6 Week 6

6.1 Sequences*
*These course notes contain a more thorough discussion of sequences than is covered in the textbook.
You are responsible for the theorems and techniques presented here. If you would like to read more,
please refer to the course notes by Frank Zorzito posted on Learn.

In section 11.1 of the textbook do exercises 14, 16, 26, 32, 37, 45, 47, 73, 77, 80, 83 in addition to
any exercises mentioned in the course notes.

A sequence is an infinite list of numbers. The numbers in the list are called terms. In the
sequence

a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . .

a1 is the first term, a2 is the second term and, in general, an is the nth term.

Examples of Sequences
the sequence of positive integers: {1, 2, 3, . . .}

the sequence of prime numbers in increasing order: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . .}

1
a sequence that estimates 3
: {0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, . . .}

the zero sequence: {0, 0, 0, 0, . . . , }

a geometric sequence: {2, 4, 8, 16, . . .}

an arithmetic sequence: {3, 7, 11, 15, 19, . . .}

a sequence that alternates in sign: { 12 , 1 1

, ,
3 4
1
5
, . . .}

a constant sequence: { 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .}

a decreasing sequence: {1, 12 , 13 , 14 . . .}

4 4 4 4
a sequence whose sum estimates : {4, , ,
3 5
,
7 9
. . .}

With some sequences, it is possible to write a formula for the nth term as a function of n. For
example, the sequence of positive integers {1, 2, 3, . . . , n . . .} has nth term equal to n. Since an = n,
we can write the sequence of positive integers as simply {n}. In general, a sequence whose nth term
is an can be referred to as {an }.

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Exercise:
In the examples of sequences above, try to write a formula for an , the nth term of the sequence. Note
that this will not always be possible.

6.1.1 Recursive Sequences

In a recursive sequence, the nth term an may not be expressed with an explicit formula in terms of
n, but rather in terms of one or more of the terms preceding it. One very famous recursive sequence
is the Fibonacci sequence {fn } defined as follows:

f0 = 1, f1 = 1, and fn = fn 2 + fn 1 , n 2

Write out the first few terms of the Fibonacci sequence:

6.2 The Limit of a Sequence

We will be interested in the long term behaviour of a sequence, or the value of the nth term for very
large values of n.
1 1 1 1
Lets consider the sequence 5
whose first few terms are: 1, 5 , 5 , 5 . . . . It appears that this
n 2 3 4
sequence has a limiting value of 0, but how far along in the sequence do we need to go to guarantee
that it approaches 0 with 8 decimal places of accuracy? We would need to solve the inequality
1 1
5
< 8
n 10

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A sequence {an } has a limit L if an can be brought as close to L as we want (within a desired level
of accuracy, ) by going out far enough in the sequence. This brings us to the formal definition of
the limit of a sequence.

Formal Definition of the Limit of a Sequence

The sequence {an } has limit L provided that for any > 0, we can find a real number K such that

|an L| < , whenever n > K

1
In the preceding example, we wanted to get within = 8 of the expected limit L = 0 and found
10
that we needed to go out K = 40 terms in our sequence to guarantee this.

6.2.1 Convergent Sequences

Once we have shown that a sequence {an } has a limit L, written lim an = L or an ! L as n ! 1,
n!1
we say that {an } converges to L or simply say the sequence is convergent.

Examples
n
1. Show that the sequence given by an = has limit L = 1.
n+1

p p
2. Show that the sequence { n + 1 n} has limit L = 0.

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In the next exercises, we will use the slightly less formal language for the limit of a sequence. Rather
than naming the particular value for K beyond which the terms of the sequence are within of L,
we will simply say eventually.

Exercises
1
1. (a) If n > 70, show that (3 + n1 )2 9 < .
10
(b) Generalize this result by showing that if n > 7 , that (3 + n1 )2 9 < . This proves that
the limit of the sequence given by an = (3 + n1 )2 is 9.
n
2. (a) Show that < .001 eventually.
n2
+1
n
(b) For any > 0, show that 2 < eventually. What is the limit of the sequence
n +1
n
2
?
n +1

6.2.2 Divergent Sequences

Not all sequences converge to a limit L. These sequences are referred to as divergent. Some examples
include the sequence of perfect squares given by {n2 }. It seems intuitive that no limit exists. But
how would we prove this? Assume a limit exists and find a contradiction!

