect their different

historical contexts and political needs. Each narrative tells its own story and gives no

evidence of knowing the others.

Taken together, the Continental sources suggest that they are not so much about

what really happened but about what their writers and their patrons believed, or wanted

others to believe, happened. This does not require some definitive judgement to be

made as to who is right and who is wrong,120 rather it illustrates the creative nature of

written records and literary narratives about the past and the multi-dimensional

character of historical reality.121 This is not to say that the Continental texts have no

basis in reality but that writers have mediated events in line with their own aims and

purposes.

The Continental sources also provide a number of depictions of thelstan which

are absent in the surviving tenth-century English sources and only partially

acknowledged in the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman texts. Hrotsvit is the earliest source

we have on thelstans lowly birth; the monastic records provide the only surviving

account of thelstans generosity to the German monasteries; from Folcuin comes the

earliest and most straightforward account of Edwins death at sea; Flodoard is the main

source for thelstans role in Louiss restoration to the throne of West Francia and the

120
Otter has pointed out the fundamental problem today, as before, of deciding how a text can
represent a past which cannot be directly accessed. Functions of Fiction in Historical Writing,
in Writing Medieval History, ed. by Partner, p. 114.
121
Robert M. Stein, Literary Criticism and the Evidence for History, in Writing Medieval
History, ed. by Partner, pp. 80-82.
 246

return to Brittany of Alan Twistedbeard. The detailed account of thelstans friendship

and alliance with Rollo is unique to Dudo but, as will be seen in the chapter on the

Scandinavian Tradition, his account of thelstans ability to relate well to Viking

leaders has parallels in Egils saga.

Only by bringing the Continental sources together is it possible for the reader to

identify the range of authorial voices and the contrasting representations of thelstans

status and involvement in Continental politics. This dilemma is again very evident in

the following chapter on the Scandinavian Tradition. There I show that significantly

different depictions of thelstan are found in the Latin and the vernacular texts,

reflecting authorial choices and interpretations of their sources and resulting in separate

ecclesiastical, nationalistic and traditional ways of remembering thelstan.

 247

Chapter Four

thelstan in the Scandinavian Tradition

Introduction

This Chapter focuses on how thelstan is depicted in the Old Icelandic/Norse texts

from Norway, and in the Latin texts from Norway and Denmark, from the eleventh to

the thirteenth centuries. The texts are drawn from a range of genreshistories, kings

sagas, family sagas and skaldic poetry. The texts indicate the existence of a number of

traditions about thelstan as king of England, as military leader and as foster-father of

Hkon, son of Haraldr hrfagri of Norway. As my analysis will show, the selection and

presentation of content on thelstan in the different texts illustrate the differing

contexts, purposes, intended audiences and national viewpoints of their authors. Despite

these variations there is also much common material and I suggest that the range of

texts and their content have ensured thelstan as Anglo-Saxon king of England a

unique place within the Scandinavian tradition. The Table below lists the main primary

texts used for this chapter.

Table 13. Main Primary Sources on thelstan in the Scandinavian Tradition

TITLE ASCRIBED AREA OF ORIGIN CONJECTURED

AUTHOR DATE OF
COMPOSITION1
Bersglisvsur Sigvatr Norway c.1038
slendingadrpa Haukr Valdsarson Iceland fl. twelfth century
Historia Norwegie Norway? 1150-1220
Historia de Antiquitate Theodoricus Region of Trondheim? 1177-1188
Regum Norvagiensium Monachus
Nregs konungatal Iceland c.1190
Gesta Danorum Saxo Grammaticus Roskilde, Denmark c.1185-1200
grip Region of Trondheim? c.1190?
Fagrskinna Region of Trondheim? early 1200s
Heimskringla Snorri Sturluson Iceland 1220-1230s
Egils saga Snorri Sturluson? Icelandic? 1220-1230

1
See Theodore M. Andersson, Kings Sagas, in Old Norse Icelandic Literature, ed. by Carol
J. Clover and John Lindow (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), pp. 197-238.
 248

It is immediately apparent that the written texts post-date the events to which they refer

by at least a century, and most by two centuries or more. This has raised much scholarly

discussion about the historiography of the Old Icelandic/Norse skaldic poems and saga

narratives and the extent to which they can be said to provide an accurate account of

people and events.2 However, this thesis is not about the historical reliability of the

sources but about the narratives they provide. Although the work of later copyists and

scholars may have altered some of what was originally written, these texts have endured

as records of how their authors wished the past to be remembered.

The Table below gives the traditional genre classifications of the texts. In

addition, my own analysis has led me to identify the use of Latin (L) or the vernacular

(V) as another significant classification in terms of how thelstan is depicted. For

example, the Old Icelandic/Norse vernacular texts reflect traditions which are

favourable to thelstan and depict him as a good king who made a positive

contribution to the history of Norway. Of the Latin texts, those from Norway make only

brief reference to thelstan while Saxo Grammaticus, writing from a Danish

perspective, provides a more detailed version of events which is hostile both to Norway

and to thelstan.

2
The following provided useful overviews of the different theories on saga and oral tradition:
Stefn Einarsson, A History of Icelandic literature, pp. 122-35. Joseph Harris, Saga as
Historical Novel, in Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature, ed. by John Lindow and
others (Odense: Odense University Press, 1986), pp. 187-219. Diana Whaley, A Useful Past:
Historical Writing in Medieval Iceland, in Old Icelandic Literature and Society, ed. by
Margaret Clunies Ross, pp. 161-202. Vsteinn lason, Family Sagas, in A Companion to Old
Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by Rory McTurk (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp.
101-118. Vsteinn lason, The Icelandic Saga as a Kind of Literature with Special Reference
to its Representation of Reality, in Learning and Understanding in the Old Norse World, ed. by
Quinn and others, pp. 27-47. Gareth Williams, Hkon Aalsteins fstri: Aspects of Anglo-
Saxon Kingship in Tenth-Century Norway, in The North Sea World in the Middle Ages, ed. by
Liszka and Walker, pp. 108-26.
 249

Table 14. Traditional Genre Classifications of the Source Texts

Histories (L & V) Kings sagas (V) Family sagas (V) Skaldic Poetry (V)
Historia Norwegie (L) Fagrskinna Egils saga Bersglisvsur
Historia de Antiquitate slendingadrpa
Regum Norvagiensium (L) Heimskringla
Nregs konungatal
Historia de Antiquitate Orkneyinga saga
Regum Norvagiensium (V)
Gesta Danorum (L)

This chapter is in three sections. The first analyses how thelstan is depicted in

the Old Icelandic/Norse saga texts and skaldic verse. The second concentrates on his

depiction in the Latin and vernacular synoptic histories from Norway. Each of these

sections contains an overview of its primary sources and a textual analysis structured

around the main events in which thelstan is depicted as playing a part:

thelstans fostering of Hkon, son of Haraldr hrfagri, king of Norway

thelstans involvement in Hkons return to Norway to take the throne

thelstans dealings with Eirkr blx, Hkons elder brother

thelstans actions as king and military leader.

The third section of the chapter takes the form of a study of Saxo Grammaticus. As a

writer he has been relatively ignored in British scholarship but his depiction of

thelstan forms a key part of his account of the whole history of the relationships

between England and Denmark.

Section One: thelstan in Old Icelandic/Norse Saga and Skaldic Verse

The oral origin of skaldic verse and saga has resulted in the written texts being generally

regarded as unacceptable as historical sources. However, as noted in the thesis

Introduction, Williams has argued for a more cautious approach, characterising as

 250

overly simplistic the view that because the sagas cannot be assumed to be historically

accurate their historical information should be discounted: 3

The fact that a source is not reliable does not necessarily mean that it is
valueless, but that it should be used with caution, and the evidence it contains
evaluated in the light of the overall picture of the period presented by all the
material available.

Vsteinn lason had adopted a similar approach, arguing that sagas defy simple

categorisation into one genre or another,4 and using Njls saga as an example he

concluded that, although accuracy of reporting events is not unimportant,

the sagas more general relation to lived history is much more important. What it
tells us about particular persons and events may be exaggerated, misunderstood,
or invented, but the stories told are a response to something real, to words and
feelings, to memories and fantasies; they are stories with roots in real life.5

My analysis of the saga and skaldic verse texts is based on these concepts of saga as a

record of the social memories which formed part of the Norse traditions and national

feelings about their past. The depictions they provide of thelstan have become part of

a continuous narrative which still inspires historical and literary research today. The

three skaldic poems, Bersglisvsur, slendingadrpa and Nregs konungatal have been

dated to the eleventh and twelfth centuries making them earlier than the prose sagas.

The three sagas which provide the most detailed depictions of thelstan are Fagrskinna

and Heimskringla, also known as Kings Sagas, and Egils saga, the family saga of the

skaldic poet Egill Skalla-Grmsson. Although the written texts of all three sagas are

thought to date from the early thirteenth century, their interrelationship with each other,

and with other saga and skaldic material, indicates that they draw on earlier and more

widely spread traditions.

3
Gareth Williams, Hkon Aalsteins fstri, in The North Sea World in the Middle Ages, ed. by
Liszka and Walker, p. 109.
4
It would be a serious methodological mistake to look at the Icelandic narratives from the
Middle Ages that have been termed sagas as if they were static phenomena that could be clearly
distinguished from other narratives and categorized unequivocally. Vsteinn, The Icelandic
Saga as a Kind of Literature, in Learning and Understanding in the Old Norse World, ed. by
Quinn and others, p. 29.
5
Vsteinn, The Icelandic Saga as a Kind of Literature, in Learning and Understanding in the
Old Norse World, ed. by Quinn and others, p. 47.
 251

Sagas of the Kings: Fagrskinna

The author of Fagrskinna makes no statement as to the purpose of the work. Alison

Finlay has noted that it is generally accepted that [] the author of Fagrskinna was a

conservative arranger of earlier written sources.6 The frequent references to oral or

saga material and the extensive use of skaldic verse in the text suggest that conservation

rather than interpretation was a significant purpose in composing the work.7 Fagrskinna

is therefore a valuable source of traditional material for the events it describes.

Overall Fagrskinna provides a briefer and more concise narrative of events than

Heimskringla and this has been commented on both positively and negatively.8 Finlay

has noted that Bjarni Aalbjarnarson interpreted this as indicating that the work was

hastily put together while Gustav Indreb suggested that this appearance of haste may

reflect pressure from the patron for the work to be finished.9 Finlay interpreted their

evidence more positively, arguing that Fagrskinnas conciseness gives the narrative a

format which is more balanced than that of Heimskringla and she has credited the

author with deliberately choosing a structure dictated by principles of order and

proportion.10 As with all the written sagas, what is unknown is the extent to which the

author chose and presented his material for literary reasons and how this may have

affected the accurate transmission of the traditional material on which his work was

based. What is known is that the written saga text proved popular and has continued to

be used as a traditional source on the past.

Fagrskinna is the earliest of the surviving texts to provide a detailed account of

thelstan challenging the power of Haraldr hrfagri, fostering Haraldrs son, Hkon,

6
Fagrskinna, A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway, ed. and trans. by Alison Finlay (Leiden:
Brill, 2004), p. 2.
7
A useful and concise overview is provided by rmann Jakobsson, Royal Biography in A
Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature, ed. by McTurk, pp. 388-402 (pp. 396-97).
8
Finlay, Fagrskinna, pp. 17-18.
9
Finlay, Fagrskinna, p. 18.
10
Finlay, Fagrskinna, p. 13.
 252

and providing political support both for Hkon and for his brother Eirkr blx.

Initially the text credits Hkon with being the first king to try to bring Christianity to

Norway and describes some of the difficulties he faced. Later in the text this is

contradicted by the assertion that lfr Tryggvason was the first king to hold the

Christian faith. This may be an example of the authors haste in using material from

different sources but failing to combine them into a cohesive whole. Alternatively, as

will be seen later, it may reflect the influence on traditional saga accounts of the

ecclesiastical versions of the Christianization of Norway found in the synoptic histories.

Sagas of the Kings: Heimskringla

Despite repeated scholarly debates on the authorship of Heimskringla it has generally

been accepted that Snorri Sturluson was responsible for its composition.11 rmann

Jakobsson has described the Heimskringla narrative as tripartite in structure, beginning

with the story of the early Ynglingar and continuing its narrative up to the year 1177,

but built around the extended account of Norways Christianization by St lfr in the

lfs saga Helga.12 Sverre Bagge has agreed and has commented that while Snorri

reflects ecclesiastical traditions in his lfs saga, he is primarily concerned to trace the

political rise of lfr inn helgi and his fall as king, brought about through the

antagonism of the land-owning bndr to his rule. Sverre interprets Heimskringla and

the kings sagas as mainly dealing with a game of politics between individual

actors, and based on aristocratic and secular rather than ecclesiastical and Christian

moral values. He identifies as the main underlying theme of Heimskringla the

importance of individual loyalty, arguing that Snorri emphasizes this, and not personal

11
An overview of the theories on authorship are provided by Diana Whaley, Heimskringla an
Introduction, Viking Society for Northern Research, 8 (London: University College, 1991), pp.
13-19.
12
rmann Jakobsson, Royal Biography, in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature,
ed. by McTurk, pp. 396-97.
 253

power, status or authority, as the determining factor for kingly success.13 Sverres

overall views have been challenged as too simplistic,14 but, as will be seen below, his

analysis is particularly helpful for an understanding of the Heimskringla narratives on

thelstan as foster-father of Hkon.

While the account of Hkons fostering by thelstan in Heimskringla

corresponds closely to the content and language in Fagrskinna it also shows an

independence which may be Snorris own or may reflect use of a different tradition.

Whaley has commented that the relationship between Fagrskinna and Heimskringla is

difficult to define and she prefers to support the generally accepted idea that both texts

drew on a common source now lost.15 However, Snorris extended narrative on

Hkons attempts to introduce Christianity is not found elsewhere, suggesting that for

this he was using an independent source or perhaps challenging the synoptic version of

events which branded Hkon as an apostate. As a result, Heimskringla provides a

different background to the Christianization of Norway from the synoptics. Hkon is

depicted as making great efforts as Norways first Christian king to introduce

Christianity gradually in ways designed to win the support of the leading men. This

forms a strong contrast to Snorris later, more conventional accounts of lfr

Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi imposing Christianity on Norway and Iceland by force.

Family Saga: Egils saga

The authorship of this saga remains a subject of debate. Bjarni Einarsson has argued

that Egils saga was written by Snorri Sturluson, to whom he also ascribes the

13
Sverre Bagge, Icelandic Uniqueness or a Common European Culture?, Scandinavian
Studies, 69:4 (1997), 418-42 (pp. 427-40).
14
Elizabeth Ashman Rowe, Review of Sverre Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturlusons
Heimskringla, American Historical Review, 97 (1992), 1501-02. Marlene Ciklamini, Review
of Sverre Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturlusons Heimskringla, Speculum, 69
(1994), 413-15. Bagge refutes these criticisms in Icelandic Uniqueness or a Common European
Culture?, Scandinavian Studies, 69:4 (1997), 435-37.
15
Whaley, Heimskringla, p. 72.
 254

composition of the skaldic poems in the text.16 Andersson agreed that Snorri could have

written both Heimskringla and Egils saga at about the same period of time, despite the

contrasting ways in which Haraldr hrfagri and his sons are depicted in each. He has

identified rivalry between the Icelandic chieftains and the Norwegian kings as the main

theme of Egils saga and commented that the saga may have been written with the

events of the trade war between Norway and Iceland (1215-1220) in mind. As a result,

he has suggested that Egils saga was written for an Icelandic audience and

Heimskringla for a Norwegian one.17

Egils saga extends the picture of thelstan provided by Heimskringla in two

distinct ways. thelstan is depicted in the saga as a successful military leader willing to

use Viking mercenaries and generous in rewarding good service. In addition the saga

depicts thelstan as a respected foster-father whose advice Hkon heeds even after he

is king in Norway. One of the key features which distinguish the narrative of Egils saga

from other family sagas is the picture it provides of Egills relationships with four

different kings Haraldr hrfagri, Eirkr blx, Hkon inn gi and King thelstan.

While Egill is repeatedly in conflict with Haraldr and Eirkr to the point of literally

almost losing his head, he finds in thelstan and Hkon two kings whom he can respect

and whom he is willing to obey. Commenting on this, John Hines has interpreted the

saga as marking a transition from a Norse kingship based on fear to one based more on

consensus.18 If Egils saga is read as a commentary on kingship, then I suggest that,

rather than kingship based on consensus, it more prominently promotes the merits of

16
Egils saga, ed. by Bjarni Einarsson, Viking Society for Northern Research (London:
University College, 2003), pp. 183-89.
17
Theodore M. Andersson, The politics of Snorri Sturluson, The Journal of English and
Germanic Philology, 93:1 (1994), 55-78 (p. 78).
18
John Hines, Kingship in Egils saga, in Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njls saga,
ed. by John Hines and Desmond Slay, Viking Society for Northern Research (London: Oxford
University Computing Services, 1992), pp. 15-32 (p. 30).
 255

kingly rule based on the just use of law, as exemplified by thelstan and Hkon, over a

traditional Viking kingship based on power and fear, exemplified by Haraldr and Eirkr.

thelstans Fostering of Hkon in Skaldic Poetry

The earliest surviving reference to thelstan in skaldic verse is found in the

Bersglisvsur of Sigvatr rarson of the eleventh century. The poem, a skaldic flokkr,

is addressed to King Magns (1035-1047) and quoted in Heimskringla.19 In this, Hkon,

the son of Haraldr hrfagri and his successor as king in Norway, is referred to as fstra

Aalsteins, the foster-son of thelstan:

Ht, ss fell Fitjum, He who fell at Fitje was called

fjlgegn, ok r hegna a very upright man and he punished
heiptar rn, en hnum, the unlawful seizure of property and him,
Hkun, firar unnu. Hkon, the people loved.
j hlt fast fstra The people held fast to the laws of thelstans
fjlbls lgum san, very agreeable foster-son from that time,
(enn eru af, pvs minnir) still, therefore, are the landowners slow
Aalsteins (bendr seinir). to give up what they remember.

The skaldic use of epithets and kennings assumes the listener has some prior knowledge

of the person being praised and the verses themselves provide no background

information on either thelstan or Hkon. However, the description Sigvatr provides of

Hkon can be seen as indicating how thelstans fostering moulded Hkon and his

actions as king. Hkon is praised as very upright (fjlgegn), loved by the people (firar

unnu), very pleasant (fjlblr) and a noted law-giver who particularly defended

property rights. These qualities are similar to the ones which William of Malmesbury

assigns to thelstan whom he describes as pious, pleasant, courteous, very dear to his

19
Sigvatr rarsonr, Bersglisvsur, in Poetry from the Kings Sagas 2: From c. 1035 to c. 1300,
ed. by Kari Ellen Gade, I, 11-30 (p. 16). In Heimskringla Hkon is credited with establishing the
earliest law codes in Norway and St lfr is described as frequently asking for these to be recited
to him. Hkonar saga Ga, in Heimskringla, I, 11, p. 163; lfs saga helga, in Heimskringla,
II, 58, p. 73.
 256

people and the most law-abiding of kings.20 This may indicate the existence of a shared

Anglo-Scandinavian tradition about thelstan as foster-father to Hkon, or, perhaps

more likely, a shared concept of the attributes of a good and successful king.

R. I. Page has argued for the reliability of this early skaldic reference to

thelstan as Hkons foster-father, basing his argument on the lack of explanation of

the phrase, Aalsteins []fstra, and the fact that it is split over three lines indicating

that knowledge of the fostering relationship was already well-established.21 The

accuracy of the transmission of the poem has also been strongly supported by Williams

who argued that the sophisticated structure of skaldic verse provided a measure of

safeguard against faulty oral transmission.22 Judith Jesch, commenting on the reliability

of skaldic verses in Icelandic texts of the thirteenth century and later, has suggested the

following three criteria could reasonably be used to decide reliability:

(1) the type of source in which the verse is preserved, with kings sagas usually

considered the most reliable

(2) the ways in which verse is cited in that source, with verses cited as authentication of

events in the narrative considered more likely to be genuine than verses cited as the

direct speech of a character and

(3) both internal and external evidence indicating the poetic form of the verse,

with formal praise poems considered more likely to be genuine than other types.23

20
William depicts thelstans personal qualities as the cause of his high standing with kings
from abroad whom he describes as singing thelstans praises and seeking his friendship
through family alliances or with gifts. Among these he includes a Harald, king of Norway who
is said to have sent a richly adorned ship to thelstan but William gives no futher details. Gesta
Regum, ii, 132, 134, 135, 138, I, 210-11, 214-15, 216-17, 224-25. This suggests there was an
Anglo-Scandinavian tradition linking thelstan with Norway but, if so, the details appear to
have been lost by Williams time and he gives no evidence of knowing about Hkon as
thelstans foster-son.
21
R. I. Page, The Audience of Beowulf and the Vikings in The Dating of Beowulf, ed.
by C. Chase (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981), pp. 113-22 (p. 114).
22
Gareth Williams, Hkon Aalsteins fstri, in The North Sea World in the Middle Ages, ed.
by Liszka and Walker, p. 112.
23
Judith Jesch, Skaldic Verse in Scandinavian England, in Vikings and the Danelaw, ed. by
James Graham Campbell and others (Oxford: Oxbow, 2001), pp. 313-25 (p. 315).
 257

Sigvatrs verse can be seen as meeting these criteria. It is preserved in the saga on King

Magns in Heimskringla; it is used to authenticate a warning to the king that the bndr

are threatening to kill him if he does not honour the laws on property established by

thelstans foster-son, and, although not written as a praise poem, it celebrates Hkon

and his support for the bndr land rights. In his introduction to Heimskringla Snorri

specifically addresses this question of the reliability of skaldic verses, arguing that the

poems addressed to a king provided the best evidence on the grounds that a skald would

not include information which was known to be false as this would be seen as scoffing.

Despite the arguments for regarding Bersglisvsur as a reliable source, the

possibility still remains that someone like Snorri, skilled in skaldic composition, could

have inserted the material later and ascribed it to Sigvatr to give it credibility. The

thirteenth- and fourteenth-century dates for the earliest extant texts of Bersglisvsur

make it impossible to trace the accuracy of the existing text against an earlier version

and so come to a more considered conclusion.

A second skaldic example of Hkon being designated, this time not by his own

name but solely as fostra Aalsteins, occurs in the twelfth-century slendingadrpa of

Haukr Valdsarson.24 It could be argued that Haukrs use of the phrase reflects a skaldic

preference for a kenning to refer to a person rather than the actual name but this does

not fit easily with Haukrs poem as a whole. Designed to celebrate the achievements of

leading Icelanders from the time of the Settlement, Haukr includes in this same verse

the proper name of rlfr (sic), the Icelandic henchman whose courage in supporting

Hkon at Fitjar is celebrated by the verse. It would seem that by the time Haukr was

composing his drpa, Hkons status as thelstans foster-son was so well-established

that it immediately identified him and could take precedence over Hkons other

epithets of inn gi, and Haraldsson.

24
Haukr Valdsarson, slendingadrpa, ed. by Th. Mbius (Kiel: University Press, 1874).
 258

Haukr makes one other reference to thelstan in his verse celebrating Egills

brother rlfr whom he describes as killed while fighting alongside thelstan in

England. This reference has linked the verse with the battle of Vnheir described in

Egils saga. There has been considerable scholarly discussion as to whether Haukr drew

on saga material for his poem or whether he was a source for the written sagas or

whether both drew independently on common sources.25 As the only surviving

manuscript of his work belongs to the fourteenth century, it is not possible to trace the

origins of his work reliably.

What is particularly striking is that these texts all record Hkon as thelstans

foster-son rather than son of Haraldr hrfagri and this designation is carried forward into

the fourteenth century and beyond through the anonymous poem Nregs konungatal.

The text is found only in the fourteenth-century manuscript of Flateyjarbk, a

compilation of saga, poems and annals dedicated to Jn Loptsson of Iceland, whose

descent from King Magns berfttr it celebrates. Based on its references to Magns

Erlingssons death (1184) and to Sverrir Sigurarson as the reigning king, the poem has

been dated to c. 1190, some seven years before Jn Loptsson died.26

The source for the kings list in the poem is uncertain. The text is headed, Er

Smundr Frodi Orti, Which Smundr the Learned composed.27 This has been taken

to mean that the early part of the poem was composed by Smundr Sigfsson (1056-

1133), although there is no indication whether the composition was oral or written.

