METALLURGY AND FOUNDRY ENGINEERING Vol. 32, 2006, No.

Piotr Skubisz***, Jan Siczak*, Sylwia Bednarek***, Aneta ukaszek-Soek**

EFFECT OF DEFORMATION DEGREE ON PROPERTIES

OF FORGINGS AFTER THERMOMECHANICAL TREATMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

Combination of plastic deformation and heat treatment, referred as controlled process-

ing or thermomechanical treatment, is an effective way to improve mechanical properties of
steel [1]. As such, it forms the basis for technologies which provide obtaining microstruc-
ture favourable for optimal combination of high strength and ductility, better impact tough-
ness, improved corrosion and fatigue resistance. Altogether it allows manufacturing parts
and structural components of superior technological characteristics, higher quality of pro-
ducts and better performance [2, 3]. Although benefits of thermomechanical processing
over conventional forming with subsequent heat treatment are commonly known, and con-
trolled processing with accelerated cooling is to an ever-increasing extent well established
technological process nowadays, constant development of materials science and emerging
new grades of steels, with microalloyed steels at the forehead, gives a rise to further re-
searches in the range of determination of thermomechanical treatment conditions to achieve
further improvement of mechanical properties and minimization of manufacturing costs.
This scientific activity has been followed by development of new processing technologies,
based on controlled deformation conditions. required austenite grain structure and cooling
conditions, which allow proper run of transformation kinetics.
Large number of currently conducted studies concern utilization of microalloyed steels
[4, 5], which make it possible to obtain high strength with carbon reduced to the content of
low or medium-carbon steels. Solution hardening is then attained by additions of silicon
and manganium. Micro additions of vanadium, titanium, niobium and aluminium provide
fine-grained austenite structure by hampering its growth owing to non-dissolved precipi-
tates (which further bring precipitation hardening), which ensures obtaining fine-grained
ferrite-pearlite, bainite or martensite and rest austenite structure after cooling to room tem-
perature [69].

* Ph.D., D.Sc., ** Ph.D.,*** M.Sc.: Faculty of Metals Engineering and Industrial Computer Science, AGH
University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland; sinczak@metal.agh.edu.pl

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 These days benefits growing out of thermomechanical treatment only scarcely are used
in forging technologies. One of the causes is diversity of sizes and configurations of forged
parts, which calls for the necessity of determination of temperature regime and cooling pat-
tern for each case individually, not ensuring versatility of assumed parameters even when
the same shape coefficient. The nature of the forging processes itself produces differences
in amount of deformation in adjoining sections, as well as, differences in temperature gra-
dients arisen by local differences in generated deformation heat and local variations in time
of contact of billet and tools. In addition, nonuniformity of grain size resultant from dyna-
mic recrystallization and variable heat transfer conditions, associated with differences in
structural heterogeneity in combination with geometrically conditioned cooling rate diffe-
rences in neighbouring regions of a part, form diverse conditions for structural transforma-
tions kinetics. While designing forging technology involving simultaneous heat treatment,
in addition to phenomena that affect microstructure development, a number of technologi-
cal setbacks needs to be coped with.
Nevertheless, for the necessity of searching for savings in a manufacturing cycle, ther-
momechanical treatment focuses ever-increasing attention among forging shops, similarly,
replacement of traditional heat treatment methods is more and more popular subject in
scientific literature [5, 1012].
Taking into consideration the
abovementioned reasons, this work
presents analysis of possibility
specimen of utilization of thermomechanical
for tensite tests
treatment in the manufacturing pro-
cess of a forged part of significant
complexity, characterized by large
diameter in relation to the thickness
of a flange and significant height of
the central boss (Fig. 1) Large cross
sectional area in a parting plane is
the reason why the part id forged on
mechanical presses or forging ham-
mers, which produces insignificant
Fig. 1. Geometry and major dimensions of the forging temperature gradient in the volume
of a flange during the whole forging cycle.
Short times of metal/tools contact
allow for utilization of deformation heat for quenching directly after forging, which, if only
proper temperatures and controlled cooling rate are attained, should provide satisfactory
properties of a finished part.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

In order to obtain information on the influence of deformation degree on mechanical

properties of the forged part, three slenderness values were used with keeping constant vo-
lume (Fig. 2). Degree of deformation was defined by relative height reduction in the first
stage of the forging process of the central boss. In this stage, irrespective of the slenderness

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of a billet, upsetting alike pattern of strain prevails. Billet diameter was conditioned by
upper-impression cavity diameter with three values assumed for test: 75 mm, 70 mm and
65 mm. For these diameters of a billet, the height reduction values in the first stage of forging
are, respectively, a 20%, b 30%, c 40% (Fig. 2). The analysed forging was made of
medium-carbon steel of following chemical composition: C 0.3%, Mn 0.94%, Si
1.05%, Cr 0.9%, Ni 0.05%, Ti 0.05%, P 0.022%, S 0.018%.

a) b) c)