6.2.3 Bounded Sequences

A sequence {an } is bounded if there exists two constants m, M such that

m an M 8n

The constants m and M are called the lower and upper bounds, respectively. More specifically, a
sequence {an } is bounded above by M if an < M 8n and is bounded below by m if m < an 8n.

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Fact: Every convergent sequence must be bounded.
Why? Suppose {an } converges to L. Choosing = 1, we have |an L| < 1 eventually. This
inequality can be written as L 1 < an < L + 1. So eventually the terms are stuck between two
bounds, so only a finite number of terms are outside this range. By lowering the lower bound and
raising the upper bound to include the missing terms, we can ensure that all terms are within the
bounds. Thus, every convergent sequence is bounded.
Be careful: Not all bounded sequences are convergent.
However, All unbounded sequences are divergent.

6.2.4 Limits to Remember

Once we are comfortable using the formal definition of the limit of a sequence, we can remember
some common limits instead of using the definition each time to prove. These can all be proven using
the formal definition of the limit of a sequence.

The constant sequence {a, a, a, a . . .} has limit a.

1
If c > 0, then !0
nc
p
If c > 0, then n c ! 1

If |c| < 1, then cn ! 0.

cn
If c is any real number, then ! 0.
n!
n
If c > 1, then !0
cn
ln n
!0
n
n
1
1+ !e
n

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6.2.5 Limit Properties
If an ! P and bn ! Q as n ! 1, then
1. an + bn ! P + Q (Addition formula)
2. an bn ! P Q (Subtraction formula)
3. an bn ! P Q (Multiplication formula)
an P
4. ! , as long as bn 6= 0 and Q 6= 0. (Division formula)
bn Q

Proof of the Addition formula

Take > 0. We must show that eventually
|(an + bn ) (P + Q)| <
Using the triangle inequality,
|(an + bn ) (P + Q)| = |(an P ) + (bn Q)| |an P | + |bn Q|
Now, we know that an gets as close as we want to P eventually and bn gets as close as we want to Q
eventually, so in particular

|an P | < and |bn Q| < eventually.
2 2
Thus, we have

|an P | + |bn Q| < + = eventually.
2 2
And so,
|(an + bn ) (P + Q)| <
as required.

Examples
2n3 5n + 7
Find the limit of the sequence given by an = .
8n3 + 9n2 4

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6.2.6 Sequence as Function Theorem
Let f be any function such that f (x) ! L as x ! 1 and an be is the sequence given by an = f (n),
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., then an ! L as n ! 1 also.

This theorem is true simply because the ns are just xs in particular. This theorem says we
can use techniques for evaluating limits of functions (Lhopitals rule and the Squeeze Theorem, for
example) to evaluate the related sequence limit.
Be careful: If an = f (n) and f (x) ! 1 or lim f (x) does not exist, then lim an may or may not
x!1 n!1
exist.
For example, take the sequence {sin(n)}.

6.2.7 Some Useful Results of Sequence/Function Theorem

1
1. The sequence with r > 0 has limit 0.
nr

2. Squeeze Theorem for Sequences If an bn cn for n n0 and lim an = lim cn = L,

n!1 n!1
then lim bn = L.
n!1

Corollary

If lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.

n!1 n!1

Example:

( 1)n
Find lim .
n!1 n

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3. The Sequence {rn }
Recall from our knowledge of the exponential function y = ax , that lim ax = 1 for a > 1 and
x!1
lim ax = 0 for 0 < a < 1. Then it follows that
n!1
(
1 if r > 1
lim rn =
n!1 0 if 0 < r < 1

What if 1 < r < 0 or r < 1?

Examples:
n n n
1 1 4
Are the following sequences convergent? (a) , (b) , (c)
2 2 5n+2

4. Comparison Theorem for Sequences

If an bn for all n n0 and if lim an and lim bn both exist, then lim an lim bn .
n!1 n!1 n!1 n!1
Example:

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More Sequence Convergence Examples
Determine whether the following sequences are convergent or divergent
p
1. n2 + n n

n
2
2. 1+
n

n!
3. .
3n

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