1st edition

FiBLDOSSIER
No. 2 September 2001

Plant Breeding
Techniques

An Evaluation for
Organic Plant Breeding

In cooperation with:
Seeds form the basis for agricultural
production, but most organic growers
Introduction
know little about how their seedstocks It is important that breeding, multiplication, and mainte-
have been produced. Within the organic nance techniques are identified and examined to assess their
compatibility with the technical, ethical and environmental
movement the discussion on the com- objectives of organic agriculture. This process will assist the on-
patibility of plant breeding techniques going national and international discussions on this topic and
has been accelerated by the public dis- will also be of value in light of the requirement for all organic
producers to use organic seed by 2004 (EU Regulation 2092/91).
cussion on genetic engineering. This The issue of plant breeding techniques and their compatibil-
decision-making is important to develop ity with organic farming is complex due to the range of tech-
a framework for organic plant breeding niques available balanced against the different demands for
variety and crop performance. Appropriate organic plant breed-
and facilitate investment by breeding ing will serve to develop improved varieties for organic systems
companies. without jeopardising the ethical and environmental integrity of
This dossier explains all standard tech- organic agriculture.
Currently, only the use of varieties obtained by genetic engi-
niques used in modern plant breeding neering is forbidden in organic agriculture across Europe (EU
and why they have been developed. The Regulation 2092/91). The regulation requires also that parent
consequences of not allowing certain plants of annual crops have to be grown at least for one genera-
tion under organic conditions, while biannual plants and peren-
techniques for organic plant breeding nials have to be grown for at least two generations under orga-
are outlined, along with suggestions for nic conditions. Figure 1 should help to understand the definition
alternative techniques that could be of organic seeds and organic varieties and to distinguish the
different levels of breeding, maintenance, and multiplication.
adopted. The aim of this dossier is to provide information on plant
breeding techniques currently used to help the debate shaping
the future of organic plant breeding. Therefore, the mechanism
of standard breeding and multiplication techniques is explained
with the aid of simple graphics. In addition, the actual applica-
tion, the consequences of a rejection of a technique and the alter-
natives are described. As a guideline for determining the suita-
bility of breeding and multiplication techniques for organic
breeding, criteria are formulated in the last part of this dossier.

Figure 1: Overview on the different levels of breeding, maintenance, and multiplication.

Genetic engineering Conventional plant breeding Organic plant breeding

Breeding
of varieties
GMO varieties Conventional varieties Organic varieties

Maintenance under Maintenance under Maintenance

conventional conditions organic conditions of varieties

Multiplication under Multiplication under

conventional conditions organic conditions1 Multiplication
of seeds and vegetative
Conventional seed and vege- Organic seeds and vegetative multiplication material
tative multiplication material multiplication material

Allowed 2 if organic
Prohibited To be used if available 2
material is not available

1 Parent plants of annual crops have to be grown at least for one generation under organic conditions, while biannual plants and perennials have
to be grown for at least two generations under organic conditions.
2 These are the demands of the EU Regulation 2092/91 until the end of 2003. By 2004 organic producers will have to use only organic seeds
and vegetative multiplication material.

2
The need for organic plant breeding
Over the last fifty years plant breeding has largely developed Undoubtedly, the aims of some modern breeding programs
in response to the demands of intensive agricultural produc- and organic breeding programs have certain similarities.
tion, striving for increased yields, storability and cosmetic per- However, a number of considerations are particularly important
fection under a system of management based on artificial fer- for developing varieties suited to organic conditions:
tiliser nutrition and the use of pesticides. Until now, organic
farmers have made use of these traditionally bred varieties but optimal adaptation to local climate and nutrient dynamics
the question being asked more and more regularly is do these nutrient efficiency
varieties truly fulfil the needs of organic production? Are the durable resistance and tolerance against pests and
seeds and vegetative multiplication material, usually results of diseases
traditional and conventional breeding programs, adapted to the yield stability
conditions of organic agriculture? And, what do consumers storability
expect from an organic variety? Healthy, tasty, and unique prod- nutritional and sensorical quality
ucts?
Furthermore, the quality of organic products is not simply Organic plant breeding aims should be defined on a crop by
determined by what they are, but also by taking into account crop bases involving farmers, breeders, traders, and consumers.
how these crops have been produced. This aspect should also be
considered when judging breeding lines for agricultural and
horticutural production.

Plant breeding and multiplication techniques

How does plant breeding and multiplication work
In general, plant breeding can be described as the total of
Inducing variability
activities to improve the genetic properties of a cultivated crop.
with other varieties or wild plants
A breeder develops a new variety with one or more specific
aims. Therefore, he has to search for parental plants (other vari-
eties or wild relatives) with the desired traits. To obtain plants Selection of parental lines
with the combination of desired characteristics the breeder with desired properties
makes crosses with the parental plants. The result of a cross is a
large number of seeds with different genetic make-up (popula-
Crossing parental lines
tion). In the next plant generations the breeder has to select for
individual plants with the best combinations. To facilitate selec- to combine desired properties
tion he has different techniques available, the choice of which
will depend on the crop (self pollinator, cross pollinator, or Selection of plants
plant with vegetative multiplication) and the traits he selects for. for desired traits
In official field trials the usefulness of the new varieties will
be compared to existing standard varieties. If the new variety is
distinguishable from all other varieties and its appearance is Official testing of the new variety
uniform and stable enough over time the breeder will maintain in field tests
and multiply it for the market.
Maintenance
for the purity of the variety

Multiplication
for marketable seeds or transplants

3
General distinction of breeding techniques
Plant breeding is characterised by three main steps: Table 1 gives an overview of all techniques and helps with
colours and symbols to lead through this booklet. Techniques
Induction of variation by creation of crosses or by variation- operating at the plant level are carried out with plants in their
inducing treatments natural compartment, the soil, while techniques on cell and
Selection of desired traits in new varieties DNA level are applied under laboratory conditions before the
Propagation and multiplication of breeding lines resulting varieties are tested under field conditions. Some cell
techniques and especially DNA techniques enable the crossing
At each step different techniques can be applied. We can gen- of natural barriers.
erally distinguish between plant breeding and multiplication All cell- and tissue culture techniques rely on the capacity of
techniques which have an impact at: plant cells to grow on synthetic growth media and to differen-
tiate upon stimulation with the appropriate mix of added plant
plant/population level hormones. All plant material needs to be surface sterilized and
cell/tissue level grown aseptically to avoid contamination with microbes.
DNA level

Table 1: Breeding and multiplication techniques at which step of the breeding process (inducing variation,
selection, multiplication) and at which level (plant, cell, DNA) do they take place.

