i

THE IMPACT OF THE MOTHER TONGUE ON SECOND

LANGUAGE LEARNING AND PROFICIENCY: THE
IKWERRE NATIVE SPEAKERS EXPERIENCE

BY
OWHOELI, UCHEOMA
PG/MA/08/48514

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JULY 2011
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TITLE PAGE

THE IMPACT OF THE MOTHER TONGUE ON SECOND LANGUAGE

LEARNING AND PROFICIENCY: THE IKWERRE NATIVE
SPEAKERSEXPERIENCE

A RESEARCH PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY
STUDIES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTERS OF ARTS DEGREE IN ENGLISH.

BY

OWHOELI, UCHEOMA
PG/MA/08/48514

JULY 2011
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APPROVAL PAGE

This project report has been approved for the Department of English and
Literary Studies, University of Nigeria Nsukka.

By

_________________________ ____________________________
Dr. Chinyere L.Ngonebu Prof. A. N. Akwanya
Supervisor Head of Department
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CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research study The Impact of The Mother Tongue on

Second Language Learning and Proficiency: The Ikwerre Native Speakers

Experience, has been satisfactorily carried out by OWHOELI UCHEOMA, a

post graduate student in the Department of English and Literary Studies and

with registration number PG/MA/08/48514.

The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted

in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this university or any other

university.

___________________________ __________________________

Dr. Chinyere L.Ngonebu Prof. A. N. Akwanya

Supervisor Head of Department

__________________________
_____________________________

External Supervisor Prof. E. E. Okafor

Dean of Faculty
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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Peter W. Owhoeli,

whose unending love, support and encouragement has given me the zeal to
pursue a masters degree. Youre one in a million!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am most grateful to Almighty God for the gift of life, his sustaining
grace, steadfast love and abundant mercies that are new every morning.
With a heart full of gratitude, I thank my supervisor Dr. Chinyere L.
Ngonebu, for her directions, patience and encouragement without which this
project would not have been a success.
My appreciation goes to Mr. Woji Okajile for providing me with material
on Ikwerre language and to Mr. Gloria Worukwo and Dr. Daniel Ogum for their
academic advice which also gave me insight to this project work.
My appreciation also goes to all my lecturers for their motivational and
inspirational lectures which gave me a better understanding in my course of
study.
My thanks goes to my brothers: Ovutor and Amarachi, my sisters: Aleruchi,
Chisegum and Chinwevudu for their love, encouragement and prayers during
my period of study in UNN.
I am very grateful to my colleagues and friends for the brotherly love theyve
shown me during my period of study in UNN: Charity, Emmanuel, Ifeoma,
Judith, Josephine, Ndidi, Chinyere and Edwin.
Finally, I am also using this medium to appreciate my pastor Rev. and
Mrs. Abisimo Okanlanwo for their prayers and encouragement.
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ABSTRACT

Several factors affect the learning and proficiency of a second language and
among them is the culture, age, environment, method of acquisition, nature and
structure of the first language and the amounts of efforts invested. This research
work investigates the impact of the mother tongue Ikwerre on the learning and
proficiency of the target language. The research was carried out using the JSS
one and JSS two students of some selected secondary schools in Emohua Local
Government Area of Rivers State, where Ikwerre is an indigenous language and
is mostly used in communication outside the classroom. Written
composition/utterances of the students were the instrument for data collection.
The findings of the data analysis yielded categories viz, vowel harmony/
nasalization, phonemic differences, insertion of vowels between consonant
clusters, wrong placement of stress, wrong use of tenses, omission/wrong use of
rules of concord and wrong use of prepositions. From the results of the research,
it was found that the mother tongue Ikwerre influences the learning and
proficiency of the English language. These findings were discussed and
thereafter, conclusion and recommendation were deduced.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page....i
Approval Page...ii
Certification..iii
Dedication.....................iv
Acknowledgements...v
Abstract.vi
Table of Contentsvii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study.1

1.2 Statement of the Problem....5

1.3 Purpose of the Study....................7

1.4 Significance of the Study.....7

1.5 Research Questions.....7

1.6 Research Design and Methodology.........8

1.7 Scope of the Study.......8

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework.10
2.1.1 Mother-tongue.. ..10
2.1.2 Second Language.11
2.1.3 Second Language Learning and Proficiency...12
2.1.4 The Origin of the Ikwerre People....13
2.1.5 The Culture of the Ikwerre People..15
2.1.6 The Geographical Location....16
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2.1.7 The Ikwerre Language .......17

2.1.8 Classification of Ikwerre Language........18
2.1.9 The Origin of the Target Language (English)..24
2.1.10 English Language in Nigeria28
2.1.11 English Language in Ikwerre....28
2.2 Theoretical Framework ....29
2.2.1 The Behaviourist Theory..29
2.2.2 The Cognitive Theory ......32
2.2.3 Stephen Krashen Theory of SLA ....34
2.3 Related Empirical Study..36
2.4 Summary of Literature.....46
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
3.1 Introduction...49
3.2 Research Design.49
3.3 Area of Study......50
3.4 Populations.....50
3.5 Sampling Technique...51
3.6 Research Instrument...51
3.7 Method of Data Analysis....51
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction ..53
4.2 Research Question No. 1........................................................53
4.3 Research Question No. 2 ......58
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion of Findings......................62
5.2 Conclusion.....65
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5.3 Implications of the Study...66

5.3.2 Organizing Seminars on Ikwerre Language for Teachers within the

Region...66
5.3.3 Allotting More Time to the Teaching of Oral English..66
5.3.4 Motivation of Students by Teachers..66
5.4 Recommendation for Further Studies....67
Works Cited...........................68
Appendix...76
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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of the Background
Learning a second language has been important to human beings from
earliest historical times. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics states
that the Sumerians of the third millennium BC used bilingual tablets in
Sumerian and Akkadian to educate their children, and compiled the worlds
oldest known bilingual dictionaries. Bilingual tablets were used in ancient
Egypt, and, in the Ptolemaic period, the upper classes in Egypt received their
education in Greek. In the Hellenistic period, the majority of people in Asia
Minor who could read and write did so in Greek, their second language. Until
the fourth century BC, bilingual education in Greek and Latin was an important
part of the curriculum for Roman children (3742).
In line with this, Otagburuagu states that second language learning could
arise from a social or political factor. For instance, colonization, trade and
commerce could create a conducive atmosphere for the development of a
second language (1). He continued by saying that the colonization of Nigeria,
Ghana etc by Britain must be seen as the primary factor that gives rise to the
adoption of the English language as the second language in these countries.
Multilingualism as well as the desire for social integration could give rise to
second language learning too (Otagburuagu 1). In support of this view,
Verghese also states that it is a historical accident that led to English taking
deep roots in Canada, Australia and the United States (Verghese 1). He further
states that history again has played a part in English being used widely in other
countries in Africa and Asia. Those countries were the colonies of Great Britain,
and since the day they came under Britain rule, English has been taught and
used as a medium of communication there (Verghese 1).
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Apart from colonization, other possible reason(s) why English is mostly

used as a second language is that it is spoken around the globe and has wider
dispersion than any other language. From its earlier home within what is now
called the united kingdom (with 56 million speakers), English has spread to
nearby Ireland (three and a half million), across the Atlantic for America (where
some 232 million people speak in the united states, with perhaps as many as 24
million additional speakers in (Canada), and across the world to Australia and
New Zealand (with about 17 million English speakers between them) (Finegan
77-78).
Hence, English language is is the sole official language in more than two
dozen other countries: Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Uganda and Zimbabwe in
Africa; Jamaica, the Bohamas, Dominica and Barbados in the Caribbean; and
Vanuatus, Fiji and the Solomon Island in the pacific, to a sample (Finegan
7778) etc .Supporting this view, The Encyclopedia Americana , states that
more than half of the worlds scientific research and technical journals, as well
as newspapers are printed in English. Three fourths of the worlds mail is
written in English, and English is the language of three fifths of the worlds radio
station (417). To take German as an example between 1762 and 1968 alone the
proportion of articles published in English in Physikalische Zeitschrift rose from
2 percent to 50 percent (Quirk et al 5). Beyond its uses as first and second
language in ordinary intercourse, Finegan states that English is now established
as the lingua Franca of much scholarship, particular of a scientific and technical
nature ( 78). He further states that reflective of the wide spread dissemination
of English and perhaps of an extraordinary adaptability is the fact that noble
prizes in literature have been awarded to more writers using English than any
other language, and that these laureates have been citizens of Australia, Ireland
and India, as well as the United States and Britain (Finegan 79). Campbell also
 3

asserts that English is the acceptable medium in the travel industry and in
international communication (Campbell 145). There is no doubt that, the
English language is a language of communication between the people with
different cultures. It is also the language of computers that help people to
communicate with the people around the world through internet technology and
e-mail. All these reasons given above could result to the learning of a second
language.
Several factors affect the learning and proficiency of a second language.
Among them are the nature and structure of the first language, culture
environment, age, method of acquisition and the amount of efforts invested. The
degree of differences and similarity between the mother-tongue and the target
language are important factors in the learning of a second language. One crucial
feature of L2 learning is that the learner has had experience of another language.
An experience which enables him to master, assimilate and internalize the
system of learning of the first language. As they learn the new language, second
language learner incorporates the new linguistic input into their model of the
language. To buttress this point, Lado states that Individuals tend to transfer
the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their
native language and culture to the foreign language and culture (2). A second
language learner thinks in his language, tires to express himself in the second
language which results to conflicts, and this conflict is as a result of mother-
tongue interference.
On exposure to a new and different language, i.e. English, the individual
is now faced with the problem of communicating effectively in his new
language as a result of this influence of his native language. The degree of
differences and similarities between the mother tongue and the target language
are important factors in the learning of second language. As mention earlier,
 4

