Transient Response in Electric Circuits

is Mrs
ir V0 Rr
-+

The element equation for
Lr
the branch of the figure
g vr
when the source is given by Cr
a generic function of time, is
t
di r di 1
v r (t) L r
dt
M rs s
dt C r i(t' )dt' R i (t) V

r r 0

The circuit is described by the topology equations an by the element

equations of the form given by eq.1.

n i r 0 This system of equation is integro-

m v r 0
differential and can be solved by an
existing conventional method of
vr = f(ir) mathematics.

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Transient Response in Electric Circuits

TransientCause
Achangeinthecircuitoperatingconditionsis
thecauseofatransientbeforereachingthe
steady state operation which can be studied
steadystateoperationwhichcanbestudied
inthetimedomainbymeansofthesetofthe

equationsofthecircuitanalysis.
Onofforoffonmodechangesofswitchesorsuddenchangesoftheexcitation
(voltageorcurrentsourcemodeledasstepfunctions)arethecauseof
transientsfollowedbyasteadystateoperationthatistheresponseofthe
circuittothechangedcondition.
Thetransientresponseisthecircuit
The transient response is the circuitsstemporaryresponsethatwilldieout
temporary response that will die out
withtime.Thisisthetemporarypartoftheresponse.
Thesteadystateresponseisthebehaviorofthecircuitalongtimeafter
thesuddenchangehashappened.Thisisthepermanentpartofthe
response.
Completeresponse=transientresponse+steadystateresponse
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

1
Transient Response in Electric Circuits
TransientCause
Thetransientresponseoperation,whichwill
precedetheestablishmentofthesteadystate
operation is due to the time required by the
operation,isduetothetimerequiredbythe
storageelementstobuiltthenewconditions

underwhichtheywilloperateatthefinal
steadystateregime.
Thestorageelementsmaychangetheiroperationstatewithfulfillingthe
energyconservationprinciple. Asaconsequenceofitstorageelements
preventinstantaneousvariationofenergyinthetransitfromt=0 to t=
0+.
(0)=(0+)
Aninstantaneousvariationoftheenergywouldonlybecausedbyasource
ofinfinitepower:
(0- ) (0 )
p(t 0) lim
t 0 t
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Energy Conservation Principle

Inordertoinhibitinstantaneousvariationsofthestoredenergy,capacitors
opposeanysharpvariationofthetension,andinductorsopposeanysharp
variationofthecurrent.Thiscanbeseenfromtheexpressionoftheenergy
storedinthetwoelements.
1
L (t) L i 2
magnetic
energy
stored by
an inductor
2
1 1 Q2
C (t) C v 2
electrosta
tic energy
stored by a
capacitor
2 2 C
Thetransitfromt=0 andt=0+,representingthestatusofthecircuit
operationimmediatelybeforethechangeandimmediatelyafterofit
respectively, has to fulfill the energy conservation principle, which has the
respectively,hastofulfilltheenergyconservationprinciple,whichhasthe
followingconsequences:
i(0)=i(0+)inbrancheswithinductors
v(0)=v(0+)betweentheterminalofacapacitor
Q(0)=Q(0+)chargestoredineachoftheconducting
platesofthecapacitor
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

2
 First Order Circuits: RC Circuit
Source Free RC Circuit Response Natural Response
Attimet=0theswitchoftheRCcircuitofthefigureisclosed.Thecapacitorbeforet
=0ischargedatQ=Q0. Atransientwillstartandwillbeextinguishedwhentheregime
atthenewconditionsisreached.Thevoltage,duetotheelectrostaticfieldofthe
capacitoractsonthechargesstoredonacapacitorplates,whichflow
h h d l h h fl
throughtheresistancetowardtheoppositeplate. t=0
Thiscurrenttransferstheelectrostaticenergy R
storedbythecapacitortotheresistorwhereitis
dissipated.Whenalltheenergyisdissipatedthe C
transientvanishes. v(t)
Q0 =
Thecircuitisbeingexcitedbytheenergystored CVC0
inthecapacitor.Noexternalsourcesarepresent.
- t 0-
Theaimistodeterminethecircuitresponsethat R iR
isassumedtobegivenbythebehaviorofthevoltage A

v(t)acrossthecapacitor. iC
C
Thenaturalresponseofacircuitreferstothe v(t)
Q(t)
behavior(intermsofvoltagesorofcurrents)ofthe
circuititself,withnoexternalsourcesofexcitation.
0+ t +

