OURNAL OF I NQUIRY-B ASED L EARNING IN M ATHEMATICS

J No. 26, (May 2012)

Introductory Abstract Algebra

Margaret L. Morrow

SUNY Plattsburgh
Contents

Acknowledgements iii

Introductory worksheet: some useful examples 1

1 Introduction to groups 4

2 New groups from old 9

2.1 Direct products of groups: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Some more examples of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Some very special subgroups of an arbitrary group . . . . . 12

3 More on cyclic groups. 15

4 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 19

5 Cosets: first ideas and applications 23

6 Normal subgroups and quotient groups 26

ii
Acknowledgements

I am indebted to the Educational Advancement Foundation for providing

me with the opportunity to explore Inquiry Based Learning, first at a Sum-
mer Workshop, and then at several summer IBL conferences. I am deeply
grateful to Ed Parker and Stan Yoshinobu for their guidance and wise ad-
vice, both at the Summer workshop, and over the intervening years. I am
also indebted to the students in my IBL abstract algebra classes, who have
with patience, persistence, and good humor taken the leap into independent
learning. Finally, sincere thanks to the referee of this paper, and to the editor,
for their many very helpful suggestions.

iii
Introductory worksheet: some useful examples

1. Symmetries.
We can think of a symmetry of a plane figure as a rigid motion of the
figure that results in the figure simply being repositioned on top of its
original outline. (We can extend this idea to symmetries of figures in
three dimensions.)
It is the final position of the figure that is important, not the motion
as such. For example, if we rotate the triangle below through 120 or
480 the triangle ends up in the same final position, so we do not think
of these as distinct symmetries.
(a) Consider the symmetries of an equilateral triangle, as illustrated
below. Each sketch shows the resulting position when the speci-
fied motion is applied to the triangle starting in the original posi-
tion).

Draw an equilateral triangle on a sheet of paper, and number the

vertices 1, 2, and 3 as shown in the sketch. Now cut the triangle
out, leaving the hole intact. This cut-out triangle will be helpful
as you work through what follows.
We can apply one of the rigid motions, and then, continuing from
the new position of the triangle, apply another of the rigid mo-
tions. We can then record the overall effect as one of six symme-
tries listed above.
For example if we first apply 1 , then (continuing from the result-
ing position) apply 1 (a 120 clockwise rotation) we end up with

1
Acknowledgements 2

2 . Using our usual function composition notation, we can think

of this as 1 1 . In fact we write 1 1 = 2 .
It is useful to write the results of all such combinations in table
form, as shown below. We show the result of 1 1 in the row
labelled 1 and the column labelled 1 .

Important: the convention is that we enter the result of 1 1

into the row corresponding to 1 and the column corresponding to
1 , even though when we do these motions we first do the reflec-
tion 1 and then the rotation 1 .
0 1 2 1 2 3
0
1 2
2
1
2
3
Use the cut-out triangle to determine the compositions and use
this to complete the table.
We will denote this collection of symmetries, together with com-
position, by D3 .
(b) Develop a similar table for the symmetries of a square. We will
use the notation D4 for the symmetries of a square together with
composition.
So that we are all using the same notation, call the original posi-
tion 0 , denote clockwise rotations through 90 , 180 , and 270
by 1 , 2 and 3 respectively, and label the reflections as indicated
in the sketch.
(Start by sketching and naming all eight symmetries of the square
for reference, and as for the triangle, use a cut-out square to cal-
culate the compositions.)

2. Clock arithmetic
Consider the numbers on a clock, and imagine 0 in place of 12. We

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Acknowledgements 3

will denote this set by Z12 ). So Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}.

We define addition modulo 12 on this set as follows: for a and b in
this set, a + b (mod 12) is the hour on the clock-face that is b hours
after a. For example, 9 + 5 = 2 (mod 12) (since 0 is 3 hours after 9,
and we need an additional 2 hours after that.)
We can also define multiplication mod 12 on Z12 by thinking of this
as repeated addition modulo 12. So for a and b in the Z12 , we think of
ab (mod 12) as the result of adding b to itself a times, modulo 12.
For example (3)(7) = 9 (mod 12).
There is nothing special about 12 here; we can just as easily define
addition and multiplication mod n on the set {0, 1, 2, . . ., n 1} for any
fixed positive integer n. Simply imagine a clock-face with the numbers
{0, 1, 2, . . ., n 1} in place of {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}, and for a
and b in this set, define a + b (mod n) to be the hour on this clock-face
that is b hours after a . Define ab (mod n) to be the result of adding b
to itself a times, modulo n.
We can draw up tables for these operations, just as we did for symme-
tries.

(a) Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} Draw up a table for addition mod 5,

and a separate table for multiplication mod 5.
(b) Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Draw up a table for addition mod 6, and a
separate table for multiplication mod 6.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 1

Introduction to groups

Notational conventions:
N: The set of natural numbers:{1, 2, 3 . . .}
Z : The set of integers: {. . . 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 . . .}
Q: The set of rational numbers: { mn |n, m Z, m 6= 0}
R: The set of real numbers.