The later date of 1190 assigned to the poem as a whole has resulted in alternative

suggestions that the poem draws on Smundrs work but may have been written in its

present form by Ari orgilsson (1067/8-1148) or Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241). The

25
Jnas Kristjnsson, slendingadrpa, Gripla, 1 (1975), 76-91.
26
Elizabeth Ashman Rowe, The Flateyjarbk Annals as a Historical Source, Scandinavian
Journal of History, 27 (2002), 233-41.
27
Flateyjarbk, ed. by G. Vigfusson and C. R. Unger, 3 vols (Christiana: Malling, 1860-68), II,
520.
 259

linking of the poem with Smundr means that, whether composed in the eleventh or

twelfth century, Nregs konungatal had a long history before it was incorporated into

Flateyjarbk. It therefore remains unclear whether the poem preserves early traditions

about the kings of Norway or is the result of a consensus achieved over several

centuries.28

The attribution of the poem to Smundr indicates that it was regarded as a

significant literary work and Elizabeth Ashman Rowe has noted how the decoration of

its initial letter marks it out as one of the more important sections within the

Flateyjarbk as a whole.29 The poem traces the kings of Norway from Haraldr hrfagri

to King Sverrir, who is described as ruling the kingdom which had been held by Haraldr

hrfagri and his descendants.30 Within the poems narrative Hkon is described as the

distinguished foster-son of thelstan in England:

Tk Erekr r vinsll
vi jfursnafni vestan kmi
blx brtt, Aalsteins
sem bendr vildu. einkafstri
Vas vgfimr ok Hkon
vetr at landi halfrar allrar
Erekr alls brur sinn
einn ok fjra, beiddi erfar.31

Soon Erekr blx received the name of king,

as the landowners wanted. Erekr, nimble in war,
was [king] of the land one winter and four in all,
before the popular Hkon, the distinguished
foster-son of thelstan, came from the west and
asked his brother for half of all his inheritance.

Some of the ideas expressed in this verse match those found in other texts. For example,

Hkon is also described as vinsll, popular, in Fagrskinna; the statement that Hkon

28
Theodore Andersson in Old Norse-Icelandic Literature, ed. by Clover and Lindow, pp. 199,
206, 225. Poetry from the Kings Sagas 2, ed. by Kari Ellen Gade, II, 761-806 (p. 761).
29
Elizabeth Ashman Rowe, The Development of Flateyjarbk: Iceland and the Norwegian
Dynastic Crisis of 1389 (Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark, 2005), pp. 377-84.
30
Nregs konungatal, in Poetry from the Kings Sagas 2, ed. by Kari Ellen Gade, II, 761-806.
31
Nregs konungatal, in Poetry from the Kings Sagas 2, ed. by Gade, II, 768, verse 10.
For discussion of the different lengths given for Erekrs reign see Gade, II, 769.
 260

vestan kmi, came from the west, is also found in grip; the power of the

landowners to make or break kings is found in the skaldic poem Bersglisvsur and in

the sagas of Hkon inn gi and Magns inn gi in Heimskringla. Nregs

konungatal uses einkafstri, distinguished special or excellent foster-son, to

describe Hkon.32 This is a distinctive use of the word and open to different

interpretations. It may reflect awareness that Louis of Francia and Alan of Brittany were

also brought up at thelstans court or it may be a reference to Hkons later

achievements as king. Whichever interpretation is adopted the phrase emphasizes that

Hkons relationship with thelstan was seen as an important and a distinctive

charactistic of him and of his reign.

Whether the epithet Aalsteinsfstri belongs originally to the eleventh century,

to an earlier time, or to the thirteenth century, its repeated use in skaldic poetry, the

sagas and the kings lists in Flateyjarbk, has given it a secure place within Old

Icelandic/Norse historical tradition. However, the main sources of information on

thelstan as foster-father are found not in the skaldic verses, but in the sagas,

Fagrskinna, Heimskringla and Egils saga.

thelstans Fostering of Hkon in Fagrskinna and Heimskringla

As was noted above, the narratives on Hkons fostering in Fagrskinna and

Heimskringla follow a common pattern and use almost identical language but they also

show significant differences in some of their detail. This may indicate they were basing

their texts on different versions of the story; alternatively it may reflect their own choice

of literary style, making their texts not just a record of traditional material, but a creative

retelling of existing stories. In both texts the fostering story is included as part of a

32
Lexicon Poeticum Antiquae linguae Septentrionalis, ed. by Sveinbjrn Egilsson (Copenhagen: S.
L. Mllers, 1860), p. 125.
 261

contest for power between thelstan and Haraldr hrfagri which thelstan is depicted

as initiating. By sending Haraldr a messenger with a sword as a gift he tricks Haraldr

into accepting the gift by taking hold of the sword by the hilt. The messenger then tells

Haraldr that by placing his hand on the sword has accepted thelstan as his overlord.33

No reason is given for thelstans action. It appears to be unprovoked and intended by

thelstan as a symbolic claim to be the more powerful king.

Haraldr, described as now in his seventies, is said to have already reigned in

Norway for over fifty years. By contrast, thelstan is said to be young and to have

acceded to the throne only recently. He is, however, depicted as already a king of

considerable status:

Fagrskinna
enna tma r Englandi ungr konungr, At that time, there ruled in England a young
Aalsteinn gi, er var tignarmar king, thelstan the good, who then was one
einn enn mesti Norrlndum.34 of the highest rank in the northern lands
Heimskringla
Aalstein ht konungr Englandi, er The king in England then was called
hafi ntekit vi konungdmi. Hann thelstan and he had then newly taken over
var kallar inn sigrsli ok inn the kingdom. He was called the blessed in
trfasti.35 victory and the firm in faith.

In Fagrskinna thelstan is said to be of the highest rank of king (var tignarmar) and

given the epithet gi, good, honest, moral. This epithet is used sparingly of kings in

the sagas. The only two Norwegian kings to be described in this way are thelstans

foster-son, Hkon gi, and Magns gi, the son of lfr helgi. Both these kings are

celebrated in Fagrskinna and Heimskringla as just and great law-makers. Fagrskinna

33
The term used is svertakari, sword-taker or kings man. For the symbolism of sword
giving and taking, see David C. Van Meter, The Ritualized Presentation of Weapons and the
Ideology of Nobility in Beowulf, Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 95 (1996),
175-189 (p. 179).
34
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, ed. by Bjarni Einarsson (Reykjavk: slenzka Frnritaflag
1984), 4, p. 71.
35
Haralds saga ins hrfagra, in Heimskringla, ed. by Bjarni Aalbjarnarson, 3 vols (Reykjavk:
slenzka Frnritaflag, 1941), I, 38, p.143.
 262

and Heimskringla also use gi of one other Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the

Confessor. Fagrskinna further links Edward and thelstan, noting that with Edwards

death England ceased to be ruled by thelstans descendants.36 thelstan is thus

depicted as the founder of a royal dynasty and a noted example of good kingship. While

Heimskringla does not use gi of thelstan, it does describe him as militarily

successful (sigrsli) and very committed to his Christian faith (trfasti). As will be

seen below, both these characteristics are frequently associated with thelstan in the

Icelandic and Norwegian texts.

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla both describe Haraldr interpreting thelstans

gift of the sword as done in mockery, me spotti. By implication, thelstan is

depicted as an arrogant young king who lacks any respect for Haraldrs reputation and

long years of reign. Fagrskinna adds that Haraldr decided to match thelstans trickery

with a trick of his own, so signalling that the fostering of Hkon was intended as a way

of mocking thelstan in return.37 As I will show in my analysis below, Fagrskinna

provides the more dramatic version of events and contains some details which are not

found in Heimskringla.

The basic story in both texts can be summarized as follows:

Haraldrs messenger, Haukr hbrk, finds thelstan in London and they exchange

greetings. Haukr places Hkon on thelstans knee and tells him that Haraldr bids him

foster the child. thelstan learns that Hkon is the son of a concubine. He takes up his

sword to kill the child and Haukr warns him that if he kills Hkon he will have to face

all Haraldrs sons. Haukr returns to Haraldr who is pleased with the success of his plan.

The saying is noted that whoever fosters anothers child is of lower status.

36
hvarf konungdmr Englandi r tt Aalsteins ga konungs, Then the kingdom from
the family of King thelstan the good, disappeared in England. Fagrskinna Nregskonunga
Tal, 58, p. 274.
37
Heldr at lta koma r ri mti ok or or, Rather to let plan match against plan and
word against word. Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 4, p. 72.
 263

The main difference between the two texts is in the role played by Haukr. In

Fagrskinna he is shown as deliberately humiliating thelstan. First, he conceals the

purpose of his visit, telling the unsuspecting thelstan that he has brought greetings and

a gift from Haraldr:38

Herra! Haraldr konungr Normanna sendi yr ga kveju, ar me sendi

hann yr einn hvtan fugl vel vanan ok ba yr venja enn betr hean fr.

Your lordship, Harold king of the Northmen has sent you goodly greetings
and in addition he has sent you a white bird well trained and bidden you
henceforth train it better.39

Having placed Hkon on thelstans knee, Haukr does not immediately say who the

parents are. A piece of dramatic dialogue follows by which Haukr gives the clearest

indication that his mission is intended as an insult to thelstan:

mlti Aalsteinn konungr: Hverr barn etta? svarai Haukr: Ambtt

ein Nregi, ok mlti Haraldr konungr, at skyldir henni barn upp fa.
Konungr svarai: Eigi hefir sveinn essi rls augu. Haukr svarai: Ambtt
er mirin, ok segir hn, at Haraldr konungr s fairinn, ok er n sveinninn
inn kn-setningr, konungr, ok er r n jafnvant vi hann sem vi inn son.
Konungr svarai: Hv mynda ek fa Haraldi barn, at at vri eiginkonu
barn, en hlfu sr ambttar barn, 40

Then King thelstan said: Who is the parent of this child? Then Haukr
answered A concubine in Norway, and King Haraldr said that you should
bring the child up for her. The king replied: This boy does not have the eyes
of a thrall. Haukr answered: The mother is a concubine, and she says that
King Haraldr is the father and the boy is now your fosterling, King, and you now
have the same obligations towards him as towards your [own] son. The king
replied: Why would I bring up a child for Haraldr, even if it was his own wifes
child, and much less so a concubines child?

Haukr plays with thelstan, initially stating only that Haraldr has sent a concubines

child to be brought up by him. When thelstan challenges this statement, using the

saga tradition of the childs eyes as a sign of status, Haukr reveals that the concubine

38
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 4, p. 72.
39
Finlay interprets the white bird as a hawk or falcon, referring to the skaldic use of describing a
king or warrior in terms of a sharp-eyed hawk. She also notes that such birds were valuable
exports and presented to European kings. The possible implications of this interpretation for the
story are not explored by Finlay but, if her interpretation is correct, the instruction to thelstan
is that he is to bring Hkon up to be a warrior king. Finlay, Fagrskinna, pp. 20-21.
40
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 4, pp. 72-73.
 264

claims Haraldr is the father of her child. It is only at the end of the conversation that

Haukr states that Haraldr is the father, by warning thelstan that even if he kills Hkon,

he cannot kill all of Haraldrs sons. Haukr completes thelstans humiliation by telling

him that the task of bringing up anothers child is a sign of lower status. In

Heimskringla this statement is not addressed directly to thelstan but included later to

explain Haraldrs satisfaction at what he had achieved.

lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta also contains a version of the fostering story

based on Heimskringla but which introduces Haukr hbrk as the main character.41 The

wording reflects many saga openings where the main character is introduced by a quick

character sketch:42

Sa madr var med Haralldi konungi er het Haukr habrok. Hann var
framkumdarmadr mikill j sendifrum o at toruelldar vri ok hinn krazste
konungi.

There was a man with King Haraldr who was called Haukr hbrk. He was a
very enterprising man on missions, however difficult they were, and he was
very dear to the king.

The fostering event is also recalled in the short Hauks ttr hbrk which forms part of

the lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta. In this, Haraldr praises Haukr for his

highhanded action in successfully getting the better of the leading men of Eirkr, King

of Sweden, and smiles when Haukr compares the achievement to his putting Hkon on

thelstans knee in England.43 Commenting on the story in both Heimskringla and

lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, Alan Berger concluded that both draw

independently on a lost saga of Haraldr hrfagri, parts of which are retained as a ttr

Haralds hrfagra in Flateyjarbk.44 A further possibility not considered by Berger is

41
lafur Halldrsson, Text by Snorri Sturluson in lfs Saga Tryggvasonar en Mesta, Viking
Society for Northern Research (London: University College, 2001), pp. lvi-lxi.
42
lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, in Flateyjarbk, I, 8, p. 46.
43
Hauks ttr hbrk, in Flateyjarbk, I, 577-83 (p. 578).
44
Alan J. Berger, The Sagas of Harald Fairhair, Scripta Islandica, 31 (1980), 14-29. The ttr
Haralds hrfagra, merely records that Haraldr had a sveinn, a boy, by his maidservant ra
morstng and that he was called Hkon. Flateyjarbk, I, 567-76 (p. 576).
 265

that the fostering story may also have formed part of a lost saga about Haukr hbrk.

The possibility that the story formed part of other lost texts suggests that the tradition of

thelstan fostering Hkon was well-established.

For a king to act as foster-father was less common but not unusual.

Heimskringla records that Eirkr blxs son was fostered by King Haraldr bltnn of

Denmark and in Egils saga Eirkr fosters Frdi, a relative of the royal family. The

statement that thelstan as foster-father would be of lower social status may have been

included to reinforce Haraldrs superiority in the power-contest initiated by thelstan.

It could also have been a direct reference to the tradition, noted in the chapters on the

Anglo-Norman and the Continental texts that thelstans own birth was of inferior

status. Given the long history of Scandinavian links with England the alleged

circumstances of thelstans birth are likely to have been known. If so, Hkon, having

a father who was a king and a mother who was a concubine, provides thelstan with a

mirror image of himself. The story of Hkons fostering then carries a further touch of

mockery. In avenging his earlier humiliation, Hraldr compels thelstan to foster a child

whose presence would be a continual reminder to him of his own origins and lower

status.

Despite this, the conclusion of the narratives in both Fagrskinna and

Heimskringla declares that the contest between thelstan and Haraldr was a draw:

Fagrskinna Heimskringla
vlkum viskiptum konunga fannsk vlkum viskiptum konunga fannsk
at, at hvrr eira vildi heita meiri en at, at hvrr eira vildi vera meiri en
annarr, ok er ekki grt misdeili eira annarr, ok var ekki misdeili tgnar eira
tignar fyrir essa sk, ok var hvrr eira at heldr fyrir essar sakir. Hvrrtveggi var
konungr yfir snu rki til dauadags. 45 yfirkonungr sns rkis til dauadags.46
In such dealings between the kings it could be seen that each wanted to be greater than

45
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 4, p. 73.
46
Haralds saga ins hrfagra, in Heimskringla, I, 39, p. 145.
 266

the other but no undue preference in the honour they held was caused because of this
and each of them was supreme king of his realm up to the day he died.

By their summing up, both texts depict thelstan and Haraldr as equal in kingly status

with neither subservient to the other and both the most powerful king in their own

country.47 Magns Fjalldal has suggested that the story should be read as a moral tale

reflecting ideas about power politics and the importance of establishing mutual respect

between two kings in order to prevent future acts of aggression.48 This, however, does

not do justice to the ways in which Fagrskinna and Heimskringla continue to depict

thelstans familial relationship with Haraldr and his status as an Anglo-Saxon king of

some standing in Norwegian history. As will be seen below, the continuing narratives in

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla depict thelstan as a devoted foster-father. He educates

Hkon for kingship, supports him in returning to Norway, retains contact with him and

acts to protect him from any hostility from his elder brother, Eirkr blx.

Hkons return to Norway

Hkons return to Norway is briefly recounted in Fagrskinna and Heimskringla and

some of the background only emerges later. The comparison of the texts below

illustrates the differences in their content and emphasis:

Fagrskinna Heimskringla
Einum vetri sarr en Haraldr konungr hafi Hkon Aalsteinsfstri var Englandi, er
andazk, spurisk andlt hans til Englands hann spuri andlt Haralds konungs, fur
vestr, ok v sama sumri me ri Aalsteins sns. Bjsk hann egar til ferar. Fkk
fstrfur sns fr Hkon til Nregs. 49
Aalsteinn konungr honum li ok gan

47
Rowe comments that in Heimskringla Snorri repeatedly depicts English kings as superior to
those of Scandinavia while the reverse is true in the family sagas. Here, however, Snorri only
assigns equality while Egils saga (possibly also written by Snorri) provides an example of a
family saga which also assigns superiority to the English king. Elizabeth Ashman Rowe,
Helpful Danes and Pagan Irishmen: Saga Fantasies of the Viking Age in the British Isles,
Viking and Medieval Scandinavia, 5 (2009), 1-21.
48
Magns Fjalldal, Anglo-Saxon England in Icelandic Medieval Texts (Toronto: Toronto
University Press, 2005), p. 35.
49
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 7, p. 75.
 267

skipakost ok bj hans fr allvegliga, ok kom

hann um haustt til Nregs.50
One year later when Haraldr had died, news of Hkon, thelstans fosterson, was then in
his death came west to England and as a result, England when he heard of the death of king
the same summer, with the advice of his Haraldr, his father. He thereupon at once made
foster-father thelstan, Hkon went to preparations for his journey. King thelstan
Norway. provided him with men and a goodly naval
force and made splendid preparations for his
voyage and he reached Norway at harvest
time.

In both texts Hkons return to Norway follows the account of Eirkr blx inheriting

his fathers throne and precedes the description of Hkon deliberately courting and

winning the support of the jarls and bonders and so making himself king. In recounting

Hkons return, neither text mentions any direct contact by the Norwegians, merely

stating that the news of Haraldrs death reached Hkon in England. They do, however,

give thelstan a role in Hkons return. Fagrskinna describes the decision to return as

made with thelstans advice; Heimskringla implies that it was Hkon who took the

initiative once he learned of Haraldrs death but that thelstan provided him with ships

and men and made splendid arrangements for his return. Given the context of these

passages, their narratives depict thelstan personally involving himself in Norwegian

politics by supporting Haraldrs younger son in returning to challenge his elder brother

for his fathers throne.

Although few details are provided, thelstans actions can be seen as fulfilling

his expected role as foster-father. In Fagrskinna he provides Hkon with advice and

guidance on the future direction of his life, while in Heimskringla he gives practical

support and, as a generous foster-father, makes splendid, allveglga, preparations for

Hkons return, furnishing him with men and a goodly naval force, li ok gan

50
Hkonar saga Ga, in Heimskringla, I, 150.
 268

skipakost.51 Mention of a naval force may have been intended to suggest an element of

danger and the need for a serious show of strength by Hkon, either to impress the

Norwegian jarls and win their support or because some military opposition was to be

expected. If so, it depicts thelstan prepared to support Hkons bid for kingship by

force, if necessary. The Scandinavian texts provide no dates for Hkons return.

However, it is possible, by analysing the information available on the ages and length of

reign of Haraldr hrfagri, Eirkr blx and Hkon, to arrive at a median date of c. 934

for Hkons arrival back in Norway. If this could be validated, it may be possible to

identify more reliably a link between the Old Icelandic/Norse texts on Hkons return

and the Anglo-Norman accounts of thelstans military expedition to Scotland. This

would help explain the northern account found in Symeon of Durham, that thelstans

ships sailed to Viking territory in Caithness, a Norwegian stronghold with sea links

across to Norway.

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla also depict thelstans generosity as a foster-

father by describing his gift of an exceptional sword to Hkon:

Fagrskinna Heimskringla
Aalsteinn gaf hnum sver at, er hjltin Aalsteinn konnungr gaf Hkoni sver at,er
vru af gulli ok Hkon reyndi sv hart, at hjltin vru r gulli ok mealkaflinn, en
hann hj kvernstein einn ok beit allt til brandrinn var betri, ar hj Hkon me
ugans. at var kallat san Kvernbiti. at kvernstein til augans. at var san kallat
52
sver hefir Hkon allt til dauadags. Kvernbtr. at sver hefir bezt komit til Nregs.
at tti Hkon til dauadags.53

thelstan gave him that sword which had a King thelstan gave Hkon that sword which
hilt made from gold and Hkon tried it out so had a hilt and haft made out of gold but even so
fiercely that he hewed into a quern-stone and the blade was the better part. With it Hkon

51
grip mentions only two ships. Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal relates that a storm destroyed
some of the ships and separated others so that Eirkr was erroneously told that Hkon must have
been drowned. The two ships could be Hkons own and that of the men bringing Eirkr their
false news.
52
Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 6, p. 75.
53
Haralds saga ins hrfagra, in Heimskringla, I, 40, p. 146.
 269

caused the sword to bite all through it to the hewed through a quern-stone to the hole. From
hole. The sword after that was called Quern- that time it was called Quern-biter. That sword
biter. Hkon had that sword right through to is the best that has come to Norway. Hkon had
his dying day. that sword until his dying day.

thelstans gift is given considerable prominence in both texts. From a literary

perspective the story of Hkons fostering starts with thelstans gift of a sword to

Haraldr and ends with thelstans gift of a sword to Hkon on his return to Norway.

Both are described as having a hilt and grip of gold and therefore of great value.

Hkons sword, however, is distinguished by its excellent blade. It is the sword of a

warrior and treasured by Hkon who, we are told, sver hefir [] allt til dauadags,

had the sword right up to the day he died.54 The swords quality and its effectiveness

in battle are later referred to in Fagrskinna and Heimskringla. In Heimskringlas

account of Hkons death, he is buried fully armed, presumably with the sword, and it is

specifically referred to in the poem Hkonarml. thelstans gift depicts him as not

only generous but wealthy, a warrior king who both valued and had access to swords of

the highest quality. His gift depicts him giving special honour to Hkon as the future

king of Norway

These depictions of thelstan actively supporting Hkons return to Norway are

reminiscent of the descriptions in the Continental texts of his actions in securing the

safe return of Louis and Alan Twistedbeard to their home territories. So far, textual

analysis has not identified any direct links between the Continental and the Norse saga

texts but Heimskringla refers to established links between Norway and Normandy and

on two occasions mentions that the jarls of Normandy were descendants of Rolf the

Ganger, son of Rgnvald earl of Mre who was a close friend of Haraldr hrfagri.55

54
He had it right up to his dying day.
55
Exiled by Haraldr for making a shore raid in Norway, Rolf and his descendants are described
as having retained their kinship links with leading Norwegians to whom they gave hospitality in
Normandy lfs saga helga, in Heimskringla, II, 20, pp.26-27.
 270

Given the Viking reputation for travel, trade and mercenary activity, it is quite

possible that knowledge of Continental versions of events did circulate either orally or

through written texts. A possible source could be the De Moribus et Actis Primorum

Normanniae Ducum of Dudo or the Gesta Normannorum Ducum of William of

Jumiges and Robert Torigni which describe thelstans friendship with Rolf (Rollo)

and his liaising with William Longsword to secure the return of Louis to West Francia

and Alan Twistedbeard to Brittany.56 The saga accounts of thelstan supporting

Hkons return to Norway may, therefore, reflect Continental traditions of his

involvement in ensuring the successful return of Louis and Alan to positions of power.

Both Fagrskinna and Heimskringla describe how the people turned against

Eirkr blx because of his arrogant conduct and, in particular, that of his wife

Gunnhildr, and how Eirkr, having been forced to leave Norway, made his way to the

British Isles where thelstan made an agreement with him and gave him Northumbria

to rule. As will be seen below, this incident is also narrated in the lfs saga

Tryggvasonar en mesta. The accounts of thelstans links with Eirkr blx have

generated much speculation with most scholars discounting any such contact on the

grounds that it was anachronistic.57 Versions D and E of the ASC record a Scandinavian

Eirkr ruling in York in 948 and during 952-54 and the coins minted in his name have

consequently been assigned to these later dates. What is significant for the purposes of

this thesis is not the historical accuracy of the sources and scholarship on thelstans

contact with Eirkr blx but how the saga texts assign to thelstan a role in wider

Norwegian politics and depict him providing a balance of power between Eirkr and

Hkon.

56
See Chapter 3 on thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
57
For overview and analysis see Clare Downham, The Chronology of the Last Scandinavian
Kings of York, AD 937-954, Northern History, 40: 1 (2003), 25-51 and Gareth Williams, Eirik
Bloodaxe (Hafrsfjord: Saga Books, 2010).
 271

The following summary shows that while there are differences in the ways in

which these events are presented in the saga texts, there is unanimity on thelstans

pivotal role in preserving peace between the two brothers:

Fagrskinna: Eirkr took the advice of wise men in Norway and went to see King
thelstan in response to the friendly words he had sent by his foster-son Hkon that
he would be welcome as long as he did not fall out with his brother Hkon or fight
against him. thelstan gave him asylum and authority in Northumbria and Eirkr
was baptised. Fagrskinna Nregskonunga Tal, 7, p. 76.
Heimskringla: thelstan sent word to Eirkr, who was raiding in the north of
England, offering him a kingdom in England because Eirkrs father, King Haraldr,
was a good friend of his. The two negotiate. Eirkr agrees to hold Northumbria and
defend it against Danes and Vikings. Eirkr, his family and men were baptised.
Hkonar saga Ga, in Heimskringla, I, 3, p. 152.
lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta: As soon as thelstan heard of Eirkrs raids, he
sent messengers asking Eirkr to accept land from him saying that he would strive to
prevent Hkon from committing any outrage on it. Eirkr, his family and men were
baptised. lfs saga Tryggvasonar, in Flateyjarbk, I, 16, p. 50.

