STUDY UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION

What is religion?

The sacred refers to things, people, places or events set apart from the ordinary by specific
group.
Beliefs include sacred stories(myths) and doctrines
Practises include rituals and festivals
Religion as an institution is to create a collective identity and to bind adherents together as a
unified group.
May also be used for justifying class, gender and colonial forms of discrimination and
exploitation. Sacred beliefs, practises and institutions are not innocent and neutral but
embody ethical values which are constitutive of contested power relations in society.
Religion may heal but also hurt human beings.

How do we study religion?

We distinguish between phenomenological and critical approaches:

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CRITICAL
Greek term Things as they appear Objective, positivistic claims of the
Individual makes own biases, to make no phenomenological method
judgement on the truth of any religion or Maintain study of religion can never
religious phenomenon. neutrally present phenomena as social
Feel empathy from the inside. facts.
May be considered emic. (Faithful on Claim often masks unequal - class,
insiders perspective) gender and power relations that work.
Karl Marx Views religion will be
redundant.
Sigmund Freud Believes religion is an
illusion.
Feminists Explore forms of goddess
worship to affirm them.
Post colonial approaches To rectify this
dehumanizing scholarly tradition.
Human rights Norms necessary for
flourishing in the human world. People
have rights.

Why study religion today and major phases in religion:

Religion is a historic discipline.

Palaeolithic/Old Stone Age Earliest ancestors. Arranged corpses in special way for burial.
Beginning of rock art.
Neolithic/New Stone Age Herding and agriculture. Believed in nature, animals and
ancestral spirits

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 Axial Age Turning/Pivotal era. Initiated by revolutionary thinkers and religious founders.
Medieval period Mystic devotion, characterized by the expression of intense longing to
become one with god or goddess.
Modern age Questioning the authority of religion on the basis of scientific discoveries.

Families of religion:

Asian religions Hinduism & Buddhism and then Confucianism & Daoism.
Abrahamic/Semitic religions Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

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STUDY UNIT: 2

AFRICAN INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS

The academic study of African indigenous religions

Indigenous refers to the claim to have been the first inhabitants of a territory

The religion of San hunter-gatherers

Earliest human inhabitants, since Neolithic times.

Distinguish between northern, southern a south-eastern San.
Could not understand each others language

Beliefs Spirit realm beyond the surface of the rock face. Believed in a spirit world inhabited by
strange rain, spirit animals, humans with eland or smaller antelope heads and cloven hoofs and
dangerous spirits of the dead.

Practises Trance dance. Men with rattles around their legs danced around for hours around a night
fire. Some entered the spirit realm through a trance.

Institutions & Values Males where hunters and the females gatherers. Shamans held special status.
Had no sacred scriptures but spread it through oral stories, songs, ritual dances and rock paintings.

History Khoi herders migrated southward and settled in Southern Africa. Bantu speaking farmers
settled in coastal parts of southern Africa. European colonist decimated the san hunter gatherers.

Nguni speaking villagers

Nguni speakers live among the east coast in beehive huts.

Sotho- Tswana speakers settled in the central parts of SA as well as Botswana

Beliefs - Supreme Being created and maintained everything. Did not require direct worship. In Sotho
languages know as: Modimo. In isiZulu u Mvelinqangi. Believed in a female deity or divine princess
Nomkhubulwane. Ancestral spirits, people who died and came back in spirit realm.

Practices Offerings to ancestral spirits. At birth mothers had to stay in isolation for 10 days.
Initiation marked the transition for adolescence to adulthood. Bridal wealth/lobola.

Seasonal festivals/ceremonies Four-day reed dance festival & annual harvest festival with sacrifice
of a bull.

Institutions and values Indigenous diviners. isangoma is believed to have special access to spirit
realm.

Oral transmission rather than sacred scriptures Told from one generation to the next.

History uNkulunkulu created male and females, black and white people. Black people land, white
people sea.

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STUDY UNIT 3

JUDAISM

The academic study of Judaism:

German school of thought Wissenchaft des Judentums which aimed to construct a counter history to
the prevailing Christian thought and culture, a semi-divine status to Jesus. Stand in opposition to
Christianity.