Plant/population level Cell/tissue level DNA level

Combination breeding Anther/microspore culture Genetic engineering

Crossing varieties In vitro pollination DNA-transfer:
Inducing variation

Bridging crosses Ovary/embryo culture PEG-mediated transfer

Repeated back-crossing Polyploidisation Electroporation
Temperature treatment Protoplast/cytoplast fusion Micro-injection
Cutted/grafted style Somaclonal variation Particle gun transfer
Mentor pollen technique Agrobacterium treatment
F1-Hybrid breeding
Mutation induction

Mass selection In vitro selection Marker-assisted selection

Pedigree selection
Site determined selection
Change in environment
Selection

Change in sowing time

Ear bed method
Indirect selection
Test crosses

Generative multiplication In vitro multiplication

Vegetative multiplication Meristem culture
Partitioned tubers Somatic embryogenesis
Multiplication

Scales, husks,
partitioned bulbs
Brood buds, bulbils
Offset bulbs, etc.
Layer, cut and graft shoots
Rhizomes
Apomixis

4
 In the following chapters, breeding techniques will be The use of genetically modified organisms is prohibited in
described starting from methods that are applied on the plant or organic agriculture (EU regulation 2092/91 on organic agricul-
crop level down to the level of tissue, cells and DNA. The tech- ture). Therefore, no details are given on these techniques within
niques on cell and DNA level are the most controversial for this booklet. DNA diagnostic techniques, which enable selection
organic plant breeding. These so-called in vitro techniques at DNA level, are not necessarely related to genetic engineering
have become increasingly common in conventional plant breed- because they do not involve the genetic modification of crop
ing and are the basis of breeding for quite a large number of veg- DNA. Therefore, these techniques could be considered for
etable, flower, and cereal crops. However, one can argue that organic plant breeding and are explained within this booklet. In
these techniques may not be appropriate for organic agriculture addition, the technique of protoplast fusion, which is related to
as there is no direct contact between the plant and the soil dur- genetic engineering because it can involve transfer of large
ing the process. For each in vitro technique the Pros and pieces of chromosomes from alien species, is also considered.
Cons, The consequences of rejection, and the Alternatives
to this technique are given in addition to the Approach and
Application. Within The consequences of rejection two dif-
ferent levels are distinguished:
Consequences on variety level: the rejection of a technique
prohibits the use of all varieties once bred with this tech-
nique.
Consequences on breeding level: the rejection of a technique
makes restrictions on future cultivars and breeding pro-
grammes.

A simplified story breeding and multiplication of tomatoes

The flower of a selected tomato plant is emas- while pollen of an other selected tomato The pollen is then transferred on to the style
culated plant is collected. for fertilisation. This crossing induces varia-
tion.
Photos: Jan Velema, Vitalis Biologische Zaden BV

Offsprings are selected for different criteria After a long period of testing, the new variety to get seeds for the market.
like resistance to diseases, taste, or yield. is multiplied

5
 Techniques: approaches, application, alternatives

Techniques to induce variation at the plant/population level

variety A variety B variety

wild plant

variety A
B

Crossing of wheat: preparation of the flower

(emasculation)

Combination breeding Crossing varieties

or species
Approach: Approach:
Crossing two genotypes of the same Crossing of plants with cultivars
species, for example two established from other climatic conditions, with
cultivars. Depending on the plant, wild relatives, or closely related species.
whether it is asexually propagating, self- Basically, there is a limit to the ability of
pollinating or cross-pollinating, various one plant to fertilise a plant of another
generations are propagated and selected species but, breeders have developed a
after the cross. number of methods to get around these
cross limitations, for instance treatment
of the flower or rescue of embryos.
Methods are described later in this
booklet which can be carried out in the
greenhouse or in the laboratory.

pollination by hand Application: Application:

Combination breeding is widely Widely used technique with varying
used to create variation in breeding success rates.
lines.
Photos: Gabriela Brndle, FAL

and protecting ears with little bags after

pollination.

6
 well-adapted
cultivar
not B
possible

B
cultivar with
(A
C)
B too many wild
characteristics
A
A
B
A
C
A
new!
C

Bridging cross Repeated back-crossing Temperature treatment

of the style
Approach: Approach: Approach:
A method of bypassing an incom- Species crosses may result in proge- Exposing the plant or the style to
patibility barrier between two species or ny that have too many wild characteris- higher temperatures for a certain period
genotypes by using a third species or tics making direct selection for valuable of time may break down some of the
genotype, which is partly compatible traits impossible. In these cases, repeat- incompatibility barriers in the style.
with each of them, in an intermediate ed back-crossing with a well-adapted After the temperature treatment, the
cross. The wild plant is first crossed cultivar may eliminate some of the wild pollen may succeed in working its way
with another (wild) species, its progeny and/or exotic traits, finally producing a down through the style to the ovary.
is selected for the desired characteristic genotype that is highly similar to the
and these are then crossed with the cul- cultivar but with the additional desired
tivar. characteristic. A breeder must usually
make three or four back-crosses before
being able to switch to pedigree selec-
tion (see page 15).

Application: Application: Application:

Used in cases where the desired Repeated back-crossing is always Mostly used in ornamental plants
characteristic is easy to select. Making applied when a desirable new trait is (e.g. lilies).
bridging crosses is a time-consuming incorporated into an existing variety. It
process. Once the characteristic has has already proven its value for a great
been incorporated in the cultivar, a number of varieties which have gained a
number of back-crosses are needed to high tolerance to biotic and abiotic
rogue out as many undesirable 'wild stress. Examples are the introduction of
characters' as possible. race-specific resistance genes against
fungal pathogens in lettuce, tomatoes,
and many cereals.

7
 B
B
A
B

A
B A
B

A B A A
B
A A
A A

Cut style Grafting on the style Mentor pollen technique

Approach: Approach: Approach:

This method is used when pollen This method can be used when The mentor pollen technique can be
grains germinate on the stigma, but can- pollen fails to germinate on the stigma used to solve recognition and growth
not grow far enough into the style, so that of the female plant. Pollen is first problems. To this end, pollen from the
the ovary is never fertilised. Sometimes applied to the stigma of a plant of the desired male parent is mixed with
fertilisation can be achieved by cutting same species, so that it germinates effec- pollen from the same species as the
(part of) the style of the female plant and tively and the pollen grows into the maternal plant. The latter's pollen has
applying pollen, mixed with stigma juice, style. The style is then cut off, just below been partially inactivated by irradia-
to the surface of the cut. The pollen tube the point reached by the pollen germ tion; it still germinates but does not fer-
now has only a short distance to grow, tubes, and grafted on a cut style of the tilise. The mentor pollen germ tubes
increasing the chance of fertilisation. desired female plant. When the two 'guide' the pollen germ tubes from the
styles have joined, the pollen germ tubes desired male parent to the ovary, which
continue down the style of the female is fertilised by the pollen. Mentor pollen
plant and fertilises the ovary. which has not been irradiated, and
which has thus retained its vigour, may
also be used but is less efficient, because
it competes with the pollen of the
desired parent.