In Fagrskinna thelstan is depicted as keeping in touch with his foster-son, sending

him a message and supporting his kingship by seeking to deter Eirkr from hostility

towards him. His offer of a place of refuge is made on condition that Eirkr keeps the

peace. In Heimskringla thelstan negotiates directly with Eirkr, who has already left

Norway and is carrying out raids in the north of England, giving as his reason the

friendship which he had shared with Eirkrs father, Haraldr. The saga lfs saga

Tryggvasonar en mesta also refers to Eirkr carrying out raids but differs from

Heimskringla by depicting thelstan undertaking to protect Eirkr against retaliation by

Hkon. These variations indicate the existence of different versions of the same story

but all three texts agree in depicting thelstan as central to ensuring peace between

Eirkr and Hkon and thereby strengthening Hkons position as king.

 272

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla depict thelstan as making an astute move in

offering Eirkr the kingdom of Northumbria. Both texts point out that Northumbria had

long been settled by Norsemen. The version in Heimskringla is typical of both:58

Norimbraland var mest byggt Normnnum, san er Lobrkarsynir unnu

landit. Herjuu Danir ok Normenn optliga angat, san er vald landsins
hafi undan eim gengit. Mrg heiti landsins eru ar gefin norrna tungu,
Grmsbr ok Hauksfljt ok mrg nnur.

Northumberland was mostly peopled by Norsemen. After the sons of Lodbrok

had won the land, Danes and Norsemen often harried there when they had lost
power in their own land. Many names are in the Norwegian tongue, such as
Grimsby and Hauksfljot and many others.
Heimskringla also states:
Norimbraland er kallat fimmtungr Englands. Hann hafi atsetu Jrvk, ar
sem menn segja, at fyrr hafi sett Lobrkarsynir.
Northumbria is called the fifth part of England. He [Eirkr] had his seat in York,
there, just as men say the sons of Lobrk had their seat before.

Northumbria is represented as likely to appeal to Eirkr because of its Norse history and

Anglo-Scandinavian culture. The repeated references to the sons of Lobrk can also be

taken to imply that, by his action, thelstan is recognizing the long established historic

links between Scandinavia and Northumbria which made the appointment of a

Scandinavian subregulus particularly appropriate. It is possible that this is a memory

which reflects the Anglo-Norman accounts of thelstans links with Sihtric who is also

described as ruling Northumbria from his base in York.

This picture of thelstan negotiating a friendly settlement with Eirkr is

obliquely supported by later events narrated in the sagas. The lfs saga Tryggvasonar

en mesta states that Eirkr held Northumbria until thelstans death but left once

Edmund was on the throne because of Edmunds animosity towards him.59 As a result,

Eirkrs wife and sons were said to have sought support in Denmark. From there, with

the backing of Haraldr bltnn, Eirkrs sons launched the military attack which ended

in Hkons death and their inheriting the throne of Norway. These accounts of events
58
Hkonar saga Ga, in Heimskringla, I, 3, pp. 152-53.
59
lfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, Flateyjarbk, I, 51.
 273

following thelstans death reinforce the depictions in the Kings Sagas of thelstan

as a personal friend of Haraldr hrfagri and his sons and a devoted foster-father to

Hkon. Edmund, having no direct familial and friendship links with Hkon, is depicted

as destroying what thelstan had achieved.

thelstan in Egils saga

Egils saga provides a more detailed and more varied picture of thelstan than the

Kings Sagas. To aid analysis of the saga material I have adopted the following

framework:

The historical background to thelstans reign provided by the saga

thelstan as Christian king and his initial contact with Egill

thelstan as military leader

thelstans style of kingship

thelstan as foster-parent.

Historical background to thelstans reign

thelstan is introduced in saga fashion through a brief synopsis of his family history

contextualised by reference to the reign of the Viking King Haraldr hrfagri:

Elfrr inn rki r fyrir Englandi; hann var fyrstr einvaldskonungr yfir Englandi
sinna kynsmanna; at var dgum Haralds ins hrfagra Nregskonungs. Eptir
hann var konungr Englandi son hans Jtvarr; hann var fair Aalsteins ins
sigrsla, fstra Hkonar ins ga. enna tma tk Aalsteinn konungdm
Englandi eptir fur sinn; eir vru fleiri brr, synir Jtvars.60

Alfred the Mighty ruled over England; he was the first absolute king over
England of his kinsman; that was in the days of Haraldr hrfagri king of
Norway. After him the king of England was his son Edward; he was father of
thelstan the very victorious, foster-father of Hkon the Good. At this time
thelstan took over the kingdom in England, after his father; there were more
brothers, sons of Edward.

Chronologically the saga aligns the reigns of Alfred and Haraldr hrfagri and credits

Alfred, not thelstan, with being the first king of all England. thelstan is said to have

60
Egils saga, 50, p. 71.
 274

taken control of the kingdom after the death of Edward his father and is described, as in

Heimskringla, as very victorious (sigrsla) and the foster-father of Hkon the Good.

Although it is noted that Edward also had other sons, nothing more is said on this but it

may have been intended as an explanation of the unrest the saga depicts thelstan

facing early in his reign. Egills introduction to thelstan is said to have been caused by

thelstans need for mercenary support following unrest among the British, Scottish

and Irish nobles who wished to win back the lands which had been taken from them by

thelstans father and grandfather:61

En Aalsteinn konungr safnai herlii at sr ok gaf mla eim mnnum llum

er at vildu hafa til ffangs sr, bi tlenzkum ok innlenzkum.
eir brr rlfr ok Egill heldu sur fyrir Saxland ok Flmingjaland;
spuru eir at Englandskonungr ttisk lis urfa ok ar var vn ffangs mikils;
gera eir at r at halda angat lii snu. 62

But King thelstan gathered troops around him and gave service to all those
men who wanted it for booty for themselves, both those coming from outside
and those resident in the country. The brothers rlfr and Egill made their way
south along Germany and Flanders. Then they heard that the king of England
might think he needed troops and that there was the prospect of great booty; they
then took that decision to head there with their men.

This account of thelstan facing opposition early in his reign is not found in the tenth-

century Anglo-Saxon texts. It may however reflect memories of thelstans action in

taking York and Northumbria following the death of his brother-in-law Sihtric and

recounted by some of the Anglo-Norman writers.

thelstan as Christian king and his initial contact with Egill

The saga draws specific attention to the fact that thelstan was a staunch Christian both

by using the epithet trfasti and by describing his requirement that Egill and rlfr

take the prmsignan as a pre-requisite for entering his service:

England var kristit ok hafi lengi verit er etta var tenda; Aalsteinn
konungr var vel kristinn; hann var kallar Aalsteinn inn trfasti. Konungr ba
rlfr ok brr at eir skyldu lta prmsignask, v at at var mikill sir
bi me kaupmnnum ok eim mnnum er mla gengu me kristnum

61
Egils saga, 50, p. 71.
62
Egils saga, 50, p. 71.
 275

mnnum, v at eir menn er prmsignair vru hfu allt samneyti vi kristna

menn ok sv heina, en hfu at at trnai er eim var skapfelldast. eir
rlfr ok Egill geru at eptir bn konungs ok ltu prmsignask bir. eir
hfu ar prj hundru sinna manna, eira er mla tku af konungi.63

England was Christian and had been so for a long time then when these events
took place. King Athlestan was a good Christian: he was called thelstan firm
in Christian faith. The king asked rlfr and then his brother that they should
have themselves primesigned, because that was then very much the custom both
with merchants and those men who took service with Christian men, because
those men who were primesigned had full rights of association with Christians
and heathens too, but held that belief which was most agreeable to them. They,
rlfr and Egill, did that according to the kings request and both let
themselves be primesigned. They had there three hundred of their men who took
service from the king.64

thelstan is depicted as using an established Christian method acceptable to both sides

for ensuring loyalty from Egill, rlfr and their men. While the saga uses this as

evidence of thelstans strong Christian commitment it also depicts him as initially

cautious and anxious to ensure that rlfr and Egill will prove trustworthy.

Subsequently he entrusts leadership of his army to Egill and rlfr for the battle at

Vnheir, or Wen Heath, a trust they are portrayed as loyally fulfilling.

thelstan as Military Leader

Although the saga places the battle early in thelstans reign, Vnheir is generally

taken to refer to Brunanburh, largely because of the similarity of the name with the

Wendune of Symeon of Durham and the use of the name lfr, or Anlaf, to describe the

enemy leader.65 In the Table below, I compare the information contained in Egils saga

63
Egils saga, 50, pp. 71-72.
64
John Hood, relying on later ecclesiastical records and on saga evidence, describes prime-
signing as having lasted in Iceland until at least the mid-fourteenth century: pagans engaged in
trade with Christians, and servants in Christian households [] let themselves be prime-signed
(with the Cross) without being fully baptised or renouncing their old faith. Some of those thus
prime-signed became catechumens and proceeded to baptism. But in any case they were
admitted to part of the Mass (primsignara messa), and after death could be buried at the edge of
consecrated ground. John C. F. Hood, Icelandic Church Saga (London: SPCK, 1946), p. 22.
65
Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by Alistair Campbell, p. 68. Scandinavian coins for lfr of York
use the form Anlaf, providing another link between the Scandinavian and English texts on
Brunanburh. Archibald and Blunt, Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles 34, pp. xxiv-xxv. See
also Mark Blackburn, The Coinage of Scandinavian York, in Aspects of Scandinavian York,
ed. by R. A. Hall and others, (York: Council for British Archaeology, 2004), pp. 325-49; C. E.
Blunt with B. H. I. H. Stewart and C. S. S. Lyon, Coinage in Tenth-Century England (Oxford:
 276

with the versions in the Old English and Anglo-Norman texts considered in Chapters

One and Two above. This shows a number of similarities which may indicate that either

the Anglo-Normans were aware of the saga text or the writer of the saga was drawing

on Anglo-Norman material. Alternatively, both may have drawn on a common source

whether oral or written. As will be seen from the Table, the main differences lie in the

prominence the saga material gives to the part played in the victory by Egill, rlfr

and their Viking troops, the details of the strategies involved before the battle and the

role of thelstan as overall military leader:

Table 15. Vnheir and Brunanburh in Egils saga and the Old English and Anglo-
Norman Texts

Egils saga Old English and Anglo-Norman Texts

1. thelstan enlists Viking mercenaries into 1.thelstans army is made up of West

his army under the leadership of Egill and his Saxons and Mercian troops. (ASC poem)
brother rlfr.
2. King lfr is described as king of the Scots. 2. Anlaf comes from Dublin and links up with
Constantine, king of the Scots. (all)
3. On hearing of the invasion, thelstan 3 a) Latin poem depicts thelstan taking no
immediately marches north. Advised by his action initially. (WoM)
counsellors he returns south to move north b) thelstan ex consulto cedente,
gradually gathering troops. deliberately retreats to make his victory the
greater. (WoM)
4. The English camp is positioned to make 4. Nothing similar.
thelstans army appear very large.
5. Parleying is used as a delaying tactic to 5 Nothing similar.
enable thelstan to arrive with the main army.
6. Egill and rlfr foil a night attack led by 6. thelstan moved camp to avoid the
two rebel Northumbrian earls. thelstan had threatened night attack but Anlaf killed the
not yet arrived. bishop who later encamped there and then
moved on further to attack the king. (WoM)
7. thelstan firmly rejects lfrs bargaining 7. Nothing similar.
but gives him the option of ruling in Scotland
as under-king.
8. thelstan plans the battle strategy and 8. Nothing similar.
stations the troops, insisting on splitting those
led by rlfr and Egill despite Egills spoken
opposition to this.
9. rlfr is killed by Ails men; Egill 9. Nothing similar.
avenges his death, killing Ails and putting his

Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 223-28. See also A. Keith Kelly, Truth and A Good Story:
Egils Saga and Brunanburh, in The Battle of Brunanburh, ed. by Livingston, pp. 305-14.
 277

men to flight.
10. thelstan is active on the battlefield, 10. thelstan and Edmund are dominant in
encouraging his troops. the battle (ASC poem).
11. thelstan personally leads the final attack 11. Nothing similar.
on lfr and his men.
12. lfr is killed with most of his men. 12. Constantines son killed. (ASC poem).
Constantine is killed (WoM). Anlaf escapes
(all).
13. The account ends with the simple 13. thelstan and Edmund, exult in their
statement Fekk Aalsteinn konungr ar valour (ASC poem). thelstan was enriched
allmikinn sigr There king thelstan by a great victory (Annals of Ulster).
achieved a large victory. thelstan leaves the thelstan and Edmund leave the field to the
field and his troops pursue any survivors. birds and beasts of carrion. (ASC poem).

The saga material makes no mention of Constantine, describes lfr/Anlaf as the king

of Scotland and records that he was killed on the battlefield, while the Anglo-Norman

and Irish sources record his escape back to Ireland. Although William of Malmesbury

describes Constantine correctly as King of Scotland, he also records his death at

Brunanburh. This has been interpreted as suggesting that William was unaware of the

Brunanburh poem in the ASC but it is also possible that William and Egils saga were

both reflecting a different version of events.66

Egils saga presents thelstan as a heroic warrior king of a type familiar to a

Norse or Anglo-Scandinavian audience. As king he has drawn together an army made

up of detachments of his own troops and Viking mercenaries under their own leaders.

As commander-in chief he decides how the different detachments are to be deployed on

the battlefield and he takes an active part in the action, encouraging his men and leading

the final onslaught. thelstan is also depicted as consulting and listening to advice from

his counsellors. As a result he delays the battle in order to build up his forces. The

deceptions practised on lfr, by the layout of thelstans camp at the battle site and

the drawn-out parleying, are described as the actions of thelstans men. This prompts

the British Earl Ails, now supporting lfr, to characterise the English as brgottir

66
See the section on Brunanburh in Chapter 2.
 278

or cunning, something which in the sagas is praised as a sign of wisdom.67 In contrast

to the delaying tactics, thelstan is portrayed as making quick, firm decisions when

dealing face to face with lfrs messengers, demanding that lfr return to Scotland

and rule there as his representative.68

Despite this picture of thelstan as an astute warrior king, the saga depicts his

success as heavily dependent on the military acumen, courage and skill of rlfr and

Egill. It is they who set guards and so intercept lfrs earls on the surprise dawn attack

and it is their fighting prowess which turns the battle in thelstans favour.69 Egills

wish to avenge the death of rlfr proves central to the overall outcome. He kills Adils

and routs his forces causing the Scottish earls to flee. The saga later depicts thelstan

as recognizing that he is indebted for his victory to his Viking mercenaries and he richly

rewards Egill with honours and generous gifts. The death of rlfr, however, threatens

to undermine Egills relationship with thelstan, for Egill had openly opposed

thelstans decision on the battle placement of rlfr and his men and been over-

ruled.

thelstans Style of Kingship

After pursuing the stragglers and burying his brother, Egill returns to the fortress where

thelstan and his men are feasting. On Egills return thelstan immediately gives

orders for the lower bench to be cleared for Egills men and gives Egill the high seat of

honour facing him.70 Egill is still angry and upset at his brothers death and sits

glowering and refusing to accept anything to drink. thelstan decides to defuse the

situation by publicly rewarding him with a gold arm ring. This he does by putting a fine

67
Egils saga, 52, p. 76. rmann Jakobsson, Leit a Konungi (Reykjavk: Hsklatgfan,
1997), p. 315. In the English Tradition it is Anlaf who practices deceit.
68
Egils saga, 52-54, pp. 74-79.
69
Egils saga, 53-54, pp. 76-79.
70
This description is borne out by the arrangements Haraldr hrfagri is said to have made for his
poets, whom he held in the highest regard and who sat on the bench opposite his high seat
which was the highest place after the king. See Jacqueline Simpson, Everyday Life in the Viking
Age (London: Batsford, 1967), pp. 71-72.
 279

gold ring, taken from his own arm, onto his sword. He then walks across to give it to

Egill over the fire. Egill then gets up and takes the ring onto his own sword before

returning to his seat. It is difficult to understand fully the symbolism involved but a

number of aspects are clear. thelstan gives a personal gift, not from his store but

something he himself wore. He takes the initiative in getting up first to take the gift to

Egill rather than summoning Egill to receive it. These aspects alone depict thelstan as

wishing to honour Egill as an equal. By the ceremony with the sword he acknowledges

Egill as a fine warrior and honours Egill by personally initiating these actions. This is

also how Egill is shown as interpreting it. In response, Egill utters a verse in thelstans

honour, praising him for his action:71

Hrammtangar72 ltr hanga The god of the coat of mail lets

hrynvirgil mr brynju the rattling halter of the tang of the bears paw
Hr hauki tronum hang about my hawk-trodden
heiis vingameii. falcons gallows-tree.
Rtmis kn ek reia, I can twist the cord of the shield-exhausters staff
rr gunnvala brir, on my spear-battering, battle-choices, gallows,
gelgju seil glga the feeder of the battle-hawk
geirvers, lofi at meira. has the greater praise.

He turns the compliment back on thelstan describing him as the god of the coat of

mail and feeder of the battle-hawk who has the greater praise because of the gift of

the arm-ring (halter, cord) which he has let Egill take with his sword (shield-exhausters

staff) and which he therefore puts on his sword arm. This he describes as my hawk-

trodden falcons tree and spear-battering, battle-choices gallows. The language

throughout emphasizes that Egill receives the gift as an acknowledgement of the

contribution he has made as a warrior to thelstans victory.

71
Egils saga, 55, pp. 81-82.
72
Hrammtangar: tangar technically refers to the tang of the sword where it enters the hilt.
Combined here with hramm it literally means bears paw. Snorri refers to paw being used
to describe any part of the arm from the elbow to the finger tip. Hrammtangar here may just
mean hand, but I have translated it more descriptively to refer to Egills hand grasping the hilt
which contains the swords tang. The kennings can then be interpreted as describing the arm
ring rattling down from thelstans sword onto Egills, and so onto his arm. This seems
possible linguistically and captures the action better. Egils saga, 55, p. 81.
 280

thelstan then presents Egill with two chests of silver as compensation for his

brothers death and offers Egill the opportunity to stay with him in England. This action

depicts thelstan as accepting legal responsibility for rlfrs death and paying blood-

money as reparation to his family. Egill then composes a further verse in praise of

thelstans generosity:

Gramr hefir gerihmrum73 The king has folded up

grundar upp um hrundit, the fence-cliffs of the plain
s er til gr, af augum, of my mask from my eyes,
armsma, mr grmu. he is very stern towards arm-ring(s).

In these lines Egill acknowledges thelstans action as taking responsibility for

rlfrs death and fulfilling the legal requirement of making restitution. As a result the

king is described as having smoothed Egills brow from grief (folded up the fence-cliffs

of the plain of my mask) and to have been generous in his gifts (literally, very stern,

from the poetic convention of the generous man being a destroyer of wealth). The saga

describes Egill and his men remaining with thelstan throughout the winter during

which Egill composed a drpa in praise of thelstan and the victory at Vnheir which

contained the following verse and refrain:

N hefir foldgnrr fellda,74 Now the earth-towerer,

fellr jr und ni Ellu, the land falls under Ellas kinsman,
hjaldrsnerrandi, harra the hard battle-shocker, of kings
hfubamr, rj jfra. the lead branch, has felled three princes.
Aalsteinn of vann annat, thelstan achieves more than that;
allt er lgra kynfrgjum, all is lower, here we swear to this,
hr sverjum ess, hyrjar O breaker of the fires wave,
hrannbrjtr, konungmanni. than the king, the man of famous kindred.

N liggr hst und hraustum Now lies the highest reindeer

hreinbraut Aalsteini road under valiant thelstan.

In this drpa Egill celebrates several attributes of thelstan as king: he towers over the

land; he is a fierce warrior (hard battle-shocker); he is the most important descendant of

kings (of kings the lead branch); he is generous with his gold (breaker of the fires

73
Egils saga, 55, p. 82.
74
Egils saga, 55, pp. 82-83.
 281

wave); a descendant of famous ancestors (Ella is mentioned by name), he is now

superior to everyone and everything around him (all is lower here than the king). By

combining these descriptors, commonly found in skaldic verses, and applying them to

thelstan, Egill depicts him as a good and powerful Viking king.75 thelstan responds

to the drpa in the traditional Viking way, rewarding Egill with two valuable gold rings

and an expensive cloak which the king himself had personally worn.76

The reference to Ella as thelstans ancestor has provoked some scholarly

debate as to which king Ella is meant. Christine Fell favours lle, king of the South

Saxons, quoting Bede who describes him as having been the first to rule all of England

south of the Humber. She mentions as a possible alternative lle of Deira instrumental

in inspiring the missionary zeal of Pope Gregory.77 Both of these suggestions assume

that Egills reference was intended to honour thelstan. Sveinbjrn Egilsson identifies

Ella as the lle, King of Northumbria, said to have been responsible for the death of

Ragnar Lobrok and killed by the Vikings at York in 867.78 The Scandinavian sagas

depicted lles death at York as bringing honour to them by avenging the killing of

Ragnar. The saga narratives and the frequency of the references to Ella/Elle in skaldic

verse has suggested that in Scandinavian literature Elles death was seen as a Norse

victory over the English and one which could be used to justify Scandinavian right to

rule in Northumbria.79 It could be that Egills verse was deliberately exploiting these

ambiguities by naming lle as thelstans famed ancestor. Both Anglo-Scandinavian

and Norse audiences could then interpret the reference as reflecting honour on

75
Diana Whaley Skaldic Poetry, in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and
Culture, ed. by McTurk (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 479-502 (pp. 481-84).
76
This personal gift of an expensive cloak, which the king himself had worn, can be seen as a
sign of special honour and friendship.
77
Christine Fell, Egils saga, (London: Dent, 1975), p. 187, n. 6.
78
ASC A states that lle was not of royal descent but the reference to Northumbria associated
with lles name may have been sufficient reminder that thelstan currently held Northumbria
as Rex totius Britanniae.
79
Matthew Townend, Ella: An Old English Name in Old English Poetry, Nomina, 20 (1997),
23-25 (p. 25). Susanne Kries, Westward I Came Across the Sea: Anglo-Scandinavian History
through Scandinavian Eyes, Leeds Studies in English, New Series, 34 (2003), 47-76.
 282

themselves.80 A Norse audience, if not an Anglo-Saxon one, might have enjoyed the

humour latent in the double meaning.81

Interpreting Egills short refrain, N liggr hst und hraustum hreinbraut

Aalsteini, has also caused difficulty. The choice of hreinbraut, reindeer road,

seems to refer to the land or mountains of Scotland suggesting that the poem assumed

that Scotland was now part of thelstans kingdom. However, there are examples of

reindeer being used to describe a ship, and a path or road to describe the sea.82 If this is

the meaning to be taken from hreinbraut, the poem could be reflecting the same

tradition as thelweards Chronicon, noted in Chapter 1, that thelstan had won total

control of the seas around England by his victory at Brunanburh. Whatever the exact

meaning the poet intended, the refrain seems designed to emphasize the description that

allt er lgra kynfrgjum konungmanni, that thelstan was the dominant king in the

whole country, perhaps mirroring the Anglo-Saxon claim that he was Rex totius

Britanniae.

thelstan as foster-parent

Egils saga also contributes to the picture of thelstan as foster-father found in

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla. thelstan is said to have willingly agreed to support

Egill and his friend orsteinn in their separate disputes over land inheritance in Norway

and to have given Egill messages and tokens to take to King Hkon in support of his

claim. Hkon is described as responding positively to both requests while making it

clear that he is only willing to let Egill pursue his claim in the Althing because of

thelstans involvement:

80
Kries, Westward I came across the Sea, pp. 64-67.
81
Sveinbjrn, however, provides several examples of the name Ella being used very simply to
mean English or England. For example: Ellu konr, descendant of Ella, referring to Magnus
the Good whose mother was believed to be English; Ellu nir, kinsman of Ella, king of
England; Ellu ttleif, patrimony of Ella, England. Sveinbjrn Egilsson, Lexicon
Poeticum Antiquae linguae Septentrionalis (Copenhagen: S. L. Mllers, 1860), p. 133. Egills
drpa may, therefore, merely be describing thelstan as Englands king.
82
Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum.
 283

Konungr segir: Ekki muntu, Egill, gerask mr handgenginn; miklu hafi r

frndr meira skar hggit tt vra en r muni duga at stafestask hr landi.
Far til slands t ok ver ar at furarfi num; mun r vera ekki mein at
oss frndum, en hr landi er ess vn um alla na daga at vrir frndr s
rkastir. En fyrir sakir Aalsteins konungs fstra mns skaltu hafa hr fri
landi ok n lgum ok landsrtti, v at ek veit at Aalsteinn konungr hefir mikla
elsku r.
The king said, You will not, Egill, become my retainer: you and your kinsmen
have too much deeply wronged my family for you to be able to settle down in
this country. Go out to Iceland and there look after your inheritance from your
father; you will not there be harmed at my hands or those of my kinsmen, but in
the land here you can expect my family to remain the most powerful in this
country for all your days. But for the sake of King thelstan, my fosterfather,
you will have here peace and win justice and your land rights, because I know
that King thelstan has great feelings of attachment towards you.83

thelstan can be seen in this passage as a traditional foster parent, prepared to use his

relationship with his foster-son to influence events. Hkons willingness to respond

depicts his fostering relationship with thelstan as close and based on affection and

respect.84 The picture, noted above in Fagrskinna and Heimskringla, of Hkon giving

the same priority as thelstan to law and justice, is found also in Egills statement that

Hkon is introducing a code of law and individual rights for all, and in his description of

Hkons reputation as a just king who obeyed his own laws.85 Because thelstan rates

Egill highly, Hkon puts on one side the history of violence perpetrated on his family by

Egill and his ancestors and allows him to seek justice for his land claim.