C: The set of complex numbers: {a + bi | a, b R} where i = 1.

Definition: A binary operation on a set A is a function which sends A A

to A. We denote the image of (x, y) under this function by x y.
(Always, when faced with a new definition, try to understand it by thinking
of examples, and of non-examples, meaning entities closely related to the
defined concept, but that do not conform precisely to the definition.)

1. (ex) Which of the following are binary operations on the specified set?
If not, explain why not.
(a) Addition on Z.
(b) Subtraction on N.
(c) Division on R.
(d) Division on Z\{0}.
(e) Composition on D4 .
(f) Composition on the set of rotations in D4 .
(g) Multiplication mod 6 on Z6 .

4
Introduction to groups 5

Definitions:
A binary operation on a set A is said to be associative if
(a b) c = a (b c) for all a, b and c in A.
A binary operation on A is said to be commutative if a b = b a for all
a and b in A.
Suppose is a binary operation on A. An element e of A is said to be an
identity for if a e = e a = a for all a A.
Suppose is a binary operation on A, with identity element e. Let a A.
An element b of A is said to be an inverse of a with respect to if
a b = b a = e.
(Reminder: test your understanding of each definition by finding examples
of operations that do have the property, and examples of operations that do
not have the property.)

2. (ex) Refer back to those operations in question 1 that were binary op-
erations. Do the following for each of these binary operations.
(a) Determine whether the operation is associative, and if not, prove
that the operation is not associative.
(b) State whether there is an identity for the operation, and if so, iden-
tify it.
(c) If there is an identity for the operation, determine which elements
(if any) have inverses.
3. (ex) Determine which of the binary operations in question 1 are com-
mutative, and if not, provide proof that the operation is not commuta-
tive.
4. Prove that if a binary operation on a set A has an identity element,
then that identity element is unique.

Definition: A group is a set G together with a binary operation on G

satisfying the following:

(a) The operation is associative.

(b) There is an element in G which is an identity for .
(c) Every element in G has an inverse with respect to in G.

We denote the group by hG, i.

We refer to the set G as the underlying set of the group hG, i. (However
if the specific operation is clear from the context, or is not important in the
context, we sometimes simply write G instead of hG, i for the group, and
speak of the group G. )

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Introduction to groups 6

Note that we assume all the familiar properties of the operations on N, Z ,

Q, R and C, and you may use these freely in all that follows.

5. (ex) Which of the following are groups? If not, explain why not.
(a) hZ, +i
(b) hZ, i
(c) hZ, i
(d) hZ, i
(e) hR+ , i (R+ denotes the set of positive real numbers.)
(f) The set of symmetries of a regular pentagon with operation com-
position.
(g) Z6 with operation addition mod 6.
(h) Z6 with operation multiplication mod 6.
(i) Z6 \ {0} with operation multiplication mod 6.
(j) Z5 \ {0} with operation multiplication mod 5.
6. Prove that the following is, or is not a group, as appropriate.
The set S = R \ {1} with operation defined by a b = a + b ab for all
a and b in S. (On the right side of the equation, the operations are the
usual addition and multiplication in R.)
7. Prove that the following is, or is not a group, as appropriate.
The set M2 (R) of all 2 by 2 matrices, with real numbers as entries, and
operation matrix multiplication.

Definitions:
A group hG, i is said to be abelian if is commutative.
We say a group is finite if the underlying set contains finitely many el-
ements. We say a group is infinite if the underlying set contains infinitely
many elements.
For a finite group G, the order of G is the number of elements in G.

8. (ex) Provide at least two examples of abelian groups.

9. (ex) Refer back to question 5. Identify the finite groups in that ques-
tion, and for each of these state the order of the group.
10. Provide at least two examples of non-abelian groups. For one of these,
prove that the group is non-abelian.
11. Suppose hG, i is a group,with s,t and u in G. Prove or disprove as
appropriate: If s t = u s, then t = u.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Introduction to groups 7

More Notation: For convenience, instead of using to denote the group

operation, we often use multiplicative notation as follows:

In place of a b write ab.

Denote an inverse of a (the existence of which is ensured by the group
axioms), by a1
Let a1 denote a, and for n N, with n > 1 define an to be aan1 .

It is important to note that we have simply introduced some notation; the

operation multiplication in a group is NOT in general familiar old mul-
tiplication. Take care when working in an arbitrary group not to take for
granted properties of exponents that are familiar from working with the real
numbers. So for example, in the next two problems you may not assume
that am an = am+n , nor that (am )n = amn

12. If a G and n N then both (an )1 and (a1 )n have unambiguous

interpretations in terms of the definitions already given. Prove that
these two are in fact equal.
13. Prove that if G is a group, with a in G, then (a1 )1 = a.