Application: Application: Application:

This method is suitable only for For practical reasons, the method is This technique is mainly used in the
some plants, such as ornamentals with a only feasible for plants with a fairly long breeding of ornamentals.
long style. Seed is only likely to be and thick style and is mainly used for
formed if the two species are closely ornamental plants such as lilies.
related.

8
 repeated repeated
inbreeding inbreeding

A A inbred B inbred B

F1 A
B

F1 hybrid breeding

Approach: Pros and Cons:

Hybridisation is a way of achieving highly uniform and Pros: - uniform and productive crops.
productive varieties. Parental lines (of cross pollinators) have - built-in product protection as an economic guarantee
to be inbred for a number of generations to obtain homozy- for breeders.
gous lines. The F1 hybrid (the hybrid variety) is the result of a Cons: - multiple inbreeding of parental lines can lead to
cross between two homozygous inbred lines. These inbred plants which would not survive under organic condi-
lines sometimes have reduced vigour but, their progeny (F1 tions.
hybrids) is highly uniform and vigorous due to heterosis. The - no useful seeds can be obtained from hybrids and
F1 hybrid represents the new variety and is sold to the client. therefore, farmers are forced to buy new seeds.
Therefore, large numbers of seed need to be produced by fer- - the nutritional value of hybrids is controversially dis-
tilisation of the inbred maternal line with the pollen of the cussed.
inbred paternal line. In plants where male and female inflores-
cence are physically separated (monoecious), the male inflo- Consequences of a rejection:
rescence is removed mechanically (e.g. maize). Other crops are At variety level: a total rejection of F1 hybrids for all crops
manually emasculated or cytoplasmatic male sterility (CMS) is would make vegetable crop production difficult for the
introduced in the maternal line through crossing or protoplast next 5 to 15 years because many established varieties would
fusion (for details see protoplast fusion). So-called Restorer have to be replaced. If restrictions are limited to CMS
lines without male sterility, which have the same genetic make- hybrids without Restorer gene, a small number of vegetable
up as the maternal line, are used to maintain the female line. varieties (leek, cabbage) would not be available for organic
In seed-producing crops, these Restorer genes are also present agriculture (see also protoplast fusion).
in paternal lines, so that the resulting F1 hybrid can produce At breeding level: time consuming breeding programmes
fertile pollen and set seed. have to be established to get varieties with similar proper-
Due to the heterozygous nature of the F1-hybrid seeds, the ties and new regulations to protect breeders work have to
progeny of these plants will be highly heterogeneous (segrega- be established.
tion of favourable traits). It is therefore unlikely that seeds
from a F1-hybrid crop will give the same quality and yield as Alternatives:
the seeds bought from the breeding company (built-in prod- Quality and yield improvement can be achieved by pedi-
uct protection). Farmers are thus forced to buy new seed every gree and mass selection among open pollinated varieties. If F1
year and this economical aspect is the main reasons why hybrid selection is judged as a technique that is not suitable for
hybrids are so popular with breeders. organic breeding in the future, all other traditional tech-
niques have to be evaluated crop by crop to start special organ-
Application: ic breeding programmes.
Widely used technique in many crops (vegetables, maize,
rye, sunflower).

9
 Techniques to induce variation
at the cell/tissue level
Microspore culture

cut and
centrifugate

Anther culture
microspores
on medium

colchicine

haploid haploid diploid

embryo plant plant

Mutation induction Anther and microspore culture

Approach: Approach:
New traits often arise through mutations or changes in Immature anthers or pollen grains are cultivated in vitro
DNA. Mutations may occur spontaneously (e.g. by exposure to to induce pollen grains to develop into multicellular struc-
sunlight, cold or heat, radicals) during cell division or may be tures, particularly into embryos, with a single set of chromo-
provoked by exposing plants to irradiation or chemical agents. somes (haploid plants). When such haploid embryos or plants
Most mutations are recessive and as such are not directly visi- are treated with chromosome doubling agents, e.g. colchicine,
ble in the treated plant. However, after selfing, the mutated their normal chromosome number is restored (and thus their
genotypes may be identified in the progeny, when two reces- fertility) and the obtained plants are pure (homozygous or
sive alleles are combined in one plant. inbred) lines. In some cases chromosome doubling occurs
spontaneously during in vitro culture.
Application: Culture of microspores (pollen grain) is actually a further
Some examples of genetic variation through induced elaboration of anther culture. Rather than using whole
mutations are flower colour in ornamentals, some sweet cher- anthers, only the microspores are cultured.
ry varieties, and some dwarfing genes in cereals. Although
there is still a large selection of tried and tested mutagens on Application:
the market, this technique is not used frequently anymore. Anther and microspore culture is usually carried out at the
This method is often combined with in vitro selection for beginning of a breeding programme. These techniques are
resistance against salt, heavy metals, or toxic compounds. applied to obtain homozygous plants in a short time and are
commonly used to breed barley, crucifers, and solanum
Pros and Cons: species.
Pros: - rapid induction of variation when new traits are
needed. Pros and Cons:
Cons: - use of toxic substances or radiation. Pros: - time and work-saving to get homozygous lines for
- can be replaced by less hazardous techniques. hybridisation.
Cons: - laboratory technique using toxic substances.
Consequences of a rejection: - generative process is turned into a vegetative process
At variety level: if varieties which originate from induced
mutations were rejected, some varieties in different crops Consequences of a rejection:
(e.g. sweet cherries and ornamental plants) would be At variety level: some existing varieties of e.g. barley,
affected. However, it is not clear if the history of these Brussels sprouts, and pepper would be ruled out. It is not
varieties could be traced back. clear if the history of critical varieties can be traced back.
At breeding level: not an important loss. At breeding level: the more time-consuming inbreeding
must be used to get homozygous lines.