First Order Circuits: RC Circuit

Source Free RC Circuit Response Natural Response
Attimet itisQ=Q0 andv=Q0/C=VC0.Fortheenergyconservationprinciple
att=0+ itisalsoQ=Q0 andv=Q0/C=VC0.
Atthe0+ tfromKCL atnodeAitis: t=0
R
iR iC = 0
as iC C dv/dt and iR v/R, it results C
dv v v(t)
C 0 (1) Q0 =
dt R
The solution of the transient, which represents CVC0
the natural response of the RC circuit, is given by - t 0-
the solution of eq. 1 that is a first order homo- R iR
geneo s differential eq
geneous equation
ation (this is the moti-
moti A

vation of the term firstordercircuit ): iC
C
v(t) A et v(t)
Q(t)
- 1/(RC) - 1/

where isthesolutionofthecharacteristicequation 0+ t +
associatedtoeq.1.Thetimeconstantisdefineby =1/.
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

3
 First Order Circuits: RC Circuit

Source Free RC Circuit Natural Response
C
i(t)
TheconstantAisderivedfromtheinitialconditions v(t)
att=0+: Q(t)

v( 0 ) VC 0 0+ t +
+
therefore :
VC0 VC 0 e t /
v(t) VC 0 e t /
where RC isthetime constant. 0.368 VC0
Thetimeconstant ofacircuitisthetime
requiredtotheresponsetodecaytoafactor1/e
or36.8%ofitsinitialvalue.
t
Everytimeintervalof thevoltageisreducedby0.368%of t V(t)/VC0

itspreviousvalue:v(t+)=v(t)/e =0.368v(t). 0.36788

0.13534
Thederivativeofv(t)att=0itis1/.Thusitistheinitial
0.04979
rateofdecayorthetimeforvtodecayfromVCOtozero,
0.01832
assumingaconstantrateofdecay.
0.00674
Ittakes5ttothecircuittoreachitsfinalstate(steadystate).
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

First Order Circuits: RC Circuit

Source Free RC Circuit
i(t)
Natural Response C
v(t)
Thecurrentinthecircuitis: Q(t)
v(t) VC 0 t / (RC)
i( )
i(t) e 0+ t +
R R
v(t)
T hepower dissipated by theresistor is

VC20 2 t / (RC)
p(t) v(t)i(t) e
R
andtheenergy transfered from the
capacitor andabsorbed by theresistor
uptotime t is t
t
t 2
V TheRCcircuit canbe an equivalent
(t) p(t) dt C0
e 2 t / (RC) dt circuit (Thvenin/Nortoncircuit).
0
0
R
t Thekeyquantities are:
VC20
e 2 t / (RC)
CVC20
1 e 2 t / (RC) 1. Theinitial capacitor voltge the
2R 0 2 v(0)=v(0+)=VC0
andfor t , ) (CVC0
2
)/2 . 2. Thetime constant =RC

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

4
 First Order Circuits: RC Circuit
Step Response of an RC Circuit
Whenavoltagesourceissuddenlyappliedbyswitchingontheswitchitis:
- t 0- : Q=Q0, v = Q0/C=VC0
t=0
At0+ t +fromtheKTLitis i R
t
1
C 0
VC0 i(t' )dt' Ri V0 0(1) Q0 =
V0 +
- CVC0 v(t)
Fromthetimederivative ofeq.1itisobtained : C
di 1
i 0 (2) - t 0-
dt RC
Thesolution ofthetransient solution ofeq. 2
i R

(afirstorder homogeneou sdifferenti alequation) :
Q(t)
i(t)Aet (3) V0 +
-
whereagain 1/ 1/(RC). C
ThevalueoftheconstantAisdunethrough
theanalysisoftheinitialconditions.
0+ t +

First Order Circuits: RC Circuit

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Analysisoftheinitialdataatt=0: i R

vC(0-) = VC0; Q(0-) = C VC0 (initial data)
+
C VC0=
i(0-) = 0 -
V0 Q0/C
Analysisoftheinitialconditionsatt = 0+:

Acrossthecapacitor:v(0+) = v(0-)=VC0 t = 0+
andfromtheKTL:Ri - V0 + VC0 = 0
i R
i(0+) = (V0-VC0)/R
Fromeq.3,it is: i(0+) = A
+
C V0 =
A = (V0-VC0)/R -
V0 Q +