You have shown in problem 12 that (an )1 and (a1 )n have unambiguous
meanings, and are in fact equal. The symbol an on the other hand is not
automatically defined by the definitions already given. It is convenient to
define an as simply another notation for (an )1 and (a1 )n :
Definition: In a group G with a G, we define an to be (an )1 . Also we
define a0 to be the identity, e.
As we said, we cannot simply assume that exponents will have the same
properties in an arbitrary group as they do when working with real numbers.
Some familiar properties of exponents for real numbers are in fact false in
certain groups. The next two problems establish two basic principles that
do apply in an arbitrary group.

14. Suppose G is a group, with a G. Prove that am an = am+n for all

integers m and n.
15. Suppose G is a group, with a G. Prove that (am )n = amn for all
integers m and n.

16. Suppose G is a group,with a, b and x in G. If x = a1 b, can we conclude

that xa = b? Either prove this conclusion true, or provide a counterex-
ample.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Introduction to groups 8

17. Suppose G is a group, with a and b in G. Prove that if ab = e, then

ba = e. Use this to prove that if G is a group, with a and b in G and
ab = e, then a is the inverse of b.

18. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: In a group, inverses are unique.

(More precisely: if G is a group, and if a G, then there is a unique
inverse for a in G.)
19. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: Suppose G is a group, with a, b and
c in G. If ac = bc, then a = b.
20. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: If G is a group, with a and b in G,
then (ab)2 = a2 b2
21. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: If G is a group, with a and b in G,
then (ab)1 = a1 b1
22. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: If G is a group, with a and b in G,
then (ab)1 = b1 a1

Historically, the central focus of abstract algebra was the solution of equa-
tions. The following problem gives an indication of the connection:

23. Suppose G is group, with a and b in G. Consider the equation ax = b.

(a) Prove that a1 b G
(b) Prove by substituting that x = a1 b is a solution for the equation.
(c) Prove that x = a1 b is the only solution for the equation ax = b;
that is, this solution is unique.

You have thus shown that if G is a group, then for all a and b in G, there is
a unique solution in G for the equation ax = b. Similarly there is a unique
solution in G for xa = b.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 2

New groups from old

Some notational conventions:

From now on, the phrase the group Zn , will be taken to mean the set
{0, 1, 2 . . .n 1} with operation addition mod n.
For groups such as Zn , where it is natural to use additive notation,
we replace our multiplicative expressions by the additive analogues, as
follows:
for n an integer, in place of an write na
in place of a1 write a
write 0 for the identity.

24. (ex) Translate each of the following into additive notation:

(a) an = e
(b) There exists an element t such that at = b1
(c) a1 ba = e
(d) (a1 )n = (an )1
(e) (a1 )1 = a
(f) an am = an+m
(g) (an )m = anm

Yet another notational convention: Let Zn denote the set

{1, 2, 3 . . .n 1} (notice the 0 is omitted.)

25. (ex) Is multiplication modulo 7 a binary operation on Z7 ? If so, write

out the operation table for multiplication (mod 7) on Z7 . Is Z7 with
multiplication (mod 7) a group? If not, explain why not.

9
New groups from old 10

2.1 Direct products of groups:

Definition: Suppose that G and H are groups. Define an operation on G H

as follows: for all (g1 , h1 ) and (g2 , h2 ) in G H, define (g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ) to be
(g1 g2 , h1 h2 ), where the operation in the first coordinate is the operation in G,
and the operation in the second coordinate is the operation in H. (We often
express this idea by saying that the operation is defined component-wise.)

26. (ex) Determine the operation table for Z2 Z3 , where the operation is
defined component-wise. (Use additive notation, since the operation is
based on addition.)
27. Prove that if G and H are groups, then G H, with operation defined
component-wise, is a group. (Use multiplicative notation, since there
is nothing to indicate that additive notation is appropriate).

Another convention: Suppose G and H are groups. When we refer to the

group G H the operation is assumed to be the component-wise operation
we defined above.

It is interesting and important to think about what properties a direct product

of groups inherits from the original groups. Here is one example of this:

28. Prove or disprove: if G and H are abelian groups, then G H is

abelian.
29. (ex) Consider the group Z5 Z2 (operation in the group on the left
is multiplication mod 5, and the operation in the group on the right is
addition mod 2.) Draw up the operation table for this group.

2.2 Subgroups

As you might guess, subgroups are important in group theory.

Suppose G is a group, and H a subset of G. If a and b are elements of H
then ab denotes that element of G defined by the group operation of G.

Definitions:

We say that H is closed under the operation if for all a and b in H,

ab is in H. (Sometimes one says the operation is closed on H.)
We say that H is closed under taking inverses if for all a in H, the
inverse of a is in H.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

New groups from old 11

Definition: Suppose that G is a group. A subset H of G is called a subgroup

of G if
1. H is non-empty
2. H is closed under the operation of G
3. H is closed under taking inverses.

(If H is subgroup of G we sometimes say that H inherits the operation from

G.)

30. (ex) Identify all the subgroups of hZ, +i.