Basic believes:

1) Believe in one God The only creative cause of existence and everything has come into
existence by his will. Has 5 attributes.
2) The chosen people Exists between God and his people. God revealed commandments.
Served to suppress potential for evil.
3) The advent of a Messiah (Anointed one) - Expected to be human and descendant from the
house of David.

Practices:

Rites of passage - First rights op passage, most significant is circumcision of all males at the age of 8.
Symbolises covenant between Abraham and God and a commitment to Judaism. Second rite of
passage, Bar Mitzvah when boys reach 13. Third rite of passage, marriage, Mazel Tov.

Holy days and festivals

Sabbath Rest and worship (Seventh day)

Passover (Pesach) The deliverance of the Israelites from their slavery and bondage in
Egypt.
Feast of weeks (Shavuot) Celebrated 50 days after Passover.
New Year (Rosh Hashanah) First and second days of the month Sep/Oct.
Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) Holiest. Tenth of Tishre at the end of the period of
penitence begun at the New Year.
Feast of tabernacles (Sukkot) Five days after Yom Kippur.
Feast of Dedication (Hanukah) Celebrated twenty fifth of the month of Kislev Nov/Dec.
The Feast of lots (Purim) Fourteen day of Adar Feb/Mar.

Worship:

- Basic prayer, Shema.

- Recite the Shema twice a day.
- Tefillin: Small boxes containing the Shema being strapped to left arm, which is close to heart,
and on the forehead, which is close to the mind and eyes.
- Symbolic objects: Prayer shawl decorated with tassels or fringes.

Dietary practices

- Very strict.

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 - Food allowed Kosher. Butchered in traditional way.
- Kashrut: Body of Jewish law, which deals with what foods, can be eaten and how it is
prepared.
- Pig meat is not permitted.
- Restrictions against meat and milk eaten together.
-

Institutions:

Based on an individual (Abraham) which expanded into tribes, establishing of a kingdom and resided
in the authority of the priesthood in the Temple in Jerusalem.

General assembly, edah. Edah is constituted of tribes, which later integrated territorial jurisdictions.
Then delineated into extended family, in the immediate community and in the territory of Israel.

Sacred texts (Scriptures):

Proclaims that God is the One and only God, and daily declares their love and obedience to him.

The torah (Law) First five books

The neviim (Prophets) Second main division.
The ketuvim (Writings) Third and final section.
The Talmud and the Midrash Two additional sources.

History:

Jewish biblical tradition God promised Abraham and his descendants a permanent
territory inhabited by Canaanites. Abraham and his family journeyed to Israel. After his
death, Moses came as the promised deliverer of Jews today.
Rise and development Downfall of Southern Kingdom and beginning of Diaspora, many
critics consider this period the end of biblical religion and the beginning of Judaism.
Medieval Judaism Jews found themselves under Muslim rulers. Jews became part of
golden society.
Judaism and the modern world End of fifteen century Jews had been expelled or
maltreated from every European nation.
Nazi, Adolf Hitler. Persecution and discriminated against Jews and killed 6 million of the
Jewish population.
Contemporary variations in Jewish groups Orthodox, reform, conservative,
reconstructionist.

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STUDY UNIT 4

CHRISTIANITY

Basic beliefs

Belief in one God Practise monotheism. God is seen as the creator of the universe and the
source of all life. Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit). The Son, Jesus Christ is the corner stone of
Christianity. He was crucified on the cross, arose on the third day and ascended to heaven to
be with the father. The Holy Spirit descended from heaven and cleanses sins.
Doctrine of incarnation Jesus, God assumed a human body. Christians believe that Jesus is
the Messiah that the Jews were anticipating.
Doctrine of reconciliation or atonement With the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, humanity is
atoned (compensate) for their original sins.
Creeds Apostles greed & The Nicene greed.

Practices (Rituals):

Rites of passage Roman catholic and eastern orthodox churches follow seven such rites of passage,
while Protestants follow mostly two/three of these.