other factors could also affect the learning and proficiency of the target
language. In agreement with the above, Gardner and Maclntyre states that in
the language learning situation, many such factors have been identified (1). But
in their own article, they focused on two broad classifications of affective
factors, namely, language attitude and motivation, and language anxiety and self
confidence (1). In support of this opinion, Vergherse opines that one of the
important conditions of learning a second language is abundant exposure to the
language (20). He further states that a very significant factor in language
learning is motivation and he pointed out other factors like the duration of
exposure to the language, availability of the right type of teaching materials
and aids (22, 23).
Base on this reason, the theoretical framework of this study is based on two
theories of second language learning, the behaviourist theory which states that
properties of the L1 are thought to exercise an influence on the course of L2
learning: learners transfer sounds, structures, and usages from one language to
the other. Contrastive analysis is the name given to the study of the similarities
and differences in the morphology and syntax between two languages (Marco
23). The contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) was proposed to account for the
role of the L1 in L2 learning. (International Encyclopedia of Language 300).
When put to test CAH was not fully supported, it failed to predict errors that
learners were observed to make, and it predicted some errors that did not occur
(Spada et al 19).
The main alternative to the behaviourist approach (which is cognitive
theory) sees as central the role of cognitive factors in language learning. And
this theory makes use of Error analysis. Crystal states that error analysis plays
a central role in this approach. Errors are likely to emerge when learners make
the wrong deductions about the nature of the L2, such as assuming that a pattern
 5

is general, when into fact there are exceptions ( 372). Error analysis showed
that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors. (e.State
Master Encyclopedia: second language acquisition. Master Nation .com.).
However, the analysis of errors turns out to be a highly complex matter,
involving other factors than at the cognitive. According to crystal, some errors
are due to the influence of the mother-tongue, as contrastive analysis claims.
Some come from external link influences, such as inadequate teaching or
materials (372). The researcher believes that the best way to investigate this
research is by combining the two theories of second language learning:
behaviourist and cognitive theories. Since, the influence of mother-tongue
seems inevitable in the learning of a second language, the aim of this research is
to highlight this influences (its nature, causes and extent) by analyzing the
errors made by the JSSI and JSS 2 students of some schools in Emohua local
Government of Rivers State (where Ikwerre is an indigenous language and the
sole medium of communication outside the classroom) so as to recommend
necessary solution for eliminating them.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Interference is the influence of one language, dialect or other linguistic
features upon anothers phonology, grammar and vocabulary. In the course of
using English as a second language, there is inter-lingual interference. That is,
the influence of one language upon anothers phonology, grammar and
vocabulary. The language which a group of people considered to be
inhabitants of an area acquire in their early years and which normally becomes
their natural instrument of thought and communication may interfere with the
second language, and these interferences may manifest itself in any aspect of
the language such as phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. When an
 6

Igbo man for instance says; I hear a smell to mean I perceive an odour or
when the Hausa man says I am coming here yesterday to mean I came here
yesterday; or also when the Ikwerre man says did you hear me to mean did
you understand me?; they transliterate the syntax of their respective mother-
tongue into English Language. It is also a well known fact that Igbo learners
interference problem is different from that of the Hausa and Yoruba learners
and vice versa.
A lot of views have arisen with respect to what causes mother-tongue
interference. Mother-tongue interference is the linguistic interference of a
childs first language. The controversy is that a child has a biological ability that
enables him to acquire a language and depend on factors of his environment
during the process of language development that affects the learner-users of
English as a second language because he transfers some of the features of his
language into his second language which in this study is English language.
These features as earlier mentioned are found in the way he pronounces English
words and the way he constructs sentences.
Although some researchers have carried out investigation on this problem
of mother-tongue interference in Nigeria, their main focus has been on the three
major Nigerian languages: Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa. Based on this, the
researcher seeks to carry out a similar research on the Ikwerre language which is
one of the minority languages in Nigeria, and which an investigation of this
nature has not been done.
This research work, therefore, seeks to identify the ways in which the
mother-tongue Ikwerre influences the learning and proficiency of the target
language which in this study is the English language.
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1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the mother-
tongue Ikwerre on the learning and proficiency of English among the junior
secondary school students of Emohua local government area of Rivers State,
where Ikwerre is an indigenous language and is mostly used in communication.
This research will be carried out under the following sub leadings.
The phonological impact of the L1 on the L2 and
The syntactical impact of the L1 on the L2.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study will help individuals and groups of people or learner users of
English in Ikwerre land to identify the lexical, and speech problems they
encounter while learning the second language. This study will urge at least
some Ikwerre learner users of English language to be conscious of the way
they speak English and how they pronounce words and construct sentences in
English language. It will make them to correct and subdue negative influences
of their mother tongue on English and it will also help teachers of English
language in Ikwerre land to be aware of the problems facing the Ikwerre
learners of English.

1.5 Research Questions

This study seeks to investigate and provide answers to the following questions:
1 Does the phonology of the Ikwerre language affect the learning and
proficiency of the English Language? And
2 Does the syntax of the Ikwerre Language affect the learning and proficiency
of the English Language?
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1.6 Research Design and Methodology

The design in this research work will be a case study conducted at some
secondary schools in Emohua local government area of Rivers State. A case
study is an intensive investigation of the previous life, current position and
environment of a person or group of people. It is the intensive investigation of
the background, current status, the social, economic, political and other
environmental interaction of the individual or group. The focal point of a Case
Study is the unit or single case (Iwuama et al 12).
The data for this research will be generated from the students
Utterances
Reading passages (from JSS 1 and JSS 2 English text books), and
Written composition (which will be used in finding out the impact or
influence of the mother-tongue on the second Language). It will be a
descriptive research which entails the systematic collection and
presentation of data to give a clear picture of a particular situation (Eboh
25).

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study will focus only on the Ikwerres peoples experience. It will
focus on learner-users of English as an L2 in Ikwerre taking note of its
phonological,and lexical impact on English language. The study covers some
secondary schools located in Emohua local government area where Ikwerre is
their indigenous language and the English language is usually learnt in school.
The population will be made up of junior secondary school students of
JSS 1 and 2.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature related to this study was reviewed under the following sub
headings:
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.1.1 Mother-tongue
2.1.2 Second language
2.1.3 Second language learning and proficiency
2.1.4 The origin of the Ikwerre people
2.1.5 The Culture of the Ikwerre people
2.1.6 The Geographical location
2.1.7 The Ikwerre language
2.1.8 Classification of Ikwerre language
2.1.9 The origin of the target language (English)
2.1.10 English language in Nigeria
2.1.11 English language in Ikwerre
2.2 Theoretical framework
2.2.1 The behaviourist theory
2.2.2 The Cognitive theory
2.3.3 Stephen Krashen Theory of SLA
2.3 Related Empirical Study
2.4 Summary of Literature
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2.1 Conceptual Framework

For us to have a better understanding of this research work we need to
define some of the basic linguistic concepts which include, mother tongue,
second language, second language learning and proficiency. We also need to
know the nature of the target language as well as that of the native language.
Hence, we shall discuss the following: the origin of Ikwerre people, the culture
of the people, the geographical location, and the Ikwerre language, the origin of
the target language, English language in Nigeria and the origin of English
language in Ikwerre land.

2.1.1. Mother Tongue

Mother tongue is the language which a group of people considered to be
the inhabitants of an area, acquire in their early years and which normally
becomes their natural instrument of thought and communication (Awoniyi 27).
Bamisaye supports this view when he states that first language or mother
tongue (LI/MT) is the first language a child picks up. It is not learnt but
acquired. It is the language that encodes early concepts of the child. Mother
tongue speakers are regarded as A speaker of that very language (23). It is also
seen as ones native language (The Websters Comprehensive Dictionary of
the English language 830).
In some countries such as Kenya and India mother tongue is used to
indicate the language of ones ethnic group, in both common and journalistic
parlance (e.g. I have no apologies for not learning my mother tongue rather than
ones first language). A similar usage of the term was employed in Ireland in
the early to- mid twentieth century, with Irish being referred to as the mother
tongue of all Irish people, even of those whose first language was English.
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Also in Singapore, mother tongue refers to the language of ones ethnic group
regardless of actual proficiency, while the first language refers to the English
language, which is the language of instruction in government schools and as a
working language despite it not being a native tongue for most Singaporeans
(Online free Wikipedia Encyclopedia).
Reinforcing Bamisayes view, Nutsukpo defines mother tongue as the
childs first language as well as the language of the childs father or mother or
of both (1).
In this research work mother tongue will be regarded as the language of
ones ethnic group which is also the language of the linguistic environment of
the students.