31. (ex) Identify all the subgroups of
(a) hZ4 , +i
(b) hZ6 , +i
32. (ex) Identify all the subgroups of D4 .
33. Prove that if H is a subgroup of G, then H is a group under the opera-
tion inherited from G.
34. Prove that if H and K are subgroups of a group G, then H K is a
subgroup of G.
35. Suppose G and H are groups, with S a subgroup of G, and T a subgroup
of H. Prove or disprove as appropriate: S T is a subgroup of G H.
36. Prove that if G is an abelian group, then H = {x G | x2 = e} is a
subgroup of G.

2.3 Some more examples of groups

The next problem gives us many more examples of groups.

First, note that when we remove 0 from the underlying set of Z5 to obtain
Z5 , all the remaining elements have multiplicative inverses under the multi-
plication (mod 5), and with this operation Z5 is a group. A similar situation
arises from removing 0 from the underlying set of Z7 , In the following we
generalize the idea of forming a group based on those elements of the under-
lying set of Zn that have multiplicative inverses under multiplication (mod
n):
Definition: Let n be any positive integer. An element m of Zn is called a
unit in Zn if it has an inverse under multiplication (mod n), in Zn .
Definition: For every positive integer n, let U (n) denote the set of all units
in Zn , together with the operation multiplication mod n.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

New groups from old 12

37. (ex)
(a) List the units in each of the following:
i) Z7 . ii)Z6 iii) Z8 .
(b) Draw up the table for multiplication (mod 8) in U (8).
Is this a group? Explain why or why not.
Determine the inverse of 3 in U (8).
(c) Draw up the table for multiplication (mod 10) in U (10).
Is this a group? If not explain why not.
(d) Is there any positive integer n for which U (n) with multiplication
(mod n) will fail to be a group? Either provide an n for which
U (n) is not a group, or explain why U (n) is a group for all positive
integers n.
(e) Make a conjecture: what condition on n ensures that the underly-
ing set for U (n) is precisely Zn ?
(f) Make a conjecture: for a given positive integer n, how can one
identify the units in Zn , without writing out the whole table for
multiplication mod n on Zn ?

2.4 Some very special subgroups of an arbitrary group

Suppose hG, i is a group, and a G. Consider the set {an |n Z}. Note
that this set is closed under the operation of G. (Why?)
Definition: Suppose G is a group with a G. We let hai denote the set
{an |n Z} together with the operation inherited from G.

38. (ex) List each of following, where the calculations take place in the
specified group:
(a) In U (10), list h3i and h9i .
(b) In U (8), list h3i and h1i.
(c) In U (5), list h2i, h3i and h4i.
(d) Let R denote R\{0} . In hR , i, list h2i, h 21 i and h4i.
39. (ex) List each of following, where the calculations take place in the
specified group:
(a) In hZ, +i, list h2i, h3i and h3i
(b) In hZ6 , +i, list h2i, h0i, h1i, and h4i.
(c) In hZ12 , +i, list h3i, h5i, h7i and h10i
40. Let G be a group, with a G. Prove that hai is a subgroup of G.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

New groups from old 13

Two extremely important definitions:

Definition: Let G be a group with a G. The subgroup hai is called the

cyclic subgroup generated by a.
(Note that we could not have defined hai as a cyclic subgroup until we had
actually proved that this would always be a subgroup. But now you can
go back and look at all the cyclic subgroups you generated in the last few
questions.)

Definition: The order of an element a in a group G is the smallest positive

integer m such that am = e, provided such an integer exists. If such an
integer exists, we say that the order of a is finite, and we will denote the
order of a by |a|. If no such integer exists, we say that a has infinite order.
Take care: the word order is used in many different ways in mathematics.
Contrast the definition above with our previous definition of the order of a
group, which is simply the number of elements in the group. The idea of
the order of an element in a group turns out to be really useful.

41. (ex) Determine the order of the specified elements in the specified
group.
(a) 3 and 1 in U (8)
(b) 3 and 7 in U (10)
(c) 1, -1 , 2 and 1
2 in the group hR , i
42. (ex) Suppose hG, i is a group , and that G = hai, where a is an el-
ement in G having order 10, with G = hai = {a0 = e, a1 , a2 , . . ., a9 }.
Determine the order of each of the elements of G.
43. (ex) Determine the order of the specified elements in the specified
group.
(a) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in hZ6 , +i
(b) 0, 1, 2, and -1 in hZ, +i
(c) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11 in hZ12 , +i

Definition: We say that a group G is cyclic if there exists some element a

in G such that G is the cyclic subgroup generated by a. In this case we also
say that G is generated by a, and that a is a generator of G. (Suggestion:
translate the definition into logic symbols.)

44. (ex) Which of the following are cyclic groups? Explain why or why
not in each case.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

New groups from old 14

(a) U (10)
(b) U (8)
(c) U (5)
(d) D4

Notational convention: From now, for n a positive integer, if no operation

is specified, then Zn will denote the group Zn with operation addition mod
n.