Fig. 2. Initial dimensions of billet resulting in height reduction: a) 20%; b) 30%; c) 40%

Austenitization temperature was 950oC, and the processing was conducted in accor-
dance with a scheme presented in Figure 3a. For steel of a given chemistry transition points
are AC1 750oC, AC3 840oC, Ms 340oC. After heating to 950oC and homogenization at this
temperature, temperature was decreased to deformation temperature of 890oC. After defor-
mation followed by 3 seconds stand, the forging was cooled with a cooling rate high enough
to omit bainitic transformation. Temperatures and cooling rate was determined on the
strength of continuous cooling diagram derived from literature [13] and estimated with
TTSteel software [14] (Fig. 3b).

a) b)

Fig. 3. Diagrams of: a) thermomechanical treatment conditions; b) continuous cooling calculated

with TTSteel

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 In order of obtaining information on energy parameters of forging (forging load, mean
stress distribution) and strain distribution (effective strain) forging tests were complement-
ed with numerical analysis with a use of a commercial code for bulk metal forming process-
es QForm3D, based on finite element method. Calculations in three-dimendional state of
deformation were carried out, with assumption of elastic-viscoplasticplastic model of de-
formed body. Details on the code can be found in [15]. Boundary conditions were assumed
in accordance with process parameters in experiment: friction factor 0.4, active heat transfer
coefficient 3500 W/(mK) (graphite-water lubrication), tool temperature 300oC, constant
thermal conductivity of the metal 80 W/K/m2, forming speed 0,5 m/s.
From the obtained forgings specimens for tensile testing and metallographic work
were taken out. The obtained microstructures formed an illustration of the initial material
condition and after conventional forging with subsequent quenching-tempering compared
to applied processing conditions. The location of specimens for tensile testing is shown in
Figure 1.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Numerical Modelling

Estimated numerically distribution of effective strain in the last stage of forging with
average reduction in height equal to 20%, 30% and 40% is presented in Figure 4. In all the
cases similar distribution of effective strain isolines in the region of the disc of the flange
was observed. Gradient of deformation along the central line, referred as relation of the
highest value to the least value of effective strain, in the volume of the forging is significant-
ly high and as it equals to approximately 15, exceeds one order of magnitude (ranging from
0.1 in the boss to 1.5 in a flange disc).
A consequence of such distribution of strain is nonuniform distribution of mechanical
properties in a finished part. In the region of the body the gradient of effective strain is
smaller and it ranges from 5 for 20% reduction (Fig. 4a) to 2 for 40% reduction (Fig. 4c). It
should be noted that effective strain values in the half of the total final height of the part
obtained at 40% reduction is twice as high as that for 20% reduction.

a) b) c)

Fig. 4. Numerically calculated effective strain distribution in the end stage of forging process for
average height reduction: a) 20%; b) 30%; c) 40%

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 Forging process with thermomechanical treat-
ment is held in significantly lower temperatures
that traditional forging process. As a consequence,
value of the forging load and loading of the tools
are bigger. To estimate changes in load during the
whole forging cycle, numerical calculations were
carried out. The results are presented in Figure 5. It
was concluded that character of the curves is si-
milar for all analysed forging stock slenderness va-
lues. The ending stage of the process, which is con-
nected with forcing the metal to the flash (at reduc-
tion 80%) brings threefold increase in load. Charac-
teristic feature of case of the highest slenderness
is violent increase in forging load in the beginning
stage of the process (curve c, detail A, in Fig. 5). In
this case, stage of tapering does not occur in the
process.
Another important parameter, which influences
the tool life is the level of mean stress observed in Fig. 5. Numerically calculated forging
the last stage of the cycle. Numerically calculated load for average height reduction: a)
distribution of mean stresses is shown in Figure 6. 20%; b) 30%; c) 40%; where detail A is
an enlargement of the plots in the range
Maximum mean stress value reported in all cases
to 60% deformation
reaches 1000 MPa. Insignificantly is the value ex-
ceeded in the forging the lowest slenderness (Fig. 6a). Most favourable profile of mean stress
is observed for the billet of the highest slenderness, hence, highest tool life can be expected.

a) b) c)

Fig. 6. Numerically calculated mean stress distribution in the end stage of forging process for aver-
age height reduction: a) 20%; b) 30%; c) 40%

3.2. Metallographic Work

Specimens cut out from the central zone of the forging were polished and nital etched
to reveal grain structure and structural components. In Figure 7 micrographs of the material
in as-forged condition, in traditionally quenching-tempering and thermomechanical treat-
ment are shown.

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a) b) c)

Fig. 7. Microstructure of the forged flange in condition: a) as-forged; b) quenched-tempered; c) ther-

momechanically treated

Both in result of conventional and thermomechanical treatment tempered martensite

with rest austenite was obtained, however, in case of the latter process, significant grain
refinement was achieved. Estimated grain size before forging was 55.5 ASTM (Fig. 7a).
After forging and conventional quenching and tempering treatment it was estimated to
be 77.5 ASTM (Fig. 7b), whereas, after thermomechanical processing it was refined to
89 ASTM (Fig. 7c).