2.1.2 Second Language

A second language (SL) is a non-native language that is widely used for
purposes of communication, usually as a medium of education, government, or
business. English for example, has foreign language status in Japan, but second
language status in Nigeria (David Crystal 368). Nutsukpo defines it as the
language learnt after the mother tongue, or first language(s) has or have been
acquired. It may be an indigenous or non- indigenous language (2). In support
of these definitions by these authors, The Wikipedia Free Online Encyclopedia
states the term second language is used to describe any language whose
acquisition starts after early childhood (including what may be third or
subsequent language learnt). The language to be learned is often referred to as
the target language or L2 compared to the first language L1
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second-language).
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2.1.3 Second Language Learning and Proficiency

Second language learning is a conscious learning activity by a person
who has already acquired a first language or mother tongue. The L2 learner may
be seen as a linguistic Adult in the sense that he is already with the
knowledge of the working of language and has learned to use language to
communicate using the system operating in his mother tongue (L1) (Alo 70). It
is the process by which people learn a second language (s),
(http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/second language). Second language learning is
what takes place in classrooms when following a structured course with a
teacher (Crystal 368).
Second language learning could arise from social or political factors. For
instance, colonization, trade and commerce could create a conducive
atmosphere for the development of a second language. The colonization of
Nigeria, Ghana etc. by Britain must be seen as the primary factor that gave rise
to the adoption of the English language as the second language in these
countries (Otagburuagu 1).
Proficiency refers to the degree of skill with which a person can use a
language such as how well a person can read, write, speak or understand
language (Jack, John and Weber 159). One group of linguist defines proficiency
as linguistic contents. While, until 1970 or so, phonology, vocabulary, and
grammar have predominated, the more recent definition of proficiency includes
semantic discourse, and sociolinguistic features. Thus, one analysis of
proficiency comprises, besides grammatical well-formedness, speech act rules,
language functions, and language varieties. Proficiency is today emphatically
expressed in communicative and not merely linguistic (i.e. grammatical) terms
(Stern 347).
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Proficiency is usually distinguished from competence, which refers to

knowledge: proficiency refers to the learners ability to use this knowledge in
different tasks (Ellis 720). Because any test of competence is a task of some
sort, it may be argued that all measures of competence are in effect measuring
some form of proficiency. Both proficiency and competence are internally
complex they do not reflect a single attribute, but many different forms of
knowledge in complex interrelationship. (http://en.wikipedia.org). As a result of
this complex nature of proficiency and competence, Stern said that knowing a
language, competence, or proficiency in the first or second language can be
summarized as:
1. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language

2. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and socio

cultural meaning, expressed by the language forms,

3. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to

communicative and

4. The creativity of language use (346).

2.1.4 The Origin of the Ikwerre People

The origin of the Ikwerre people is traceable to the waves of migrations,
which started in the 13th century AD in Benin Kingdom (Eke and Chukwu, 19).
Alagoa and Kpone-Tonwu supported this view. When they stated that the
Ikwerre group comprises the following major communities: Elele, Isiokpo,
Rumuji, Emohua, Ogbakiri, Aluu, Igwuruta, Akpo, and Obio. Traditions
collected from these communities in recent times record a majority, especially
in the Northern and Central Sectors, adopting a history of migration from
Benin (176). According to Woke et al, This oral tradition holds that one
 14

epoch in the reign of Oba Ekwere witnessed the mysterious death of his two
sons. The Benin Monarch therefore issued a decree making it punishable by
death for any man to give birth to a son before the Oba had two new sons to
replace his dead ones. Alaka and Ochichi, the putative founding fathers of
Ogba, Ikwerre and Ekpeye rejected this draconic decree. Their refusal to accept
the decree attracted the attention of Oba Ewuare. Realizing the enormity of
rejecting the Obas order, the two brothers fled at night. They moved
southwards to Agbor, Obigwe and later settled by River Imoku from where
Omuku derived her name (qtd. In Eke,et al 21). Alaka had two sons, Ogba and
Ekpeye. As both sons had started procreating, Ekpeye was said to have
accidentally killed one of the children of his brother, Ogba, when the latter was
away on a hunting expedition. This ugly incident coincided with when Ochichi
was to move further south. Ekpeye, for fear of obvious reprisals joined his
uncle. They moved towards the Sombreiro River; Ekpeye settled at Ula-Ehuda
(Now Ahoada) the traditional headquarters of Ekpeye Land. Ochichi crossed the
river at Akpabo through Eligbo before finally settling at the present site of
Elele, the traditional headquarters of Ikwerre Land (Eke,et al 21). The second
tradition traces the origin of Ikwerre people to Ijo. The proponents of this
tradition suggest Northwards movement from the Niger-Delta. The Ijo tradition
is very popular in Ogbakiri and other Costal Ikwerre communities. Alagoa and
Tamuno pointed to age-long Ikwerre-Ijo ties encouraged by trade and social
contacts. But this Ijo tradition is not acceptable as neither historical contacts nor
kingship can explain the Ikwerre-Ijo relationship.
There is also another claim to autochthony among the Omerelu and Akpo
communities in Northern and Southern Ikwerre areas. The traditions suggest
that evolution of the people owes nothing to migration from other centers
outside their present homeland. In other words, God created them in their
 15

present abode. The Omerelu communities clearly pointed this claim with the
meaning of their name Omerelu-children of Heaven. Oral traditions clearly
suggest that the people originated from heaven. Archival evidence supports this
claim of autochthony of the Akpo communities.

2.1.5 The Culture of the Ikwerre People

The Ikwerre ethnic nationality as a people constitutes one of the major
ethnic groups in River State of Nigeria (Okajile 4). Though, there are some
variations among the Ikwerre, Ikwerre speaking communities share common
cultures such as marriages, burial and new yam ceremonies, which are to a large
extent similar to those of Igbo speaking communities (Alerechi 9). Each Ikwerre
speaking community has a chief who presides over the village heads, and the
village heads settle disputes among their people especially those concerning
land. They are communalistic in outlook, sharing each others burdens, sorrow,
joy, and happiness. Traditional wresting is a major annual event, rotated among
the villages. Masquerade dances of various types and styles are performed
during Christmas period and New Year. It is believed in Ikwerre communities
that if a pregnant woman sees masquerades, she has to perform some rituals
otherwise; she would give birth to a masquerade.
The majority of the Ikwerre people are subsistence farmers. They practice
the slash and burn methods of bush clearing and use hoes, machetes and spades
to till the land. The farm produce includes cassava, yams, cocoyam, and variety
of vegetables. A few people fish with hooks, net and long baskets at the pond.
Just like the Igbos, palm wine tapping is extensively practiced in the villages.
Able-bodied men also practice hunting although this is done on specific days.
Sunday et al further states that the institution of Oha is also another
important peculiar and distinct heritage or characteristic of the Ikwerre people.
 16

The Oha member (nye Oha) is the oldest and usually the Owhor holder of the
family. The institution of Oha is never politicizedit is achieved by age,
honesty and integrity. Most if not all the towns and villages in Ikwerre have the
system of Oha deeply embedded in their social structures. (30)
Before the advent of the missionaries, the Ikwerre people recognized the
existence of the Almighty God called (Cheokike). The worship however has
been through their gods; forefathers and other deities. Since the advent of the
missionary, their religion has been Christianity. So many denominations are
now in existence in the towns and villages. Few communities, however, still
maintain the worship-of their deities (Okajile 4).

2.1.6 Geographical Location

Ikwerre people are found in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. They are
within the rain forest belt. The area notices high annual rainfall. Achinewhu
stated that the Ikwerre Ethnic Nation Covers a land of about 21, 400km2,
which is about 20% of cultivable land in the old Rivers State identifies this
Landmass within the coordinates of 4 degrees 50 minutes North, 5 degrees 15
minutes North, 6 degrees 30 minutes East and 7 degrees 15 minutes East (qtd in
Eke et al 15).
The blessed geographical location of Ikwerre has endowed it with strategic
position in Rivers State and Nigeria at large. With regards to the city of Port
Harcourt, which the people called Igwuocha, a tourist is at once introduced to
the economic, commercial, industrial, and academic and communication nerve
center of the Niger Delta (Eke 17).
Woji stated that on entering the River State Capital (Port Harcourt) by
road, one would find out that geographically the Ikwerre people inhabit the
three main gateways into the Garden city. From Aba in Abia State, you will get
 17

to Rumuokwurushi, in Obia/Akpo-Local Government Area; from Owerri in Imo

State, you will get to Omerelu in Ikwerre Local Government Area. From
Yenagoe the Balyasa State Capital, you will get to Elele Almini in Emohua
Local Government Area, while from the International Airport Omagwu, you
will get to Igwuruta in Ikwerre Local Government Area of River State(4). In
present-day Rivers State, the Ikwerre ethnic nation with 1.5 million people
account about 35% of the population of the state estimated at 4.388 million
people (Eke et al 32).

2.1.7 The Ikwerre Language

Ikwerre (also Ikwere) is a language of the Ikwerre people of the River

State Nigeria. Ikwerre, being one of the majority languages in Rivers State, is
spoken by over 1, 9800.000 people according to the 1991 census (Online
Wikipedia Encyclopedia). Ikwerre is the largest language of the Igboid group
represented in River State. It is spoken in four Local Government Areas in
River State. They are Ikwerre, Obio/ Apkor, Emohua and Port Harcourt Local
Government Areas. Ikwerre comprises many dialects, which have not been
adequately studied. The major dialects include Akpo, Obio (including Rebesi)
Emowha, Ogbakiri, Rundele, Rumuekpe, Odegnu, Obele/Ibaa, Aluu,
Igwuruta, Omagwa, Isiokpo, Elele, Egbeda, Omudioga, Omerelu, Akpani,
Ubima, Ipo, Ozuaha, Omademe, Omuanwa, Akpabu, and Ubimini (Ndimele
and Williamson,152).
There appears to be mutual intelligibility between speakers from the
different parts of Ikwerre even though the dialects differ. Ikwerre is used
regularly for radio and television news broadcast in River State.
 18