45. (ex) Which of the following are cyclic groups? Explain why or why
not in each case.
(a) hZ, +i
(b) Z8
(c) Z3 Z5
(d) Z2 Z4
46. Prove that every cyclic group is abelian.
47. Prove that if G H is a cyclic group, then G and H are cyclic groups.
48. Prove or disprove, as appropriate: If G and H are cyclic groups, then
G H is a cyclic group.
49. (ex) Suppose hG, i is a group , and that G = hai, where a is an element
in G having order 10, with G = hai = {a0 = e, a1 , a2 , . . . , a9 }. List all
generators of G. (Exercise 42 should help.)
50. (ex) List all generators of Z12 . (Exercise 43(c) should help.)

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 3

More on cyclic groups.

Our next goal is to deeply understand the structure of all cyclic groups. First
we need some results from elementary number theory.
Recall the following definitions.Here n and m are integers and m 6= 0:

We say n is divisible by m if there exists an integer k with n = mk. (We

also in this case say m is a divisor of n.)
We say that a positive integer p is prime if p has exactly two divisors,
p and 1. (Note: this implies that 1 is not considered to be a prime.)
Let m and n be integers, not both zero. A positive integer d is said to
be the greatest common divisor of m and n if
d is a divisor of both n and m, and
if s is a positive integer that is a divisor of both m and n, then s is
a divisor of d
(Notation: gcd(m, n))
We say that two integers m and n are relatively prime if the greatest
common divisor of m and n is 1.

Now a theorem of elementary number theory, which we will use without

proof:

The division algorithm

Suppose n and m are integers, with m > 0. Then there exist unique
integers q and r with n = mq + r, and 0 r < m.

51. (ex) Find the values for q and r as specified in the division algorithm
for each of the following:
a) n = 47, m = 7 b) n = 42, m = 6 c) n = 26, m = 5.
d) n = 3, m = 5.

15
More on cyclic groups. 16

52. Suppose that G is a group, and a G. Prove that if the order of a is m,

then for all integers q and r, amq+r = ar .
53. Suppose that a is an element of a group G and that the order of a is m.
Prove that if n is an integer with an = e, then m is a divisor of n.
54. (ex) Suppose that G is a group with a G, and suppose that a5 = e.
Find a positive integer m with am = e. (Prove that am = e for your
choice of m.)
55. Suppose that a is an element of a group G. Prove that if there is some
integer n, n 6= 0, with an = e, then there exists a positive integer m with
am = e.
56. Let G be a group, and let a G. Prove that if the order of a is infinite,
then all integer powers of a are distinct; that is if i and j are integers,
with i 6= j, then ai 6= a j .
57. Let G be a group, and let a G. Prove that if a has finite order m, then
for every integer n, there is some integer s with 0 s < m such that
an = as .
58. Let G be a group, and let a G. Prove that if a has finite order m, then
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . am1 are distinct elements of G.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

More on cyclic groups. 17

Note that the previous three problems basically tell us about the structure of
every cyclic group, as follows:
59. Theorem: (Already proved in the previous problems.) Suppose G is a
cyclic group with generator a (so G = hai).
(a) If the order of a is infinite, then G = {. . . a2 , a1 , e, a1 , a2 . . .},
where the elements listed are all distinct from each other.
(b) If the order of a is finite, order m say, then G contains exactly m
elements, namely G = {e, a1 , a2 . . . am1 }.

60. Suppose H is a subgroup of a group G with a G. Suppose n, m, q and

r are integers with n = mq + r. Prove that if an and am are both in H,
then so is ar .

The following is standardly taken as an axiom when working with non-

negative integers, and we will do the same:

Well-ordering principle: Every non-empty set of positive integers contains

a least element.

The following somewhat amazing theorem tells us something about every

subgroup of every cyclic group.

61. Suppose that G is a cyclic group, with generator a. Prove that if H is a

subgroup of G then H is cyclic.
62. Suppose n and m are integers. Let H = {sm + tn | s Z and t Z}.
Prove that H is a cyclic subgroup of Z.
63. Suppose n and m are integers. In the previous problem we showed that
H = {sm + tn | s Z and t Z} is a cyclic subgroup of Z. Prove that
if d is a generator of H, then d =gcd(m, n).
64. A rather nice theorem in number theory:
Prove the following:
(a) Suppose n and m are integers, with d =gcd(m, n). Then there exist
integers s and t with sm + tn = d.
(b) Suppose n and m are relatively prime integers. Then there exist
integers s and t with sm + tn = 1.
65. (ex) Find (by trial and error) at least two pairs of values for s and t that
illustrate the rather nice theorem above for each of the following
values for n and m:
a) Take n = 6, and m = 8. b) Take n = 4, and m = 9.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

More on cyclic groups. 18

66. Suppose that G is a cyclic group, with generator a, where the order of
a is m. Prove that if k is an integer relatively prime to m, then ak is a
also a generator of G.
67. (ex) For each of the specified cyclic groups, list all distinct subgroups.
a) Z12 b) Z18 .
68. (ex)Suppose that G is a cyclic group, with G = hai, for some a G,
where the order of a is 12. Determine all distinct subgroups of G.