The complimentary picture of thelstan in Egils saga has to be understood

within the wider context of the saga as a whole. In tracing the history of Egill and his

family over four generations, the saga describes their experiences with four different

kings who each exemplify a different type of kingship. Haraldr hrfagri, ambitious to

make himself the first sole ruler of Norway, is portrayed as using the traditional

83
Egils saga, 65, p. 116. Heimskringla, p. 136.
84
Egils saga, 64-65, pp. 114-15. thelstan tries to persuade Egill to stay in England and take
charge of the army. He gives Egill a merchant ship and cargo and they part as great friends.
85
Egils saga, 65, 70, pp. 116, 126. See the section above on Hkons fostering in skaldic verse.
The theme of Hkon as law-maker is repeated in Fagrskinna where, King lfr inn helgi is said
to have respected and made use of Hkons laws, and in Heimskringla where lfr is described
as regularly listening to a recitation of the laws which Hkon Aalsteinsfstri had established at
Trondheim.
 284

strategies of rich reward and ruthless punishment to achieve his ends. He causes great

hostility and several of the leading families, including Egills grandfather, leave Norway

in protest and settle in Iceland. This hostility is maintained through their descendants

and poses a continuing threat to stability in Norway.

Haraldrs son Eirkr displays some of the characteristics of his father Haraldr,

showing the same ruthlessness, especially in his acts of violence, but overall he is

depicted as a weaker person. He is volatile and inconsistent, compromises on his ideals

and is unpredictable in his decisions. Considered too easily influenced by his evil wife

Gunnhildr, there are occasions when he even earns her contempt by ignoring her

goading. To Egill he is an object of scorn.

Hkon is the antithesis of his half-brother, Eirkr. He is depicted as calm,

reflective and decisive. He almost makes a fatal mistake by suspecting orsteinn, a

friend of Eirkrs henchman, of duplicity but acknowledges his error and makes amends.

He marks a move away from a kingship based on fear to one based on justice and

equality under the law.86 thelstan is the only king whom Egill respects and willingly

serves. thelstan is depicted as generous in acknowledging and rewarding Egills skills

as a warrior and as a poet. thelstan values Egill as a person and as a military leader

and Egill enjoys both security and friendship with him while in England

Commenting on the different concepts of kingship depicted in the saga, John

Hines sees a direct contrast being made between Haraldrs early inexperience and

Eirkrs weaknesses as king compared with the surefootedness shown by thelstan

and Hkon. He characterises Egill as craving a king who will fulfil the royal role

properly, seeking in his dealings with Eirkr, thelstan and Hkon, a strong, benign

86
Hines, Kingship in Egils saga, in Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njls saga, ed. by
Hines and Slay, p. 30.
 285

and paternal figure [] a king to give law, favour, praise and reward. 87 thelstan is

the only one in the saga who fits this description and as a result he earns Egills lasting

loyalty and gratitude. thelstans reputation is further enhanced by the sagas depiction

of Hkon. He shows the same sense of fairness and justice as his foster-father and

exemplifies the ideal kind of relationship between foster-son and foster-father praised

elsewhere in the sagas.

The depiction of thelstan in Egils saga has resonances with Dudos depiction

of him and his relationship with Rollo. Both texts provide a Viking perspective of

thelstan as king. In both, it is the Viking leaders, Rollo and Egill, who are the

dominant characters, advising thelstan and helping him to overcome his enemies.

thelstan is depicted as valuing their support and wanting both to stay with him in

England, Rollo to rule part of his territory and Egill as leader of his military forces. He

is depicted as a generous friend, providing food and other supplies for Rollo in Francia

and using his influence as foster-father to support Egills land request to Hkon. In these

ways both texts depict thelstan as an English king who understood Viking customs

and values and a man with whom Viking leaders could do business and form a lasting

friendship. That thelstan should have been the English king chosen to be represented

in this way is intriguing and is an area that deserves fuller analysis than is possible in

the present thesis.

Although dismissed by historians as fiction, the saga and skaldic material

analysed above provides an intimate picture of thelstan as king and foster-father As

written texts they provide a record of how the Norwegians and Icelanders traditionally

regarded thelstan and how they wished future generations to remember him. The roles

assigned to thelstan in these texts are also recorded in the formal synoptic histories of

the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Their accounts, however, are very brief and, although

87
Hines, Kingship in Egils saga, in Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njls saga, ed. by
Hines and Slay, pp. 30-32.
 286

partly influenced by the saga material, they provide a different view and interpretation

of events. It is not clear whether these differences represent separate traditions or are a

deliberate way of challenging the saga versions of events. The synoptic writers had a

clear ecclesiastical purpose in writing their texts and, as the following section will show,

this influenced how they selected, ordered and interpreted memories of thelstan.

thelstan in the Synoptic Histories: Historia Norwegie, Historia de

Antiquitate Regum, grip
The Historia Norwegie, Historia de Antiquitate Regum and grip may reflect their saga

roots by including the same events over the same time-span as the saga narratives for

thelstan.88 grip is the only one of the texts written in the vernacular and, as I will

show, its depiction of thelstan more clearly reflects the influence of the vernacular

sagas.

Historia Norwegie

The author of the Historia Norwegie claims in the prologue that his task has been given

to him, presumably by the Agnellus whom he addresses and whom he describes as his

teacher.89 He says that his intention is to provide a genealogy of the kings, tell of the

coming of Christianity to Norway and provide information on the current position of

Christianity and paganism. The surviving text is incomplete. It traces the history of the

kings down to the return of lfr inn helgi from England but does not include the

account of the Christianization of Norway mentioned in the prologue.

88
Stefanie Wrth, Historiography and Pseudo-History, in A Companion to Old Norse-
Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by McTurk, pp. 155-72 (pp. 159-61).
89
There has been considerable debate about the identity of the author of the Historia but at
present it is still unclear who composed the text and for what audience. A History of Norway
and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed lfr, ed. and trans. by Devra Kunin and Carl
Phelpstead (Viking Society for Northern Research (London: University College, 2001), pp. xix-
xx. Stefanie Wrth, Historiography and Pseudo-History, in A Companion to Old Norse-
Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by McTurk, p. 159.
 287

The dates proposed for the composition of the work range from the 1150s to

c.1300 with most scholars opting for a date between 1170 and 1220. However, an

earlier date of 1140-1150 has recently been proposed by Inger Ekrem based on her close

study of possible sources. She has suggested that the purpose of the text may have been

to support the establishment of the Archdiocese of Niarss in 1152/3 and that the work

was left unfinished once the Archdiocese was established. She derives her argument

from the opening sections of the text which provide descriptions of Norway, Greenland,

the Hebrides, Orkney, the Faroes and Iceland, all of which were incorporated into the

Archdiocese.90 If correct, this makes the Historia Norwegie the earliest of the synoptic

texts.

The text recognizes thelstan as a very Christian king of England, who brought

Hkon up as a Christian and as his own son, and who later was responsible for the

baptism of Eirkr blx and his appointment as earl over Northumbria. Hkon,

however, is depicted as an apostate whose Christian upbringing by thelstan is seen as

a failure so that Hkon plays no part in the Christianization of Norway. The central role

in introducing Christianity is ascribed instead to the later actions of lfr Tryggvason.

This contrasts strongly with the accounts of Hkon in the saga texts and Ekrem,

commenting on the heavy emphasis in the text on the life and work of lfr

Tryggvason, has suggested that the text may also be an attempt to support a claim for

lfr Tryggvason to be venerated as a saint.91

The combination of geographical and historical information in the Historia has

suggested that the content was probably modelled on Adam of Bremens Gesta.92 As

the church in Norway was originally under the metropolitan of Hamberg-Bremen, it is

90
Historia Norwegie, ed. by Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. by Peter Fisher
(Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2003), pp. 157-68.
91
Kunin and Phelpstead, A History of Norway, pp. xx-xxi. Historia Norwegie, pp. 207-10.
92
Historia Norwegie, pp. 168-69. Wrth, Historiography and Pseudo-History, in A
Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by McTurk, p. 159.
 288

likely that Adams work would have been available and known in ecclesiastical circles.

Phelpstead has taken this further and suggested that the Historia Norwegie was

designed to counter Adams attempts to maintain German ecclesiastical control in

Scandinavia, commenting

Whereas Adam emphasised the role of Hamburg-Bremen in the Christianisation

of Scandinavia in an attempt to maintain the archbishoprics hold on its northern
dioceses, Historia Norwegiae implicitly supports Norwegian ecclesiastical
independence 93

This interpretation of the Historia Norwegie may also help to explain the authors

emphasis on Hkons apostasy as his Christian upbringing by thelstan took place

outside Norway and within the tradition of the English Church.

Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium

From internal evidence this text is generally dated to 1177-87. The author describes

himself as Theodoricus, a monk. He claims that in his day no written account existed for

the history of Norway and that he wished to hand down a record for future generations.

He terminated his history with the events of 1130, claiming that he did not wish to

recount the civil violence and ecclesiastical discord which followed the death of

King Sigurr, son of Magns berfttr.94

The twelfth century was a period of struggle between the church and kings over

ecclesiastical independence. Theodoricus dedicates his work and pledges his loyalty to

Eysteinn, Archbishop of Niarss, who was strongly committed to freeing the church in

Norway from royal control and aligning it fully with Rome and the papacy.95 In his

account Theodoricus portrays the introduction of Christianity into Norway as a divine

93
Kunin and Phelpstead, A History of Norway, pp. xxi-xxii. Historia Norwegie, pp. 162-68.
94
David and Ian McDougall, The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, Viking Society for
Northern Research (London: University College, 1998), p. vii.
95
Wurth suggests Theodoricus may also have intended his work to support the establishment of
he archdiocese at Niarss. Wurth, Historiography and Pseudo-History, in A Companion to
Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. by McTurk, p. 160. See also Sverre Bagge,
Theodoricus Monachus: Clerical Historiography in Twelfth Century Norway, Scandinavian
Journal of History, 14 (1989), 113-33 (pp. 114-15, 128-33).
 289

work achieved through two outstanding kings, lfr Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi

and sustained despite the weaknesses of individual rulers.

Theodoricus, like the author of the Historia Norwegie, provides only a brief

overview of the early kings. Out of thirty-four chapters, six cover the early history of

Norway from the time of Haraldr hrfagri to the death of Gunnhildr. Within this, there

is a brief mention of Hkon being fostered by thelstan and of his return to Norway.

He is depicted as a good king whose reign was peaceful but there is no reference at all

to his Christian upbringing by thelstan or to any attempt by Hkon to bring

Christianity to the country. These omissions are in keeping with Theodoricuss overall

emphasis on lfr Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi as Gods chosen agents for the

evangelization of Norway.

The Historia Norwegie and the Historia de Antiquitate Regum are the earliest

surviving examples of national ecclesiastical histories of Norway. The use of Latin

indicates that they were intended for an ecclesiastical, or well-educated, audience. The

negative picture they provide of Hkons Christian upbringing by thelstan may have

been dictated by the overall purpose of these works. As a result they appear in conflict

with popular tradition and in particular with the version of events provided in grip, the

only synoptic text written in the vernacular.

grip

The date of c.1190 generally given to the composition of grip makes it the latest of the

synoptics and the earliest of the vernacular texts. Matthew Driscoll suggests that the

extant manuscript, which covers the years c.880-1136, is only part of an original text

which narrated the reigns of the kings from the accession of Haraldr hrfagri up to the

time of Sverrir.96 If so, grip covered the same period of history as Fagrskinna and

Heimskringla and, as will be seen below, my own study of the text suggests that the

96
grip af Nregskonungasgum ed. by M. J. Driscoll, Viking Society for Northern Research
(London: University College, 1995), p. x.
 290

author not only used the other synoptic texts for his work but drew some of his material

from saga sources.

The late twelfth century, during which grip is thought to have been written,

was marked by considerable tension between King Sverrir Sigursson and the

Norwegian episcopate. Magns Stefnson describes Nicholas Breakspears papal

legation of 1152/3 to establish the Archbishopric based on Niarss as part of papal

policy to bring Scandinavia into closer union with Rome.97 Based on his analysis of the

content and use of language, Driscoll characterises the text as non-aristocratic in origin

and Norwegian in its sympathies but still supporting a clerical agenda on ecclesiastical

independence.98

Wrth also argues for a Norwegian rather than an Icelandic origin for the work

on the grounds that the text makes little reference to Iceland and gives some prominence

to Niarss.99 Her comments, however, appear to overlook the fact that, like the

Historia Norwegie, the text credits lfr Tryggvason, rather than lfr inn helgi, with

bringing Christianity to Norway. When the 1152 papal legation designated the church

where lfr inn helgi was buried as the metropolitan centre in Niarss for the new

archbishopric, the Icelandic church was incorporated into the archdiocese and lost its

previous independence. The major role assigned to lfr Tryggvason in grip may,

therefore,also have been a deliberate move by the author to celebrate Icelandic

ecclesiastical status and support lfr Tryggvasons rival claim to sainthood.

97
This was led by the English prelate Nicholas Breakspear, later Pope Adrian IV. For details see
Anders Bergquist, The Papal Legate: Nicholas Breakspears Scandinavian Mission, in Adrian
IV: The English Pope (1154-1159), ed. by Brenda Bolton and Anne J. Duggan (Aldershot:
Ashgate, 2003), pp. 40-48; Magns Stefnson, Church Organisation and Function in Medieval
Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, ed. by Phillip Pulsiano and others (London: Garland, 1993), pp.
88-92 (p. 89). For continuing ecclesiastical links between Norway and England see Birgit and
Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia: From Conversion to Reformation, circa 800-1500
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), pp. 100-04, 111-12. Antonia Gransden, A
History of the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds, 1182-1256 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2007), pp.
18-19 and n. 11.
98
Driscoll, grip, pp. xi-xii.
99
Wrth, Historiography and Pseudo-History, in A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic
Literature and Culture, ed. by McTurk, p. 160.
 291

grip is the only synoptic text to ascribe a significant role to Hkon in

introducing Christianity to Norway. In this, the author departs from the ecclesiastical

models provided by the Historia Norwegie and the Historia de Antiquitate Regum

Norvagiensium and has more in common with the version of events found in the

Heimskringla. Nevertheless, grips depiction of thelstan as Hkons foster-father is

very limited compared with the saga texts, and this further supports Driscolls view that,

overall, the author was writing his history from an ecclesiastical point of view.

Textual Inter-relationships of the Synoptic Histories

Phelpstead in his introduction to the Historia Norwegie notes the exceptionally

complex scholarship debate which surrounds the interrelationships between the

different synoptic histories and between these and Icelandic historical writing. Drawing

on Andersson and Ulset, he summarises the main theories on the relationships between

the synoptic texts and earlier written or oral sources,100 and I have respresented these

diagrammatically below:

Smundr/Ari/Oral Tradition Norwegian Lost Text?

Historia de Antiquitate Historia Norwegie

Regum Norwagiensium

grip

In his detailed analysis of the different theories, Andersson discusses the implications of

a Norwegian Lost Text as a source for Historia Norwegie and grip which was

independent of the Icelandic texts of Smundr and Ari and of oral tradition. He has

concluded that the attempt to identify a separate Norwegian tradition founders, as do all

100
Kunin and Phelpstead, A History of Norway, pp. xiii-xvi.
 292

the other theories, on lack of any conclusive evidence, commenting that, we are obliged

to conclude that the last fifty years of kings saga research have left us empty-

handed.101

Because these analyses concentrated on the links between the synoptic texts,

they failed to take account of the links between the vernacular grip and the vernacular

saga texts. I will argue later that the way in which grip sometimes follows the Latin

texts and sometimes the vernacular, helps to identify the existence of separate traditions

and to emphasize the differences in the interpretation given to the same events by the

ecclesiastical and the saga narratives. It also highlights how scholars have sometimes,

perhaps unwittingly, promoted one tradition over another depending on the texts they

have chosen to use.

thelstan in the Synoptic Histories

Compared with the saga texts the synoptics provide very brief details on thelstan and

then only as part of the historical overview of kings before lfr Tryggvason and lfr

inn helgi who are their main focus. All three texts record Hkon being brought up by

thelstan, his return to Norway to take the throne and thelstans negotiations with

Eirkr over Northumbria.

thelstans Fostering of Hkon

As I show in the following analysis, there is a lack of clarity in the synoptic accounts of

Hkons fostering over whether Hkon is an elder or younger son of Haraldr hrfagri,

whether Hkon was fostered or adopted and whether Haraldr or thelstan initiated the

arrangement:

101
Theodore M. Andersson, Kings Sagas, in Old Norse Icelandic Literature, ed. by Clover
and Lindow, p. 211.
 293

TEXT
Historia Secundus Hacon, quem Adalstanus rex The Historia Norwegie describes
Anglorum sibi in filium adoptauit102 Hkon as Haraldrs second son, and
Norwegie
makes thelstan the main actor,
[Haraldrs] second [son was] Hkon whom
claiming that he adopted Hkon as
thelstan, king of the English, adopted as his
his own son, possibly reflecting the
son.
fact that thelstan was traditionally
said to have had no son of his own.
Historia de praedictus vero Haraldus miserat unum ex The Historia de Antiquitate
filiis suis Halstano regi Anglorum, Hacon describes Hkon as one of Haraldrs
Antiquitate
nomine, ut nutriretur et disceret morem sons. Haraldr is made the author of
Regum gentis 103 the action, sending Hkon to
thelstan to be brought up in
Norwagiensium But the aforementioned Haraldr had sent one
England and learn the customs of
of his sons, called Hkon, to thelstan king of
the country. Haraldr fostered other
the English to be brought up (there) and learn
sons with leading men in Norway
the customary ways of the people.
and no reason is given for his
choosing a Christian king in
England to bring up Hkon.
grip Var Eirkr blx [] elzta lagi sona hans, grip describes Hkon as Haraldrs
annarr Hkon yngsta lagi, er Aalsteinn youngest son and this is also how he
Englands konungr tk sonar sta,104 is described in Fagrskinna and
Heimskringla. The text then has two
Eirkr blx was the eldest of his [Haraldrs]
separate references: the first states
sons and Hkon the youngest whom thelstan
that thelstan tk sonar sta
king of England took as a son.
took [Hkon] in the place of a son,
en Hkon brir hans var vestr Englandi me echoing the entry in Historia
Aalsteini konungi, er fair hans lfs hafi Norwegie; the second refers to
hann sendan til fstrs.105 Haraldr sendan til fstrs, sending
and Hkon his [Eirkrs] brother was west in Hkon for fostering, as in the
England with King thelstan, to whom his Historia de Antiquitate Regum
father, while alive, had sent him to be fostered Norvagiensium.

The inconsistencies noted above may reflect a lack of importance given by their authors

to the relationship between Hkon and thelstan. Alternatively, the apparent confusion

over whether Hkon was adopted or fostered may reflect a tradition, articulated only in

Saxo Grammaticus, that Hkon had a right of inheritance to the throne of England.

Fostering and Adoption

Jacqueline Simpson has noted that in Norway the earliest laws recognised that a child

who was adopted had the same legal rights as those born into the family and that this

102
Historia Norwegie, 11, pp. 80-81.
103
Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norvagiensium, Monumenta Historica Norvegiae Latine
Conscripta, ed. by Gustav Storm (Kristiania: Brgger, 1880), 2, p. 7.
104
grip af Nregskonungasgum, ed. by Bjarni Einarsson (Reykjavk: slenzka
Frnritalflag, 1984), 2, p. 5.
105
grip, 5, p. 7.
 294

was often used to give illegitimate children the same rights as a mans legitimate

offspring.106 Thomas Charles-Edwards, commenting on the use of adoption in Anglo-

Saxon England has stated that unrestricted rights of inheritance by an adopted child do

not appear to have existed in Anglo-Saxon England and any such inheritance could be

challenged by other children or collateral kin.107 This means that if Hkon had been

adopted by thelstan he would be considered in Norway entitled to inherit the English

throne on thelstans death; in England he would not, unless thelstan specifically left

the kingdom to him in his will. Even then it would still have been open to challenge

from thelstans children, if he had any, or from his brothers as collateral kin.

Commenting on J. Goodys studies and theory of strategies of inheritance,

Charles-Edwards has drawn attention to how adoption could be specifically used as a

method for determining inheritance and by-passing collateral kin:

Throughout Europe and Asia in antiquity, so far at least as the evidence will take
us, men might use adoption to ensure that they had lineal heirs when otherwise
their property would pass to collateral heirs. The adopted son would have the
right to inherit to the exclusion of brother or cousin.108

Adoption is here seen as a way for a childless man to ensure his inheritance passed to a

person of his own choice rather than to other members of his wider family. thelstans

childlessness seems to have been well known. As will be seen later, Saxo Grammaticus

specifically refers to thelstan adopting Hkon so he could have an heir of his own

choosing to whom to leave the throne of England in his will. This appears to be either a

Danish tradition or something created by Saxo and there is nothing to support it in the

English, Continental or Norse sources. Hkon is not even mentioned in the Anglo-

Saxon and Anglo-Norman texts but an entry added into William of Malmesburys Gesta
106
Simpson, Everyday Life in the Viking Age, pp. 141-42.
107
Thomas Charles-Edwards, Anglo-Saxon Kinship Revisited, in The Anglo-Saxons from the
Migration to the Eighth Century, ed. by John Hines (Weighbridge: Boydell Press, 1997), pp.
171-210 (p. 173).
108
Thomas Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh Kinship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993),
p. 76. J. Goody, Production and Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976),
pp. 86-98; The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe (Cambridge: University
Press, 1983), pp. 71-73, 120-23.
 295

Regum comments on thelstans childlessness, claiming that he deliberately did not

marry but made arrangements for his half-brothers to inherit the throne.109

The same ambiguities over rights of inheritance appear to apply if Hkon was

fostered rather than adopted. The rights of inheritance for a fostered child in Anglo-

Saxon England appear to have been very limited. Charles-Edwards has commented that

although fosterage did generate kinship, it was of vastly less importance than in Celtic

countries, and he notes that surviving evidence of foster-children benefiting through

legal inheritance was rare.110 The rights of inheritance for a fostered child appear also to

have been restricted in Norway. The earliest surviving codified laws distinguish

between the rights of inheritance of legal heirs and those of foster-children with foster-

childrens rights being set at a minimum financial level and anything beyond that

needing the agreement of the foster-fathers legitimate heirs in order for it to be legally

binding.111

It would appear, therefore, that Hkon would not have had any rights to the

English throne as thelstans foster-son while as an adopted son, his rights to

succession would have been open to different interpretations. The Norse texts make no

claim for him to be seen as thelstans heir and the only Norse textual evidence for a

king of Norway claiming the right to rule in England is found in the saga accounts of

Magns gi, the son of lfr helgi. He is said to have challenged Edward the

Confessor for the throne but to have honourably withdrawn his claim in Edwards

favour.

While the only claim that Hkon was thelstans intended heir is in the Gesta

Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus, the ambiguity in the synoptic versions on whether

109
Gesta Regum, ii, 140, I, 228-29 and Appendix 1, pp. 824-25.
110
Charles-Edwards, Anglo-Saxon Kinship Revisited, in The Anglo-Saxons from the
Migration to the Eighth Century, ed. by Hines, p. 179.
111
Laurence M. Larson, The Earliest Norwegian Laws (New York: Columbia University Press,
1935), pp. 119, 337.
 296

Hkon was fostered or adopted may be an echo of an earlier tradition of Norse right to

rule in England. As noted above, both Fagrskinna and Heimskringla refer to a history of

Danish and Norse rule in Northumbria by way of comment on the appropriateness of

thelstan giving Eirkr the right to rule there. It would seem, therefore, that by the late

eleventh and early twelfth centuries any Norse tradition on a claim to the English throne

had ceased to be a central theme and been replaced by the saga representations of

Haraldr hrfagri and thelstan as friends and kings of equal standing and power.