2.1.8 Classification of Ikwerre Language

In terms of language, Ekpeye, Ikwerre, Ogbah, Egbema, Ndoni and Echie
are all close to Igbo and are classified as Igboid by the linguists (Alagoa and
Kiebel 55).The classification of Ikwerre as an Igbo language or dialect remains
a subject of controversy. Over the 19th century, several falsified documents
which appear to be signed and supported by the Ikwerre claimed that Ikwerre
both people and language was strictly Igbo. In 1957, a body entitled The
Ikwerre National Congress which pretended to represent the entire community
submitted such a claim in a memorandum. However, this body inappropriately
referred to oral traditions and to a booklet on the Aro people which had been
written by an Aro man (Online Wikipedia Encyclopedia).
Ndimele et al holds the view that the relationship between languages
can be closed or distant, just like the relationship between humans. Languages,
which are closely related, are known as Sister Language (151). Based on this
grounds, Williamson and Blench have revealed from their investigation that,
though there are features which make the Ikwerre language unique, it is indeed
more appropriate to describe Igbo, Ikwerre, Ogba and other sister language
(except Ekpeye) as language cluster (4). Efere et al supported this view, when
he stated that, language from the same group are descended from the same
parent language, and therefore are genetically related to each other. We call
them sister languages. They are similar to each other in many respects but are
usually not mutually intelligible, that is, speakers of one language in the group
usually cannot communicate with speakers of the other languages in the same
group. Each language has its dialects. Dialects are varieties of the same
language, and usually mutually intelligible; which the speakers can understand
each other in spite of some differences (43).
 19

Following the invitation of the Federal Ministry of Education to examine

Ikwerre Language (10th-13th November 1985):the National Language Center
which is an arm of the Federal Ministry of Education responsible for the
systematic development of Nigerian Languagesthe Ikwerre language and its
orthography would be(sic) examined with a view to standardizing it along other
Nigerian Languagesand at the end of it the Ikwerre orthography was
approvedthe decision of the Language Conference are contained in manual v
(Ikwerre) publish by the federal ministry of educationwith this singular
success at the Lagos Conference the Ikwerre language with its orthography has
come to stay, and has now taken its proper and official place among other
Nigerian Languages.(Ekwulo 168-169) .In support of this fact, Enyia states
that the Ikwerre language has come to be a distinct language in Federal
Republic of Nigeria by the approval of the Federal Ministry of education of the
Ikwerre language orthography in 1985. Unlike the Danish language which is
90% Sweddish, the worse Ikwerre language (particularly the slants spoken in
northern Ikwerre areas) is only 20-26% Igbo which is why the defense and
preservation of the original tongue of Ikwerre people became a preoccupation of
the linguistic experts spearheaded by late professor Kay Williamson and
professor Shirley Donwa-ifode both of the faculty of Humanities, University of
Port Harcourt (39).

2.1.8.1 The Ikwerre Phonology

According to Ekwulo, Ikwerre has 9 vowels; 28 consonant =37 letters
(1). However, Ndimele et al, somehow disagrees with this fact when they state
Ikwerre and Ogba also have nine vowels, but the e is limited (168).
These vowels are as follows:
/a/ /e/ // /i/ /I/ /o/ // /u/ //
 20

a e I o u . (Ndimele et al
168).

Ikwerre distinguishes vowels by quality (frontness and height), the presence or

absence of advance tongue root (Online Wikipeedia Encyclopedia).

The Ikwerre Vowel Chart

Front Back

+ATR i uu
High

-ATR I

+ATR e o
Mid
-ATR ~

Low -ATR A

1. Vowel Harmony
A modification (ASSIMILATION) of pronunciation of vowels in a word
so that one agrees or harmonizes with another one. (Richards et al 310).
Ikwerre exhibits two kinds of vowel harmony. Every vowel in an Ikwerre word,
with a few exceptions, agrees with other vowels in the word as to the presence
or absence of advance tongue root. Vowel of the same height in adjacent
syllables must all be either front or back, ie, the pairs /i/& /u/, // & //, /e/ & /o/,
and // & // cannot occur in adjacent syllables. Vowels of different height need
 21

not match for frontness/backness either(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ikwerre

language). For example,

Ikwerre words English equivalent

1 wai Money
2 Rmntiti Children
3 ro Okwukwo School
4 gbo olu Aeroplane

From the example given above, the vowels I U and agrees with the other
vowels I, u and O as to the presence or absence of advance tongue root.
2. Nasalized Vowels
A nasalized vowel is one that is produced with air passing through the
nose as well the mouth (Ndimele et al 169). These vowels are
// // / / / / / / / / // / /
(C)n (C)ne (C)ni (C)ni (C)no (C)n (C)nu (C)n
The (c) indicates the preceding oral consonant. The nasal vowels are written
with n in between the consonants and the vowel. After a nasal consonant, the
vowel is automatically nasalized and so the n is omitted. (Ndimele et al 169).
Ogum states that, nasalization is distinctive because it marks differences in
words (72).In line with this, Enyia states that nasalization is very typical
feature of the Ikwerre language and its presence or absence makes a difference
to the meaning of words in the language. More importantly, it distinguishes
Ikwerre language from Igbo (46). Examples include
 22

Re r to smell
Re R To sell
Ra R Sexual intercourse

Ra R Drink

Be b Slice

Be B They

Whu Wh See
Whu Wh Blow with mouth
Vekwu Ekw Firewood
Ukwu ekw Waist

Consonant
The Ikwerre consonants are as follows;
b ch d f g gb gh gw h j k kp kw l m n nw ny p r s t v w wh y z
(Ekwulo 1).
The Ikwerre Aphabeths
A B CH D E
F G GB GH GW H
I N J K KP KW
L M N NW NY N
O P R S T
U V W WH Y Z (Ekwulo 1).
3. TONE
Tone is meant by a phonetic or phonological unit belonging to a set
characterized by levels of pitch. Tone is the change in the pitch of the voice that
 23

produces a change in the meaning of a word or sentence, even when the

consonants and the vowels are the same (Ndimele et al 170). The tone language
is a language in which the meaning of a word depends on the tone used when
pronouncing it (Richard et al 294). In a tone language the pitch of the voice
usually makes difference to the meaning of words (Ogum 101). It is the tone-
marking that brings out the difference in meaning, based on the pronunciation
of the words (Ndimele et al 170). Ikwerre is a tonal language, because it uses
the pitch of individual vowels or syllables to contrast meaning of words
(Fromkin et al 243). The Ikwerre language so far has shown only two
distinguishable tones viz: High and low tone .but downstep , often confused for
mid tones, occur in some dialects of Ikwerre as well as falling rising
glide.(Enyia 46)
Consonant Chart of Ikwerre Language (Online Wikipedia Encyclopedia).

4. Consonants
Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Glottal
or palatal

Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded

Explosive voiceless p T t k kw
stop or
affricate voiced B T g gw
Fricative voiceless F S H hw

voiced V Z
Nonexplosive voiced B
stop
glottalized
Lateral

Tap
R

Approximant J W
 24

2.1.9 The Origin of the Target Language (English)

English derives from the West Germanic branch of Indo-European family
of languages. It is most closely related to the low German dialects in northern
Germany and to Dutch and Frisian, Sharing with them the characteristic absence
of the second, or High German sound shift, Occurring around AD 600 and
markedly differentiating the phonology of the west Germanic varieties of the
highland south from those of the low land north (Conric 82). According to
Campbell English itself derives from three low German dialects spoken by the
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who came from Denmark, and North Germany to
settle in English from the middle of the fifth century onwards ( 143).
The Celts were the first inhabitants of the British Isles about whom any
historical records exist. They did not speak English, but their languages belong
to the Indo-European family of languages, to which English also belongs.
(Jowitt 2). It was in AD 449, according to Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the
English people, that bands from the three Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons
and Jutes began leaving the areas known today as northern Holland and
Germany and Southern Denmark. These Teutons sailed to Britain, which had
been deserted by the Romans forty years earlier, to assist the Celtic leader
Vortigern who had called upon them to help repulse the invading Picts and
Scots from the north of England. Preferring Britain to their continental home
lands, the Teutons settled, driving the Hapless Celts into remote corners.
(Finegan 83). Furthermore surviving the Roman occupation of the Britain Isle
there remained but few linguistic relics of Latin origin including the second
element of such place names as Lancaster, Manchester, and Rochester etc. It is
not until the end of the seventh century that we have written records of the
Germanic language spoken in England and not until the reign of king Alfred
(871-99) that we have Englisc recorded in quantity.
 25

At the end of the eighth century and during the ninth, a series of invasions
from the Scandinavian cousins of the Anglo-Saxons brought a secondary
Germanic influence into the English lexicon. After king, Alfred defeated these
Vikings in 878 and signed the treaty of Wedmore with Guthrum, who agreed to
become Christian, there followed a period of integration during which
bilingualism prevailed in the Danelaw, an era governed by Danish practices and
including Northumbria, East Anglia, and half of central English.
In addition, in the development of the English language, the most
significant historical event is the invasion by the Normans in 1066. In that year,
William, Duke of Normandy crossed the channel and with his French-speaking
retinues established and Anglo-Norman kingdom in England. (Finegan 84).
The polarization of society which followed this upheaval was reflected in an
equalent polarization of language: as the language of the conquerors, Norman
French assumed the dominant role, while West Saxon lost its privileged status,
and joined other forms of old English as a dialect of the English peasantry.
(Campbell 143). Only when King John lost Normandy to King Philip of trance
in 1204 did the knot between England and the Anglo- Norman language start to
come undone.
Finally a plague known as the Black death struck English in 1348,
wiping out perhaps 30 percent peasant life. This shifted the lower (English
speaking) classes to positions of greater appreciation and enhanced value for
their work and along with their own rise in status came their language. In 1362,
the status of pleading passed by parliament, mandating that all courts
proceedings, should thenceforth be in English. By about 1300 all the inhabitants
of England knew English, and French had begun to fall into disuse. During the
fourteenth century, English again became the language of England and her
literature. (Finegan 84).
 26