1) Baptism First stage of initiation into Christian faith. Sprinkling of water on forehead.
2) Confirmation Children between 7-14. Parents vow to teach child ways of Christianity.
3) Penance/Confession The repentance of sins followed by forgiveness.
4) Eucharist/Holy communion Acts out last supper of Jesus and his disciples. Bread and wine,
symbol of Jesus blood and body.
5) Marriage Man and woman unite as one couple.
6) Holy orders Individuals get special roles in ministry.
7) Holy unction/Euchelaion Anointing with oil and heal sick.

Festivals (Holy days)

Earliest Christians worshipped on Saturdays in Jewish tradition however later traditions

worship on Sundays.
Advent Four weeks before Christmas.
Christmas Birth of Jesus Christ. 25 Dec.
Epiphany 12 Days after Christmas.
Easter Established according to the lunar calendar and vary from year to year.
Good Friday Crucifixion of Jesus
Ash Wednesday Forty days before Easter.
Lent Christians fast, abstain from certain food, or habit to be more aware of the need for
repentance.
Ascension Day Christ ascended to heaven.

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Institutions in Christianity:

Roman Empire had a Christian community headed by a bishop. Apostle Peter was the first Bishop of
Rome. Pope literally meaning papa/father.

Sacred texts in Christianity:

Christianity only religion that includes in it sacred texts the whole scripture of another religion,
namely the Jewish Bible (Called the Old Testament). Added to the Old Testament (Covenant made
with Moses) is the New Testament. The New Testament is a covenant made by Jesus and his
disciples.

The Old Testament Inherited the scripture from Greek speaking Jewish community known
as Septuagint. All the books in Hebrew text were recognized as divinely inspired. It also
accepted 7 other Jewish writings. Protestants consider these additional works as
Apocrypha.
The New Testament 27 writings were assembled. Comprises the four Gospels, which
record the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Followed by the book of Acts and many Epistles
(letters) written mostly by Paul to individuals or Christian communities.

The Christian Canon A flood of gospels and other literature forced Christians to make selections.
The Christian Bible only took it shape by the late 1400. Canon (Greek qaneh/reed) meaning
standard.

History:

Paul has often been referred to as the founder of Christianity. He was one of the spectators
at the stoning of Christian Martyr Stephen and joined in persecution of earlier Christian
groups. Paul however experienced a life changing encounter which convinced him that the
resurrected Jesus Christ was the true God.
He set out and established many Christian churches in the Roman Empire.
Gnosticism threatened Christians. Gnosticism believed that the earthly life of Jesus was a
spirit in human form and not an incarnation of the Supreme Being.
Christianity in middle Ages Pope Urban II appealed to Christians in 1905 to fight a holy
war to regain the places held sacred by Christians. These military expeditions were known
as the Crusades.
Martin Luther gave rise to Protestantism.
Major movements Three major branches: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and
Protestant.

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STUDY UNIT 5

ISLAM

The academic study of Islam:

Islamic studies came from Orientalism (Study of text and ideas). Islam claims its space in the public
sphere as both a spiritual quest and group identity.

Basic beliefs in Islam:

The basic articles of faith, which consist of belief in one God, predestination, and eschatology and
the five pillars of Islam.

Belief in One God

Similar to Judaism and Christianity follows Monotheism (Believe in one God)

Allah is alone as divine figure. Aided by other figures and angels who are his messengers.
Iblis, evil. Fallen angel.

Doctrines of predestination All humans are the creation of Allah and must be obedient to him.

Doctrine of eschatology According to the Quran when a person dies the body returns to earth and
the soul goes to sleep until the day of resurrection. On this day the angel of Allah will sound its
trumpet, the earth will split and all the bodies will rejoin their souls.

The five pillars of Islam:

1. Repetition of the creed (shahadah) Most common religious act.

2. Daily prayer (salaht) Expected to pray 5 times daily.
3. Almsgiving (zakaht) Expected to share their possessions with those less fortunate.
4. Fasting (sawn) Ramadan Muslims must abstain from eating, drinking, smoking and
engaging in sexual relations while daylight hours.
5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) Pilgrimage to Mecca

Practises (Rituals)

Rites of passage:

Birth Special prayer know as adman. Baby is given a taste of something sweet. Seven days
after birth the parents name the child, shave the hair off his head and offer a sacrifice
Circumcision Muslims practice circumcision.
Marriage Woman and man declare their commitment to one another. Also known as
nikah.
Death Body of deceased s washed with water and burial follows shortly after with a prayer.
Laid to rest on their right side facing Mecca.

