Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR

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Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR

A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photocell) is a light-controlled


variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in
light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can


have a resistance as high as several megohms (M), while in the light, a photoresistor can
have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique
photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its
own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have
impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction
band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon
has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons
available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
solid-state relay (SSR)

A solid-state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device that switches on or off when a
small external voltage is applied across its control terminals. SSRs consist of a sensor which
responds to an appropriate input (control signal), a solid-state electronic switching device
which switches power to the load circuitry, and a coupling mechanism to enable the control
signal to activate this switch without mechanical parts. The relay may be designed to switch
either AC or DC to the load. It serves the same function as an electromechanical relay, but
has no moving parts.

Packaged solid-state relays use power semiconductor devices such


as thyristors and transistors, to switch currents up to around a hundred amperes. Solid-state
relays have fast switching speeds compared with electromechanical relays, and have no
physical contacts to wear out. Application of solid-state relays must consider their lower
ability to withstand momentary overload, compared with electromechanical contacts, and
their higher "on" state resistance. Unlike an electromechanical relay, a solid-state relay
provides only limited switching arrangements (SPST switching).
Solid state contactor relay:
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used where frequent on/off cycles are required, such as with electric heaters, small electric
motors, and lighting loads. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact
bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals
from Programmable logic controller(PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

Programmable Logic Controller


Programmable Logic Controller is usually located in the field close to the processing unit.
PLCs are small and operator interface may be simple as button switch. In second generation
PLC suppliers have added analog to digital conversion capability and provided sufficient
logic to configure simple control loops [2][3]. Presently there are at least two recognized PLC
sizes:
Small PLC, which is a relay replacement and provides a reliable control to stand-alone
section of process and

Medium sized PLC that performs all the relay replacement functions expected of it, and also
performs functions like counting, timing and complex mathematical applications. Most
medium sized PLCs can perform PID, feed forward, and control function as well. PLCs can
now have date highway capabilities and can function as well in DCS environment.
There are five basic components in a PLC system:
The PLC processor, or controller

I/O (Input /Output) modules

Chassis or backplane

Power supply

Programming software that runs in a PC

In addition to these 5, most PLCs also have:


A network interface

Most PLCs have the ability to communicate with other devices. These devices include
computers running programming software, or collecting data about the manufacturing
process, a terminal that lets an operator enter commands into the PLC, or I/O that is located
in a remote location from the PLC. The PLC will communicate to the other devices through a
network interface.
Basic PLCs are available on a single printed circuit board .They are sometimes called single
board PLCs or open frame PLCs. These are totally self-contained (with the exception of a
power supply) and, when installed in a system, they are simply mounted inside a controls
cabinet on threaded standoffs. Screw terminals on the printed circuit board allow for the
connection of the input, output, and power supply wires. These units are generally not
expandable, meaning that extra inputs, outputs, and memory cannot be added to the basic
unit. However, some of the more sophisticated models can be linked by cable to expansion
boards that can provide extra I/O. Therefore, with few exceptions, when using this type of
PLC, the system designer must take care to specify a unit that has enough inputs, outputs, and
programming capability to handle both the present need of the system and any future
modifications that may be required.
Single board PLCs are very inexpensive, easy to program, small, and consume little power,
but, generally speaking, they do not have a large number of inputs and outputs, and have a
somewhat limited instruction set. They are best suited to small, relatively simple control
applications.
PLCs are also available housed in a single case (sometimes referred to as a shoe box) with all
input and output, power and control connection points located on the single unit. These are
generally chosen according to available program memory and required number and voltage of
inputs and outputs to suit the application.
These systems generally have an expansion port (an interconnection socket) which will allow
the addition of specialized units such as high speed counters and analog input and output
units or additional discrete inputs or outputs. These expansion units are either plugged
directly into the main case or connected to it with ribbon cable or other suitable cable.
PLCs were designed to eliminate the assembly line relays during model changeovers. The
operation of PLC is easier than the relay panels. This feature reduces the installation and
operational cost of the control system compared with the electromechanical relay systems [4].
PLC, highly reliable with a little maintenance, will communicate with the computer systems
in the plant with a low investment cost. The basic block diagram of PLC system is as shown
in Fig.1

PLCs are typically chosen for small discrete applications where high level ruggedness and
reliability is required. They offer high speed sequential and logical control capabilities and
are very good control solutions for real time applications. A PLC retains its operating system,
user programs, and some data in retentive (nonvolatile) memory.PLC has not only replaces
the relay but has also extended the logic capabilities of the system.

2.1 Software Development


In the present work, an XD 26 PLC [5] is used to control the Street Lighting System. The
numbering for the XD 26 PLC is given in such a way that as it is having sixteen Digital of
which six are analog inputs and ten discrete static relay outputs as shown in Fig.2.

Every PLC has associated programming software that allows the user to enter a program into
the PLC. Before a PLC can perform any control task, it must be programmed to do so.
The Software used for the PLC is Crouzet Millenium 3 Programming Language. The
controller offers two programming languages such as:
Ladder Language (LD)

Function Block Diagram (FBD)

Sequential Flow Chart (SFC)

Structured Text

Higher level languages such as C.

The first two of the above mentioned languages are discussed below.

2.1.1 Ladder Language (LD):


The most popular language used to program a PLC is ladder logic. Ladder Language (LD) is
a graphic Language. It can be used to transcribe relay diagrams, and is suited to
combinational processing. It provides basic graphic symbols: contacts, coils, and blocks.
Specific calculations can be executed within the operation blocks.

2.1.2 Function Block Diagram Language (FBD):


FBD mode allows graphic programming based on the use of predefined function blocks. It
offers a large range of basic functions: timer, counter, logic, etc

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