Having established the above points, the history of English language is

divided into three major period the old English (Anglo-Saxon period) starting
with the coming of the Germanic tribes into England- traditionally 449 AD-and
ending around 1100 (2) the middle English period 1100-1500; and (3) the
modern English period-from 1500 to the present, with the early modern English
period extending to about 1700 (Encyclopedia Americana 419). These periods
are briefly discussed below:
1. Old English originated when the languages of Angles and Saxon tribes
replaced those of the native Britons invasion from the 6th to the 8th century.
(21st Century Webster International Encyclopedia 382). Initially, old English
has a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms of Great Britain but one of these dialects, late West Saxon, eventually
came to dominate, and it is in this part of the poem Beowulf is written (Online
Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia). The old English lexicon was almost purely
Germanic, with traces of Latin and Celtic influences. This lexicon largely
shared etymons with the other Germanic languages and like them developed its
word stock chiefly by compounding (Finegan 86). The Grammar of old English
was a highly synthetic or inflected language. Nouns, personals pronouns,
adjectives, and the definite article were inflected for number, case, and gender.
(Jowitt 20).
2. Middle English (1100-1500 AD)
The twelfth century was the century of transition between late old English
and early Middle English. Almost nothing was written in English, and very little
was borrowed from French. The English dialects ceased to reflect the original
tribal division, and tended to polarize on areal or typological basis into two
groups: Northern (including Northumbrian and Mercian, from which latter the
important midland diaect was emerged) and Southern (Comprising West Saxon
 27

and Kentish) (Campbell 130). According to Jowitt The greatest of the

grammatical changes marking the transition from OE to ME was the massive
loss of inflections. It was due to invasions, not only of the Normans but also of
the Danes before them. (53)
3. Modern English (1500- till date).
The key feature in the phonological transition from late middle to modern
English is the so- called Great Vowel Shift, which took place in the
fifteenth/sixteenth centuries. Briefly, five of the long vowels were raised by one
degree; the remaining two were diphthongized; a:> :: >e:>i:; >o: >u:: i: >ay; u:
>aw (Campbell 152).
Modern English, includes the work of William Shakespeare and the king
James Bible, is generally dated about 1550, and when united kingdom became a
colonial power, English served as a Lingua Franca of the colonies of the Britain
empire. (Online Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia).
In conclusion, old English is marked by the possession of a rich extensive
system of Germanic inflection and a purely Germanic vocabulary: Middle
English by extensive erosion of the morphological apparatus, and the intake of
large number of French words; modern English by the near total disappearance
of inflections. Today, as the mother-tongue of some 350 million people, English
is demographically surpassed only by modern standard Chinese, which cannot,
however claim anything approaching the international status of English. The
main components in this total are: USA 232 million speakers; United Kingdom
56 million; Canada 24 million; Australia and New Zealand 17 million
(Campbell 144).
 28

2.1.10 English Language in Nigeria

English language did not begin to play a significant part in Nigeria
society until the nineteen century. This was the period in which white men
began coming to the country in steadily increasing number as missionaries and
traders and in the latter part of the century, as soldiers and government officials
(Jowitt 15).
The introduction of English language into Nigeria can be traced to the
coming of missionaries just before the middle of the 19th century with the first
English mission in 1842. Trade was the second institution through which
English gained a foothold in Nigeria. By the middle of the 19th century, English
traders had developed legitimate trade in palm oil and other commodities, with
the natives along the Niger and Calabar Areas. Schools were built in these areas
because the chiefs and traders wanted their children to be taught English and
how to keep account.
When the Berlin Conference was convened for the partition of Africa, Nigeria
was claimed by British and colonialism started in this country. The British
Colonial administration appointed Governors and districts for the business of
administration, which was conducted in English. In this way, the need arose for
Nigerians to speak and write in order to become personnel in the colonial
administration. English therefore become established as a necessary medium in
Nigeria through the instruction of religion (Christianity) trade and politics.

2.1.11 English Language in Ikwerre

The Christian missionaries played a vital role as harbingers of the British
Conquest of parts of Southern Nigeria and this Conquest of Southern Nigeria
was economically motivated. In other words, the British Conquest of Southern
Nigeria promoted palm oil trade among the Delta States of which Ikwerre forms
 29

an integral part and it was as a result of the contact with the Missionaries and
trade, that English Language came into Ikwerre Land that is to say that at the
advent of colonialism, the Ikwerre people were exposed to English Language
and special English.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework for second language learning presents a number of
different perspectives or theories of second language learning. This study will
review three of these theories, which are relevant to this study. They include
behaviourist, cognitive and Krashens theory of second language learning.

2.2.1 The Behaviourist Theory

The first coherent theory of learning was the behavourist theory based on
the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and of Skinner in the United States
(Tom-Hutchinson et al 40). A great deal of language learning and teaching in
the 1950s and 1960s was influenced by the tenets of behaviourism (Crystal
372). Behaviourism was based on the view that all learning including
language learning occurs through a process of imitation, practice,
reinforcement and habit formation. Behaviourist claimed that when learners
correctly produce language that approximates what they are exposed to in the
input, and these efforts receive positive reinforcement, habits are formed (Spada
et al 118). In this view, FLL is seen as a process of imitation and reinforcement:
learners attempt to copy what they hear, and by regular practice they establish a
set of acceptable habits in the new language (Crystal 372).
Behaviourist theories attempted to explain how learners can learn the
more difficult aspects of the L2, that is, the elements which are least like their
first language (L1). For example, I will buy / j achterai are reasonably similar
and stable structures in English and French. By constrast I gave it to him / je le
 30

lui ai donn are diverging structures in the two languages. Similar structures
needed relatively little stimulus response practice, dissimilar structures needed
a lot. (Marco 23).
Properties of the L1 are thought to exercise an influence on the course of
L2 learning: learners transfer sounds, structures, and usages from one language
to the other. Contrastive analysis is the name given to the study of the
similarities and differences in the morphological and syntax between two
languages (Marco 23). The contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) was proposed
to account for the role of the L1 in L2 learning. The C[ontrastive] A[nalysis]
hypothesis claims that the potential negative transfer from NL onto FL can be
predicted by juxtaposing description of the two language system in order to
identify the dissimilarities (constrasts) between them (International
Encyclopedia of Language 300). CAH predicted that where similarities existed
between L1 and L2 structures, there would be no difficulty for L2 learning,
where there were differences; however, the L2 learner would experience
problems (qtd by Spada et al 119). To prepare teaching materials, researchers
carried out a constrastive analysis of the phonological and grammatical
structures of the native and target languages. Thus, they produced a list of
morphological, grammatical, and phonological features that could be expected
to prove difficult for learners because they differed from those of the first
language (Finegan 466 467).
The concept of contrastive analysis relies heavily on the psychosocial
theory of transfer. A transfer is the effect of a preceding activity upon the
learning of a given task. According to Odlin, transfer is the influence resulting
from similarities and differences between the target language and any other
language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (27).
 31

Language transfer refers to the learners trying to apply rules and forms of
the first language into the second language. The term can also include the
transfer of features from one additional language to another (such as from a
second to a third language).
Contrastive analysis, discussed above, sought to predict all learner errors
based on language transfer. Transfer is an important factor in language learning
at all levels. Typically learners begin by transferring sounds (phonetic transfer)
and meanings (semantic transfer), as well as various rules including word order
and pragmatics (online Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia).
When put to test CAH was not fully supported, it failed to predict errors
that L2 learners were observed to make, and it predicted some errors that did not
occur. (Spada, et al 19).
According to Dulay, Burt and Krashen, 1982, researchers found that L2
learners from different backgrounds made some of the same errors and that
some of these errors would not have been predicted by a contrastive analysis
between learners L1 and L2. These findings, together with the rejection of
behavourist learning theories which CAH had been associated with, led a
number of second language acquisition researchers in the 1970s and 1980s to
argue that there was, in fact, very little L1 influence in second language
acquisition (qtd by Spada et al 119).
Excusive attention to NL induced errors morbidly distracted attention
from the often facilitative effects of NL/FL similarities, which ought to be
emphasized in teaching. There is in other words positive as well as negative
transfer (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, 301).
An important reaction to behaviourism was the inter language studies.
Inter language scholars seek to understand learners language in its own terms,
 32

as a natural language with its own consistent set of rules. (Online Wikipedia
Free Encyclopedia).
Interestingly enough, apart from appreciating the problems of
interference from the learners native language, later research has tended to re-
establish the importance of L1 influence, but it has also shown that the
influence is complex and that it changes as the learners competence in the
second language develops.

2.2.2. The Cognitive Theory

In recent years cognitive psychologists have begun to challenge the basic
tenets of behaviourist theories of learning. Their theories rest upon neuro-
psychological bases of thought and language, and as such are said by mentalist.
Learning is not viewed as an array of conditioned responses to previously met
stimuli, as the acquisition and storage of knowledge. Behaviourist psychologist
focus on the individuals response while cognitive physiologist emphasized the
mental process underlying that response (Tom Hutchinson et al 52)
The main alternative to the behaviourist approach sees as central the role
of cognitive factors in language learning. In this view, learners are credited with
using their cognitive abilities in a creative way to work out hypothesis about the
structure of the F.L. They construct rules, try them out, and alter them if they
prove to be inadequate. Language learning, in this account proceeds in a series
of transitional stage as learners acquire more knowledge of the L2. (David
Crystal 372). Crystal further states that error analysis plays a central role in this
approach. Errors are likely to emerge when learners make the wrong deductions
about the nature of the L2, such as assuming that a pattern is general, when in
fact there are exceptions. The errors provide evidence about the nature of the
learning process, as the learner gradually works out what the Fl system is (372)
 33