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Holy days and festivals:

Friday Day of prayer

Ramadan Fast
Feast of Fast breaking (id al Fitl) Celebrated after fast, first day of Shawwal. Feast of
Sacrifice (Id al-Adha) Head of household kills and animal as sacrifice.
Muharram Muslim New Year
Mawlid an-Nabi (Birthday of Prophet Mohammed)

Purification rituals:

Bathing (ghusi) & ablution (wudu) Performed with water that is clean.
Dry Ablution (tayammum) In exceptional causes, using sand or dust.

Institutions in Israel:

Mosques Serves as places of worship but also as schools and libraries.

Madrasah Also developed later.

Sacred texts:

Called the Quran

Recorded by supporters and edited under Caliph Uthman
Respect scriptures of Judism and Christian, they believe Quran is the purest and final
essence.
Second most important is the literature part of Hadith (Tradition)

History:

Life of Prophet Muhammed

Orphaned after birth.

Angel Gabriel appeared to him giving his first revelation.
Began his mission by proclaiming the message of the Oneness of Allah.
He unified the Arab tribes.
Caliphs were the first friends.

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Introduction to Asian religions

Jainism Universe was never created, nor does it exist.

Sikhism Basic tenets, monotheism, considers Muslim doctrine and agrees with Hinduism.
However not two religions in one!
Confucianism Ethical and philosophical system is named after Kung Fu-tzu, a philosopher.
Taoism Concerned with private spiritual vision.
Shinto Primed in Japanese society.

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STUDY UNIT 6

HINDUHISM

Most Hindus live in India. Hinduism was the internal way, Sanatana Dharma

Beliefs (Central beliefs)

Dharma (Universal law) Believe in cosmic-law. All actions should be in line with thoughts.
Karma (Law of action) Do good things and good things will follow. Do bad things and bad
things will happen.
Samsara (To wander) Cycle of rebirth
Moksha (Liberation) Seen as the single goal of humanity.

History:

Early Hinduism was polytheistic (Believe in many gods)

One of their languages Sanskrit.
Word Hindu Ocean; ref to great Indus River where Pakistan is now.
Upanishads and the epic texts began Hinduism
Worshipping their gods involved a process called darshana.
3 gods : Creation (Brahma), Sustenance (Vishnu) & Destruction (Shiva)

Practises:

Social classes (veda): Brahmin(Priest), Kshatriyas (soldiers, admin, rulers), Vaishyas

(subsistence farmers, merchants), Shudras (manual workers).
Changing stages of personal lives (asrama)

Student - brahmacarya Gradual withdrawal vanaprastha

Householder - grhastha Total withdrawal samnyasa
Three marga : Jnana (Way of knowledge), Bhakti (Way of devotion and Karma (Way of
works).
Jnana is the study of Vedanta.

Festivals and rituals:

Upanayana Boys ages 8, 11, 12 undergo a ritual which lets the study Veda.
Marriage Marriages are mostly arranged by fathers of the bride and the groom ensuring
marriage remains under patriarchal control.
Birth Before birth, couples consult a priest who tells them when they can conceive.
Funeral rites (Antyesti) Body cremated. Wear white clothing at the funeral and white
flowers at ceremony.

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 Divali(Deepavali) Row of lights. Sep Oct.
Holi Feb/Mar
Krishna Janmashtami Incarnation of Vishnu as Lord Krishna.
Navarati Know as festival of nine lights. Sep/Oct.
All worship takes place in the form of bhakti.
Pilgrimage This form of worship is optional.

Sacred scriptures:

Two categories of scriptures: Shruti & Smriti. Shruti means what is heard.

Shruti Rig-VVeda, Yajur-Eda, Sama-Veda, Atharva-Veda.

