Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR
Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR
Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its
own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have
impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction
band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon
has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons
available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
solid-state relay (SSR)
A solid-state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device that switches on or off when a
small external voltage is applied across its control terminals. SSRs consist of a sensor which
responds to an appropriate input (control signal), a solid-state electronic switching device
which switches power to the load circuitry, and a coupling mechanism to enable the control
signal to activate this switch without mechanical parts. The relay may be designed to switch
either AC or DC to the load. It serves the same function as an electromechanical relay, but
has no moving parts.
Medium sized PLC that performs all the relay replacement functions expected of it, and also
performs functions like counting, timing and complex mathematical applications. Most
medium sized PLCs can perform PID, feed forward, and control function as well. PLCs can
now have date highway capabilities and can function as well in DCS environment.
There are five basic components in a PLC system:
The PLC processor, or controller
Chassis or backplane
Power supply
Most PLCs have the ability to communicate with other devices. These devices include
computers running programming software, or collecting data about the manufacturing
process, a terminal that lets an operator enter commands into the PLC, or I/O that is located
in a remote location from the PLC. The PLC will communicate to the other devices through a
network interface.
Basic PLCs are available on a single printed circuit board .They are sometimes called single
board PLCs or open frame PLCs. These are totally self-contained (with the exception of a
power supply) and, when installed in a system, they are simply mounted inside a controls
cabinet on threaded standoffs. Screw terminals on the printed circuit board allow for the
connection of the input, output, and power supply wires. These units are generally not
expandable, meaning that extra inputs, outputs, and memory cannot be added to the basic
unit. However, some of the more sophisticated models can be linked by cable to expansion
boards that can provide extra I/O. Therefore, with few exceptions, when using this type of
PLC, the system designer must take care to specify a unit that has enough inputs, outputs, and
programming capability to handle both the present need of the system and any future
modifications that may be required.
Single board PLCs are very inexpensive, easy to program, small, and consume little power,
but, generally speaking, they do not have a large number of inputs and outputs, and have a
somewhat limited instruction set. They are best suited to small, relatively simple control
applications.
PLCs are also available housed in a single case (sometimes referred to as a shoe box) with all
input and output, power and control connection points located on the single unit. These are
generally chosen according to available program memory and required number and voltage of
inputs and outputs to suit the application.
These systems generally have an expansion port (an interconnection socket) which will allow
the addition of specialized units such as high speed counters and analog input and output
units or additional discrete inputs or outputs. These expansion units are either plugged
directly into the main case or connected to it with ribbon cable or other suitable cable.
PLCs were designed to eliminate the assembly line relays during model changeovers. The
operation of PLC is easier than the relay panels. This feature reduces the installation and
operational cost of the control system compared with the electromechanical relay systems [4].
PLC, highly reliable with a little maintenance, will communicate with the computer systems
in the plant with a low investment cost. The basic block diagram of PLC system is as shown
in Fig.1
PLCs are typically chosen for small discrete applications where high level ruggedness and
reliability is required. They offer high speed sequential and logical control capabilities and
are very good control solutions for real time applications. A PLC retains its operating system,
user programs, and some data in retentive (nonvolatile) memory.PLC has not only replaces
the relay but has also extended the logic capabilities of the system.
Every PLC has associated programming software that allows the user to enter a program into
the PLC. Before a PLC can perform any control task, it must be programmed to do so.
The Software used for the PLC is Crouzet Millenium 3 Programming Language. The
controller offers two programming languages such as:
Ladder Language (LD)
Structured Text
The first two of the above mentioned languages are discussed below.