Alternatives: Alternatives:
Mutations also occur spontaneously and therefore, natural These techniques aim to simplify the process of selection
variation in cultivated and wild plants may be sufficient to and to accelerate the process to get homozygous lines for mak-
obtain the desired traits. However, crossing techniques usually ing F1 hybrids. However, no new characteristics are added to
result in a similar level of natural variation. the plant. From a genetic point of view, plants obtained
through the culture of anthers or microspores are identical to
inbred lines. Therefore, with more time and work almost the
same results could be achieved by traditional breeding.

10
 B ovary
culture
phytohormones

embryo
female
sexual organs

A embryo
culture
B

isolated ovaries embryo

A

In vitro pollination Ovary and embryo culture

Approach: Approach:
In crosses, for example between a cultivar and its wild rel- Despite successful fertilisation, an embryo may not devel-
ative, fertilisation sometimes fails, either because the pollen op into a mature seed. The purpose of ovary and embryo cul-
won't germinate or because it can't get to the ovary. Sometimes ture is to transfer the embryo to an artificial nutritional sub-
pollination and fertilisation can be achieved in vitro. Ovaries strate at an early stage, so that it need no longer depend on
or ovules are removed from the plants under sterile laboratory plant resources.
conditions and fertilised in vitro with pollen. Fertilisation In ovary culture, the entire ovary or slices of the ovary are
barriers between the stigma and the ovary can thus be over- placed on the substrate. The ovules swell and at a certain point
come. are removed from the ovaries and cultured independently. By
The cut style and grafted style methods (see cut style and this time, the ovules have in fact become seeds on a substrate,
grafting on the style) are also used in vitro. However, where they may germinate.
rather than being carried out on the whole plant they are car- In embryo culture, embryos are isolated from fertilised
ried out on isolated ovules cultured in a test tube or petri dish. flower buds and placed on a nutritive substrate to germinate.

Application: Application:
The technique is usually applied at the beginning of a Embryo culture (and ovary culture) is the most frequently
breeding programme which is aimed specifically at introduc- used technique to cross in resistance genes from (wild) closely
ing a certain character, for example a resistance gene from a related species. These techniques were often used for tomatoes,
(wild) closely related species, into a cultivar. More genetic sweet pepper, courgettes, lettuce, wheat, and a lot of other
combinations can be made than was previously possible. crops. 80 to 100% of the cultivars originate from one or the
However, the method has a low success rate, although this does other inter-species cross. More combinations can be achieved
depend strongly on the species used and the combinations than with standard crosses, since the first steps of embryogen-
made. It is mostly used for ornamental breeding. esis have been made on the plant and development is com-
pleted by growing the embryo on substrate.

Pros and Cons: Pros and Cons:

Pros: - improve the chances of overcoming natural barriers of Pros: - improve the chances of overcoming natural barriers of
crossing that could rarely occur in nature. crossing that could rarely occur in nature.
Cons: - forced crossing of natural barriers in artificial and Cons: - forced development of embryos under artificial and
sterile conditions. sterile conditions using synthetic phytohormones.

Consequences of a rejection: Consequences of a rejection:

At variety level: some varieties of ornamentals would have At variety level: most modern varieties of tomatoes and
to be ruled out. It is not clear if the history of critical many sweet pepper, lettuce, cereal and courgette varieties
varieties can be traced back. were bred using this type of technique and would be ruled
At breeding level: a rejection of this technique would be a out for organic agriculture.
minor restriction because there are alternative techniques. At breeding level: very time-consuming alternatives.

Alternatives: Alternatives:
The techniques cut style and grafting on the style Instead of embryo culture much more crossings would
could replace the in vitro pollination. have to be carried out. Instead of 50 crosses, more than 1000
would need to be done to get a few viable seeds. Alternatively,
different parents should be selected from stocks or the wild
accessions.

11
 normal cell division

cut leave

enzyme treatment
diploid colchicine 2 diploid
to dissolve cell walls
dissolves cells
spindles

proto-
plasts

tetraploid
chemical or
electric stimuli

Polyploidisation cell fusion

Approach: nucleus fusion

A plant cell typically has two copies of each chromosome
(diploid). A cell is polyploid if it has at least twice the normal
number of chromosomes (tetraploid). Polyploidy can occur
spontaneously or can be induced using chemicals such as Protoplast/Cytoplast fusion
colchicine. Normally, during cell division the spindle in the cell
ensures that each half of the set of chromosomes is reorgan- Approach:
ised into two new cells. Colchicine dissolves the spindle, so that Protoplasts are cells without a cell wall. These are obtained
the chromosomes remain in one cell and then duplicate by treating fragments of leaves with cell wall dissolving
(tetraploid cell). When small meristems or seed are treated enzymes. The protoplasts then grow a cell wall again and
with colchicine, they are likely to grow into a plant with a divide, resulting in a callus from which plants can regenerate.
completely doubled genome. Protoplasts of different plant species can be fused with chemi-
cal or electric stimuli (somatic hybridisation). During this
Application: fusion, the organelles of both plants (chloroplasts and mito-
Doubling the number of chromosomes is sometimes nec- chondria) are combined, while in crosses, only maternal
essary to restore the fertility of plants obtained through species chloroplasts and mitochondria are passed on to the progeny.
crosses or haploidisation. However, polyploidisation is also The resulting tetraploid fusion product has the characteristics
applied to get plants with a double set of chromosomes (pota- of both parent species. During regeneration the chromosomes
toes, clover, forrage grasses, ornamentals). These plants are and the organelles of both parents may be mixed, so that many
generally larger or more robust than plants with the normal combinations are produced. To avoid exchange of chromo-
number of chromosomes. They may therefore be more pro- somes, protoplasts can be treated in such a way that the nucle-
fitable or have a higher ornamental value. us is removed or fragmented. These so-called cytoplasts do
contain the organelles, but not the chromosomes of the donor
Pros and Cons: plant. In this way CMS (cytoplasmic male sterility) can be
Pros: - easy way to restore fertility of plants and to get larger transferred to other plant species. Breeding companies use dif-
and more robust varieties. ferent plant sources of CMS and have patents on the applica-
Cons: - use of a toxic substance (colchicine). tion of these kinds of CMS by describing the associated DNA
changes in mitochondrial genome.
Consequences of a rejection:
At variety level: since it is difficult to trace back the origin Application:
of the genome duplication, either spontaneous or chemi- In combining the maternal and paternal organelles, new
cally-induced, it is difficult to judge polyploid varieties. combinations are made. An example is male sterility, which is
However, for some crops it is known that colchicine was determined by organelles (mitochondria). This method was
used to develop parent lines (e.g. potatoes with Pallida used to transfer natural cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) of
resistance or tetraploid grasses). radish CMS to cabbage and of sunflower CMS to chicory. After
At breeding level: without polyploidisation it will be diffi- fusion, selection is directed at the cytoplasmic characteristic.
cult to restore fertility of some plant species. The protoplast method is used to insert complete chromo-
Alternatives: some fragments from an other less related species into a culti-
If necessary spontaneous polyploids can be selected for the var.
desired crop or ornamental.