Hkons Return to Norway

Hkons return to Norway to take his fathers kingdom from Eirkr is very briefly

recounted in the synoptic narratives. All three texts imply that there was political unrest

in Norway because of Eirkrs rule and the unacceptable behaviour of his wife,

Gunnhildr. As a result, Hkon was asked to return to take over the throne:

Historia Norwegie De Antiquitate Regum grip

Hic cum annum regnasset, <et> ob quem Norvagienses kvddu vitrir menn
nimiam insolenciam uxoris nemini revocaverunt propter Hkon aptr land me
placuisset, a fratre suo Hacone, alumpno crudelitatem fratris et leynd tveim vetrum eptir
Adalstani regis Anglie, idem praecipue uxoris ejus andlt Haralds hrfagra,
consiliantibus Norwegie primatibus, regno Gunnildar et ok hann kmr tveim
privatus in Angliam profugus secessit.112 constituerunt sibi skipum vestan [...] 114
regem.113
He [Eirkr], when he had ruled for a year, Then wise men called
<and> because of the extreme insolence [Hkon ] whom the Hkon back to Norway
of his wife had pleased no-one, deprived Norwegians recalled in secrecy two years
of the kingdom by his brother Hkon, the because of the cruelty of after the death of
foster-child of thelstan King of his brother, and in Haraldr harfagri, and he
England, the leading men of Norway particular of his wife came with two ships
advising the same, withdrew to England Gunnildr, and installed from the West [...]
as a fugitive. as their king.

The accounts in the synoptic texts differ from Fagrskinna and Heimskringla in two

important respects: they describe Hkon returning in response to the wishes of his own

people while the saga texts describe him returning on his own initiative and spending

almost a year winning support for his bid for the throne; secondly, the synoptics make

112
Historia Norwegie, 12, pp. 82-83.
113
Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium, 2, p. 7.
114
grip, 5, p. 7.
 297

no mention of thelstans involvement while the sagas give him an active role in

securing Hkons return. These differences in emphasis reflect the different purposes

and intended audiences of the saga writers and the synoptic historians. The saga writers

were writing for, and using the traditions of, a people used to travelling and living in a

wider North Sea world. The synoptic historians were seeking to break new ground by

providing a history of the Christianization of Norway through the Norwegian kings

lfr Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi.

thelstan and Eirkr blx

Historia Norwegie: Eirkr, deprived of his kingdom, came to England as a fugitive; there he
was well received by his brothers mentor and having been washed in the font of baptism
was put in charge of the whole of Northumbria as earl.115
Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norvagiensium: Eirkr sailed to England and having been
received by the king with honour, he died there.116
grip: Eirkr blx, when he fled the country, went west with his ships to England and
there spent his time raiding and plundering. There he asked for the mercy of the English
king, just as King Aalsteinn had promised him and received from the king an earldom in
Northumbria.117

The two Latin texts describe Eirkr being honourably received by the king in England.

Although neither names thelstan, the reference to his being well-received by his

brothers mentor in the Historia Norwegie obliquely identifies him.118 The vernacular

grip represents Eirkr as a fugitive and raiding in Britain before throwing himself on

thelstans mercy sem Aalsteinn konungr hafi hnum heitit.119 The reference to

Eirkr having already been promised mercy (miskunnar) depicts thelstan as actively

in contact with Eirkr to make a deal with him, a detail which provides a link with

Fagrskinna where thelstan is said to have sent friendly words to Eirkr through his

foster-son. The grip text also suggests that thelstan made a deal because of Eirkrs

raiding in Britain, reflecting the similar statements in Heimskringla and lfs saga

115
Historia Norwegie, 12, pp. 82-83.
116
Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norvagiensium, 2, p.7.
117
grip, 7, p.12.
118
a pedagogo fratris sui bene susceptus. Historia Norwegie, 12, pp. 82-83.
119
Just as King thelstan had promised him. grip, 7, p. 12.
 298

Tryggvasonar en mesta. The Historia Norwegie is the only synoptic text which refers to

Eirkr being baptised, something which is found in all three Kings Saga texts. It seems

therefore that although the synoptics reflect the saga version of events, Eirkrs exile to

England was a minor detail and this is further underlined in the Historia de Antiquitate

Regum Norvagiensium which makes no mention of Eirkr as earl of Northumbria and

merely records that he died in England.

thelstan as Christian King

Given the ecclesiastical background to the synoptic texts, it might be expected that they

would provide some information on Hkons upbringing and education by thelstan

which had enabled him to return to Norway as its first Christian king. Far, however,

from celebrating this fact, the synoptics treat it as a blot on the history of Norway. The

Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norvagiensium makes no mention of Hkons

Christianity, while the Historia Norwegie is very explicit and roundly condemns Hkon

for abandoning the faith in which he had been brought up by thelstan:

Hic a christianissimo rege in Anglia officiosissime educatus in tantum errorem

incurrit, ut miserrima commutatione eterno transitorium preponeret regnum ac
detinende dignitatis cura proh dolor appostata factus, ydolorum seruituti
subactus, diis et non deo deseruiret. Qui quamuis labilis regni ceca ambicione a
durabili dignitate eternaliter labefactus, cunctis tamen in paganismo degentibus
diligencius leges patrias et scita plebis obseruabat regibus.120

He, very dutifully educated by a most Christian king in England, was involved
in such great error that by a most wretched change he preferred a transitory
kingdom to an eternal one and through his concern for retaining his position
alas he became apostate, conquered by slavery to idols, and zealously
served gods and not God. And he, although from blind ambition for a fickle
kingdom he eternally slipped away from a lasting position of glory, nevertheless,
complied with the laws of his country and the decrees of the people more
diligently than all the kings who passed their days in pagan times.

thelstan is praised as a most Christian king, who brought Hkon up with great care

within the Christian faith, but Hkon proved a failure, preferring worldly success to

eternal life. This damning criticism of Hkon as an apostate is further extended in the

120
Historia Norwegie, 13, pp. 82-83.
 299

account of Hkon in the Historia Norwegie where his death as the result of a boys

spear is described as a righteous punishment for his apostasy.121 For the author of the

Historia Hkon becomes a warning of the dangers of worldly ambition and the eternal

punishment it brings.

grip, is more moderate in its judgement and in its account of Hkon as

Christian king is closer to the details found in Heimskringla. grip describes Hkon

initially making converts, building churches and bringing a bishop and priests from

England. The writer comments that the burning of the churches and the killing of the

clerics by those opposed to Christianity brought Hkons missionary work to a

standstill, hann mtti eigi v halda fyr illvirkjum eira.122 Hkons heathen wife is

also said to have been a main cause of Hkons religious difficulties and he is depicted

as trying to compromise his religious practices in order to preserve his Christian beliefs

and at the same time fulfil his kingly duties. An area of particular difficulty for him was

the expectation that he would lead the blood sacrifices to ensure the fertility of the crops

and the safety of the kingdom.123 grip also follows the accounts of Hkons death in

Fagrskinna and Heimskringla where Hkon is described as acknowledging his failures

121
Quod factum diuina ulcione tali euentu accidisse lippis et tunsoribus liquido apparet, ubi
puerum Christum denegare ausus hic deuictis hostibus ab ignobili puero deuinceretur. It is
clearly visible to the whole world that this action occurred with such a consequence through
divine vengeance, when he who had dared to reject the Christ child, although his enemies had
been subdued, was completely defeated by an obscure child. Historia Norwegie, 13, pp. 84-85,
140, n. 10. The saying lippis et tunsoribus liquido apparet, clearly visible to the nearly blind
and the barbers, was a satirical idiom to describe something known by everyone. In Roman
times barbers were reputed to know everything that was happening from the chatter of their
customers.
122
he could not continue this activity as a result of their evil work. grip, 5, p. 8.
123
grip, 5, p. 8. For a detailed discussion, see Jn Hnefill Aalsteinsson, A Piece of Horse
Liver: Myth, Ritual and Folklore in Old Icelandic Sources, trans. by Terry Gunnell and Joan
Turville-Petre (Reykjavk: Hsklatgfan Flagsvsindastofnun, 1998), pp. 57-80.The picture
of Hkons efforts to keep his faith by judicious compromise is reminiscent of a similar account
in slendingabk in which the Icelanders reach a compromise at the Althing by agreeing to
adopt Christianity while retaining the existing laws on the exposure of children and the eating of
horse-flesh and allowing the right to sacrifice in private. slendingabk, ed. by Jakob
Benediktsson, 2 vols (Reykjavk: slenzka Fornritaflag, 1968), I, 14-17.
 300

to live up to his Christianity and seeking Gods mercy.124 However, grip also reflects

the harsher judgement of the Historia Norwegie by describing Hkons apostasy as the

cause of the many difficulties he experienced during his reign.

The dismissal of Hkons Christianity in the two Latin texts can be seen as in

keeping with their overall aim of maintaining ecclesiastical orthodoxy by celebrating

lfr Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi as the true founders of Christianity in Norway.

The vernacular grip, while still celebrating the centrality of the lfrs for the history

of Christianity in Norway, also follows the saga tradition in recognizing Hkon as the

first Christian king who tried to introduce Christianity gradually, starting with those

around him. His failure is ascribed, not to Hkons wanton abandonment of his good

Christian upbringing by thelstan, as implied in the Historia Norwegie, but to the

opposition to his new religion among the leading men in Norway. The people are

depicted as not yet ready for such a radical change to their religious practice and the

introduction of Christianity is later depicted as successful only when imposed by force

by the two lfrs.

Although, compared with the saga and skaldic texts, the synoptic histories are low-

key in their depiction of thelstan, they still retain his significance in Norwegian

history as the foster-father of Hkon. thelstan is recognized as a very Christian king

who had baptized Hkon and brought him up to be a Christian and a good king. The

main difference between the saga, skaldic and synoptic texts is in the emphasis they

give to thelstans role and influence. In this they can be seen as demonstrating the

124
Fagrskinna and grip both describe Hkons response to friends who offer to take his body
to England for burial at a church: Ek em eigi ess verr, kva hann, sv lifa ek sem heinir
menn mrgu, skal mik ok fyr v sv jara sem heina menn. Vtti ek mr aan af meiri
miskunnar af gui sjlfum en ek sj verr, I am not worthy of that, he said. In many ways
I have lived like the heathens, therefore I should be buried like the heathens. In this way I could
hope for greater mercy than I deserve at Gods hands. grip, 6, p. 11. Fagrskinna
Nregskonunga Tal, 13, pp. 93-94.
 301

same kind of authorial individuality of purpose noted in the Anglo-Norman and

Continental sources.

The positive depictions of thelstan in the Old Icelandic/Norse texts are

challenged by the Danish version of events provided by Saxo Grammaticus. He portrays

thelstan as morally corrupt, weak and concerned more about social niceties than

kingly virtues. The following section provides a study of Saxo Grammaticus and his

Gesta Danorum. It identifies how he fits his depiction of thelstan into the broader

narrative he provides of the historical relationships between Denmark and Britain. This

he portrays as one of Danish superioritymilitary, political and moral.

Section Three: Saxo Grammaticus and His Depiction of England and

thelstan in the Gesta Danorum

Introduction

Birgit Sawyer has described Saxo Grammaticus as Denmarks most important

medieval author, but one about whom there is very little information.125 Saxo gives

only a few details about himself and his family in the Prefacio to his work. There he

describes himself as a clericus attached to the household of Absalon, Bishop of

Roskilde and Archbishop of Lund, and mentions that his father and grandfather served

with the army under King Waldemar (Valdemar) I (1157-1182), but gives no further

details.126 He states that he wrote the Gesta Danorum at the request of Archbishop

Absalon, during the reign of Waldemar (Valdemar) II to whom he dedicates his work.127

His narrative covers the history of the kingdom of Denmark from its legendary

foundation by the eponymous hero, Dan, down to 1185 and the reign of Kanutus

(Canute) VI, son of Waldemar I and elder brother of Waldemar II, Saxos patron. In his
125
Birgit Sawyer, Valdemar, Absalon and Saxo, Revue Belgique de Philologie et DHistoire,
63 (1985), 685-705.
126
Saxonis Grammatici Historie Danice, ed. by Alfred Holder (Strassburg: Trbner, 1886),
Prefacio, p. 4.
127
Historie Danice, Prefacio, pp. 1, 3.
 302

text Saxo traces the various actions taken by the rulers of Denmark to establish and

maintain an empire, celebrates the emergence of Denmark as a major centre for

Christianity in Scandinavia and describes how a balance between the powers of Church

and king was achieved through the actions of Absalon and Waldemar I.

Saxo depicts his patron Absalon as such a key figure in Denmarks political,

ecclesiastical and military success that Sawyer has suggested Saxos overall purpose

was to celebrate Absalon and his achievements.128 Saxo himself claimed a wider and

more important role for his work stating in his Prefacio that he was writing a history of

Denmark from earliest times up to his own day so that the Danes were seen to have a

history of equal status with that of other countries.129 His narrative includes accounts of

Denmarks relationships with Norway, Sweden, Germany and Eastern Europe and

traces the development of Danish involvement in Britain. Despite this, Saxos Gesta

Danorum has been the subject of relatively little scholarly study in this country. His text

was seen as having little direct relevance for the study of British history. This may have

been because his use of poetry, saga and oral tradition as major sources, his patently

Danish version of events and his factual inaccuracies were regarded as undermining any

claim for his work to be regarded as historically reliable.130 Although written to give

Denmark a history of at least equal status to its neighbours, his work is equally

important as a twelfth-century version of the history and nature of Danish-English

relationships which deserves closer attention than has been the case in English

scholarship so far. The following sections analyse Saxos choice of content and show

how he develops the history of Anglo-Danish relationships from one of Danish military

superiority to one based on political authority and finally claims of legal possession. In

this narrative, thelstan acts as a catalyst. His reign is presented as a turning point

128
Birgit Sawyer, Valdemar, Absalon and Saxo, pp. 691-93.
129
Historie Danice, Prefacio, p. 1.
130
Peter Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe AD 700-1100, pp. 14-17.
 303

leading eventually to the loss of any Danish hopes of holding territorial power in

Britain.

Saxo as National Historian

Saxos claim to be the first to write a national history of the Danes, also gives his work

a special role in establishing and transmitting a national sense of Danish identity. His

use of oral and saga material enables him to record and transmit traditional memories of

the past handed down through generations. Wodak and others have noted in their

research into modern day views on nationality that, historical or mythicised

recollections which are stored in the collective memory of social groups are of

particular importance for the construction of national identity.131 James Fentress and

Chris Wickham have described the importance of such social memories in creating

meaning and preserving a peoples feelings and beliefs about the past.132 They comment

whether or not to accept a certain tradition or version of that tradition was, to a large

extent, a question of authority.133 Saxo claimed to have that authority based on his

researches and use of Icelandic sources, for he claimed that the Icelanders were famed

not only for their interest in the history of others but, more importantly, for the accuracy

of their memories.134

131
Ruth Wodak and others, The Discursive Construction of National Identity, 2nd edn
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), p. 157.
132
Fentress and Wickham, Social Memory, pp. 71-78.
133
Fentress and Wickham, Social Memory, p. 78.
134
Cunctarum quippe nacionum res gestas cognossse memorieque mandare, uoluptatis loco
reputant: non minus glori iudicantes alienas uirtutes disserere, quam proprias exhibere,
Indeed they reckon it a form of pleasure to find out the histories of all peoples and commit
them to memory: judging it no less glorious to disseminate the virtues of others than to exhibit
their own. Historie Danice, Prefacio, p. 4. Bjarni Gunason, The Icelandic Sources of Saxo
Grammaticus, in Saxo Grammaticus: A Medieval Author, ed. by Friis-Jensen, pp. 79-93 (p. 81).
 304

Saxos narrative employs a number of the strategies of sameness and difference

which Wodak identified as key constituents of discourse on national identity. 135 Starting

with the story of Dan as the founder of the Danish race and kingdom and continuing

from the heroic past to contemporary events in the reign of Waldemar II, Saxo creates a

sense of a common past, present and future, a common culture and a common territory.

His narrative also develops the concept of a homo nationalis both by portraying the

virtues which lay behind Danish achievements and by emphasizing the superiority of

the Danes compared with the Norwegians, Swedes, Saxons, Britons and English.136

Eric Christiansen has noted that Saxo, in his narrative, provides continuity

between Viking and Christian mores by stressing the virtues of courage, integrity,

loyalty, generosity, law-abidingness and discipline and condemning the corresponding

vices of cowardice, trickery, treachery, avarice, deceit and indiscipline.137 The duty of

avenging the death of family or a friend is depicted as common to both Viking and

Christian times, while cunning is praised or censured depending on the individual

circumstances. Christiansen has also commented on the use of fortuna as a key concept.

Saxo variously interprets this as the blind revolutions of the wheel of fate, the personal

luck of a ruler or hero, or the qualities and attributes of successcourage, wealth,

strength, depending on the context. Christiansen added that while the fortune of the

king and his people were depicted as inextricably linked across Viking and Christian

135
Wodaks definition of the constituent parts of discourse on national identity include the
construction of a common past, present and future; a common culture; a common territory; and
the concept of a homo nationalis. Wodak and others, The Discursive Construction of National
Identity, p. 186.
136
Wodak has identified this use of a discourse of difference and a discourse of sameness as
complementary ways in which peoples construct a sense of their own common heritage and
national identity. The discursive constructs of national identities emphasise foremost national
uniqueness and intra-national uniformity, and largely tend to ignore intra-national difference
(the discourse of sameness). Above all, however, the greatest possible differences from other
nations are frequently simultaneously constructed through discourses of difference, and
especially difference from those foreign nations that seem to exhibit the most striking
similarities. Wodak and others, The Discursive Construction of National Identity, pp. 3, 187.
137
Saxo Grammaticus Danorum Regum Heroumque Historia, Books x-xvi, trans. and
commentary by Eric Christiansen, British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 84, 3
vols (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1980-81), I, 144-48.
 305

contexts, Saxo portrayed Christianity as enhancing the fortune of king and people by

testifying to the work of Providence and providing support in adversity.138 Leaders and

kings who promote Danish territorial power and espouse Christianity are praised and

shown to be successful, while those guilty of military and political lethargy, or

opposition to Christianity, are dismissed as unworthy kings who usually face adversity

and defeat.139 From Christiansens perspective, therefore, Saxos work can be seen as

portraying a continuum celebrating the national qualities, values and beliefs exemplified

in Denmarks heroic past and in its Christian present.

Inge Skovgaard-Petersen has shown that Saxos Gesta can be interpreted both as

reflecting the ecclesiastical tradition of history as a moral agent while at the same time

fulfilling literary and ideological purposes for his own time.140 Sawyer similarly saw

Saxos work as motivated from a number of different standpoints. She has suggested

that he should be seen as a man of independent ideas, but one who still needed to keep

the support of his patrons.141 These analyses of the underlying aspects of Saxos text

demonstrate that in creating a national history that might appeal to ecclesiastical, secular

and political audiences, Saxo left a somewhat complicated text, open to different

interpretations by his readers. In this, Saxos work reflects both classical and medieval

concepts of the formative and moral purposes of history.

Saxo and his Sources

Saxos own description of his sources mentions only letters acquired by Absalons

successor, Archbishop Andreas Sunesn, while travelling abroad, poems in the old

language of Denmark, oral accounts provided by Archbishop Absalon and traditions

138
Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, I, 144.
139
For example, Saxos praise of Ericus Barns change in behaviour after conversion, Historie
Danice, ix, 94, pp. 315-16. Haraldus Blaatands conversion which brings him rewards and the
account of Sueno, his son, who is first punished for his paganism but later rewarded when he
converts to Christianity, Historie Danice, x, 99-101, pp. 332-38.
140
Inge Skovgaard-Petersen, Saxo, Historian of the Patria, in Medieval Scandinavia, 2 (1969),
54-77.
141
Birgit Sawyer, Valdemar, Absalon and Saxo, p. 705.
 306

handed down by the Icelanders. In claiming to be the first to write a Latin history of the

Danes, Saxo makes no mention of a number of Latin texts which Christiansen has

shown Saxo used but without making acknowledgement.142 These are very likely to

have been easily available to him: the Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum of

Adam of Bremen, the Latin chronicles of Roskilde and Lethrense and the Brevis

Historia being written by his contemporary at Lund, Sven Aggesen. Instead Saxo chides

others as slothful and sluggish and comments that if Latin had been available earlier,

there would have been innumerable books in existence recording the history of

Denmark and its people.143 It may be that Saxo regarded his work as replacing any

previous attempts at a history of Denmark. He could reasonably claim that the monastic

chronicles and Svens work provided only limited coverage while his work was

designed to trace the history of the Danes from the beginning of their kingdom up to his

time. Adam of Bremens text provided a wider range of material than the other Latin

sources but Saxo, or his patrons, may have considered it too German in its perspective.

Denmark had only relatively recently detached itself from the ecclesiastical jurisdiction

of Hamburg-Bremen with the establishment of the Archbishopric at Lund. Accredited to

the efforts of King Ericus the Good, Saxo describes the event as a welcome release from

foreign ecclesiastical control by the Saxons and one which gave papal recognition to

Denmark as a strong and independent centre of Christianity by conferring on it

ecclesiastical jurisdiction over both Norway and Sweden.144

142
Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, I, 152-56.
143
Historie Danice, iv, 35, p.117. Quod si patriam hanc fortuna Latino quondam sermone
donasset, innumera Danicorum operum uolumina tererentur, But if fortune had at some time
bestowed this fatherland with Latin speech, innumerable volumes of the deeds of the Danes
would be commonplace.
144
Ericus is described as sending legates to the Roman curia to request an archbishopric for
Denmark, Ne enim Dani sub externo pontifice sacrorum munera celebrarent, So that the
Danes might not be celebrating the sacred rites under a foreign archbishop. Saxo
comments,nec solum eam Saxonica dicione eruit, sed eciam Suetie Noruagieque, religionis
titulo, magistram effecit, he not only wrested Denmark from Saxon control but also made her
mistress of Sweden and Norway in the title of religion. Historie Danice, xii, 120, p. 406.
 307

Saxo has been criticised for his eclectic choice and treatment of the written

sources available to him. Birgit Sawyer has commented that, Saxo took great liberties

with them, treating them as in effect quarries from which to draw material for his own

work.145 Christiansen also considered that Saxo treated existing material with

considerable license: 146

There can be no comprehensive or exact list of the sources from which Saxo
concocted his history. He used his material in such a way that the connection
between his text and its most probable source appears tenuous.

Eric Hobsbawm has pointed out that all historians, whatever their objectives, can be

said to contribute consciously or not to the creation, dismantling and restructuring of

images of the past as part of their contribution to a peoples sense of nationhood.147

Saxo can certainly be said to have made a contribution to the Danish peoples sense of

nationhood. His narrative celebrates the achievements of the Danish kingdom from its

foundation to Saxos own day and does so in a style which preserves cultural traditions

about Denmarks past. His work depicts the Danish people as one nation united by a

shared descent, shared cultural past and shared values.

Saxos Narrative and Linguistic Styles of Composition

Stylistically Saxos Latin reflects the Roman and medieval concept of written history as

a branch of rhetoric and he exemplifies many of the rhetorical techniques found in the

teachings of Priscian and the classical tradition.148 Karsten Friis-Jensen has also

demonstrated how, in his use of Latin, Saxo draws directly on the works of Curtius,

Justin, Martianus Capella and Sallust. At times, his choice of phrase, or use of

descriptive language, indicates he had access to the works of Horace, Vergil, Lucan,

145
Birgit Sawyer, Valdemar, Absalon and Saxo, p. 687.
146
Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, I, 152.
147
Eric Hobsbawm, Introduction: Inventing Traditions, in The Invention of Tradition, ed. by
Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 1-14
(p. 13).
148
Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, I, 148-52.
 308

Ovid and Prudentius, either directly or through compendia and glossaries.149 Most

striking, however, is his heavy linguistic dependence on the Facta et Dicta Memorabilia

of Valerius Maximus of which Absalon is known to have possessed a copy.150

Henry John Walker, commenting on the popularity of Valeriuss text throughout

the Middle Ages, placed it on a par with the Bible. Like the Bible, Valerius used story

very effectively to point a moral and claimed that his work was intended to provide an

easily accessible collection of deeds and sayings which exemplified both virtues and

vices for the benefit of future generations.151 Friis-Jensens comprehensive analysis of

Saxos text demonstrates how consistently Saxo modelled his Latin phrases and

descriptors on Valeriuss text sometimes combining elements from different parts,

sometimes reflecting rather than accurately transcribing, a sentence or phrase.152 Using

Friis-Jensens schedule of examples, I was able to establish that these links were mainly

linguistic rather than contextual. Although Saxo drew on sections of Valerius which

dealt with a similar theme, there is no conclusive evidence that Saxo intended to make a

comparison between the event he was describing and the particular story, event or

character in Valeriuss text.

Nevertheless, Valerius provided Saxo with a useful literary model for his work.