3.3. Tensile Properties

Tensile testing was performed with a use of testing machine Instron 1196. Ultimate
tensile strength, tensile yield stress, elongation to fracture and area reduction at fracture
obtained in testing are show in Figures 8 and 9.

a) b)

Fig. 8. Comparison of: a) tensile strength and yield stress; b) elongation and area reduction at frac-
ture of the material in as-forged condition (without heat treatment), after quenching-tempering
(Q&T) and after thermomechanical treatment (TMT)

Presented in Figure 8 diagrams of ultimate tensile strength and yield stress of the steel
after thermomechanical processing for 30% reduction are, 1241 and 1103 MPa, whereas,
after conventional heat treatment, respectively, 1169 and 1049 MPa.

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 In turn, elongation and area reduction at fracture 12,9 and 53.2% for the first techno-
logy, and 11 and 48% for the latter.
The effect of reduction on mechanical properties of the forging of a flange after ther-
momechanical treatment, depicted in Figure 9, indicates strong influence of deformation
degree on ultimate tensile strength and yield stress. In the investigated range of amount of
deformation the increase in tensile strength is about 10% and so it has a strong effect even at
insignificant increasing deformation, measured with reduction in height (Fig. 9a). Simulta-
neously, plasticity indices (elongation A5 and area reduction Z) remained practically at the
same level for all cases of reduction degree (Fig. 9b).

a) b)

Fig. 9. Effect of degree of deformation on tensile properties (a) and plasticity indices (b) of the forged
flange after thermomechanical treatment

4. DISCUSSION

The results of tests of forging with utilization of thermomechanical treatment show

a few advantages of this technology in relation to conventional process of drop forging. The
presented tests were carried out on a mechanical press which ensures consistent process
conditions, and eventually, consistency of whole runs of forged parts. This also ensures
possibility of control of the process parameters, which can be held in narrow range, which is
a condition of successful realisation of thermomechanical treatment.
In forging on a fast action forging equipment a large amount of deformation heat is
generated, which in connection with a short time of a contact metal/tools provides high
temperature in the end of the process. Transition points for a given steel, as well as, cooling
curves resultant from geometry, call for determined temperature in the whole volume. In the
surface, the temperature may not be lower than 800 C, which is the bottom boundary to
impose assumed scheme of cooling.

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 Directly after forging cooling with speed higher than critical was carried out, to obtain
martensitic structure. Owing to strict control of the heating temperature, which prevented
from excessive austenite grain growth, and forging temperature, which was held on the le-
vel of 50oC over A3 point, fine-grained martensite was obtained. In addition to fine grains,
also needles of martensite were thinner, which resulted in higher strength properties. As
shown in Figure 8, an increase in ultimate tensile strength of 70 MPa and yield stress of
50 MPa, as compared to that of conventional process, was noted. Increase in elongation to
fracture of 2% and area reduction at fracture of 5% proves ductility enhancement. It should
be noted, that the specimens were taken from the core zone of the forging, where the highest
temperature, and the lowest amount of deformation was observed, which suggest higher
properties in other, more responsible areas. What is more, for the research, a traditional
grade of steel was used, not designed for thermomechanical treatment. However, from ob-
tained results of the study it can be concluded that effects of thermomechanical treatment
are evident. As such they may form a basis for further research on forging HSLA steels.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The results of the research show that the application of thermomechanical treatment in
a forging process, which involved controlled deformation and utilization of the forging heat
to perform controlled cooling directly after forging brought significant improvement of
strength. Compared to conventional quenching-tempering heat treatment it offers costs sa-
vings associated with reduced energy consumption for reheating forged parts, and further
savings resulting from the possibility of application lower carbon and low-alloy steels to
obtain required properties.
The mechanical properties, reported as the results of tensile tests, show that both im-
provement in strength and ductility of the material was observed. Ultimate tensile strength
is 70 MPa and yield stress 50MPa higher than that of conventional process, with elongation
to fracture by 2% and area reduction at fracture by 5% higher.
Forging on fast action mechanical presses provide convenient conditions to perform
controlled forging, as it allows strict control of forging times and temperatures, in compari-
son with forging on hammers. However, short time of the forging cycle and high strain rate
allow keep high temperature of the end of the forging. This requires precise determination
of starting temperature and proper cooling conditions. The heat may be used to carry out
direct controlled cooling, which with application of microalloyed steels may be utilized for
precipitation hardening.
Satisfactory results obtained for medium-carbon structural steel suggest more detailed
investigation, especially as for the determination times and temperature of forging and cool-
ing pattern after forging, as well as, deformation in two-phase region and/or ductility im-
provement with other transformation during cooling. The evident increase in mechanical
properties, suggest research on the use of HSLA steels for the manufacture of forgings.

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Received
December 2006

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