Hencetheexpressionofeq.3is C
V0 VC0 t (RC) t = +
i(t) e
R
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

5
 First Order Circuits: RC Circuit
Step Response of an RC Circuit i(t)
V0-VC0
TheresponseoftheRCcircuit(alsoThvenin V0-VC0
R R
e t / (RC)
equivalentcircuit)toasuddenvoltagesource
excitationintermsofthecurrenti(t)is:
() V0-VC0
0 368
0.368
R
V0 VC0 - t
i(t) e (RC)

R RC t
TheresponseoftheRCcircuitintermsofthe
voltage v(t)acrossthecapacitorisderived v(t)
V0
fromtheelementequationofthecapacitor:
t
1
v(t) VC0 i(t')dt'
C0 V0+(V0-VC0) e
t / (RC)
VC0
fromthesolutionoftheintegralitresults
t
v(t)V0 V C0 V0 e (RC)
t
Theanalysisoftheegimeatt= givesthesteadystateresponse(forcedresponse)
[i =0,v( )=V0]thataddedtothetransientresponse(naturalresponse)gives
thecompleteresponseoftheRCcircuitsuddenlyexcited.

First Order Circuits: RL Circuit

Source Free RL Circuit Response
Theaimistodeterminethenaturalresponse i = I0 R
oftheRLcircuit.Inordertodothisnoexcitation
fromexternalsourceshastobepresentandthe
circuitisexcitedbytheenergystoredinthe L
inductor.
TheRLcircuitofthefigureisconsidered.Attime - t 0-
- t 0- thecurrentisI0.Att=0thecurrent
decaystozero.Astheenergystoredinthe
inductorisLI02R/2 cannotsuddenlygotozero,in i=0 R
thetransitionfromt=0 tot=0+ thecurrent
cannotchange.Duringthetransientthecurrent L
musttransferthemagneticenergystoredinthe
inductortotheresistorwhereitisdissipated.
Whenthewholeenergyisdissipatedthe t +
transientvanishesandthecurrentbecomeszero.
FromKTLitresults: di R TheresponseoftheRLcircuitis
i 0
dt L givenbythesolutionofafirstorder
homogeneousdifferentialequation.

6
 First Order Circuits: RL Circuit
Source Free RL Circuit Response
i(t) R
Thesolutioni(t)ofthedifferentialequationis
i(t) A e t
L
h -R/L
where R/L -1/
1/ and
d hence
h L/R .
isthesolutionofthecharacteristicequationasso
ciated tothehomogeneousdifferentialequation. 0+ t = +
Thetimeconstantisdefinedas =1/ =L/R.
TheconstantAisderivedfromtheinitialconditions I0
+
att=0 : I 0 e t /
i(0 ) I 0
therefore : 0.368 I0

i(t) I 0 e tR / L
t
TheRLcircuit canbe an equivalent circuit (Thvenin/Nortoncircuit).
Thekeyquantities are:
1. Theinitial current i(0)=i(0+)=I0
2. Thetime constant =L/R

First Order Circuits: RL Circuit

Step Response of an RL Circuit
Whenavoltagesourceissuddenlyappliedbyswitchingontheswitchitis:
- t 0- : i = 0,
t=0
At0+ t +fromtheKTLitis i R

di
L R i - V0 = 0 (1)
dt V0 +
- L
The solution of the transient is given by the solution
of the homogeneous differential equation (natural
component of the response):
i(t) A e t
- t 0-
where is given by the haracteristic equation:
-R/L -1/ . The complete response of the i R
RL circuit excited by a voltage source is
R

t
i(t) A e L
f0
V0 +
- L
f0 is a particular solution of eq. 1. For it the steady-
state-solution at t (forcedresponse)is taken:
f0 i( ). The constant A is given by the initial
condition at t 0 : i(0 ) 0. 0+ t +

7
 First Order Circuits: RL Circuit
Step Response of an R Circuit
Analysisofthesteady state at t = + i R

R i - V0 = 0
f0 = i = V0/R V0 +
- L
R
i(t)Ae
- t V
L
0
R
Analysisoftheinitialdataatt=0: 0+ t +
i(0-) = 0 i
Analysisoftheinitialconditionsatt = 0+: V0/R
i(0+) = i(0-) = 0 0.632 V0/R
A
A = - V0/R
Hencethecompleteresponseofthe
RLcircuitwhensuddenlyexcitedbya t
voltagesource,is
ThecompleteresponseoftheRLcircuitis
thesteadystateresponse(forcedresponse)
i(t) 0 1 e (RC)
V t
[i =0]addedtothetransientresponse
R (naturalresponse).