12
 Photos: Michel Haring, University of Amsterdam
cells without nucleus
protoplasts
(cytoplasts)

chemical or
electric stimuli

cell fusion

new!

Pros and Cons:

Pros: - rapid way to get new combinations and traits which
would not be possible in nature.
Cons: - natural barriers are forced with this method which is
closely related to genetic engineering.

Consequences of a rejection:
At variety level: only a few modern cabbage, endive, leek, Protoplasts of tobacco.
and chicory varieties would be ruled out for organic agri-
culture if this technique was forbidden for organic plant
breeding.
At breeding level: protoplast fusion is not of great impor-
tance, yet. Goals of organic plant breeding can be achieved
without it. Cytoplast fusion is of great importance to
induce CMS.

Alternatives:
A hybrid breeding program for cabbage could also be
based on the self-incompatibility (hinders self-fertilisation) of
some cabbage species.

After fusion protoplasts are regenerated (green cultures).

13
Photo: Louis Bolk Institute Techniques for selection at the plant/population level

Mass selection: salads are selected for different

criteria (e.g. disease resistance) on test plots in
the field. Mass selection

Approach:
Mass selection is based on the ability to recognise desirable or undesirable traits
in plants of a population. What appear to be the best plants are maintained in bulk
(positive mass selection), while plants with too little of the desired characteristic are
eliminated (negative mass selection). Since selection is based on phenotype, the tech-
Photo: Michel Haring

nique is particularly effective for traits which are barely influenced by environmental
factors and which are not inherited as dominant or recessive traits but rather as com-
plex traits.

Application:
The technique is mostly applied during the early stages of a breeding programme,
when there is not enough representative plant- or seedstock for repeated testing,
when seedstock needs to be improved, or when little capital is available for a breed-
ing programme. However, breeding based only on mass selection is a lengthy process.
This is the selection method that most resembles natural selection.

Marker-assisted selection: evaluation of an

autoradiogram of a gel with DNA markers
(see page 18).

14
 A
B A
B

F1
F14

F2

F5

F3

F6

F4
Fn
Fn site adapted varieties

Pedigree selection Site-determined selection

Approach: Approach:
In pedigree selection, elite plant lines are developed from a The goal of this selection method is to select varieties,
single plant. Each selected plant is harvested separately and sometimes population varieties, which are optimally adapted
grown as distinct lines in the following year. Lines will only be to specific regional conditions. The parent lines are also select-
maintained following a favourable assessment of performance ed with the final growing site (region) of the crop in mind.
throughout the line. The best plants of the line will be identi- Crosses are carried out at a central location, where the F1 and
fied and their seed will again be harvested separately for the early generations (F2 to F4) are also sown. The F5 to Fn plants
next round. The selection is made on the basis of general are assessed and selected at different locations by means of
impressions (phenotype) and heredity of the desired charac- pedigree selection. This is a combination of natural selection
teristics (genotype). and artificial selection. In other words, environmental factors
determine which characteristics are expressed and which are
not and this may influence the breeder's selection of promis-
ing phenotypes.

Application: Application:
The pedigree method involves visual selection among indi- This method is applied especially in organic breeding
vidual plants in early generations. Because the pedigree programmes for cereals such as wheat, barley, rye and spelt.
method uses selection in each generation, each generation However, in theory it is also suitable for use with other crops.
must be grown in an environment where genetic differences
will be expressed (greenhouses and off-season nurseries may
not be useful). Pedigree selection produces new cultivars faster
than mass selection. The method is particularly appropriate
for self-pollinators.

15
 different geographical regions

different soil types spring autumn

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819 20 21 22 23 24

Change in environment Change in sowing time Ear-bed method

Approach: Approach: Approach:

Change of environment during the A change in the sowing time (early An ear-bed is a seedbed in which the
selection process is also called shuttle and late spring; early or late autumn) is grains from one ear are sown in the
breeding. This method is used to select usually applied to select for day-length same sequence in which they were
broadly adapted genotypes out of segre- insensitivity, reduced vernalisation arranged in the ear. Thus the plants in
gating populations. requirement, and yield and quality sta- the seedbed (ear-bed) reflect the quality
bility in different length of growth peri- of the original ear.
od.

Application: Application: Application:

This method can be used for self- This method can be used in self- This breeding method was devel-
and cross-pollinating crops. and cross-pollinating crops. oped by bio-dynamic plant breeders
Some bio-dynamic breeders also use Some bio-dynamic breeders consid- especially for cereals, but it may also be
this technique to induce variation and er this method to improve seed quality. used for other crops.
even to enhance the vigour of a variety. It is especially used in cereals.

16
 Techniques for selection at the cell/tissue level

A
B A
C A
D

F1 no good F1 no good F1 seeds after sowing in growing

mutagenesis a selective medium of tolerant mutants
A
B: good SCA
A: bad GCA

Test crosses

Approach:
Promising parental genotypes are
crossed with a number of other known
genotypes. Progeny is grown separately
and assessed for the desired characteris-
tics. The measurements are used to
determine General Combining Ability
(GCA) and Specific Combining Ability In vitro selection
(SCA), and these are needed if effective
crosses are to be made. Approach:
In vitro selection uses somaclonal variation or mutation induction to select
Application: plants with new traits. For example, to obtain plants with a high tolerance to salt,
In breeding, it is not enough merely selection occurs in a saline environment. This can be done by treatment of individ-
to select the best cultivars, but parents ual plant cells that are growing in tissue culture or by treatment of seeds and subse-
with good crossing ability must also be quent germination on selective growth medium. Selection for resistance to diseases
available, so that a number of impor- and pests can also be carried out in vitro. The pathogen, or a toxin produced by the
tant characteristics are combined and pathogen, is applied to the plants under controlled conditions.
passed on to progeny. This is especially
crucial for asexually propagated plants Application:
and hybrids. Test crosses are asking This technique is used to screen many plants or cells for one specific characteris-
extensive testing facilities and are time tic. It is a sort of pre-selection to reduce the number of plants to be tested in the field.
consuming. However, they are an After in vitro selection plants are always tested under field circumstances to observe
investment in the future. the expression of the characteristics in the open field. Plants resulting from this selec-
tion process may be marketed directly as a new variety (after in vitro multiplica-
tion) or they may be used as a parent in further breeding programmes.