Saxos narrative takes the form of a consecutive series of stories about the heroes, kings

and, later, the archbishops of Denmark which provide his only chronological

framework. As in the collections of sagas, Saxos use of story includes accounts both

favourable and unfavourable to an individual, provides variant versions of an event or

149
Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, ed. by Friis-Jensen, 2 vols (Copenhagen: Gads Forlag,
2005), I, 55-54.
150
Friis-Jensen, Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, I, 50-53.
151
Valerius Maximus: Memorable Deeds and Sayings, trans. by Henry John Walker
(Indianapolis: Hackett, 2004), pp. xxi-xxiii.
152
Friis-Jensen, Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, I, 51-53, 57-58; II, 550-625.
 309

ascribes the same actions to different characters at different times. In his Prefacio, Saxo

claims to have used the narrative skills of the Icelanders as a model for his own work:153

Quorum thesauros historicarum rerum pignoribus refertos curiosius consulens,

haud parvam praesentis operis partem ex eorum relationis imitatione contexui,
nec arbitros haere contempsi, quos tanta vetustatis peritia callere cognovi.

Consulting with considerable curiosity their treasuries, stuffed with tokens of

historical events, I have woven together no small part of this present work from
imitation of their narrative, nor do I esteem lightly as judges those whom I know
practice with such great skill of long standing.

Saxos choice of words in describing his debt to Icelandic sources is instructive. He

describes them as treasuries filled with individual items recalling past events and

claims to have imitated their approach very successfully, having woven together parts

of his narrative in such a way that he does not fear criticism from the Icelanders who

have long experience in this kind of composition.

From the analyses above, it is clear that Saxo wished to be seen as breaking new

ground. In his combination of Scandinavian and Latin traditions he has managed to

preserve essential aspects of both so that the reader can enjoy both saga-style story and

Latin rhetorical text. Saxos ability to combine these two strands makes Saxos Gesta

Danorum a product of its own times, designed through the authors selection and

presentation of content both to raise the profile of Denmark in Scandinavia and Europe

and engender feelings of national unity at home.

Saxos Depiction of Britain and England

Previous scholarship has explored how Saxos work promoted the concept of patria as a

unifying concept for Denmark, with its overseas empire (imperium) founded through

the patriotic achievements of its heroes and kings. Saxos portrayal of Britain and

153
Historie Danice, Prefacio, p. 3. E. O. G. Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion in the North
(London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1964), pp. 27-34. Bjarni Gunason, Um Skjldungasgu
(Reykjavk: Menningarsjs, 1963), pp. 314-25; The Icelandic Sources of Saxo Grammaticus,
in Saxo Grammaticus: A Medieval Author, ed. by Friis-Jensen, pp. 79-93.
 310

England as part of this concept deserves greater attention. Saxo assigned considerable

importance to recording Danish rule in Britain and England and as a result Anglo-

Danish relationships can be seen as an important part of Danish national identity.

Saxo opens his first book with the apparently simple statement: 154

Dan igitur et Angul, a quibus Danorum cepit origo, patre Humblo procreati,
non solum conditores gentis nostre, uerum eciam rectores fuere.

And so, Dan and Angul, from whom the Danes took their origin, begotten of
their father Humblus, were not only the founders of our race but also its rulers.

Saxos linking of the names of Dan and Angul is significant to the rest of his narrative.

They are brothers, begotten by the same father and both are important as the founders

and rulers of the Danish race. He describes each of their descendant peoples, telling first

how Angul gave his name to the territory and people he governed and how their

descendants gained possession of Britain, changing its name to England. Only then does

he describe Dans role as founder of the royal line in Denmark.

The pre-eminence given to Angul is further emphasized by Saxo using Bede as a

witness to the truth of his statement:155

Cuius successores post modum Britannia potiti priscum insule nomen nouo
patrie sue uocabulo permutarunt. Magni id factum a veteribus estimatum. Testis
est Beda, non minima pars diuini stili, qui in Anglia ortus, sanctissimis suorum
uoluminum thesauris res patrias sociare cure habuit, eque ad religionem
pertinere iudicans, patrie facta literis illustrare et res diuinas conscribere.

His successors after a time gained possession of Britain and replaced the old
name of the island with a new word from their own fatherland. That deed was
considered very important by men of old. A witness is Bede, no insignificant
writer on divine revelation, who, born in England, took care to include a history
of his fatherland with the most holy treasury of his works, judging that to
describe in his writings the achievements of his fatherland and at the same time
write on matters of a divine nature were equally related to religion.

At the very beginning of the Gesta Danorum, Saxo emphasizes that Denmark and

England are linked by a common descent which is recognized in both countries and it is

154
Historie Danice, i, 1, p. 10.
155
Historie Danice, i, 1, p. 10.
 311

Bedes English birth which Saxo uses as evidence of the trustworthiness of this. The

details Saxo includes also suggest that he may have intended his readers to see a parallel

between himself and Bede. Although he does not indicate that he had direct access to

the Historia Ecclesiastica, Saxo refers to Bede writing a history of his patria and

undertaking the task from a sense of religious duty. This may be intended, obliquely, to

mirror his own task of writing a history of his patria at the request of his Archbishop.

Like Bedes history of the English Church, Saxos Gesta Danorum traces how

Christianity was established in his country and how the Church grew and developed in

union with Rome through the actions and support of individual kings. Having set the

scene in this way, Saxo includes Danish-English relations as a recurrent theme within

his narrative until the time of the Norman invasion.

Saxos account of Denmarks relationship with Britain and England can be

divided into three sections: early Danish relationships up to the time of Regnerus

Lodbrog (Ragnar lobrk); the period from Regnerus to the marriage of Gormo

Grandeuus (Gorm the Old) to the English princess Thire (Thyre); the reign of Haraldus

Blaatand (Haraldr bltnn) and his successors up to 1066. Each section provides a

different perspective as Saxo develops his theme from early Danish military superiority

over the British to direct Danish rule in Britain and finally the establishment of legal

rights to the English throne.

Denmark and Britain up to the time of Regnerus Lodbrog

Table 16 below summarizes Saxos account of the main events in Danish-English

relationships up to the point where he recounts the story of Regnerus Lodbrog. It

provides the background and context for his theme of the Danish right to rule in Britain

by showing how the Danes repeatedly established their military superiority in the land

which took its name from the Danish Angul. In this first section Saxo uses the terms

Britain and British rather than England and English and his narrative generally does not
 312

make clear where the action is taking place. An exception is his description of Frotho I

capturing London by a trick. He also does not name any of the British kings although he

does refer to Haraldus Hyldetan defeating an (unnamed) king of the Humbrians.156 At

the close of his account of the reign of Frotho III, Saxo refers to the birth of Christ and

the establishment of a period of universal peace.157 This indicates that the whole of his

narrative up to the reign of Haraldus Hyldetan takes place in Roman and pre-Roman

Britain, giving the Danes a long history of association with the island.

156
No dates are provided but Haraldus Hyldetan has traditionally been seen as an eighth-century
king of Denmark.
157
Historie Danice, v, 51, p. 170.
 313

Table 16. Denmark and Britain: Summary of the Main Events, Outcomes and Key Descriptors in the Gesta Danorum, Books i-ix.159

Hero/King Designation Main Events Key Descriptors Outcomes

Frotho I King of the Attacks the Scots. British come up from The British exhibit: The British are defeated. Frotho
Britons South. Frotho scatters treasure to hold obscene auiditatis ingenium captures London by his
them back. The British king cannot an indecent disposition for greed cunning. The prefectus lets in
control his mens greed. (Bk II) immoderatum cupiditatis exemplum the Danes believing false news
an unbridled example of avarice. of Frothos death.
Amlethus King of Fengo sends a letter to his friend, the The King of Britain Amlethus terrifies the Britons
Britain king of Britain, to have Amleth killed. servilibus oculis has the eyes of a slave. with the size of his army, by
Amleth avoids death by rewriting the condicionis sue rubore confusus propping up the corpses of those
letter. Later, to avenge Fengos death, troubled by the shame of his lowly birth. earlier killed in battle. The king
the king of Britain uses a letter to have of Britain is killed.
Amleth killed. Amleth again escapes by
rewriting the letter. (Bks III-IV)
Fridleuus the N/A Fridleuus takes Dublin. Defeated in [Fridleuus] fiduciam abstulit British put to flight.
Swift Britain. Uses corpses to deceive the Fridleuus robbed them of their confidence
Britons about the size of his army. carpende fuge cupidinem incussit
(Bk IV) he imprinted a desire to take flight.
Frotho III son King of the The king of the island promises [Frotho] dolum in auctores retorsit Frotho destroys the king and his
of Fridleuus island submission, taxes and wealth and a Frotho turned guile back on the instigators of men.
banquet. Frotho suspects treachery and guile.
successfully counters it. (Bk V)
Haraldus King of the Haraldus wins Aquitania.and goes to Humbrorum rege prostrato promptissimos Haraldus overthrows the king of
Hyldetan Humbrians Britain. (Bk VII) quosque deuicte iuuentutis adciuit. the Humbrians. Enrols the best
Having overthrown the king of the Humbrians, of the warriors in his army,
Haraldus gathered all the most resolute of the chief of whom is Orm the
defeated youth. Briton.

159
Historie Danice, ii, 15, pp. 50-52; iii, 29, pp. 92-96; iv, 36, pp. 117-20; v, 50-51, pp. 164-69; vii, 74, pp. 248-51.
 314

In each of the events outlined above, the Danish leaders and their men are depicted as

superior militarily and in strategy and cunning. They avoid defeat or death by clever

deception, successfully countering the guile of the British and turning initial defeat into

victory. Their followers are disciplined, obedient and loyal. In contrast, the British

leaders are characterized as weak. Their attempts at guile are easily seen through, their

men are avaricious, ignore their leaders advice and are easily deterred from battle by

the appearance of greater numbers opposed to them. Saxo depicts these differences in

national characteristics as at the heart of Danish success.

None of these early Danish leaders are depicted by Saxo as ruling in Britain.

Having secured victory over the British they return to Denmark to rule there or

undertake campaigns in the east or operate as Viking warriors supported by an army of

mercenaries. Saxos account of the Danish occupation of Britain begins with the story

of Regnerus Lodbrog.

Denmark and England from Regnerus Lodbrog to Gormo Grandeuus (Gorm the
Old/lgh)

Saxos version of Regnerus Lodbrogs achievements in Britain can be summarised as

follows:160

Regnerus Lodbrog decided to attack Britain where he killed King Hama, father of Hella,

and the Earls of Scotland, Pictland and the southern or meridian islands, appointing his

own sons to rule in their place. There follows a long account of Regneruss campaigns

including in the Orkneys and Scotland. When he returns to Denmark he finds that his

wife Swanloga has died but his grief is cut short by the arrival of his son Iuarus (Iwar or

Ivar) who is said to have been driven out of his kingdom by the Gauls who had made

160
Saxo drew on the Ragnars saga lobrk and the Ragnarssona ttr for his account of
Regnerus and his sons but, as Rory McTurk has shown, he also included details not found in the
saga and analogue sources. Rory McTurk, Studies in Ragnars saga Lobrkar and in its
Major Scandinavian Analogues, Medium vum Monographs, New Series, 15 (Oxford: Society
for the Study of Medival Languages and Literature, 1991), pp. 87, 107-08, 212-35, 221-24.
 315

Hella, son of Hama, king. Regnerus, with Iuaruss help, lands at Norwich, and defeats

Hella in a battle which causes heavy losses to the English but little to the Danes.

Regnerus spends a year consolidating his power in England, goes to Ireland, captures

Dublin and spends a year there before heading for the Hellespont. On his return from

the East, Regnerus attacks Hella in Ireland but is captured and thrown into a snake pit to

die. Hella, realising from Regneruss own words that he has sons still alive who could

avenge his death, orders Regnerus to be released, but it is too late.

Saxo ends the story by drawing a moral lesson from the event. He first describes

Regneruss defeat and capture by Hella as a just punishment from God for having

destroyed and replaced with paganism the practice of Christianity which had been

introduced into Denmark in his absence by Haraldus Klak.161 Saxo also uses his central

theme of fortuna to comment that Regneruss experience illustrated two very different

aspects of fortuna, a successful life which resulted in power and status and a death

which was the very opposite. From this he draws a moral for the reader:162

Itaque ex speciosissimo uictore ad miserabilem captiui sortem deductus, nequis

nimium fortune credat, docuit.

And so, brought down from being a most spectacular victor to the wretched
fate of a captive, he has taught us that no-one should trust too much in fortune.

Saxos account of Regneruss association with England has significance on three

counts: Regneruss death is the first example Saxo provides of a Danish kings power

being cut short through the military action of an English king; Regnerus Lodbrog is the

first of the Danish kings described by Saxo as establishing Danish sovereignty in Britain

and it is at this point in his narrative that Saxo begins to use the term Anglia. Saxo

does not define whether Anglia refers to the whole country or to parts of England, for

161
iusta omnipotentis animaduersione manifestas detracte religionis penas pependit, by the
just punishment of the Almighty, he paid the clear penalty for destroying religious practice.
istorie Danice, ix, 94, p. 314.
162
Historie Danice, ix, 94, p. 314.
 316

example East Anglia or the Danelaw, but he describes how Regeneruss sons continued

to rule in England in their fathers place. Iuarus is said to have ruled for two years and

on his return to Denmark Regneruss son Agnerus was put in charge of England. It is

not clear whether England formed part of the territory of the next Danish kings

Siuardus, Ericus and Kanutus Ibut Saxos account of the following king, Frotho VI,

implies that direct links of some kind were maintained with England.163 Frotho is said to

have been baptized in England and to have re-established Danish power across all

former provinces. That this included England may be deduced from Saxos account of

Frothos son, Gormo. He was known as Gormo Anglus, Gorm the Englishman, because

he was either born in England or of English descent and Saxo records that he ruled in

England on his fathers death. His rule there, however, was cut short by the need to

attend to matters in Denmark:164

Huius filius Gormo, cui, quod ex Anglia oriundus extitit, Anglici cognomen
incessit, patre extincto, prompciore fortuna quam diuturniore, apud insulam
regiam adeptus est arcem. Dum enim Daniam disponende eius gracia petisset ex
Anglia, longam paruuli secessus iacturam expertus est. Quippe Angli, libertatis
sue fortunam in eius absencia reponentes, publicam a Danis defeccionem
moliendo precipitem rebellandi fiduciam induerunt. Sed quo eum Anglia
inuidencius sprevit, hoc Dania fidencius coluit. Itaque dum ad duarum
prouinciarum utramque auidas imperii manus porrexit, altera potitus, alterius
irreuocabiliter dominacionem amisit, nihil umquam fortiter pro ipsius
recuperacione conatus.

His son Gormo, to whom, because he was of English extraction, the epithet of
The Englishman accrued, on his fathers death, by a fortune that was more
immediate than long lasting, obtained the royal seat of power in the island. For
while he made for Denmark from England in order to set its affairs right, he very
soon experienced a long period of loss because of his very short period of
withdrawal. The English, of course, trusting on their chance of freedom in his
absence, assumed a headlong confidence in rebellion by devising defection as a
163
The ASC refers to Halfdan, Ivars brother, settling in Northumbria in 874/5/6. Adam of Bremen,
drawing on Continental chronicles, records that Ivar was succeeded by Gudredus who subdued
Northumbria, adding ex illo tempore Fresia et Anglia in ditione Danorum esse feruntur.
Scriptum est in Gestis Anglorum, from that time Frisia and England are said to be under
Danish rule. It is written in the Deeds of the English. Adam von Bremen, Hamburgische
Kirchengeschichte, ed. by Bernhard Schmeidler, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 3rd edn
(Hannover: Hahn, 1917), I, 39. See also Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 246 and n. 2. Saxo
makes no mention of Halfdan or Gudredus.
164
Historie Danice, ix, 94, p. 318.
 317

people from the Danes. But the more enviously England spurned him the more
loyally Denmark supported him. And so, while he stretched out to each of the
two provinces hands keen to rule, he obtained control of one and irretrievably
lost dominion of the other, having never courageously made an effort to recover
it.

By his use of quippe Saxo portrays the English as acting true to expectations in taking

advantage of Gormos absence. English resentment and envy over Danish rule is

contrasted with the great loyalty shown to Gormo by the Danes. By criticising Gormos

lack of courage in not attempting to retake England, Saxo implies he could have done so

successfully. He uses the episode to make a political point on the difficulties inherent in

holding together an overseas kingdom, adeo difficile pregrandia continentur imperia,

with such difficulty are very large empires held together.

Gormo is depicted as losing England and Saxo implies that England also formed

no part of the kingdom of Gormos son, Haraldus, who achieved nothing outstanding,

preferring to preserve, rather than add to, his existing kingdom.165 It is from the reign of

Haralduss successor, Gormo Grandeuus (Gorm III), that Saxo begins to redefine the

relationship between Denmark and England. It now moves from being one of

occupation and kingly rule to one based on legal rights of inheritance.

Denmark and England from Gormo Grandeuus to the Norman Invasion

The starting point for this shift in emphasis is Saxos account of Gormos marriage to an

English princess, Thira, daughter of an English king named by Saxo as Hedelradus

(thelred).166 Saxo depicts thelred as designating as his heirs his grandsons, Kanutus

165
Historie Danice, ix, 95, p. 318.
166
Saxos description has led scholars to assume that the king he refers to is thelred II.
However, the traditional dates for Gorm III would place his marriage in the reign of Edward the
Elder. Eric Christiansen suggests that Saxo may have been confused by the similarity of names
in the West Saxon dynasty. Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, p. 161. Another suggestion by
Niels Lukman, which does not seem to have been followed up further, is that Saxo is referring
to thelred of Mercia. Niels Lukman, Sagnhistorien Hos Saxo in Saxostudier, ed. by Ivan
Boserup (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1975), pp. 117-27 (p. 120). thelstan is said by
William of Malmesbury to have been brought up in Mercia. Gesta Regum, 133, pp. 210-11;
thelred issued charters in his own name although there is no evidence that he issued coins.
thelred was succeeded by his wife thelfld, providing an example of female ruling power
 318

and Haraldus Blaatand (bltnn), sons of Gormo and Thira. However, Hedelraduss

grandsons fail to acquire their inheritance. Kanutus dies and Saxo describes how

Haraldus decides to make a reputation for himself by Viking raids in the east and so

loses the opportunity to take control of England. Instead, Hedelraduss son Adelstenus

is said to have seized the throne after his father died, deliberately setting his fathers will

aside:167

Siquidem Hedelradi filius Adelstenus, patris testamento preter[r]itus,

indignacionem suam literis, quibus Haraldus heres scribebatur, opposuit,
re<s>cissoque parentis arbitrio, proprium emulatus est.

Because of course, Hedelraduss son thelstan, bypassed by his fathers will,

opposed in his indignation the document in which Harald was inscribed as heir
and having abrogated his fathers decision, enviously made the kingdom his
own.

Adelstenuss action is a turning point in Saxos narrative. From this point onwards

Danish kings are depicted as making repeated attempts to acquire the English throne

which Adelstenus had seized illegally. Saxos condemnation of Adelstenus takes the

form of a number of derogatory pen-pictures. Haraldus of Norway is said to have so

objected to Adelstenus, a man obtusi cordis, of weak heart or lacking courage,

being in charge of a kingdom like England, that he mounted an invasion.168 Saxo

illustrates Adelstenuss lack of courage by first depicting him as weakly avoiding

similar to Saxos account of Thira. Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, ed. by Hilda
Ellis Davidson, trans. by Peter Fisher, 2 vols (Cambridge: Brewer, 1979-80), II, 165 (n. 88).
167
Historie Danice, x, 96, p. 322. The text of the first edition reads testamento perterritus,
terrified by his fathers will. While this makes perfectly good sense in both Latin and English
it has been altered in later editions to take account of Valerius Maximuss use of preteritus
(from pr(a)eterire, to pass over) in a case where a fathers will had been rescinded in favour
of a son who had been bypassed in the will after being adopted by an uncle. Valerius Maximus:
Memorable doings and Sayings, ed. and trans. by D. R. Shackleton Bailey (London: Harvard
University Press, 2000), vii, 7, 2. See Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, I, 3, 161, n. 2-3. Friis-
Jensen, Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, I, 622.
168
Historie Danice, x, 96, p. 322. Igitur Noruagie rex, obtusi cordis homini amplissime rei
summam cessisse ingemens, potiende eius spe armata insulam classe peciit, And so the king
of Norway, lamenting that the highest power in a most rich kingdom had been yielded to a man
of weak courage, made for the island with an armed fleet in the hope of gaining possession of
it.
 319

military action, undertaking instead to provide tutelage at his own expense for

Haralduss son Haquinus and to leave Haquinus his kingdom in his will:169

quo salubrius patriam armis hostilibus liberaret, filio eius Haquino, ad modum
tenero, educacionis impensam pollicitus, regnum se pariter testamento
legaturum promittit.

in order more easily to free his country without harm from hostile weapons, he
promised to meet the cost of the education of his [the kings] son, Haquinus,
who was still quite young and he promised that he would also leave him his
kingdom in his will.

Adelstenus, depicted as having disregarded his fathers will, is now described as leaving

England in his own will to the heir of the kingdom of Norway, a traditional rival and

enemy of Denmark. Saxo comments that Adelstenus, being childless, preferred to have

an heir of his own choosing rather than one forced upon him and trusted that Haraldus,

as a result of the fostering of Haquinus, would assist him in resisting any attempt by

Haraldus Blaatand to seize the throne.170 Saxo then describes how, on the death of

Haraldus of Norway, Haquinus prepared to return to Norway to inherit the throne there.

Just as he was about to sail he was urgently recalled to be given last minute instructions

by Adelstenus. These Saxo depicts as superficial guidance on how to behave at a

banquet, again portraying Adelstenus as a man of poor judgement, more concerned with

social niceties than the important matter of Haquinuss return to become king of

Norway.171

Saxo immediately follows this account with the brief statement that

At cui parentis mors Noruagiam cessit, paulo post preceptoris occasus

Angliam patefecit.172

But to him whose fathers death had yielded Norway, the death of his tutor
shortly afterwards left England wide open.

169
Historie Danice, x, 96, p. 322.
170
Historie Danice, x, 96, pp. 322-23.
171
Christiansen comments on Adelstenuss advice and notes that keeping a cheerful face was a
medieval commonplace and found in King Canutes Military Law. Christiansen, Saxo
Grammaticus, I, p. 162, n. 9.
172
Historie Danice, x, 97, p. 323.
 320

Saxos use of patefecit implies that, following the death of Adelstenus, England was

there for the taking while at the same time avoiding any endorsement of Haquinuss

right to inherit. Saxo depicts Haraldus Blaatand exercising considerable forbearance by

not seizing England by force but avoiding any charge of cowardice by supporting an

attack on Haquinus in Norway by Haquinuss brothers. Saxo depicts this as a clever

piece of strategy designed to secure England for Haraldus in the future:173

Noruagice rei turbacione primam Haquino iacturam inferendam constituit,

domesticis eius uiribus debellatis, externas facilius obterendas existimans

he decided that a first defeat should be inflicted on Haquinus by disrupting the

Norwegian state, thinking that once his [Haquinuss] power at home had been
defeated, his power abroad could be more easily obliterated.

From this point the legal right of the Danish kings to rule England becomes a

recurrent theme in Saxos narrative. Table 17 summarizes this, tracing Saxos depiction

of Danish-English relationships from the reign of Edward the Martyr to the time of the

Norman invasion. It also compares the information provided by Saxo with the version

of events in the Gesta of Adam of Bremen and the Roskilde Chronicle.174 Key elements

are shown in bold type. These reveal how Saxo repeatedly stresses the Danish right to

rule in England based on inheritance and legal agreement.