Two stages of development : Samhita(Rhytmical hymms) and Brahmana (How ceremonies
should be conducted).
Other major texts : Aranyakas/Forest Books.
Smriti The Dharma-shastra (codes of law), The Itihasas (epics), The Puranas (legends) & the
Darshanas (philosophical texts).
Yoga (Devotion, action, knowledge)

Today, Hindus are found throughout the world. In South Africa Hinduhism developed to its own
degree. The case of Mohatma Gandi presents a very good example of how Hindus in the diaspora
have contributed to the development of the idea of Hinduhism as a unified religion in the modern
age.

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STUDY UNIT 7

BUDDHISM

Beliefs:

Buddhist agree that there are states if existence more refined and longer lived than the
merely human.
Buddist believe that we live more than once, and pass on from one body to the next.
(rebirth)
Buddha was called the teacher of men and of gods.
Four noble truths: (1)Life is unsatisfactionary, (2) Unhappiness is caused by desire, (3) If we
remove the desire, the unhappiness will also disappear (4) Practical steps into removing
happiness Behaviour, meditation, insights.

Practises:

Practise is supporting the monks with food and clothing, making pilgrimages or visiting
places in history.
No sinlge calendar or festivals.

Institutions:

Becoming a Buddhist Nothing, if you say you are a Buddhist, you are.
Becoming a monk Long training hours. May wear a robe. Typical monastic hairstyle. Monks
have to give up sex. Monks live purely on charity and people providing for them.
Becoming a nun Nuns are less highly regarded as monks.
Monasteries and retreat centres Centre of Buddhist life. Country side and still
surroundings.

Scriptures (Tipitaka/Pali Canon):

Vinaya Pitaka Rules of conduct.

Sutta Pitaka Stories of life of Buddha
Abhidhamma Pitaka Higher reaches of Buddhist thoughts.
Northern texts.

History:

Budhism has a founder : Saiddharta Gautama.

Birth had been prophesised.
If he would ever become aware of sickness, suffering and death, then he would renounce
the throne.
Resolved not to come home until he figured out if there was a way out of the cyce of life and
death. He studied and meditated.
He got on by little food, held postures to specifically designed to produce pain.

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 For years he tried to find the answer, Why was there suffering?
He died at the age of 80.
Chinese word for Buddah is Fo
There are no pictures or scriptures of the Buddha that were made during his lifetime.
Buddhist artwork is symbolic by a footprint or a wheel.
32 marks of the superior man Can only be seen by the spiritually advanced.

Some Taoist traditions have adapted him as one of the immortals. The Chinese god of happiness.

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STUDY UNIT 8

RELIGION IN THE MODERN ERA

Referred to as : New Religious Movements (NRM) Not cults.

All religions have once gone through a NRM phase.

Non-belief:

Diagoras, Democritus & Protagoras, Greek philosophers, deny gods.

Philosphical school called, Carvaka, by modern standard be called atheist.
Atheism Does not believe god/s exist.
Agnosticism no knowledge. People not sure if Gods exist.
Humanism Older term, embraces both atheism and agnostics.
Civil religion The way a society uses rituals to maintain its cohesiveness and unity.

Atheist dont believe in a god but they have books from authors like, Robert Ingersoll who wrote the
book the Great Agnostic. Bertrand Russell also atheist spokesman, wrote book Why I am not a
Christian

Atheism is now accepted as a valid lifestyle, though some atheist may turn back to religion later.

The BahaI Faith:

Founded in Iran by Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri: Spent many years in imprisonment, but was
allowed to write.
Unity is the central birth of the BahaI faith
According to Baha, any religion which leads to harmony and peace is a true religion. Devine
messengers are sent through time to deliver Gods message.
Believe a new messenger will come to preach the divine messenges and that we will
understand them.
Acceptance of both sexes, all races and nationality
Bahais over the age of 15 are expected to pray daily, must be set out in adnvance and not in
the spur of the moment and also expected to do a 19 day fast.
Siyyid Ali Muhammed Shirazi, aka the Bab claimed to be the first Mahdi (messianic figure) .
We know of atleast 25 such figures.
Bahais have to some extend fallen to the temptation of painting their history as a uniform
march of the truth.
The Bahais was placed under the stewardship of its black membership. They are now able
to have radically integrated administrative tools.