First Order Circuits

Response of First Order Circuits
AfirstordercircuitisacircuitoraThvenin equivalentcircuitcontainingaresistorand
amemoryelement.Thesolutionoftheresponseofthecircuittoasuddenexcitationis
ggivenbythesolutionofafirstorderdifferentialequation.
y q
Theresponseofthecircuit,whenexcitedbyanexternalsource(completeresponse)is
givenbytheresponseofthecircuitwhennoexternalsourcesarepresent(transient
response ornaturalresponse)superposedtothesteadystateresponsethatisthe
portionofthecompleteresponse(steadystateresponse forcedresponse)which
remainswhenthetransientresponsehasdiedout.

Completeresponse=transientresponse+steadystateresponse
naturalresponseforcedresponse
p f p
(temporarypart)(permanentpart)

Thenaturalresponse,thatgivesthetransientpartoftheresponse,isthe
solutionofthehomogeneoustimedifferentialequation
Theforcedsteadystateresponseofthecircuitistheparticularsolutionofthe
nonhomogeneoustimedifferentialequationatt=+ .

8
 Second Order Circuits: RLC Circuit
Asecondordercircuit
secondordercircuitischaracterizedbyasecondorderdifferentialequation.
Itconsistsofresistorsandtheequivalentoftwoenergystorageelements.
Theanalysisofasecondordercircuitresponseissimilartothatusedforfirstorder.The
naturalresponseisoriginatedbytheexcitationsduetotheenergystoredinthestorage
elements.
t=0: Theinitialdataareessentialtodefinetheexcitationsofthetransient.Theyarethe
currentI0 intheinductorsandthevoltageV0 (orthechargeQ0)ofthecapacitorsatt=0.
Theinitialdataaregivenbythesolutionofthecircuitatthesteadystateconditionsatt=
0.
t=0+:Theinitialconditionsarederivedfromtheinitialdataasinthetransitionfromt=
0 tot=0+theenergycontinuityprinciplemustbefulfilled:i(0+)=i(0)=I0 ininductors
( +))=v(0
andv(0 ( ))=V0 incapacitors.
p
Thenaturalresponseiscalculatedbysolvingthehomogeneousdifferentialequations.
Thecharacteristictimesintheexponentarethesolutionsofthecharacteristicequation,
theconstantofintegrationarederivedfromtheinitialconditions.
t=+ :Thesteadystatesolutionatt=+ givetheparticularsolutionofthenon
homogeneousdifferentialequationsintheforcedresponsecasewhenindependent
sourcesarepresent.
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Second Order Circuits: RLC Circuit

Response of Second Order Circuits

Theresponseofthecircuit,whenexcitedbyanexternalsource(complete
The response of the circuit when excited by an external source (complete
response)isgivenbytheresponseofthecircuitwhennoexternalsourcesarepresent
(transientresponse naturalresponse)superposedtothesteadystateresponsethat
istheportionofthecompleteresponse(steadystateresponse forcedresponse)
whichremainswhenthetransientresponsehasdiedout.

Completeresponse=transientresponse+steadystateresponse
naturalresponseforcedresponse
(temporary part )
(temporarypart)(permanentpart)
(permanent part)

Asageneralcaseofsecondordercircuits,inthefollowingofthischapteraseriesRLC
circuit(R,L,andCinseries)excitedbyanindependentvoltagesourceisconsidered.

9
 Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit
At - t 0- : Q = Q0, v = VC0 = Q0/C,
i=0 t=0
Att=0:theswitch is closed. i R L