69. (ex) Suppose that G is a cyclic group, with G = hai, for some a G,
where the order of a is 18. Determine all generators of G.
70. (ex)
(a) Write the statement of the theorem in problem 66 using additive
notation.
(b) Determine all generators of each of the following cyclic groups:
a) Z12 b) Z7 c) Z24 .
71. Prove that the units in Zn (where n is a positive integer) are precisely
the elements of Zn that are relatively prime to n.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 4

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms

These are the structure preserving mappings in abstract algebra. Most

fields of math have structure preserving mappings; for example, in linear
algebra, linear transformations preserve the vector space structure ( scalar
multiplication and vector addition).
More formally, we have the following extremely important definitions:

Definitions:
Suppose that hG, i and hH, i are groups. We say that a function
: G H is a homomorphism if for all a, b G, (ab) = (a) (b).
We say that a function : G H is an isomorphism if is a homo-
morphism, and as well is one-to-one and onto.
(Recall the definitions: A function f : A B is said to be one-to-one if for
every x, y A, whenever f (x) = f (y) then x = y. A function f : A B is
said to be onto if for every b B, there exists some a A with f (a) = b.
Definition: We say that groups are isomorphic if there exists an isomor-
phism between them.

Intuitively, two groups are isomorphic if the operation table for one of
them can be obtained from the operation table of the other, by simply re-
ordering and renaming elements in the group, and renaming the operation.
We express this by saying that the isomorphism preserves algebraic struc-
ture. Try the following exercise to get a feel for this:

72. (ex) Draw up an operation table for each of the following groups. Then
decide which of these are isomorphic, in the sense of the intuitive re-
ordering and renaming description given above; if reordering is nec-
essary, show the reordering; also specify the renaming.
(a) hZ4 , +i

19
Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 20

(b) G = hai, where the order of a is 4

(c) Z2 Z2 .
(d) H = {1, 1, i, i} with
operation multiplication in the complex
numbers. (Recall: i = 1, and i2 = 1.)
73. Suppose that G is an abelian group. Prove that the function defined by
(g) = g2 is a homomorphism from G to G.
74. Let G be an infinite cyclic group, with G = hai. Define : G hZ, +i
by (an ) = n for every n Z. Prove that is an isomorphism.
75. Let G be an finite cyclic group, with generator a, and suppose that the
order of a is m. Define : G Zm by (an ) = n for every n with
0 n < m. Prove that is an isomorphism.
76. Let R+ denote the set of positive real numbers; let e denote the Euler
number (a real number, base of the natural logarithm function; not
an identity). Consider the function : hR, +i hR+ , i defined by
(a) = ea for all real numbers a.
(a) Prove that is a group homomorphism.
(b) Prove that the function defined in part (a) is an isomorphism.

We have said that an isomorphism preserves algebraic structure. In partic-

ular, an isomorphism maps the identity to the identity, maps inverses to
inverses, and maps elements to elements having the same order. Further, if
two groups are isomorphic, they share algebraic properties, such as if one
of them is abelian, then so is the other; if one is cyclic, so is the other, and
so on! (We will provide proofs of these facts in the ensuing problems.)
Homomorphisms also preserve algebraic structure, but not nearly as strongly
as isomorphisms. We explore this in the following problems. Of course ev-
ery theorem about homomorphisms also applies to isomorphisms, since an
isomorphism is just a special kind of homomorphism.

77. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomor-

phism.
(a) Prove that if eG is the identity of G, then (eG ) is the identity of
H.
(b) Prove: For all a G, (a1 ) = ( (a))1.
78. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is an isomor-
phism. Prove that if G is abelian, then H is abelian.
79. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is an isomor-
phism. Prove that if G has an element of order n, then H has an element
of order n.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 21

Note carefully: To prove that two given groups, G and H say, are isomor-
phic, you must show that there exists an isomorphism from G to H.
So, logically, to prove that two given groups, G and H, are not isomorphic,
you have to show that no function : G H is an isomorphism. But this
direct approach is too hard! Instead one usually tries to demonstrate that no
isomorphism could exist using one of the following approaches:

show that the two groups have different order (or different cardinality)
show that one group has some algebraic property that the other does
not. For example,
G might be abelian, and H non-abelian,
G might have an element of some specified order, while H does
not (as a special case, G might be cyclic, and H not)
every equation of some particular form (such as x2 = a) might
have a solution in G, while some equation of that form in H does
not have a solution.

80. (ex) In each of the following, prove that the two groups specified are
not isomorphic.
(a) D4 and Z2 Z4 .
(b) Z2 Z4 and G = ha i, where the order of a is 8.
(c) Z3 Z3 and Z9
(d) U (10) and Z2 Z3 .

Definition: If : A B is a function from a set A to a set B, and C A,

then (C) is defined to be the set {b B| there is some c C with (c) = b}.

Definition: Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a

homomorphism. The kernel of , denoted by Ker( ), is defined to be the
set {g G| (g) = eH }, where eH is the identity of H.