Mormonism:

Aka Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Mormons.

Uneasy relationship with mainstream Christianity.
Added a third testament to Christian Bible.(Book of Mormon)

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 Believe they are the best Christians, the only true Christians.
They believe a family here on earth may be sealed. This family will then be reunited in the
afterlife.
There are different destinations for people who has lived different kinds of life. Very few
people go to hell.
Ultimate aim, to become so close to God and become a God yourself.
To make process after death, you have to be bpatised as a Mormon. Thhey pray, sing hymns
and attend stake(church). Practise polygamy (husband has more than one wife). US Utha
state remains a strong Mormon presence. Had white members only up until 1978, had
negative impact into Africa.
Started out as a radical movement and earlier followers literally feared for their lives.

Wicca:

Pagan revival
Brings back religions that died out long ago.
Based on Celtic roots and rituals.
Female dominated religion. Worships both a god and a goddess.
Wiccans will insist that witch is an old word for wise one.
Reincarnation is commonly believed in.
Ceremonial magic is important.
Believed human beings have the power to influence nature and other people directly
through rituals.
Wiccans celebrate Samhain (Halloween) on 31 Oct in the Northern hemisphere and 30 Apr in
the southern hemisphere.
Wiccans have no scripture.
Wicca arrised from Gerald Gardner.

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NATIONAL POLICY ON RELIGION AND EDUCATION

The South African Schools Act (Act 94 of 1996) upholds the constitutional rights of all citizens to
freedom of conscience, religion, though, belief and opinion, and freedom from unfair discrimination
on any grounds whatsoever, including religion, in public education institutions.

Establishes religion friendly basis for Religion Education. Encourages practise of religion
during school hours and extra-curricular activities.
By creating a free open space for exploration, the policy shows respect for the different
ways of life.
Designed for adversity. So everyone will know and understand the different views of world
wide citizens.
Support unity without uniformity of religious and diversity without divisiveness.
Works together with the state and school by maintaining a impartiality in the activities of the
school, but encouraging interaction outside of this.

4 Models for structuring the relationship between religion and the state:

Theocratic Identifies the state with one particular religion or religious grouping.
Repressionist Based on the premise that the state should act to suppress religion.
Separationist Model for the secular state.
Co-Operative Separate spheres for religion.

Values & priorities:

Equity: Must aim at national democratic culture with respect for the value of all of our
peoples cultural and religious traditions.
Tolerance: Must contribute to interpersonal respect among adherents of different religious
views.
Diversity Promoting multi-religious knowledge, understanding and appreciation of al
religions in South Africa.
Openness No overt or covert attempt to make children believe into any particular religion
or belief.
Accountability Recognised as resources for learning and nation building.
Social honour Institutions cannot allow the overt or covert denigration of any religion or
secular world view.

Religion Education:

Curricular program with clear and age appropriate educational aims and objectives for
teaching and learning about religion, religions and diversity in South Africa.
Religious education with educational outcomes is the responsibility of the school.
Religion education should include learning about other religions of the world and place
adequate on value and morals.
When we provide children with educationally sound programmes they will gain a deeper
and broader understanding of the life orientations, worldviews, cultural practises and ethical
resources of humanity.

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 Confessions or sectarian forms of religious instruction in public schools are inappropriate for
a religious diverse and democratic society.
Religious Education doesnt favour one religion but it is a programme for studying about
religion in its many forms.
Seek to realise the benefits of a coherent (equal) education programme in the study of
religion.
Religious education can provide opportunities for both a deeper sense of self-realisation and
a broader civil acceptance of others.
Pupils can increase their understanding of themselves and others deepen their capacity for
empathy and eventually develop powers of critical reflection in thinking through problems
of religious or moral concern.

The policy is about the equality of all religions before the law; whether all religions are equal and
true in a religious or philosophical sense falls outside of the scope of its policy.

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