At 0+ t +from LKTit results: C
1
t
di V0 +
-
C
i(t')dt'V0 Ri L 0 (1)
dt Q0
t
Q(0) 1 di
i(t')dt'V0 Ri L 0 - t 0-
C C0 dt
t
1 di
C 0
v C (0) i(t')dt'V0 Ri L 0 (2)
dt i R L

fromthetimederivatonitresults:
from the time derivaton it results : C
d2 i R di 1 V0 +
-
i 0 (3)
dt2 L dt LC
Theresponse,intermsofi(t),isgivenby
thesolutionofeq.3,thatisanonhomo 0+ t +
geneousordinarydifferentialequationof
thesecondorder .
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Second Order Circuits:

i R i(0-)
Series RLC Circuit
Analysisoftheinitialdataatt=0: + + vC(0-)
- -
vC(0)=VC0;Q(0)=CVC0 V0 =VC0
i(0)=0
t = 0+
Analysisoftheinitialcond.att=0+:
Acrossthecapacitor: At t = 0+ :
vC(0+)=vC(0)=VC0 Capacitors excite the circuit as independat
voltage sources: vC(0+) = vC(0-) = Q(0-)/C;
Through theinductor:
j Inductors excite the circuit as independat
i(0+)=i(0)=0 current sources: i(0+) = i(0-).
di
Ri +L+VC0 V0 =0
dt C0 i R L
+
di(0 )
C
dt =(V0VC0)/L +
-
V0 V0
Analys.ofthesteadystateatt=+ :

i(+)=0;vC(+)=V0 t = +
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

10
Second Order Circuits:
t=0
Series RLC Circuit i R L

Transient analysis C
V0 +
-
d2 i R di 1
i 0 (3)
dt2 L dt LC
0+ t +
Thecharacteristicequationofeq.3is:
R 1
x 2 x 0 Case A: 0 R 2 L C
L LC
x1 and x2 arerealanddistict
2
R R 1 (negative):overdampedcase
x12
2L
2L LC Case B: 0 R 2 L C
x1 and
and x2 real
real doublesolution
double solution
x12
2 2
0 (negative): criticallydampedcase
x1 , x2 natural frequencies Case C : 0 R 2 L C
=R/(2L) damping factor x1 and x2 complexconjugate
0 =1|(LC)0.5 resonant frequency or (negativerealpart)underdampedcase
underdumped natural
frequency
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit

C
a
s
e
A
-

overdampedcase : 0 R 2 L C ;
x1 , x2 negative,realanddinstict
The solution of eq 3 is:
Thesolutionofeq.3is:
2

i(t) A1e x1 t A2e x2 t R R 1
where x12
2L 2L LC
Fromtheinitialconditionsatt=0 + :

A 1 A 2 i(0 ) 0
di(0 )
x1 A 1 x2 A 2 V0 V
VC0 L
dt

V0 - VC0
A1 - A 2
2
R 1
2L
2L LC
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

11
Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit

TransientsolutionincaseA Overdamped case: 0 ,R 2 L C

2
R

1
t

R

2

1
t
R

V0 - VC0 2L LC 2L LC - 2L t
i(t) e

e
e
2
R 1
2L
2L LC

t=0
i R L i

C
V0 +
-

0+ t + 0 t

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit

C
a
s
e
B
-

criticallydampedcase : 0 R 2 L C ;
x1 , x2 negativedoublesolution
Thesolutionofeq.4is:
q
t t
A1e A 2 te
R
i(t) where
2L
Fromtheinitialconditionsatt=0 + :
A 1 i(0 ) 0
di(0 )
A 2 V0 VC0 L
dt i

Thetransient solution inCaseB
critically damped case:
R
V0 - VC0 - t
0 t
i(t) te 2L
L
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

12
 Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit
C
a
s
e
C
-
underdampedcase : 0 R 2 L C ;
x1 , x2 complexconjugate(negativerealpart)
R
Thesolutionofeq.3is: (damping fact .)
2L
A1 cos t A2 sin t e t where

i(t)
2
1 R

Fromtheinitialconditionsatt=0 + : LC 2L

A 1 i(0 ) 0
d i(0 )
di(0
A 1 A 2 V0 VC0 L
dt A1 0
V0 - VC0
A2
2
1 R
L
LC 2L
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Second Order Circuit: Series RLC Circuit

TransientsolutionincaseC Underdamped case: R 2 L C

1 R
2
V0 V
VC0 t
i(t) e sin t
LC 2L
2
1 R
L
LC 2L
2
t=0 T
2
1 R
i R L i
LC 2L

C T 2T
V0 +
- 0

0+ t + t

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

13
 Transient Analysis: General Method

Analysis of the transient in the time domain

1. Writethesetofequations(forexamplebymeansofthevoltage
substitution method)
substitutionmethod)
2. Definitionofaordinarydifferentialequationinoneunknownby
substitutionandderivation:
dn i dn1 i di
an n
an1 n1
......... a1 a0 i f(t) (4)
dt dt dt
thesolutionofwhichis:
i(t) iiT (t)
i(t) (t) iiS (t)
where

n
iT (t) Ak e xk t transientresponse lim iT (t) 0
t
k 1
iS (t)steadystateresponse particularintegralatt=+ ofeq.4