According to Abisamara Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis

that focuses on the errors learners make. It consists of a comparison between the
error made in the target language (TL) and that TL itself. Pit Corder is the
father of Error Analysis (the EA with the new look). It was with his article
entitled the significance of learners Error (1967) that EA took a new turn.
Errors used to be flaws that needed to be eradicated. Corder presented a
completely different point of view. He contended that those errors are
important in and of themselves. For learners themselves errors are
indispensable, since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the
learner uses in order to learn. In 1994, Gass and Selinker defined errors as red
flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language
(www.cwru.edu/../BBP_ESLHandout.pdf.).
According to Corder (1974) error analysis has two objects: one
theoretical and another applied. The theoretical object serves to elucidate what
and how a learner learns when he studies a second language. And the applied
object serves to enable the learner to learn more efficiently by exploiting our
knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical purposes.
Crystal stated that Since the 1970s cognitive approaches to FLL have
been in the ascendant, and error analysis in particular has attracted a great deal
of attention. However, the analysis of errors turns out to be a highly complex
matter, involving other factors than at the cognitive. Some errors are due to the
influence of the mother tongue, as contrastive analysis claims. Some come from
external influences, such as inadequate teaching or materials. Some arise out of
the need to make one self understood by whatever means possible (e.g.
replacing words by gestures). Above all, error analysis is complicated by the
fact that it is often unclear what the learner intended to say, and thus how to
identify the errors that have been made ( Crystal 372-372). Moreover, in
 34

support of 6this view, Corder also states what we should be aware that
different types of written materials may produce a different distribution of error
or a different set of error types. the recognition of errors .depends crucially
upon the analyst making a correct interpretation of the learners intended
meaning of the context (Corder 126-127).
Despite the difficulties, research into errors continues to provide a fruitful
way of investigating the processes underlying FL acquisition. However, as with
constrastive analysis, the approach cannot provide a complete explanation
(Crystal 374).

2.2.3 Stephen Krashens Theory of SLA

This hypothesis by Stephen Krashen is one of the most controversial
theoretical perspectives in second language acquisition. It is based on a set of
five interrelated hypotheses that are listed below.
1. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
Krashen claims that there is a difference between acquisition and learning.
Acquisition is a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system
of a language, not unlike the process used by a child to pick up a language.
Learning is a conscious process in which learners attend to form, figure out
rules, and are generally aware of their own process (Brown 275).
2. The Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor has nothing to do with acquisition but with learning. The
learned system acts only as an editor or monitor, making minor changes and
polishing what the acquired system has produced. (Alexandra AltenaichinGer
9). According to Krashen, three conditions are necessary for monitor use: 1
sufficient time, 2. focus on form, 3 knowing the rules (Lightbown and Spada
27).
 35

3. The Natural Order Hypothesis

The hypothesis states that we acquire the rules of a language in a certain
order that is predictable (Lightbown ,and Spada 27). The natural order
hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974, Fathman, 1975;
Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of
grammatical structures follows a natural order which is predictatable.
However, this does not mean that every acquirer will acquire grammatical
structures in exactly the same order. It states rather that, in general, certain
structures tend to be acquired early and others to be acquired late (Krashen, and
Terrell 28).

4 The Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis states that it is important for the acquirer to understand
language that is a bit beyond his or her current level of competence. This means,
if the learner is on level i, the input he gets should be i + 1. This means that the
language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their
current competence that they can understand most of it but still is challenged to
make progress (Brown 278).
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, embodies
Krashens view that a number of effective variables play a facilitative, but
non-casual, role in second language acquisition. These variables include:
motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high
motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are
better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation,
low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to raise the affective
filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being
 36

used for acquisition (Ricardo Schtz, http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html).

According to Dulay and Burt, performers with optimal attitudes have a lower
effective filter. A low filter means that a performer is more open to the input
language (Krashen, Terrell 38).
Krashens assumption has been hotly disputed. Many psychologists like
McLaughlin have criticized Krashens unclear distinction between subconscious
(acquisition) and conscious (learning) processes. According to Brown, second
language learning is a process in which varying degrees of learning and of
acquisition can both be beneficial, depending upon the learners own styles and
strategies. Furthermore, the i + 1 formula that is presented by Krashen raises the
question how i and 1 should be defined. Moreover, what about the silent
period? Krashen states that after a certain time, the silent period speech will
emerge to the learner, which means that the learner will start to speak as a
result of comprehensible input. Nevertheless, there is no information about what
will happen to the learners, for whom speech will not emerge and for whom
the silent period might last forever (Brown 281).
Swain also goes against Krashens radical position towards the role of
input and argues in favour of the output hypothesis. She claims that practicing
the language helps learners observe their own production, which is essential to
SLA. It is her contention that output may stimulate learners to move from
the semantic, open-ended non-deterministic, strategic processing prevalent in
comprehension to the complete grammatical processing needed for accurate
production (Swain 128).
2.3 Related Empirical Study
The ultimate goal of any research into second language learning is to
achieve an understanding of the events itself. The issue of mother- tongue
influence or interference has received a larger attention over time. Empirical
 37

research has attempted to account for variables detailed by SLL (second

language learning) theories and provide an insight into L2 learning processes,
which can be applied in educational environments. Recent SLA investigations
have followed two main directions: one focuses on pairings of L1 and L2 that
renders L2 acquisition difficult, and the other investigates certain aspects of
language that may be maturationally constrained. The empirical study in this
work is divided into foreign based studies and the Nigerian based empirical
studies.
Onike Rahaman (2009) carried out a research on mother tongue
interference on the Yoruba learners of English and he found out that a Yoruba
English bilingual stresses every syllable in the utterances he produces in
English, e.g. cha 1ra 1cher instead of character or ma1ry instead of Mary. At the
level of intonation, because all the syllables are stressed, a carryover effect
from the dialects of Yoruba language, it becomes difficult to understand what
part of an utterance a Yoruba English bilingual is trying to emphasize. In the
areas of syntactic and discourse problems of Yoruba learner of English, he
states that the syntax of English and Yoruba language have recognized
problem areas such as the nominal system (such as number, quantifiers,
pronoun) gender, embedded structures relative pronouns, complements) and the
expression of passives. According to him, the discourse level is more
pronounced at the level of greeting. For instance, the system of greeting in
Yoruba differs considerably from that of English. And a Yoruba English
bilingual transfers the system of greeting in Yoruba into English. The system of
greetings is also observed via the production of language greetings in place of
casual greetings which characterize the English discourse. (Online Wikipedia
encyclopedia).
 38

Emenanjo (1978) explains that Igbo Language has only one preposition
/na/. In Igbo this preposition is a source of difficulty for the Igbo speakers when
learning a language with many prepositions. This is because the preposition /na/
can stand as at least three prepositions in English language. For example
Oge im na eje ahia izu akwa, a huru im chioma
(Igbo version) when I was going to the market to buy
cloth, I saw Chioma (English version).

Similarly, Osisanya Olumujiwa (1984) gives instances of interference

common among the Yoruba speakers of English. Her examples were taken
from the primary school level. In English all norminals with the exception of
pronouns are not inflected in the nominative or accusative cases. There is
inflection in most common nouns only when they change from singular to plural
forms thus:
(a) I see a man
(b) men are kind.
Here, the problem of the primary school learner of English lies in his
inability to use the correct inflected plural forms of nouns and also to use the
article with nouns in English. It is common to read from exercises of these
learners, such deviant sentences as:
(a) mans are kind Awon Okunrim ni aanu
(b) mens are nice Awon Olurin dara.
Anke Nutskpo (1996) also carried out researches on the influence of
mother tongue on English Language and found out that a number of elison
errors are derived from mother tongue interference. Some of these include
consonant clusters. Most of West African languages have no consonant clusters
and this affects pronunciation of English words. Thus, words like look for
 39

looked or pack for packed appears normal. Also in specific language like
the Yoruba or Ijaw language /h/ is also introduced where there is non as in
/hgz/ for egg.
Kay Williamson (1969) did some detailed work on the problems the Igbo
learners of English encounters with the learning of English sounds. She notes
that most Igbo dialects, with regards to the vowels [e] and [] are allophones of
one phoneme. This is why most Igbo speakers who tend to use [e] for the
English diphthong /ei/ does not clearly distinguish between such words as gate
and get. Also the central vowels //, /:/ and // are difficult for Igbo
speakers because there are no Igbo vowels that are similar in quality.
Furthermore, Adetugbo (1984), states that the inability to express the
English norms, culture and thoughts as the native speakers does, and imposing
ones way of expressing ones native language on English is the source of
semantic interference. To make this point clearer, he illustrates with
words/expressions sorry and well done. Sorry is used in Nigerian English
as an expression of sympathy, for example when somebody coughs. While
well done is used as a greeting to anyone at work. The use of these lexical
items in British English would be wrong and inappropriate sorry in native
English can be used to express a feeling or repentance (I am sorry for what I
have done); well done according to Adetugbo (1984) is a high praise
salutation in native English culture for someone who has excelled at doing
something.
LoCoco (1975), in a study of American college students learning Spanish
and German in U.S, a foreign language situation, reported that the high
incidence of interlingual (L1 interference) errors in German was due to word
order errors (p. 101) typical examples include
Hoffentlich du bist gesund
 40

Hopefully you are healthy.