173
Historie Danice, x, 97, p. 323.
174
Historie Danice, x: 100, p. 336; 103, pp. 342-44; 107, pp. 358-61; 108, pp. 361-62. Adam of
Bremen , Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, ed. by Schmeidler, ii, 34, pp. 94-95; ii,
53, p. 113; ii, 74, p. 134; ii, 78, p. 136; iii, 12, pp. 151-53; iii, 14, pp. 154-55; iii, 52, pp. 196-97.
Chronicon Roskildense, ed. by M. C. Gertz, Scriptores Minores Historiae Danicae Medii
Aevi, 2 vols (Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, 1917-22), I, 14-33 (pp. 18, 20, 22). This period is not
covered by the Chronicon Lethrense, ed. by M. C. Gertz, Scriptores Minores Historiae
Danicae Medii Aevi, 2 vols (Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad, 1917-22), I, 43-53.
 321

Table 17. Anglo-Danish Relations in the Ninth-Eleventh Centuries recorded by Saxo, Adam of Bremen and the Chronicon Roskilde
English King Saxo Grammaticus Adam of Bremen Chronicon Roskilde
Ethuardus Eric of Sweden drives out Sueno (Forkbeard) son of Haraldus Blaatand. When Suein seeks help, Adelrad, son of Edgar,
son of Edgar Sueno goes to England for protection. King Ethuardus rejects him drives him away remembering how
(Edward the suspecting he is trying to reclaim the kingdom. Sueno makes a treaty the Danes had attacked the Angles in the past.
Martyr) with Adelstenus to inherit the throne on Adelstenus death.
Adeldradus Suein invades England, wins many battles, Svein invades England, drives
expels Edilredus but dies 3 months later. out Adeldradus and gains
possession of Britain.
Eduardus or After Suenos death the English reject Danish rule and choose Eduardus After Suein dies Chnud makes war on England Adeldradus is succeeded by
Eadmundus son (Edmund) as king. Kanutus (Magnus) invades England and defeats for three years. Adelrad dies besieged in Eadmundus and Eadmundus
of Edelradus Eduardus (Edmund) who agrees to share the kingdom with him and to London, paying the penalty for killing his by his son Adeldradus. Knud
(Edmund bequeath it to him wholly on his death. Eduardus is later murdered and brother Eduardus.* He leaves a young son, invades England. He fights for
Ironside) Kanutus assumes sole rule. Eduardus. His brother Edmund is poisoned. three years with Adeldradus
who dies besieged in London,
*In Scholia 38 (39) corrected to Afilrud. leaving a son Edward.
Haraldus son of Kanutus acts as regent for his father and rules in England for Haroldus inherits England and rules for three Harald inherits England from
two years. On his death, Kanutus II (Harthacnut) inherits the throne of years. Hardechnud prepares to invade and on Knud. Harthe Knut prepares to
England. Sueno Estrithson acts as his military commander in England. Harolduss death holds Denmark and England. invade. Harald dies. Harthe
Knut holds Denmark and
England.
Eduardus (the Kanutus II shares rule with Eduardus to curb any ambitions Eduardus The English chose Eduardus as king. Eduardus
Confessor) might have to rule England alone. Kanutus II rules for two years. On his made peace with Chnuds son Suein
death, Sueno (Estrithson) goes to Denmark to claim the throne. Esthrithson, paid tribute and made him heir
to his kingdom.
Haraldus Sueno (Estrithson) leaves England in the hands of his nephew Haraldus Gudvins sons.lead a rebellion and hold power
Godewinus Gudvin (Godewinson). Harald seizes power for himself but allows Eduardus with Eduardus as a figurehead. Eduardus dies
(the Confessor) to hold the throne because of his royal birth. Later he kills and Gudvins son Haroldus takes the throne,
Eduardus and takes the throne. He destroys Danish power in England, defeats an invasion by Haroldus king of Norway
defeats an invasion by Haraldus Malus, King of Norway, and is himself but is defeated by the Normans.
defeated by the Normans.
 322

Saxos account omits details of the reign of thelred II, confuses the names of

Edward and Edmund Ironside, fails to identify Edward as the Confessor and makes him

Edwards son, and fails to distinguish clearly between Sueno Forkbeard and Sueno

Estrithson. Christiansen has provided a helpful commentary on Saxos faulty historical

chronology for this period and pointed out that Saxos information came largely from

Adam of Bremen and the Danish Latin Chronicles which provided only a few, mainly

inaccurate details.175 Saxos overriding concern appears to have been to reinforce the

theme of the Danish kings having a legally enforceable right to rule England based on

Hedelraduss legacy to his grandson Haraldus Blaatand.

As part of this narrative Saxo recounts how Edgars son, Ethuardus, rejected a

genuine request for help from Haraldus Blaatands son Sueno Forkbeard, because he

suspected Sueno was trying to reclaim (repetere) his fathers legacy:176

auxilii petitorem ambicionis nota perculit, existimans, non tam opem a

profugo peti, quam exilii simulacione regnum a callido repeti

[Ethuardus] branded the one seeking help with the stigma of ambition, thinking
that it was not so much assistance which was being sought by a fugitive as a
kingdom being reclaimed by a cunning man under the pretence of exile.

Saxo then provides a mirror version of the earlier inheritance story by describing how

once Sueno had gained possession of Norway, England lay open to him and he formed

an agreement with a king called Adalstenus (sic) that eo decedente, regis bonis ac

nomine frueretur, on the death of the king he would enjoy the kings possessions and

title.177 Saxo does not record that Sueno became king of England but he implies it by

stating that when Sueno died both the Norwegians and the English took the opportunity

175
Saxo does not use Adams statement that Edward the Confessor made peace with Sueno
Estrithson, paid him tribute and made him heir to the throne. Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae
Pontificum, ed. by Bernhard Schmeidler, iii, 12, p. 152.
176
Historie Danice, x, 100, p. 336.
177
Historie Danice, x, 102, p. 341. Nec Noruegiam sibi subiecisse contentus, patita Anglia,
pactum cum Adalstano habuit: ut eo decedente regis bonis ac nomine frueretur, And not
content with having subjected Norway to himself, England lying open, he made an agreement
with Adalstanus that when Adalstanus died he would enjoy the possessions and name of king.
 323

to reject Danish rule and choose kings from their own people, accusing them both of

abrogato Danici nominis respectu, totally setting aside their respect for the Danish

name.178 Suenos son Kanutus is then depicted as using force to recover England by

organising a major invasion of Britain. Saxo portrays the subsequent agreement

between Kanutus and Edmund Ironside (called Edward by Saxo) as a Danish moral

victory which Kanutus forced on his defeated enemy:179

Ita uictor a uicto extudit, ut is sibi consorcionem imperii uiuens cederet, totum
moriens testamento legaret.
Thus the victor forced from the defeated king that while he was alive he would
yield him partnership in his rule and on his death bequeath it all to him in his
will.

Saxos record of Danish rule in England continues with his account of Kanutuss

two sons, Haraldus and Kanutus (Harthacnut). He depicts Kanutus as compelled to

share rule with his half-brother, the English prince Edward (later the Confessor), not

from any brotherly feeling, but to avoid an English challenge to his own position:180

Eduardum fratrem, quem eiusdem nominis pater ex Imme matrimonio sustulit,

in regni societatem ad<s>ciscit, non quod fraterno illum afectu coleret, sed ut
eius ambicionem munificencia ac liberalitate precurreret, regnique parte potitum
totum cupere prohiberet. Itaque non tam ueneracione carum, quam popularium
ambicione paternique generis auctoritate suspectum, consortem imperii facit.

His brother Edward, whom a father of the same name begat from his marriage to
Emma, he (Kanutus) received into co-partnership of the kingdom, not because
he cared for him from brotherly love but so he might forstall his ambition by his
liberality and generosity and prevent him, once he had control of part of the
kingdom, from wanting the whole of it. Therefore he made him a partner in his
rule, not as one dear to him because of his quality of character but as one
mistrusted because of the high regard in which he was held by the people and
the influence of his descent from his father.

178
Historie Danice, x, 102, p. 342. Mortuo Suenone, Angli et Norvagienses, ne rerum summam
alieno imperio haberent, reges ex suis legere quam a finitimis mutuari sacius rati, abrogato
Danici nominis respectu, Eduardum et Olauum in maiestatis fastigio locauerunt, After Sueno
died, the English and Nowegians, to prevent their holding overall power under foreign rule,
thought it preferable to choose kings from among themselves rather than obtain them from their
neighbours and placed Eduardus and Olauus in the highest position of sovereignty, wholly
abrogating respect for the Danish name. nomen when linked with the name of a people, e.g.
nomen Romanum, is also used to delineate power or dominion.
179
Historie Danice, x, 103, p. 344.
180
Historie Danice, x, 107, pp. 360-61.
 324

Saxo describes Edward the Confessor in very uncomplimentary terms:181

Verum Eduardo humilior origine animus fuit; siquidem, obtusi ad modum

cordis, obscuriorem indolis experienciam prebuit..

But Edwards spirit was more lowly than his birth; since indeed, being of quite
weak courage, he gave no clear evidence of ability.

Saxo continues his denigration of Edward, describing him as lacking in intellectual

ability and content with the empty show of kingship based on family descent.182

This negative picture of the English kings is continued by Saxo in his account of how

Haraldus Godew(ou)ini abused the trust placed in him by his uncle Sueno Estrithson by

seizing power for himself:183

ita Suenonis credulitatem Anglica perfidia circunuentam oppressit. Nam post

eius ab Anglia profeccionem Godouini filius Haraldus spe improba tocius
Anglie regnum complexus,

So English treachery, ambushed and crushed Sveins trusting confidence. For,

after his departure from England, Harald, son of Godewin, [filled] with
impious hope seized the kingdom of all England

He states that Haraldus, led by envy and greed, murdered Edward and so finally seized

the title of king for himself.184 Haraldus is accused of annihilating the Danish garrisons

in England and of ending Danish rule in England forever:185

[]. Ea nox parvulo temporis momento uetustam Danorum dominacionem

diuque maiorum uirtute elaboratum finiuit imperium. Sed neque id postera
nostris fortuna restituit. Ita Anglia dominandi ius, ignavia perditum, scelere
recuperauit. Igitur Haraldus, Danice oppressionis simulque domestice libertatis
auctor, Eduardo summam, facta non animi eius, sed sanguinis estmacione,

181
Historie Danice, x, 107, p. 361. The use of the phrase obtusi cordi to describe Edward is
particularly telling. Saxo uses the phrase only five times, first of Adelstenus and then of
Eduardus. Its later uses are of Scandinavian figures held to be of no account: Haraldus son of
Sven Estrithii and brother of Kanutus Divus who is described as completely slothful; Eric son of
Jurisius, a man of noble birth but weak mind and another Haraldus said to be of royal blood but
with a speech impediment. Historie Danice, xi, 113, p. 378; xiv, 183, p. 586; xvi, 194, p. 658.
182
Historie Danice, x, 108, p. 362. Non prudencie racione munitus; titulo rex patrie []
contentus, not supported by a rational sense of good judgement; a king content with his
countrys title.
183
Historie Danice, x, 108, p. 362. Adam of Bremen says of Harladus, quidam Anglorum dux,
vir maleficus, sceptrum invasit, a certain duke of the English, a vicious man, usurped the royal
power. Adam von Bremen, Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte, ed. by Schmeidler, iii, 52, p.
196.
184
Historie Danice, x, 108, p. 362.
185
Historie Danice, x, 108, p. 362.
 325

permittit, quatinus ille nominis, ipse rerum usurpacione regnaret,et, quo

nobilitate peruenire non posset, potencia uallatus assurgeret.

That night, in a very small moment of time, ended the ancient domination of the
Danes and their rule, long achieved by the courage of their ancestors. And nor
did later fortune restore it to our people. Thus England recovered by crime the
right of rule lost through cowardice. And so, Harald, responsible at the same
time for the overthrow of the Danes and liberty at home, left the supreme
position to Edward, based not on his intellectual achievements but from respect
for his lineage, in as much as Edward ruled in name but Harald himself reigned
through his illegal seizing of control, and, entrenched by his power, he ascended
to a height which he could not attain through nobility of birth.

Although Haraldus is depicted as the agent responsible for ending Danish rule, Saxo

accuses England as a whole of the crime.

Following the Norman victory, Saxo makes no further direct reference to the

kings of England.186 He does, however, make one further reference to England as

rightfully a Danish possession. Canute IV (St Canute) is described as contemplating

claiming his lost inheritance of England:187

Vtque eius animum cercius representaret, non contentus studia sua orientalibus
decorasse uictoriis, Angliam, infelicitate amissam, herditatis duxit nomine
repetendam.Recolebat, enim, bellicam maiorum gloriam cumque opibus imperii
fines nullo magis quam Anglicis creuisse titulis, maioremque eis ex unius insule
quam tocius orientis spoliis incessisse splendorem.

And so that he might show his courage more surely, not content with having
adorned his exploits with victories in the East, he held that he should recover, in
the name of his inheritance, England, lost by ill-fortune. For he recalled that the
military glory of his ancestors and the boundaries of their rule along with their
wealth had been increased more by their English titles than by anything else,
and that greater distinction had accrued to them from the spoils of one island
than from the spoils of the whole of the East .

Here England is described as having been a source of military glory, territorial

expansion and material wealth which had brought Danish kings greater renown than

their other conquests. The high status given to England compared with other countries is

echoed in Saxos later comment that the shame Waldemar I felt in owing allegiance to

186
This may be because the Normans claimed Danish descent through their founder Rollo. See
Chapter 3, thelstan in the Continental Tradition.
187
Historie Danice, xi, 115, p. 387. His attempt was undermined by his brothers treachery and
came to nothing.
 326

the overlordship of Frederick Barbarossa was offset by the King of Britain owing a

similar kind of servitude to the King of France:188

Cuius seruicii pudorem minuere uidebatur Gallorum dicioni in consimili

famulatus genere Britannie regis inclinata maiestas.

The royal power of the king of Britain having been brought into a similar kind of
servitude to the power of the Gauls, seemed to diminish the shame of his
servitude.

Although Saxo depicts England as a high status possession, he has consistently

portrayed Englands kings as inferior to the Danes. There is no English king in Saxos

narrative who could be described as good. The English are also depicted as inferior to

other peoples. The Norwegians, Swedes and Saxons are sometimes subject to Denmark,

sometimes rule Denmark and sometimes act as allies. The Finns and peoples of Eastern

Europe are sometimes potential enemies or a welcome source of land, resources and

trade. All are ready to rebel against Danish rule, all are denigrated but the English alone

are depicted as consistently cowardly, treacherous and deceitful. The contrast drawn

between the English and the Danes, and between the English and other peoples, can be

seen as part of Saxos discourse of difference contributing to his positive portrayal of

Danish national identity. By emphasizing the negative qualities of the English, Saxo is

able to portray the Danes as militarily and morally superior.

A possible explanation of why Saxo chose to present such a negative picture of

the English may be found in the opening lines to the Gesta. There Saxo describes

England as founded and named by Anguls Danish descendants. By right, therefore,

England should have been recognized as Danish territorially. Instead, the Danes had to

fight for possession and even when their legal rights of inheritance were recognized,

they were consistently challenged or denied. Saxos stated task of glorifying Denmarks

188
Historie Danice, xiv, 159, p. 538. Christiansen suggests that Saxo knew this reference to the
agreement between Henry II and Louis VII was not strictly analogous as Henry did not do
homage. Christiansen, Saxo Grammaticus, III, 804, n. 335.
 327

past required him to explain away Denmarks difficulties in holding England as part of

its North Sea Empire.

Finally, although Haraldus Godwinson is portrayed as the final cause of

Denmark losing its claim to England, Adelstenus is depicted as the catalyst. His

immoral action in setting aside his fathers will is depicted as depriving Haraldus

Blaatand of his legal inheritance and denying the Danes the opportunity to possess the

land first settled by, and named after, their ancestor Angul.189 While Saxos version of

events in no way satisfies modern criteria of historical writing, it can be valued as a

twelfth-century attempt to establish a national identity for Denmark at home and abroad.

Conclusion

The Old Icelandic/Norse and Danish sources all agree in depicting thelstan as

Hkons foster-father and a significant figure in the history of their countries. However,

these sources give very different accounts of thelstans character and role as king. In

the Old Icelandic/Norse vernacular texts, thelstan is depicted as a positive force for

good. The upbringing he provided for Hkon produced one of the most respected kings

of Norway, noted for his laws and sense of justice. In supporting Hkons return to

Norway and negotiating to prevent hostilities between him and his brother Eirkr,

thelstan is depicted as making a significant contribution to the history of Norway.

189
Kurt Johannesson in his literary analysis of Saxos Gesta has identified that the separate
books are linked through Saxos themes of courage (fortitudo), justice (iustitia), foresight
(prudentia) and moderation (temperantia). Kurt argues that Saxo uses his narrative to provide
positive and negative examples of these virtues in action and that books nine to twelve, which
contain the narrative on thelstan, demonstrate an aspect of iustitia he names as pietas. Using
Kurts analysis, it can be seen that Saxos account of thelstans usurping of the throne depicts
him lacking the pietas demanded by iustitia. It is possible, therefore, that Saxo in his narrative
deliberately counters the depictions of thelstan as rex pius found in the English tradition. Kurt
Johannesson, Order in Gesta Danorum, in Saxo Grammaticus: A Medieval Author between
Norse and Latin Culture, ed. by Friis-Jensen, pp. 95-104 (pp. 98-100).
 328

This is signalled very positively by Hkon being known as as fstri Aalsteins or

Aalsteinsfstri in preference to his other epithets of inn gi or Haraldsson.

By contrast the Latin synoptics depict thelstans role as minimal and his

impact is diminished by their description of Hkons apostasy. In Saxos text thelstan

is depicted as morally corrupt and an enemy of Denmark. His fostering of Hkon is seen

as an act of cowardice, undertaken to protect himself against invasion by Haraldr

hrfagri who was angry at Adelstenus having seized England for himself. These

contrasting narratives illustrate very clearly how their authors sought to transmit, or

create, social memories of the past from their own national or ecclesiastical standpoints.

Egils saga provides another contrasting picture of thelstan. Reminiscent of

lreds depiction of thelstan as a model of good kingship for the future Henry II,

Egils saga depicts thelstan as an ideal king by Viking standards. The saga contrasts

the actions of Haraldr hrfagri and Eirkr blx as king with thelstan and makes

clear that thelstan is the only one who fits Egills concept good kingship. His respect

for thelstan, compared with his contempt for Haraldr hrfagri and his son Eirkr,

depict thelstan as a king who knows how to win and hold the loyalty and support of

his Viking allies. This portrayal of thelstan in the Egils saga is commensurate with

the epithet inn gi given to him in Fagrskinna.

These Old Icelandic/Norse depictions of thelstan are in direct contrast to

Saxos. In his narrative Saxo frequently appears to contradict the depictions of

thelstan in other sources. For example, in the Gesta Danorum thelstan is the very

opposite of the pius, Christianissimus or trfasti king of the English and Norse

texts. He is a man of weak courage (obtusi cordis) and more concerned with the social

appearances of kingship than providing just and lawful rule. Saxos account is so

different that it raises questions as to whether he is reflecting traditions ignored by the

Old Icelandic/Norse sagas, or drawing on lost Danish accounts hostile to thelstan and
 329

Norway or creating a version of his own to explain why the Danish kings did not secure

the English throne for themselves.190 Given Denmarks contacts with Saxony, it is

possible that his version was influenced by the negative portrayals of thelstan found

in Hrotsvit and Widukind. Although Saxo makes no reference to the negative accounts

of thelstans birth found in Hrotsvit, and referred to by William of Malmesbury, they

may have formed part of Danish traditions on Britain. His narrative certainly depicts

thelstan as a king who lacked the qualities and moral fibre expected of those of royal

birth.

As noted above, there are other aspects within the Scandinavian tradition as a

whole which seem to echo or reflect sources within the other traditions. The following

Table details these more fully:

Table 18. Suggested Similarities in Content between Traditions

Scandinavian Tradition Other Traditions

Haraldr hrfagri made himself king of all thelstan was rex totius Britanniae.
Norway. (William of Malmesbury).

thelstan was forced to foster Haraldrs son thelstan was of ignoble birth (Hrotsvit). His
by a concubine. mother was a concubine (Anglo-Norman
texts).

Hkon fostered on thelstan in England. Norwegian king Haraldus sent a ship with
messengers to thelstan inYork. (William of
Malmesbury).
thelstans ships supported Hkons return to thelstans fleet sailed to Caithness (Symeon
Norway. of Durham).

thelstan ensured Hkons return to Norway thelstan ensured the safe return of Louis to
as king and continued to support him. be king of Francia and continued to support
him. (Continental texts).

thelstan offered Northumbria to Eirkr who thelstan made a marriage agreement with
then ruled the territory for him based in York. Sihtric who ruleds Northumbria from York.
(William of Malmesbury)

By the battle of Vnheir thelstan achieved By the battle of Brunanburh thelstan

secure overlordship of Britain. established total peace on land and sea.
(thelweard).

190
See above. Saxo claimed to have used the Icelanders for the early history because their
memories were trustworthy. Saxos depiction of Adelstenus is very different from the saga and
skaldic traditions from Iceland and Norway and it is possible that he has confused Adelstenus
with thelred II.
 330

There could be many reasons for these echoes and apparent references between sources.

If they arose from one tradition having access to the texts of another, it would be

reasonable to expect a closer correlation in the information and details between them,

whether the Scandinavian drew on the English and Continental sources or they drew on

the Scandinavian. It is also possible that the similarities noted above emerged from

common access to oral or written texts now lost or that they formed a traditional part of

Scandinavian memories of the past. It is important, however, that these similarities are

not allowed to distract attention from the significant differences in the Scandinavian

texts. These indicate either that a strong and varied tradition existed which was collated

into the written sagas and histories as we have them now, or that the writers of these

texts wished to create a version of events for future generations which included

thelstan as a significant figure in the history of their country.

 331

CONCLUSION

Using close textual analysis, this thesis has identified similarities and differences in the

ways in which thelstan is depicted in a range of sources from different genres, across

four centuries and three regions. The thesis does not argue for the historical veracity of

any one version over another but for the individual narrative voices to be heard and

understood as part of their own historical, national and contemporary backgrounds. In

my analyses I have identified how different authors selected and presented their material

in order to record and create memories of thelstan in ways which reflected their

purpose or those of their patrons and communities. Based on my literary analysis of the

texts I have questioned some generally held historical hypotheses, suggested alternative

interpretations of my own and identified further areas for research.

The Intertextuality of the Thesis Sources

As noted in the Introduction to the thesis, Robinson has commented on the lack of

primary sources which provide a cohesive account of thelstan and his reign and

suggested the need to bring together the disparate sources which exist. My thesis has

adopted this approach, but by comparing rather than amalgamating the sources content

I have preserved their independent character. This has highlighted the relationships, or

lack of them, between texts both within and across traditions. My summary in the

diagram below illustrates this. No tradition has a single, cohesive account of thelstan

and his reign, although, in the English tradition, John of Worcester, who combines

different versions of the ASC, and William of Malmesbury in his biographical account

of thelstan, can be said to have come closest.

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Diagram of Main Thesis Sources Showing Key Texts and Intertextual Transmissions by Tradition and Century
 333

Both Monika Otter and Robert Stein have emphasized the importance of acknowledging

the intertextuality between medieval historical sources, arguing that all texts build on

previous texts.1 The diagram of the texts which form the basis for this thesis shows the

intertextual relationships identified through scholarly research but inevitably cannot tell

the full story. The writers considered above either make no acknowledgement of their

use of other texts or refer to them in general terms as annals, chronicles and historical

sources. Only William of Malmesbury identifies the specific sources he has used in his

account of thelstan, and on occasions includes his own personal evaluation of their

veracity. It would appear that most writers preferred to be seen as authorities in their

own right. As a result, key texts tended to be used for purely practical purposes, to

provide an overview, or as a background for the authors own main work and edited to

fit with the authors overall aims.2 The diagram shows the centrality of certain texts and

the apparent isolation of others, both within traditions and, more obviously, between

them. The following overview of my textual analysis of the sources on thelstan

summarises how the choices made by individual writers influenced the memories they

provided of thelstan.

The English Tradition

As the diagram shows, the ASC was a main source for the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-

Norman periods. Because it was not in the form of a single text but in a number of

different versions, the narratives produced by the tenth-century and Anglo-Norman

writers differed considerably depending on which regional version they chose or were

1
In other words, the historians history is a narrative creation of his or her own making: and it
is a text woven largely out of other texts. Otter, Functions of Fiction in Historical Writing, in
Writing Medieval History, ed. by Partner, p. 113. To put it diretly, every reading takes place in
the context of other reading; every writing takes place in the context of other writing; and every
text makes its meaning intertextually, that is to say, in the context and subject to the influence of
other texts. Stein, Literary Criticism and the Evidence for History, in Writing Medieval
History, ed. by Partner, p. 77.
2
As Fentress and Wickham have observed, Every time a tradition is articulated, it must be
given a meaning appropriate to the context, or to the genre, in which it is articulated. Fentress
and Wickham, Social Memory, p. 85.
 334

able to access. While Version A was Winchester-based in its content, Versions B, C and

D incorporated Mercian material and Versions E and F included more from northern

sources.3 In addition writers edited their material to fit their overall purpose in writing.

Thus in the tenth century thelweard based his account of thelstan on the account

found in a Version A of the ASC, or a variant of it, which no longer survives. His

narrative, therefore omits any reference to thelstans Mercian election and he puts

greater emphasis on Edwards, rather than thelstans, achievements either following

his source or to provide more family information for his cousin Matilda. Apart from his

victory at Brunanburh, thelstan appears in his account to have achieved very little.

The Anglo-Norman writers derived their work from a wider range of versions of

the ASC. John of Worcester provides a Latin narrative drawing on Versions A-D. This

he edits by re-ordering the events in ASC Version B to support his depiction of

thelstan as Edwards direct heir, perhaps to safeguard the legality of the Worcester

land charters in thelstans name. Johns work was used by his contemporaries and by

later writers but more as a convenient summary of events. Thus Symeon of Durham

copies Johns text for the overview he provides in his Historia Regum while Roger of

Hoveden and Roger of Wendover use it, with minor emendations and additions, as the

introductory basis for their more contemporary histories.