81. (ex) Let : U (10) U (10) be defined by (a) = a2 for all a U (10).
(You already proved in problem 73 that is a homomorphism.) Deter-
mine (U (10)) and Ker( ).

82. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomor-

phism. Prove that if G is abelian, then so is (G).
83. Provide an example of groups G and H,with a homomorphism from G
to H, where G is abelian, and H is not abelian. (If not possible, explain
why not.)

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 22

84. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomor-

phism. Prove that Ker( ) is a subgroup of G.
85. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomor-
phism. Suppose too that K is a subgroup of G. Prove that (K) is a
subgroup of H.
86. Suppose : G H is a group homomorphism, and that a is an element
of order m in G (where m is a positive integer). Make and prove a
conjecture about the order of (a).
87. Suppose : G H is a group homomorphism. Prove or disprove as
appropriate: If G is cyclic, then so is H.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 5

Cosets: first ideas and applications

Sometimes in mathematics there is a way of looking at things that at first

seems rather useless, but which turns out to be really powerful. Cosets are
like that. At first it might seem that this is a strangely irrelevant idea to
spend time on. Bear with this; you will soon find how much can be derived
from the idea.

Definition: Suppose hG, i is a group, with H a subgroup of G, , and a G.

Then a H denotes the set {a h|h H}, and is called a left coset of H in G
(or, if necessary, the left coset of H determined by a).
(If the intended operation is clear, we usually denote a H by aH, or even
a + H if appropriate.)
(To help you interpret this definition, note that it means that x a H iff
there exists some h H with x = a h.)
The following exercises should help you to understand this definition.

88. (ex) Consider the group D4 , and the subgroup H = {0 , 1 } of D4 .

List the distinct left cosets of H in D4 , and list the elements of each of
these. How many distinct (not equal) left cosets are there for H?
89. (ex) Consider the group D4 , and the subgroup K = {0 , 1, 2 , 3 } of
D4 . List the distinct left cosets of K in D4 , and list the elements of
each of these. How many distinct left cosets are there for K?
90. (ex) Consider the group hZ, +i, and its subgroup H = {n Z|n = 5m
for some m Z} (which we denote by 5Z). List the distinct left cosets
of H in hZ, +i, and list the elements of each of these. How many
distinct left cosets are there for H?

The following three problems develop some properties of cosets that are
very useful in later proofs.

23
Cosets: first ideas and applications 24

91. Is the following true or false? Prove or disprove as appropriate:

Suppose G is a group, H a subgroup of G, and a and b elements of G.
If aH = bH then a = b.
92. Is the following true or false? Prove or disprove as appropriate:
Suppose G is a group, H a subgroup of G, and a and b elements of G.
If aH = bH then for all h H, ah = bh.
93. Is the following true or false? Prove or disprove as appropriate:
Suppose G is a group, H a subgroup of G, and a and b elements of G.
If a bH then b aH.

Now some really important ideas:

94. Suppose G is a group and H a subgroup of G. Define a relation on

G as follows: for all a, b G a b iff a bH. Prove that is an
equivalence relation.
(Remark: recall that an equivalence relation on a set always gives rise
to a partition of the set.)

95. Suppose G is a group and H a subgroup of G. Prove that the collection

of distinct left cosets of H in G form a partition of G.
96. Suppose G is a group, H subgroup of G, and a an element of G. Con-
sider the function f : H aH defined by f (h) = ah for all h H.
(a) Prove that f is one-to-one.
If G is a finite group, what does this imply about the relation be-
tween the number of elements in H and the number of elements in
aH?
(b) Prove that f is onto.
If G is a finite group, what does this imply about the relation be-
tween the number of elements in H and the number of elements in
aH?
(c) Suppose G is a finite group and H subgroup of G. Prove that for
all a G, the number of elements in H is equal to the number of
elements in aH.
(d) Suppose G is a group and H subgroup of G. Prove that for all
elements a and b in G , the number of elements in aH is equal to
the number of elements in bH.

97. (ex) Consider a group G of order 120, with a subgroup H of order 4.

How many elements are there in each left coset of H in G? How many
distinct left cosets has H in G? Explain how your reached your answer.
Could G have a subgroup of order 7? Explain why or why not.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Cosets: first ideas and applications 25

98. Prove : Suppose G is a finite group and H a subgroup of G. Then the

number of elements in H is a divisor of the number of elements in G.

99. (ex) Consider the group hZ18 , +i. What are the possible sizes for a
subgroup of hZ18 , +i? For each of these possible sizes, provide at
least one subgroup of hZ18 , +i that has that size.

(Do not however assume that if G is a group of order n, then G has a sub-
group of order m for every divisor m of n; this is not in general true.)

100. Prove that if G is a finite group and a is an element of G, then the order
of a is a divisor of the order of G.
101. Prove that if G is a group with prime order, then G is cyclic.