Pros and Cons:

Pros: - cheap way to pre-select plants and reduce the number of plants to be tested
in the field.
Cons: - the artificial and sterile conditions in the laboratory do not help to select for
organic conditions.

Consequences of a rejection:
At variety level: some varieties of different crops would be ruled out for organic
agriculture if this technique were to be prohibited in organic breeding. In vitro
selection can not be identified in the product and can therefore not be controlled.
At breeding level: more time-consuming selections in the field would be needed.

Alternatives:
Similar selection for specific characters could be done with the above mentioned
techniques of selection in the field, but they are much more time consuming. On the
other hand, selection in the field helps to find plants adapted to a broader range of
environmental factors.

17
Techniques for selection at the DNA level

restriction enzyme cutting DNA sequence GA elite hybrid parent wild species

GAATTC GAATTC GAATTC GAATTC GTATC GAATTC

DNA sequence variety A DNA sequence variety B

1/10
two DNA fragments one DNA fragment
linked with trait A linked with trait a
selected with DNA marker

1/50
marker for a
marker for A selected with DNA marker

1/100
AA Aa aa new hybrid parent

genotype
selected with DNA marker

Marker-assisted selection

Approach: selection is that a marker is found that is closely linked to a

Biochemical and molecular techniques are often used in desired characteristic. It requires an extensive genetic mapping
direct selection. Polymorphism of plants is fixed at different programme before this technique can be used in a breeding
levels: the molecular, biochemical, and phenotypic level. On programme. The molecular markers that are developed by
biochemical level some plant proteins (enzymes) can have a breeding companies are often patented to prevent the compe-
slightly different composition in different plant varieties and tition from developing the same traits. This technique is
can be visualised as different banding patterns (isozymes). By increasingly used in breeding programmes for all crops.
genetic analysis a certain band can be linked to a desirable trait
(yield, taste, resistance). When this linkage is established, the Pros and Cons:
presence of the marker (isozyme band) in a breeding line sug- Pros: - efficient and less time consuming selection.
gests that the linked trait is also present. - allows the pyramidisation of resistance genes for
Similarly, the variation in the DNA sequence around a gene better resistance.
or genes determining a desired trait can be revealed by isolat- Cons: - reduces the plant to a subset of DNA sequences
ing the DNA and making parts of the DNA base sequence vis- - use of toxic substances.
ible. Visualisation techniques all require a treatment of DNA
with restriction enzymes and radio-active or fluorescent labels. Consequences of a rejection:
These enzymes are naturally occuring in bacteria and can be At variety level: at the moment, modern plant breeding
isolated from them. Today, they are usually produced as uses this tool for selection with the goal to improve breed-
recombinant proteins. These are indistinguishable from non- ing in terms of time and costs. However, only a few vari-
recombinant enzymes and can be isolated at a fraction of the eties selected with this technique are on the market.
costs. The resulting banding pattern of the different DNA At breeding level: the application of marker-based selec-
fragments is used to find those bands which are linked to the tion cannot be identified in the product and can therefore
desired characteristic of a plant. This tool does not rely on the not be controlled.
introduction of transgenic DNA into the plant, but analyses
the DNA content of individual progeny to preselect for the Alternatives:
presence of known traits. As soon as markers for important characteristics are found,
this tool will help to make selection more efficient and less
Application: time consuming. However, most techniques of selection can
Molecular markers can be used for a particular DNA seg- replace marker-based selection, provided that there are no
ment which is linked to a trait of interest. Traits can be caused financial and infrastructural restraints.
by single gene or be due to a number of genes. The aim of
marker-assisted breeding is to speed up selection and to direct-
ly select for traits. In the future, large populations could first be
screened for the presence of known markers (i.e. traits), before
being used in field plots. A prerequisite for marker-assisted

18
 Techniques for multiplication at the plant/population level

variety A breeders seed

pre-basic seed
Photo: Markus Kellerhals, FAW

basic seed

certified seed

Multiplication of apple seedlings.

Multiplication of sexually Multiplication of asexually

reproducing plants reproducing plants
Approach: Approach:
When a new variety has been select- In asexually propagated plants, such
ed out of the new genetic variation, it as beets, potatoes, bulbs or grafted
must be propagated and maintained as plants, extra care must be taken to avoid
a pure bred. In self-pollinating and deterioration in the health of the seed
cross-pollinating plants, the selected or plant stock. Living plant stock often
genotypes flower in isolation. Positive does not keep well, thus these lines are
mass selection ensures that the elite par- maintained through a continuous pro-
ent lines are of high quality and meet all cess of multiplication. However, the ad-
the requirements of a variety. Not all vantage of vegetative multiplication is
diseases in parent plants are passed on that the progeny has exactly the same
to seed, but some seedborne diseases genotype as the parent, whether hetero-
like Alternaria on carrots and Common zygous or homozygous.
bunt on wheat need special attention.
In vitro multiplication of sugar beets. Most seed can be stored for long peri-
ods of time.

Application: Application:
Used for all sexually reproducing Used for all asexually reproducing
plants. plants.
Photos: Gunilla Lissek-Wolf

Meristem culture of sugar beet in petridishes.

19
 Techniques for multiplication at the
cell/tissue level

F1 F1

F2 F 2Fn

Apomixis

Approach: In vitro multiplication

Some species can reproduce asexually through seeds. This
phenomenon is called apomixis. In the seed forming process , Approach:
meiosis that is essential for sexual reproduction, is either sup- Depending on the plant species, some part of a plant -
pressed or circumvented so that the embryo is genetically most commonly a piece of stem with an axillary bud, or part
identical to the mother plant. There are obligate apomicts, of a leaf or bulb scale is cultured in vitro. These sections of
whose seed contains apomictic embryos, and facultative plant grow out to form shoots, which can in turn be cut and
apomicts, which can form both sexual and apomictic embryos propagated. This may be repeated several times to get enough
in their seeds. plants. These are grown until their roots are developed, then
hardened off and transferred to normal greenhouse and/or
Application: field conditions.
Apomixis occurs in cultivated plants (Poa pratensis,
oranges, tropical plants) and wild plants and has caught breed- Application:
ers' interest because it combines the advantages of seed multi- This method is often used to get enough basic material to
plication - health and maintenance of quality - with the iden- be able to bring a new variety on the market. In addition, this
tical reproduction of the maternal genotype. Apomictic multi- technique is being used more regularly to maintain parent
plication is considered a promising method to maintain vari- lines of hybrids.
eties and to fix the heterosis effect of hybrids. The technique is
hardly used in today's plant breeding but, with the help of Pros and Cons:
genetic engineering the technique is expected to become avail- Pros: - cheap and rapid way to multiply great numbers of
able for a large number of crop species in the near future. plants.
Cons: - the sterile and artificial conditions could lead to a
selection for laboratory conditions.