At the same time as John was compiling his Chronicon, Gaimar was composing

his poem on the history of the English kings in vernacular French for those who could

not, or did not wish to access the Old English or Latin texts. He appears to have used

mainly Version E of the ASC, and so provides a very brief account of thelstans reign

notable only for the expedition to Scotland and Brunuanburh. By contrast, meanwhile,

Symeon of Durham, William of Malmesbury and Henry of Huntingdon were writing

extended histories on Anglo-Saxon England. Each included thelstan but from a

3
See the section on primary sources in Chapter 1 above.
 335

different perspective and for different purposes, either selecting their source texts

accordingly or influenced by the sources most easily available to them. Thus, in his

Libellus de Exordio, Symeon draws extensively on Northumbrian material to depict

thelstan as the fulfilment of St Cuthberts promise of Wessex greatness and an

example of the royal patronage due to the Community of St Cuthbert and the cathedral

in Durham.

Henry of Huntingdon, by his limited use of sources, depicts thelstan as a fairly

minor king. He draws on the Mercian material in ASC Versions B, C, D for thelstans

succession but then confines himself to the brief accounts in Version E, so omitting any

reference to the key events in Version Dthe marriage arrangement with Sihtric, the

peace agreement at Eamont and thelstan taking power over Northumbria. His

rhetorical embellishment of the reference to Guthfrith in Version E emphasises his

depiction of thelstan as a king who was never defeated by his enemies. By adding his

own Latin translation of the Brunanburh poem he also depicts thelstan as a king

honoured for his victory but in a heroic style which he characterizes as quaint and old-

fashioned. For Henry, thelstan provided by his early death an example of the

transience of worldly success.

William of Malmesbury draws briefly on Versions B, C, D of the ASC at the

beginning of his narrative on thelstan but relies mainly on a combination of saga,

charter material, song and the text of an old book he claimed to have found. As a result

he goes well beyond a factual account of the events of his reign to depict thelstan as a

very personable, high status king, magnanimous to his enemies, well-educated and

generous in his gifts to the Church. By discounting, or countering, negative accounts of

thelstans birth and his treatment of his half-brother Edwin, William promotes a very

positive depiction of thelstan as a royal patron who chose to be buried at his Abbey of

Malmesbury.
 336

From the diagram above it is also evident that other tenth-century sources had

little influence on the narrative histories of the English tradition. thelstans tenth-

century charters, coins, book dedications and poems are particularly important because

they are contemporary, or near contemporary, sources and can claim to be authorised

statements of thelstans status as king. As a group, they provide a joined-up depiction

of thelstan as Gods ordained king. As Rex totius Britanniae, thelstan is powerful,

successful and pious, supported by God in defeating his enemies and in bringing peace

to his people. These images of him are further endorsed in the early eleventh and twelfth

centuries by lfric of Eynsham and lred of Rievaulx who both quote thelstan as an

example of a model Christian king who was successful because he had won Gods

favour. Yet these sources appear to have been ignored by the Anglo-Norman writers and

so failed to provide any lasting image of thelstan as King of all Britain.

The Continental Tradition

The individuality among writers in the English tradition in their depictions of thelstan

is also found in the texts from the Continent. The division of the Carolingian empire

into separate kingdoms and regions encouraged the writing of new national and dynastic

histories. These were evidently heavily dependent on societal and family memories and

traditions as well as ecclesiastical records and written documentation which no longer

exists. As a result it is difficult to identify examples of intertextuality in the written

sources. It is clear, however, that by their choice of material each author depicts

thelstan from a specific point of view in line with the overall aims of their historic or

dynastic narratives.

Hrotsvit states that her poem was written to praise the achievements of Otto I.

While she praises thelstans half-sister Eadgytha as Ottos bride and queen, she

dismisses thelstan as being of inferior birth, not only to his half-sister but also to Otto.

Widukund claims he is writing his history to provide Saxony with its first national
 337

record of events but does not include thelstan apart from acknowledging him as

Eadgythas brother. As a result, thelstan is written out of later Saxon histories. Of the

ecclesiastical texts, the Libri Confraternitatum of St Gallen and the Libri Vitae of St

Gallen, Reichenau and Pfafers provide for their own monastic communities their

accounts of thelstans generosity and his pious wish to be remembered in prayer.

Similarly Folcuin provides for his own monks and the future community at St Bertin, a

record of thelstans gratitude and request for prayers following their burial of his half-

brother Edwin after he drowned at sea.

Flodoard undertook his Annales to provide a contemporary account of his own

time, supported by records of Frankish Carolingian history. As part of this he depicts

thelstan actively safeguarding the Carolingian hereditary rights in West Francia

through his guardianship and support for his nephew, Louis IV. He also records his

actions in securing long-term support for Louis through the protection afforded by his

cousin Arnulf of Flanders and by the restoration of his godson Alan Twistedbeard as

Duke of Brittany. Richer uses Flodoards account but significantly enhances it by the

use of speeches and dramatic reconstructions of events. As a result he considerably

enhances thelstans standing by depicting him as politically astute and strategically

competent in his meticulous arrangements for Louiss return to inherit his fathers

throne.

Dudo, writing a dynastic history of the lives and achievements of the Dukes of

Normandy, provides a different version of events. He depicts thelstan as

inexperienced and somewhat ineffective as a king. He becomes a friend and ally of the

Viking, Rollo, who helps thelstan defeat his enemies in England, refuses the offer of

half of thelstans kingdom in reward and turns down thelstans offer of help abroad,

reminding him of his duties to England as its king. Later, thelstans friendship with
 338

Rollo is said to gain him the support of Rollos son, William Longsword, for restoring

Louis to West Francia and Alan Twistedbeard to Brittany.

The works of Dudo, Flodoard and Widukind were regarded as seminal works.

Thietmar based his early history closely on Widukind; Flodoards narrative, as noted

above, was used by Richer and later incorporated into the English tradition; Dudos text

was edited and continued by William of Jumiges, Robert of Torigni and Maistre Wace.

Through them Dudos work became known to Henry of Huntingdon and William of

Malmesbury although they made no direct use of the content in their depictions of

thelstan.

The Scandinavian Tradition

In the Scandinavian tradition, the late date for the written histories emphasizes their

authors heavy dependence on oral saga and poetry. No one text can be confidently

identified as a key source as similarities between texts can equally well indicate a

common origin whether oral or written. The use of oral sources resulted in the texts

sharing an element of commonality in the events they record but this did not ensure

cohesion between the written texts. In the Old Icelandic/Norse synoptic histories

thelstan is briefly depicted as a very Christian king who fostered Haraldr hrfagris

son Hkon and brought him up a Christian. But Hkon is described as an apostate who

gave up his Christianity for worldly success and this supports the texts overall

messages that lfr Tryggvason and lfr inn helgi were the kings who achieved the

Christianization of Norway. A distinction, however, needs to be made between the Latin

synoptics and the vernacular grip. This provides a version more in line with the

narratives in the vernacular Kings Sagas which describes Hkons attempts to retain the

faith he had been brought up in by thelstan and to introduce Christianity into Norway.

By contrast, the authors of the Old Icelandic/Norse vernacular sagas chose to

depict thelstan as a king of similar status to Haraldr hrfagri. As foster-father to

 339

Hkon he is depicted as providing Norway with a just law-maker and a Christian king

whose efforts to convert his people were thwarted by the powerful landowners.

thelstan is depicted as playing an active part in Norwegian history not only by

supporting Hkons return to Norway to take the throne but by protecting his position

there through negotiating for his brother, Eirkr blx, to rule over Northumbria. This

picture of thelstan as an influential foster-father is also found in Egils saga where

Hkon is described as responding positively to thelstans request to allow Egill to

seek to recover his family lands. Egils saga is also about kingship. Critical of both

Haraldr hrfagri and Eirkr blx as violent and unpredictable, the author has chosen

thelstan as a contrasting model of good kingship. He is depicted as just, fair-minded,

generous and appreciative of his Viking allies.

The Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus provides a very different picture.

Claiming to draw on Icelandic and Danish sources, Saxo depicts thelstan as cowardly,

treacherous and deceitful, cheating Haraldr Blaatand of the throne of England left to

him in his grandfathers will and weakly giving way to Haraldr of Norway even to the

point of making his son, Hkon, heir to the English throne. This picture of thelstan

has to be set within the context of Saxos work as a whole. Saxo claimed to be writing

the first national history of the Danes. thelstans action in taking the throne of

England is central to Saxos argument that the English kings denied to the Danes the

land they had originally settled and named. Saxos denigration of thelstan and the

English can be seen as part of his discourse of difference designed to emphasize the

superiority of the Danes as part of their national identity.

thelstan as a King of the North Sea Region

The variety of ways in which thelstan is depicted across and within all three traditions

emphasizes the lack of cohesive accounts of his achievements and reign and how

differently he was remembered as king. It illustrates how national, regional,

 340

ecclesiastical and local contexts influenced the written memories of thelstan which

were passed down to later generations. Taken together they also show that thelstan

was an Anglo-Saxon king whose memory was part of the traditions and histories of a

wide area geographically linked by the North Sea. The following map illustrates this.

Map of the Geographical Spread of Texts Depicting thelstan

 341

The distribution of the texts suggests that there may have been much more sharing and

exchange of stories, texts and memories in the North Sea region than the surviving

evidence suggests today. Some support for this exists in the shared themes which my

thesis has identified in the ways in which thelstan was depicted across traditions. The

following section sets these out in greater detail.

Similarities of Themes on thelstan across Traditions

The Table below sets out the main similarities in the themes by which thelstan is

depicted in all three traditions. The sources from the different regional traditions are

colour coded and listed in chronological order. As a result it is possible to see how they

are grouped both geographically and by century. I have used the following five headings

for the Table, generated by my analyses in the thesis of key aspects in the texts from

each tradition: thelstans birth status; his success as military leader; his reputation as

rex pius; his claim to be King of all Britain; his role as king maker and his association

with Viking leaders. As will be seen in the commentary which follows, a tradition may

not depict a particular aspect or may do so only partially.

 342

Table 19. The Main Similarities in Depictions of thelstan as King across Traditions and Centuries.

Date Birth Status Successful Military Pious Christian King Viking Associate King Maker King of All Britain
Leader

10th Hrotsvit ASC Versions A and B Charters, Dudo Flodoard Charters

century Chronicon thelweardi Book Dedications, Dudo Coins
Flodoard Poems Book Dedications
Richer Folcuin Poems
Libri Vitae
11th ASC Versions C and D lfric ASCVersion D La Chronique de Nantes ASCVersion D
century La Chronique de Nantes
12th William of Malmesbury ASC Versions E and F Symeon of Durham John of Worcester John of Worcester MS B Symeon of Durham
century Gaimar William Malmesbury William of Malmesbury William of Malmesbury William of
John of Worcester lred of Rievaulx Roger of Hoveden Roger of Hoveden Malmesbury
Symeon of Durham Saxo Grammaticus Saxo Grammaticus
Henry of Huntingdon
William of Malmesbury
Roger of Hoveden
13th Roger of Wendover Roger of Wendover Icelandic/Norse Sagas Roger of Wendover Roger of Wendover Egils Saga?
century Egils Saga Synoptic Histories Icelandic/Norse Sagas Icelandic/Norse Sagas
Synoptic Histories

= Anglo-Saxon = Anglo-Norman = Continental = Scandinavian

The Table illustrates that depictions of thelstan as military leader and rex pius are fairly strongly represented across all three traditions; Hrotsvits

emphasis on the lowly status of thelstans birth is replicated only by William of Malmesbury and Roger of Wendover; depictions of thelstan as

king-maker and Viking associate appear first in the Continental texts; the depiction of thelstan as King of all Britain is largely restricted to the

English diplomatic, numismatic and dedicatory sources of the tenth century and to Symeon of Durham and William of Malmesbury.
 343

thelstans Birth Status

One aspect where there are similarities across two, but not three, traditions is the status

of thelstans birth on his mothers side. Hrotsvits claim that thelstans mother was

of low status lacks support in the Anglo-Saxon sources and was variously interpreted by

the Anglo-Norman writers, with John of Worcester and lred describing her as a noble

lady and Roger of Wendover stating that she was a concubine. William of Malmesbury

took a middle course. He notes the tradition but expresses his doubts, stating that even if

thelstan was the son of a concubine his outstanding qualities as king made the status

of his birth irrelevant. The Scandinavian sources make no direct reference to

thelstans birth status but it is possible that the Old Icelandic/Norse story of thelstan

fostering Haraldrs son by a concubine contains a reference to it.

thelstan as Military Leader, Pius Rex and Viking Associate

The depictions in all three traditions of thelstan as military leader reflect the emphasis

on his military achievements found in the brief entries in the ASC and the Chronicon

thelweardi, the poem on the battle at Brunanburh, the battle of Vnheir in Egils Saga

and the Continental accounts of thelstans support for Louis and Alan Twistedbeard

of Brittany. His reputation as a pious Christian king is challenged by Saxo Grammaticus

in his account of thelstans double-dealing but is otherwise very evident across the

three traditions. It is strongly supported by the writings of lfric and lred, the

monastic land charters and records of thelstans monastic foundations, the lists of his

donations of relics, books and gifts to monastic and ecclesiastical centres in England

and on the Continent, his educating his foster-son Hkon as a Christian, his insistence

on his Viking forces being prime-signed and on the baptism of Eirkr blx and his

family. Depictions of links between thelstan and the Vikings are found not only in the

Scandinavian texts but in the accounts of his marriage arrangement with Sihtric in ASC

Version D and the Anglo-Norman texts, and in Dudos narrative of his friendship with
 344

Rollo and William Longsword. This picture of thelstan as well-disposed to the

Vikings proved enduring. In the thirteenth century, John of Wallingford, giving a brief

overview of thelstans reign, refers to thelstans efforts to be on the friendliest

terms with the Scandinavians and alleges that, while his father was alive, he had spent

some time in Dacia and as a result had adopted many of their customs.4

thelstan as Rex totius Britanniae

Perhaps surprisingly, thelstans claim to be Rex totius Britanniae is largely dependent

on the Anglo-Saxon charters, coins, book dedications and poems produced both during

his reign and later in the tenth century. This image is to some degree perpetuated by the

Anglo-Norman writers. Symeon of Durham depicts thelstan ruling over Britain more

widely than any of his predecessors in fulfilment of the promise made to King Alfred by

St Cuthbert. William of Malmesbury does not call him King of all Britain but perhaps

implies it by his description of thelstans success in extending his kingdom across

England and setting its boundaries in the south west and with Scotland.

Similarly the Scandinavian sagas by equating thelstans power and status with

that of Haraldr hrfagri, king of all Norway, may be indirectly reflecting his title as king

of all Britain. Egils saga may also imply a reference in the description in Aalsteins

drpa of thelstans rule extending over the whole land. The Continental writers,

because of thelstans Carolingian family links might have been expected to be aware

of the tenth-century image of thelstan as Rex totius Britanniae. If so, they chose not to

use it but, apart from Hrotsvit and Widukind, they may reflect this status and position

through their depictions of his extensive influence with key leaders and rulers in

Flanders, West Francia, Brittany and Normandy.

4
The Chronicle Attributed to John of Wallingford, ed. by Richard Vaughan, Camden
Miscellany, 21 (London: The Royal Historical Society, 1958), p. 40.
 345

The limiting of thelstans official title of Rex totius Britanniae to sources from

the time of his reign, or shortly after, could suggest that it was not regarded as relevant

or appropriate by later writers. This may reflect the fact that in historical records

thlestan was not the first Anglo-Saxon king to be described as King of Britain. Earlier

examples go back to the time of Edwin and Oswald of Northumbria. The Annals of

Tigernach describe Edwin of Northumbria as qui totam Britan[n]iam regnauit,5 while

Bede states that Edwin ruled over the English and British people except for Kent.6

Adomnn describes Oswald as appointed by God to hold power over the whole of

Britain, totius Brittanniae imperator a deo ordinatus.7 Bede too ascribes overall

sovereignty to Oswald but describes him receiving, rather than taking, power and

designates the areas he ruled by the language people spoke rather than by geographical

boundaries.8 Later, thelbald of Mercia, granting land to Cyneberht at Ismere,

witnessed his charter as rex Britanniae, although there is considerable doubt as to the

extent of his influence and control outside Mercia.9 Both Version A of the ASC and

thelweard depict Edward as achieving the same extension to his kingdom as is

claimed for thelstan while Henry of Huntingdon describes Edmund as first achieving

overall kingship in Britain. It would seem from these examples that titles claiming to

rule all Britain could be a form of hyperbole used to praise and exalt the memory of

kings. What makes thelstans claim different is that he was the first English king to be

consistently designated in this way on his charters and to be depicted on his coins and in

5
W. Stokes, The Annals of Tigernach. Third Fragment, Revue Celtique, 17 (1896), 199-263
(p. 181).
6
Anglorum pariter et Brettonum populis praefuit, praeter Cantuariis tantum. He ruled at the
same time over the peoples of the English and the Britons, except only for Kent. Bede, Historia
Ecclesiastica, ii, 5, I, 224-25.
7
Adomnns Life of Columba, ed. and trans. by Alan Orr Anderson, rev. by Marjorie Ogilvie
Anderson, Oxford Medieval Texts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), i, 1. 9a, p. 16.
8
omnes nationes et provincias Brittanniae, quae in quattuor linguas, id est, Brettonum,
Pictorum, Scottorum et Anglorum divisae sunt, in ditione accepit, He received into his power
all the peoples and provinces which are divided into four languages, that is, the Britons, Picts,
Scots and English. Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, iii, 6, I, 350-51.
9
Electronic Sawyer, S89.
 346

a manuscript portrait as a crowned king. These diplomatic, numismatic and portrait

sources were apparently unknown or ignored by later writers. If known, it may be that

they did not regard them as historical records but as artistic and legal artefacts

celebrating monarchy, safeguarding commercial and property rights and promoting

feelings of national unity. This interpretation may have been further strengthened by the

use of these official designations in thelstans book dedications and in the poems

written to confer praise and enhance his reputation.

thelstan as King Maker

The depiction of thelstan as king maker is based largely on the Continental and

Scandinavian accounts of his actions in ensuring the safe returns of the three young

heirs in his care to their positions of powerLouis to the throne of West Francia, Alan

Twistedbeard to the Dukedom of Brittany and Hkon to the throne of Norway. No

references to these have survived in the Anglo-Saxon and early Anglo-Norman texts but

in the twelfth century, as noted above, Flodoards account of the return of Louis and

Alan was inserted into the Bury St Edmunds MS B of John of Worcesters Chronicle.

William of Malmesbury also contributes to the depiction of thelstan as king maker

when he quotes thelstan as saying that it was better to make a king than to be one as

an example of thelstans magnanimity in restoring Constantine and Owain to their

thrones after Eamont.

Thesis Overview

The different versions of thelstan across and within the three traditions can be seen as

partisan accounts, bolstering or undermining thelstan. But they are also historical

statements in their own right, recording social memories of past events, however

inaccurately, or deliberately creating memories for the future. Fentress and Wickham

have drawn attention to this important distinction between our response to the veracity

of social group memories and the response of those who held them, stating that the
 347

question of whether we regard these memories as historically true will often turn out to

be less important than whether they regard their memories as true.10 Although their

statement referred to oral traditions it can equally well be applied to written texts.

All the English, Continental and Scandinavian authors considered above claim

to be providing truthful accounts, either explicitly or implicitly, usually by claiming to

have used only trustworthy written or oral sources. One exception is William of

Malmesbury. The veracity of his own writing exercised him and he resolved it by

claiming that he had faithfully reproduced the content of his sources, which he had

selected for their trustworthiness, but that responsibility for their veracity rested with the

source authors. In addition he stated that his readers should also make up their own

minds about the truthfulness of his account.11 By his comments William shows himself

keenly aware of the power of the written text as a way of creating and perpetuating

memories. In his prefaces he is very critical of those writers who deliberately avoided

criticism by omitting what was bad about a person or event and won praise by inflating,

or inventing, what was good.12

Partner has pointed out that the Anglo-Norman historians wrote their narratives

as literary works, using many rhetorical and stylistic features, inventing speeches,

quoting poetry, and seeking to entertain their readers with stories.13 My analysis of the

sources in all three traditions illustrates how their authors chose to write in a particular

literary genre and used a variety of literary techniques, editing existing material, using

rhetoric, speeches, hagiography, verse and story to depict thelstan and aiming to

10
Fentress and Wickham, Social Memory, p. 26.
11
Spiegel has drawn attention to the role of the reader as literary critic of historical texts
reminding us that the study of historical sources is one of interpretation. The interpretations
noted above from secondary scholarship, and in my own commentary, highlight this role of the
reader searching for and finding meaning. Spiegel, The Past as Text, p. xix.
12
scriptor obvia mala propter metum praetereat, et, bona si non sunt, propter plausum
confingat, The writer omits through fear the evil he meets, and, if there are no good things to
report, invents them because of the applause they bring. William of Malmesbury, Gesta
Regum, iii, Prologue, I, 424-25.
13
Partner, Serious Entertainments, pp. 194-211.
 348

entertain as well as to inform. Fentress and Wickham have cautioned against trying to

distinguish between the historical information and its literary presentation seeing this as

a false dichotomy. They argue that only by regarding the objective and the

subjective as indissoluble can we understand the relationship between the world as it

empirically was, and the world as it was represented by writers.14 While content and

style are clearly interconnected, my thesis has also shown that literary analysis of source

texts can make a positive contribution to the study of a text as a historical resource.

In Chapter 1, for example, my application of codicological studies to the

account of thelstans succession in Versions A and B of the ASC, showed that the

brief entries on thelstan and his half-brothers were all written as one block entry in the

mid- to late tenth century. Rather than their brevity implying hostility to thelstan, the

entries appeared to be an attempt to update the ASC after a gap of some twenty five

years. Based on literary analysis of the formulaic and paratactic structure of the

Chronicle, I argued that the sequence of events in Version B, in which thelstans

succession followed lfweards death, could equally well be denoting a temporal rather

than a causative relationship. I was able to support my argument by reference to Version

A of the ASC and the Wessex regnal lists. By bringing texts on Mercia and Wessex

together I was also able to suggest that political rivalry between Mercia and Wessex

could lie behind the textual differences in Versions A and B of the ASC. This close

examination of interrelated texts made it possible to consider their content more closely

and to question some of the traditional ways in which they had been read. A further, and

perhaps more important, example was my analysis of thelstans formal designations

in his contemporary charters, coins and book dedications. By bringing the charter and

ASC texts together and looking for other, independent dating information for

14
Fentress and Wickham, Social Memory, p. 145.
 349

thelstans reign, I identified links which suggested that thelstan may have

undergone a later coronation to legitimize his claim to be King of all Britain.

My analysis of the sources on thelstan has demonstrated the importance of

reading historical sources as literary texts and shown how these source texts derive their

meaning from their own times and their own contexts. By using a comparative approach

I have shown that concentration on only one source, or one group of texts, would have

provided a picture of thelstan which was specific to a particular region or time.

Instead, I have shown that there was not one way, but many ways, in which thelstan

was depicted, all claiming to be accurate representations. At one level this is not

surprising. It is no different from the diversity of views which exist about people both in

literature and in real life. However, perhaps more important than the depictions the texts

provide of thelstan is the information they give on his importance as a status figure

whether for a national community, a religious community or an individual.

For eaxmaple, the fact that lred assigns thelstans success in Scotland to the

intervention of John of Beverley, and Symeon assigns it to St Cuthbert, need not be seen

as something which has to be resolved in favour of one or the other. Whether thelstan

sought the help of one or both saints is less important than the fact that both Beverley

and Durham wished to claim that their saint was the kings helper and record that as a

result they both benefited from thelstans generosity. Their accounts confer status on

thelstan and by association on their communities.15 lred was then able to use

thelstans actions as a positive example of Christian kingship for the young prince

Henry to follow, while Symeons account preserved, or created, a tradition linking

Cuthbert and Wessex and emphasizing Durhams historic national status. As a result,

15
The social logic of the text is a term and a concept that seeks to combine in a single but
complex framework a protocol for the analysis of a texts social siteits location within an
embedded social environment of which it is a product and in which it acts as an agent [].
Spiegel, The Past as Text, p. xviii.
 350

thelstan is still commemorated today by a statue in Beverley Minster and by the

display at Durham Cathedral of his gifts to the St Cuthbert community.

My thesis has shown the extent to which depictions of thelstan were similar

across centuries and across traditions during the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. It has

also highlighted significant differences both within and between traditions and

identified how historical, cultural, contextual and literary influences impacted on writers

and their texts. It has queried some traditionally held scholarly views about thelstan

and identified a number of areas for further research. Above all it has shown how

literary analysis can support historical studies by subjecting sources to closer analysis,

by linking related texts, by identifying areas of meaning previously overlooked and by

seeking to interpret historical texts as part of their authors own complex historical and

cultural contexts.
 351

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