(Isnt that beautiful? You have just figured out something about every finite
group with prime order in the whole universe :-) )

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Chapter 6

Normal subgroups and quotient groups

We have been studying cosets, and we found that they were very useful in
proving that the order of a subgroup is a divisor of the order of a group. An-
other way in which they are a powerful way of thinking is in forming new
groups called quotient groups. These are a crucial concept in Abstract
Algebra. Before we can talk about these we need to consider a special kind
of subgroup, called a normal subgroup.

If H is a subgroup of a group G, we previously defined left cosets of H in

G. In an analogous way, we can define right cosets of H in G:

Definition: Suppose that H is a subgroup of a group G and that a is some

element of G. Then Ha denotes the set {ha|h H}, and is called a right
coset of H in G.

102. (ex) Refer to questions 88, 89, and 90. In each case, determine all right
cosets of the given subgroup in the specified group.
Is is true or false that if H is a subgroup of a group G, then for all
a G, we have aH = Ha?

Definition: A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of

G if for all a G, aH = Ha.

103. (ex) Refer to questions 88, 89, and 90. In each case, say whether the
given subgroup is a normal subgroup of the specified group.
104. Suppose G is a group, and H a subgroup of G. Prove that H is normal
if and only if the following condition holds: for all h H, and for all
x G, xhx1 is in H.

Notice that the previous problem provides an equivalent way of defining

normal subgroups.

26
Normal subgroups and quotient groups 27

105. Prove or disprove as appropriate: If G is an abelian group, then every

subgroup of G is normal.

106. Let G be a group, and H a normal subgroup of G. Consider the collec-

tion of all left cosets of G. (So we are considering the set {aH|a G}
with elements that are sets.) Suppose that a1 , a2 , b1 and b2 are elements
of G with a1 H = a2 H, and b1 H = b2 H. Prove that (a1 b1 )H = (a2 b2 )H.
107. Let G be a group, and H a normal subgroup of G. Let G/H denote
{aH|a G}. Define an operation on G/H as follows: for aH and bH
in G/H, define (aH)(bH) to be (ab)H. Prove that this operation is
well defined. (The issue is that a coset aH may have different names.
If we use different names for the cosets we are multiplying, we want
to be sure that we still get the same coset as an answer.) (Note: G/H
is often read as G mod H.)

By the way, notice that normal subgroups were defined the way they were
precisely so that the operation on cosets would be well defined.

108. Suppose G is a group, and H a normal subgroup of G. Prove that the

set of cosets G/H with operation defined as in problem 107 is a group.

Definition: Suppose G is a group, and H a normal subgroup of G. The

group consisting of the set G/H with operation defined by (aH)(bH) =
(ab)H is called the quotient group of G by H. (Sometime the term factor
group is used in place of quotient group.)

Notice that we have developed a new way of constructing new groups from
existing groups. We will show in problems that follow that there is a deep
relation between factor groups and homomorphisms.

109. (ex) Consider the group G = Z20 and the normal subgroup H = h5i of
this group.
(a) List H.
(b) List the distinct left cosets of H in G.
(c) Draw up an operation table for the group G/H.
(d) By inspection, identify at least one familiar group that is isomor-
phic to G/H.
110. (ex) Consider the group G = D4 (symmetries of a square) and the nor-
mal subgroup H = {0 , 1 , 2 , 3 } of this group.
(a) List the distinct left cosets of H in G.
(b) Draw up an operation table for the group G/H.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org

Normal subgroups and quotient groups 28

(c) By inspection, identify at least one familiar group that is isomor-

phic to G/H.
111. Suppose G is a group, and H is a normal subgroup of G. Prove or
disprove as appropriate: If G is abelian, then G/H is abelian.

112. Suppose G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomorphism.

Prove that Ker( ) is a normal subgroup of G.
113. Suppose G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomorphism.
Let K denote Ker( ).

(a) Prove that if a1 K = a2 K for some a1 , a2 K, then (a1 ) = (a2 ).

(b) The fact you proved in part (a) allows us to define a new mapping
: G/K H by (aK) = (a) for all aK G/K. Prove that
is a homomorphism from G/K to H
114. Suppose that G and H are groups, and that : G H is a homomor-
phism. Prove that G/Ker( )
= (G). (The notation
= is shorthand for
is isomorphic to.)

In abstract algebra, one of the most common ways of showing that two
groups are isomorphic is by defining an appropriate homomorphism and
then deriving an isomorphism via G/Ker( ) = (G). Use this idea to do
the next problem:

115. Prove that Z/6Z = Z6 . (The notation 6Z denotes {n Z|n = 6m for

some m Z}.) (Hint: consider the function : Z Z6 defined by
(n) = n mod 6 for all n Z.)
116. Suppose G is a group, and H is a normal subgroup of G. Prove or
disprove as appropriate: If G/H is abelian, then G is abelian.
117. Suppose G is a group, and H is a normal subgroup of G. Prove or
disprove as appropriate: If G is cyclic, then G/H is cyclic.

Margaret L. Morrow www.jiblm.org