Consequences of a rejection:
At variety level: some varieties of cut flowers and leek
hybrids would be ruled out.
At multiplication level: more expensive and time-consum-
ing techniques have to be applied.

Alternatives:
For most crops there are other multiplication methods
which are quite effective.

20
 callus callus
growing culture

callus development in vitro

of somatic embryos shoot

Somatic embryogenesis Meristem culture

Approach: Approach:
Somatic embryos are created from a piece of plant materi- In meristem culture, parts from the meristem are isolated
al isolated from the mother plant and may or may not first and cultured on substrate. The resulting plants are screened
have undergone a callus phase. Callus, which is commonly for viruses with the ELISA method. Uninfected plants are then
propagated in liquid medium, is homogenised to form a cell propagated in the manner described previously.
suspension. Plant hormones are added to the cells isolated
from the mother plant, the callus or the cell suspension to Application:
stimulate the cells' development into somatic embryos. Often, Meristem culture often is the only way to get virus-free
these embryos are in turn capable of forming secondary plant material (e.g. berries, bulbs, potatoes). Viruses can be
embryos, thus leading to a continuous multiplication process. especially persistent in asexually propagated plants, because
From these embryos a new plant can be regenerated in vitro. they are passed on to the following year's stock (e.g. garlic).
Viruses proliferate and spread through the plant, but they
Application: never quite catch up with the rapidly dividing cells in the plant
This method has the greatest multiplication potential and meristem. This method is widely used for multiplication of
is less labour intensive compared to other in vitro multipli- fruit rootstock, transplants of berries, flower bulbs, and veg-
cation methods. The method can be used for large-scale or etables.
even automated production.

Pros and Cons: Pros and Cons:

Pros: - very cheap and rapid way to multiply great numbers Pros: - best and often only way to get virus-free plants.
of plants. Cons: - use of synthetic phytohormones.
Cons: - the sterile and artificial conditions could lead to a
selection for laboratory conditions.
- use of synthetic phytohormones.
- risk of spontaneous mutations.

Consequences of a rejection: Consequences of a rejection:

At variety level: many varieties of cut flowers would be At variety level: most rootstocks of fruits and transplants of
ruled out. berries and many vegetable varieties would be ruled out.
At multiplication level: more expensive and time-consum- At multiplication level: new techniques would have to be
ing techniques have to be applied. developed.

Alternatives: Alternatives:
For most crops there are other multiplication methods If just the youngest parts of plants are used for multiplica-
which are quite effective. tion, virus-free multiplication should also be possible using
standard multiplication methods.

21
Judging the suitability
of the breeding and multiplication techniques
for organic agriculture
If guidelines and guide-posts are to be developed for organ- the smallest living entity to work with in organic breeding
ic plant breeding then the suitability of breeding and multi- programmes is the plant or the crop? Or, is the plant cell the
plication techniques must be evaluated. Discussion on national smallest living entity because it can regenerate into a plant again
and international level showed that in order to do this, criteria or do we want to reduce life to the complexity of heritable mate-
for evaluation must be set (Wiethaler et al., 2000). Criteria could rial, the DNA? Table 2 considers the suitability of breeding and
be derived from the basic principles of organic agriculture and multiplication techniques for organic plant breeding based on
translated to plant breeding. The Louis Bolk Institute has three ethical interpretations of the smallest living entity the
worked out a suggestion for such criteria (Lammerts van Bueren plant, the cell, or the DNA.
et al., 1999). The authors of this suggestion used three basic The result of judging the techniques from these different
principles in organic agriculture as a starting point: points of view would have quite different consequences for the
actual seed availability of the most important crop groups:
closed production cycles
natural self regulation plants as the smallest living entity: some few cereal varieties,
biodiversity many vegetable varieties (e.g. tomato, sweet pepper, lettuce,
cabbage), some fruit and vine varieties, some forrage crop
In order to draw up a framework for an organic breeding varieties, and many ornamental plants would be rouled out.
system these principles could be extrapolated to the level of cells as the smallest living entity: just some few vegetable
plants. The three criteria for organic plant breeding then are: varieties (e.g. cabbage) and in the future potato and maize
varieties would have to be rouled out.
natural reproductive ability of plants DNA as the smallest living entity: no consequences for the
ability to adapt to organic conditions seed availability.
genetic diversity with respect for natural species authenticity
and species characteristics. However, if restrictions for one or the other technique are
made, it still has to be decided
As breeding is also a socio-economic activity these principles
could also be applied to the socio-economic level: whether the use of all varieties once bred with these tech-
niques should be prohibited (also as breeding material)
close interaction between farmers, breeders, traders, and or restrictions are made only for future cultivars and breed-
consumers for a participative plant breeding ing programmes.
regulations incorporating organic principles
cultural diversity: diverse breeding programmes as a prere- In addition, any regulation has to distinguish clearly
quisite for genetic diversity. This includes free exchange of between allowed and not allowed techniques and these differ-
varieties among breeders. Therefore, plants should be main- ences must be controllable. An additional possibility to enhance
tained with an ability to pass on genes to future breeding the quality of organic plant breeding would be to certify
programmes. This includes production of fertile seeds and breeders following a defined organic plant breeding pro-
the prevention of patenting varieties. gramme.
The organic movement needs to find a clear and feasible way
On the basis of these principles, plant and crop based breed- to define organic plant breeding with the aim to promote and
ing techniques best suit an interactive organic breeding system. accelerate the production of suitable plants for a sound organic
These principles would lead to breeding techniques allowing the agriculture.
whole breeding process to take place under organic (soil) con-
ditions. This creates an ethical dilemma. Does that imply that

References

Lammerts van Bueren, E. T., Hulscher, M., Haring, M., Jongerden, J., van Wiethaler, C., Opperman, R. and Wyss, E. (2000) Organic plant breeding
Mansvelt, J.D., den Nijs, A. P. M. and Ruivenkamp, G. T. P. (1999) and biodiversity of cultural plants. Reports on the international confer-
Sustainable organic plant breeding. Final report: a vision, choices, con- ences. Naturschutzbund Deutschland and Research Institute of Organic
sequences and steps. Louis Bolk Institute, Driebergen. 59 pp. Agriculture. 115 pp.