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Analysis of the transient in the time domain

3.Derivationoftheparticularintegralofeq.4att=+ bymeansofthe
analysisofthesteadystateatt= +.
4.DerivationofthenaturalfrequencisofiT(t),x1,x2,,x3,.. xn,,whicharethe
solutions of the characteristic equation of the homogeneous differential
solutionsofthecharacteristicequationofthehomogeneousdifferential
equationassociatedtoeq.5.
5.DerivationoftheintegrationconstantsA1,A2,A3,.An bymeansofthe
initialconditions.
6.Derivationoftheotherunknowns.

Hence,inordertoderivethecompleteresponseofthecircuit,itis
necessarytofindthecircuitoperationat:
f d h
t=+ todeterminethesteadystatesolution,thatistheparticular
integralofeq.4att=+ ;
t=0 todeterminetheinitialdata;
t=0+ todeterminetheinitialconditions.

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

14
Analysis of the transient t=0
in the time domain i R i1 R1
At t = 0 the switch is closed and the
circuit response with a transient is C1
initiated.
V0 +
- L2

1.Setofsimultaneousequations
i2 Q1
describingthecircuitat0+ <t<+:

di2
L2 RiV0 0
dt
t
Q1 1
i1 (t')dt' R1i1 RiV0 0
C1 C1 0
ii1 i2 0
2. Successive derivation and substitution to obtain an ordinary differentil eqation
in one unknown.:
R R1 d2 i2 L di 1 V
L2 2 R1 2 2 i2 0 (5)
R dt RC 1 dt C1 RC 1

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Analysis of the transient

in the time domain
Analysisoftheinitialdataatt=0:
i(0-) = i1(0-) = i2(0-) = 0 t=0
vC(0-) = 0 as i1 (0-) = i2 (0-) = 0; i R i1 R1

Q1(0-) = 0
C1
Analysisoftheinitialcond.att=0+: V0 +
- L2
Acrossthecapacitor: i2 Q1
vC(0+) = vC(0-) = 0
Through theinductor:
j

i2(0+) = i2(0-) = 0
i R i1 R1
V0 - R i(0+) - R1 i1(0+) = 0
i1(0+) - i(0+) = 0
i(0-) vC(0-)
i1(0+) = i(0+) = V0/(R+R1) V0 +
- =0
+
- =0
+ i2
R1 i1 (0+) - L2 d i2 (0 ) = 0
dt
d i2(0+) = V R /[L (R+R )]
0 1 2 1
t = 0+
dt

15
Analysis of the transient
in the time domain i R i1 R1

Analys.ofthesteadystateatt=+ :
C1
i(+) = i2(+) = V0/R; V0 +
- i2
i1(+) = 0; Q1
vC(+)
(+ ) = 00.
Solution of eq.5: t = +
V
i(t) A1e A2e 0
x1 t x2 t

R
where x1 and x2 arethesolutionof t = 0- t = 0+ t =+
thecharacteristicequationofeq.5: V0/(R+R1) V0/R
i 0
R R1 2 L 1
x R1 2 x 0 V0/(R+R1)
R RC1 C1 i1 0 0
TheintegrationconstantsA1 andA2 i2 0 0 V0/R
aredeterminedbytheinizialcondizions:
i2 (0 ) A1 A2 0 V0 R 1
di2/dt 0 L2 R1 R
0
di (0 )
2 x1 A1 x2 A2
dt Q1 0 0 0
V R
0 1 vC 0 0 0
L2 R1 R
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

Terminology
completeresponse rispostacompleta sourcefreeresponse rispostalibera
firstordercircuit circuitodelprimoordine steadystate regimestazionario
forcedresponse rispostaforzata steadystateresponse rispostadiregime
naturalresponse rispostanaturale stepresponse rispostaalgradino
response risposta timeconstant costanteditempo
secondordercircuit circuitodelsecondo transient transitorio
ordine
transientresponse rispostatransitoria
naturalresponse rispostanaturale

32
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Bologna

16