Correct: Hoffentlich bist du gesund
and
Ich bin glcklich sein heir
I am happy to be here
Correct: Ich bin glucklich leer ze sein

First language based errors in Spanish were less numerous and pertained
primary to adjective position. The greater word order differences between
English and German as compared to English and Spanish accounts for the
difference in frequencies in interference word order errors. Spanish students
were more often correct in using English surface structures in utterance
initiation due to the greater surface similarity between English and Spanish.
This also accounts for Chans (1975) finding that English to Spanish
interference errors occurred mainly on grammatical categories absent in either
the NL or TL and not in word order. LoCoco also found that second level
Spanish students showed an increase in interference type errors that loCoco
calls whole expression terms, or word-for-word translation of an L1
expression, which is similar to what Duskova reported (qtd by Krashen 65
66).
Flege, Mackay and piske investigated whether the age at which
participates learned English affected dominance in Italian English bilinguals,
and found that early bilinguals were English (L2) dominant and the late
bilinguals Italian (L1) dominant. Further analysis showed that dominant Italian
bilinguals had detectable foreign accents when speaking English, but early
bilinguals (English dominant) had no accents in either language. This suggests
 41

that, though Interlingua interference effects are inevitable, their emergence, and
bilingual dominance, may be related to a CP (Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia).
Sebastin - Galls, Echeverria and Bosch (2005) also studied bilinguals
and highlight the importance of early language exposure. They looked at
vocabulary processing and representation in Spanish Catalan bilinguals
exposed to both languages simultaneously from birth in comparison to those
who had learned L2 later and were either Spanish or Catalan dominant.
Findings showed from birth bilinguals had significantly more difficulty
distinguishing Catalan words from non-words differing in specific vowels that
Catalan dominants did (measured by reaction time).
Mayberry and Lock (2003) questioned whether age restrains both L1 and
L2 acquisition. They examined grammatical abilities of deaf and hearing adults
who had their initial linguistic exposure either early childhood or later. They
found that, on L2 grammatical tasks, those who had acquired the verbal or
signed L1 in life showed near-native performance and those who had no early L1
experience (ie born deaf and parents did not know signed-language) performed
weakly. Mayberry and Lock concluded early L1 exposure is vital forming life-
long learning abilities, regardless of the nature of the exposure (verbal or signed
language). This corresponds to Noam Chomskys UG which states that while
language acquisition principles are still active, it is easy to learn a language,
and the principles developed through L1 acquisition are vital for learning an L2
( Online Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia).
Some researchers have focused exclusively on practical applications of
SLA research. Asher (1972) insists teenagers and adult rarely successfully learn
an L2, and attributes this to teaching strategies. He presents an L2 teaching
strategy based on infants L1 acquisition, which promotes listening as central in
language learning: listening precedes, and generates a readiness for, speaking,
 42

assumptions supported by Carroll (1960). Asher shows that in L2 acquisition,

and in this case German listening fluency is achieved in around half the usual
time if the teaching is based on L1 acquisition, and that learners taught in this
way still develop reading and writing proficiency comparable with those whose
training emphasizes literacy skills. Similarly Horwitz (1986) summarizes
findings of SLA research, and applies to L2 teaching some principles of L2
acquisition honed from a vast body of relevant literature. Like Asher, Horwitz
highlight the importance of naturalistic experience in L2, promoting listening
and reading practice and stressing involvement in life-like conversations. She
explicitly suggests teaching practices based on these principles. (Online
Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia).
According to Krashen, Duskova (1969) notes that errors in bound
morphology e.g. omission of plurals on nouns, lack of subject verb
agreement, adjective noun agreement are not due to first language influence in
her Czech students of EFL: Czech nouns do not distinguish singular and plural
and in Czech the finite verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
These errors are, rather, interference between the other terms of the English
subsystem in question (p. 21). Moreover, these errors Occur even in cases
where the English form is quite analogous to the corresponding Czech form
(21). Of 166 morphological errors, only nineteen were judged as due to Czech
interference (66).
Wode (1978) also carried out some research on the influence of L1 on the
L2, and he pointed out, that, first-language influenced errors may only occur at
certain stages in development. Wodes example is quite clear, and is reviewed
here.
In English, the negative participle appears after the auxiliary, as in
(1) I cannot go
 43

But before main verbs, with do support, as in

(2) I dont know
In German, however, the negative particle appears both auxiliaries and main
verbs, as in
(3) Ich kann nicht gehen
I can not go.
and (4) Ich weiss notch,
I know not,
Wodes children, German speakers acquiring English as a second language in
the United States, produced some sentences using apparent first language
influence, such as
(5) John go not to the school.
What is interesting, Wode points out, is that they did not produce such
sentences early on. Their first attempt to negation were similar to what one sees
in first language acquisition, such as
(6) No, you
(7) No, play base ball
They only produce sentences such as (5) when they begun to acquire the aux +
neg. rule, i.e. when they had begun to produce sentences such as
(8) Lunch is no ready,
Only did they fall back on the more general German rule. Wode (1978, 1979)
suggests that there is, therefore, a structural prerequisite for first language
influence: the performers interlinguistics structural description, his idea of the
target language rule, must be similar to the structural description of the rule in
first language, Wodes childrens English negation rule was not all at all similar
to the German rule in early stages, but it became similar when they progressed
 44

to aux neg stage. Hence, first language influence appeared but not earlier (qtd
by Krashen, 69).
Further more, Ejenihu Juliet Ngozi, (2001 ), carried out a research on
The Interference of Phonology of Igbo Language in Acquisition of English:
Ikeduru local Government Area of Imo State using the oral speech of students
in the acquisition of English Language. She found out that the segmental feature
of the students mother tongue (Igbo) interfered with their responses to the oral
tests. She gave an instance of most them pronouncing the English language
vowel numbers five /:/ and diphthong number thirteen as Igbo vowel //. The
inability of the students to distinguish the long vowels from the short ones is a
major factor responsible for their deviation in pronouncing English long vowels.
According to Ejenihu, all the students deviated in pronouncing the English
sound segments that were not available in Igbo phonology also constituted
pronunciation problems to the students tested.
Odumuh (1987) also studied the influence of ethno linguistics on English
language usage of Nigerians. He found out that these influences affect all levels
of linguistic analysis in the areas of phonology, morphology. According to him,
the main pronunciation problems of our people are due to interference from MT.
we are so conditioned by the habits of our mother tongue that very often we
cannot hear the strong sounds of a new language let alone producing them. This
is true of an English man learning Igbo, as of an Igbo man learning English.
Similarly, Idiagboni (1999) carried out a research on the ethno linguistic
influence of the attitude towards the English language in Nigeria A socio
linguistic Approach and he found out that of all the three major tribes in
Nigeria, Hausa seems to be the least that attaches great importance or exerts
pressures on itself in speaking standard English. This underscores the value
attached to the duo factors of ethnicity and religion. The Hausa people do not
 45

only regard their language as a primus interpares among Nigeria languages but
also sees the language as a language of Christianity. The English language is
also seen as a language of foreigners who have come to subdue our cultural and
religious institutions. However, all the major tribes nurture different varieties
and are mostly proud of them because of what core values have come to
represent in socio-political system in Nigeria. He observed that ethnic
influences are inevitable, and indeed necessary. According to him, one must
equally recognize the influence of the mother tongue which serves as the
pioneer language thoughts: feels and experience; the English language, against
this backdrop, is then viewed as not having enough expressive resources that
can match any of the native languages. Base on these findings, he gave some
common expressions in the Nigerian English as regards to the three major
Nigerian languages Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba genesis respectively,
i. I want to give you a message (I have a message for you) zan ba da sako

ii. I want to enter taxi (I want to board a taxi) = ina so in shiga mota

iii. I want to do marriage (I want to organize a marriage ceremony) =in a so

in yi aure

(i) He has brain (He is intelligent/brilliant)

(ii) It is good the way you came now (it is good that you have come /it is
good that you are present)= o di nma etu isiri bia ugbua

(iii) My stomach is paining me (I have stomach upset) =Afo na ahim

(iv) My mother bought me market things (my mother bought me some things
(items) from the market) = Nem zurulam Ihe ahia.
 46

(i) I came down from the motor (I alighted form the motor) = mo so kale
ninu oko naa.

(ii) Call me Jide (call Jide for me) bami pe jide

(iii) They are calling you (you are called) won npe O.

Idiagboni has tried to launch a campaign against the discriminatory and

segregationist postures of the standard Nigerian English in particular or the
(British) Standard English in general against the dialectal varieties available in
Nigerian. He advocates that in spite of the social dichotomy and accent bar
inhibiting proper placement for the varieties of the Nigeria English they must be
recognized as long as they are functional and socially relevant. (A:/M.S.A
Idiagbon.doc. Date created March 30, 1999).

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

The literature review was divided into three sections or subheadings,
which are the theoretical framework, the conceptual framework and related
empirical studies. Under the theoretical framework, three theories of second
language learning were reviewed which includes the behaviourist theory which
is based on the view that all learning including language learning occurs
through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation. The
behaviourist theories attempted to explain that properties of the L1 are thought
to exercise an influence on the course of L2 learning and that learners transfer
sounds, structures, and usage from one language to the other. As a result of
these transfers, the constrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) was proposed by the
behaviourist to account for the role of the L1 in L2 learning. The cognitive
theory believed that learning is not viewed as an array of conditioned responses
to previously met stimuli, as the acquisition and storage of knowledge. They
believed that language proceeds in a series of transitional stages, as the learners
 47

acquire more knowledge of the L2. They came up with error analysis which is a
type of linguistic analysis that consists of a comparison between the errors made
in the target language (TL) and the TL itself The last theory reviewed was that
of Krashens input hypothesis which was based on a set of five interrelated
hypothesis that are listed below: the acquisition learning hypothesis, the
monitor the natural order, the input and the affective filter hypothesis.
Krashens input hypothesis claims that exposure to comprehensible input is
both necessary and sufficient for second learning to take place. His monitor
theory states that learners develop two language systems, one, the acquired
system, is established through the operation of inherent language learning
capacities on language experienced through the process of communication, this
being an almost wholly unconscious process, the learned system, is established
in an instructional environment in which attempt is drawn to the regularities of
the language system and the learners remain conscious of the language system
in both learning and using the language.
In spite of some differences in the theoretical accounts offered, there are
two things on which most researchers would agree. First, the learner does not
approach the task of learning a language tabula rasa, on the contrary, learners
have complex cognitive attributes which enables them to interact very positively
with the language environment. Secondly the situation which places the greatest
demands on the learners language system is that of attempting to use the
spoken language for spontaneous communication. (Wikins 532).
Under the conceptual framework, some linguistic terms were examined in
order to have a better understanding of the research work. These terms included
mother-tongue which was defined as the childs first language as well as the
language of the childs immediate linguistic environment. It was also defined as
the language of ones ethnic group. Second language was defined as a language
 48