22
Table 2: Judgement of breeding and multiplication techniques considering either the plant, or the
cell, or the DNA to be the smallest living entity.

Smallest living entity

Inducing variation Plant Cell DNA

Combination breeding, Crossing varieties, Bridging cross,

Repeated back-crossing, Cutted/grafted style, Temperature
treatment of the style

F1 hybrid breeding, Unradiated mentor pollen technique

Ovary/embryo culture, In vitro pollination, Anther/Microspore culture

Polyploidisation, Somaclonal variation

Hybridisation for CMS without restorer gene, Radiated mentor pollen technique

Protoplast fusion

Genetic engineering (is already prohibited)

Selection Plant Cell DNA

Mass selection, Pedigree selection, Site determined selection,

Change in environment, Change in sowing time, Ear bed method
Test crosses

In vitro selection

Marker-assisted selection

Multiplication Plant Cell DNA

Generative multiplication

Vegetative multiplication

Apomixis

Meristem culture

In vitro multiplication, Somatic embryogenesis

Colours and arrows give the degree of suitability: = no problem, = ok, = not suitable but
provisionally allowed, = not suitable.

Imprint Collaboration: Beat Keller (University of Zurich), Jos van Damme

(Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Heteren), Peter van Dijk (Netherlands
Editor: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Ackerstrasse,
Institute of Ecology, Heteren), Michael Winzeler (Federal Research
P.O. Box, CH-5070 Frick, Phone: +41 (0)62 865 72 72, Fax: +41 (0)62
Station for Agroecology and Agriculture, Zurich-Reckenholz)
865 72 73, E-mail: admin@fibl.ch, Homepage: www.fibl.ch
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) Berlin e.V., Rungestrasse Editorial staff: Thomas Alfldi (FiBL, Frick)
19, D-10179 Berlin, Phone: +49 (0)30 27 58 17 50, Fax: +49 (0)30 27
Graphics: Daniel Gorba (FiBL, Frick)
58 17 59, E-mail: Berlin@fibl.de
Translation: Robert Haward (English version), Manuel Perret (French
Authors: Eric Wyss (FiBL, Frick), Edith Lammerts van Bueren (Louis Bolk
version), Jessamjin Miedema and Anne Bruinsma (Dutch version), Eric
Institute, Driebergen), Marjolein Hulscher (Louis Bolk Institute,
Wyss and Markus Br(German version)
Driebergen), Michel Haring (University of Amsterdam)
Cover photographs: Emasculation of a flower of cauliflower, Jan Velema
Co-authors: Christine Arncken-Karutz (FiBL, Frick), Robert Haward (Soil
(Vitalis Biologische Zaden BV)
Association, Bristol), Franois Lhopiteau (Institut Technique pour
lAgriculture Biologique, Paris), Eckard Reiners (Bioland Association This dossier is available in English, German, French, and Dutch
Germany, Member of the Standards Committee of IFOAM), Klaus-Peter Price: 5 Euro ISBN Nr. 3-906081-13-3
Wilbois (FiBL, Berlin) Sale: FiBL FiBL

23
Glossary
Allele One member of a pair or series of genes Genotype The genotype of an individual is the
that occupy a specific position on a spe- genetic make-up, determined by the alle-
cific chromosome, the form in which a les present on its chromosomes.
gene can occur in a plant.
Heterosis Its the result of cross breeding two differ-
Callus A callus is proliferating tissue consisting ent and distant related plants of the same
of non-differentiated cells. species. The offspring are more vigorous
and often more disease resistant.
Chloroplasts The green organelles of a plant cell that
fix carbondioxide using solar energy: Heterozygous Heterozygous means an organism has two
photosynthesis. This provides the plant different alleles on its homologous chro-
with energy carriers like sugars and ATP. mosomes.
They have their own DNA, which is pre-
Homozgous An organism is homozygous if it has the
dominantly inherited from the mother,
same allele on both of its homologous
but they still rely on genetic material
chromosomes.
stored in the nucleus.
Isozyme All proteins with similar enzymatic activ-
Chromosome A chromosome is a continuous strand of
ity.
duplex DNA, containing many genes.
Most multicellular organisms have sever- Marker DNA fragment that is polymorphic in size
al chromosomes, which together com- or sequence. It can be used to differentiate
prise the genome. Sexually reproducing between genetic material of varieties and
organisms have two copies of each chro- species that are used in crosses.
mosome, one from the each parent.
Mitochondria Mitochondria are the organelles inside
Cross-pollination The transfer of pollen from one plant to cells where aerobic respiration occurs.
the flowers of a different plant. They have their own DNA which is pre-
dominantly inherited from the mother,
Cytoplasm The interior of a plant cell harbours many
but they still rely on genetic material
compartments: the nucleus, mitochon-
stored in the nucleus.
dria, chloroplasts, vacuoles and many
vesicular structures. The fluid cell in Phenotype The phenotype is the combination of the
between these compartments is called the observable characteristics of an organism.
cytoplasm. This should reflect the genotype, which is
an organisms genetic composition. The
DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-
phenotype results from the interaction of
stranded helix of nucleotides which car-
the genotype with the environment.
ries the genetic information of a cell. It
encodes the information for the produc- Polyploidy The chromosomal constitution of a cell
tion of proteins and is able to self-repli- containing multiples of the normal num-
cate. ber of chromosomes.
Enzyme Enzymes are proteins that carry out bio- Protein The translation product of a gene. It can
chemical reactions (or act as catalysts) be visualized as a string of aminoacids,
inside the cell. which are ordered through the definition
of the genetic code of a particular gene.
Gel electrophoresis DNA is fragmented by restriction
enzymes (molecular scissors) and trans- Protoplast Isolated protoplasts are naked cells
ferred to an agarose gel. The DNA frag- because the cell wall has been removed by
ments move through the gel due to the either a mechanical or an enzymatic
electric field applied to the gel. The length process.
of a DNA fragment determines its speed
RNA RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the messenger
of movement through the gel. The result-
molecule that is transcribed from a gene
ing banded pattern of slow-moving and
and subsequently translated into protein.
fast-moving DNA fragments is used to
identify those DNA bands which are Self-pollination The transfer of pollen from the anther to
linked to the desired trait of a plant. the style of the flower of same plant,
resulting in selfing of a breeding line.
Gene A gene is a hereditary unit that can be
assigned of a sequence of DNA which
occupies a specific position or locus in the
genome. A gene codes for a protein or
RNA which is responsible for (part of) a
certain trait.