which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a

medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another
language or languages. Other concepts which were also examined included
second language learning and proficiency, the former has to do with a
conscious learning activity by a person who has already acquired a first
language or mother-tongue. While the latter goes beyond the simplistic views
of good pronunciation, correct grammar and even mastery and control of a
large number of interdependent components and elements that interact with one
another and that are affected by the nature of the situation in which
communication takes place.
Finally, under the related empirical studies, which were divided into
foreign and Nigerian based studies, various researches conducted by different
researchers were reviewed. From these findings, the researcher was able to
draw the conclusion that the influence of mother-tongue on second language
learning and proficiency seems to be strongest in acquisition poor
environment and that first language influence is not proactive inhibition, but
simply the result of the performer being called on to perform before he has
learned the new behaviours. The result is padding, using old knowledge,
supplying what is known to make up for what is not known.
The researcher, through the above mentioned theories, conceptual
framework and review of related empirical studies decided to base this research
on two particular theories: the behaviourist and cognitive theories of second
language learning as they provide the basis on which the research work
operates.
 49

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

3.1 Introduction
This chapter seeks to explain the methodology employed in this research. To
achieve the objectives of this study, the outline of this chapter will include the
following
(i) Research design

(ii) Area of study

(iii) Population

(iv) Sampling technique

(v) Research instrument

(vi) Method of data analysis

3.2 Research Design

A research design is a plan or blue print which specifies how data relating
to a given problem should be collected and analyzed. It provides the procedures
for the conduct of any given investigation. (Nworgu 67). It is the blueprint or
plan which determines the nature and scope of study carried out or purpose
(Ali 53). For the purpose of this research, the researcher has decided to use the
descriptive research design. According to Ali descriptive design studies are
mainly concerned with describing events as they are without any manipulation
of what is being observed. Any study which seeks merely to find out what is
and describes it is descriptive (57). From the foregoing, it is apparent that
 50

most descriptive studies rely on observations and survey techniques for

gathering information which is then described (Ali 60).
The descriptive research design is suitable for this study because the
study is on the impact of mother tongue on second language learning and
proficiently: the Ikwerre native speakers experience. The descriptive research
design will therefore be suitable to ascertain to an extent the impact of the
mother tongue Ikwerre on the learning and proficiency of the target language
(English) of the students of Junior secondary schools (JSS1 and JSS 2) in
Emohua Local Government Area of Rivers State where Ikwerre is an
indigenous language.

3.3 Area of Study

The area covered by this study is schools in Emohua local government
area of Rivers State, where Ikwerre is an indigenous language and is mostly
used as the medium of communication outside the school environment.

3.4 Population
Ordinarily, the term population refers to all the people in a given
geographical area. In research the term is used in a more general sense to
include all members or elements, be they human beings, animals, trees, objects,
events etc. of a well defined group (Nworgu 94) .
The population of this study comprised JSS1 and JSS2 students of Junior
Secondary Schools in Emohua local government area of Rivers State. These
schools were:
Ojims College Rumuji,
Community Secondary School Rumuji,
Community Secondary schools Oduhua Emohua,
 51

Community Junior Secondary School Ndele, and

Community Girls Secondary school Omofo/Egamini Rundele.

3.5 Sampling Techniques

Through simple random sampling, five schools in the local government

were selected for this study. The students of JSS1 and JSS2 were used for this
study. In case of schools with large population of students in JSS1 and JSS2, an
arm of the class was selected. The total population for this study was hundred
(100) students comprising ten (10) students from each class and twenty (20)
students from each school.

3.6 Research Instrument

Instrument for data collection was through:

Tapes ( which consist of storytelling, pronunciations of words, reading of
comprehension passages and answering questions from the
comprehension passages) and

Written composition.

3.7 Method of data analysis

The data were analyzed by the use of tables and percentage. Percentage scores
for the questions were computed by multiplying the number of correct answers
by hundred and then dividing the sum with the summation of frequency of the
total number of respondent in a given or particular section. Further analyses of
the data were done by the percentages of the total number of deviant answers.

Formula % =
T = Total number of correct words pronounced or total number of sentences.
 52

Fr = Frequency of the total number of respondent in a particular section i.e.

total number of respondents multiply by the total number of words pronounced
in a particular section or total number of sentences.
 53

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the analysis of data generated from the written
composition and the tapes which contain utterances- which consist of
storytelling, pronunciations of words, reading of comprehension passages and
answering questions from the comprehension passages. The data is divided into
two: phonological and syntactical analysis. The aim of this chapter is to answer
two research questions which have guided this investigation. These research
questions are: Does the phonology of Ikwerre affect the learning and
proficiency of the English language? And, does the syntax of Ikwerre affect the
learning and proficiency of the English language? The results were presented in
tables and figures after which interpretation and discussions of data were given.
4.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation on Research Question NO 1
RQ1: Does the phonology of Ikwerre affect the learning and proficiency
of the English language?
The data collected from the tapes which consist of the pronunciation of some
English words, reading of comprehension passages and answering the questions
from the passages sought to find out if the phonology of the Ikwerre language
affects the learning and proficiency of the English Language. The table 1
presents the statistics of JSS1 students responses to the pronunciation of some
English words. Table 2 also presents the statistics of JSS2 students to the
response of some English words. Tables 3 and 4 give the statistics of the
percentage of the causes of the errors. Below each table is the interpretation of
the data collected.
 54

Table 1 presents the statistics of the responses of JSS1 students to the

pronunciation of words.
Total NO. Total NO. Frequency Total NO. Total NO. % of % of
of words of of the total of deviant of correct % deviant correct
pronounced respondent NO. of response response response response
words

104 50 5200 3700 1500 100 71% 29%

From the table above, 104 words were pronounced by 50 JSS1 students which
give a total of 5200 words, only 1500 words were correctly pronounced out of
the 5200 total words representing 29% of the total words while the deviant
words pronounced were 3700 out of 5200 total words representing 71% of the
total number of words. The analysis shows that a great number of the student
encounter problem with the pronunciation of some English words.
Table 2 presents the statistics of JSS2 students responses to the pronunciations
of some English words.
Total NO. Total NO. Frequency Total Total % of % of
of words of of the NO. of NO. of % deviant correct
pronounced respondent total NO. deviant correct response response
of words response response

96 50 4800 3000 1800 100 62% 38%

From the table above, 96 words were given to 50 JSS2 students to pronounce,
only 1800 words were pronounced correctly out of the 4800 total words
representing 30% of the total number of words while the deviant words were
3000 out of the 4800 words representing 62% of the total words pronounced.
From the percentage of the deviant pronunciation of words in the two tables, it
is glaring that the phonology of Ikwerre language hinders the effective
acquisition of the English language.
 55

Further analysis is given on the causes of the deviant pronunciation of these

English words. As observed by the researcher these causes range from
phonemic differences between the two languages, vowel harmony, wrong
placement of stress, effect of the system of nasalization in Ikwerre, and insertion
of vowels between consonant clusters. The percentages of each of this causes is
presented in the tables below.
Table 3 below presents further analysis of the causes of the deviant
pronunciations in JSS1 students using the percentage of the deviant errors
in table 1.
Total NO. Phon vowel Insertio Wron Nasalisat %Ph % %Insert %Wron %Nasalizati
of deviant emic harmo n of g ion % one vowel ion of g on system of
response diffe any of vowels place system of mic harm vowels placeme Ikwerre
renc Ikwerr between ment Ikwerre diffe ony of between nt of language
es e consona of language renc Ikwer consona stress
nce stress es re nt
clusters
3700 1500 500 500 700 500 71 28% 9.6% 9.6% 13.4% 9.6%
%

This table shows that the total number of deviant words is 3700 and1500
deviant words from this figure occurred as a result of the phonemic differences
between the two languages representing 28% of the number of deviant words
pronounced.500 deviant responses was as a result of the interference of the
Ikwerre vowel harmony system into that of the English language representing
9.6% of the total number of deviant words pronounced while the insertion of
vowels between consonant clusters and the effect of the system of nasalization
in Ikwerre has a number of 500 each, and each of them is representing 9.6% of
the total number of deviant words pronounced. Finally, 700 out of the total
number of deviant pronunciation are as result of wrong placement of stress
representing 13.4% of the deviant words.
 56

Table 4 below also presents further analysis of the causes of the deviant
pronunciations in JSS2 students using the percentage of the deviant errors in
table 2.
Total Phonemic vowel Insertion Wrong Nasalisation %Phonemic % vowel %Insertion %Wrong %Nasalization
NO. of differences harmony of vowels placement system of % differences harmony of vowels placement system of
deviant of between of stress Ikwerre of between of stress Ikwerre
response Ikwerre consonants language Ikwerre consonants language
clusters

3000 1500 300 400 500 300 62 31% 6.2% 8.3% 10.3% 6.2%

Table 4 shows the statistics of the causes of deviant pronunciation by JSS2

students. As observed in the table above, 1500 deviant pronunciation of words
occurred as a result phonemic differences between both languages representing
31% of the total number of deviant words. Deviant responses caused as a result
of Ikwerre vowel harmony system and the process of nasalization in the
language is 300 each and each of them is representing 6.2% of the total number
while 500 deviant pronunciations occurred as a result of wrong placement of
stress representing 10.3 % of the total number of deviant words.
In conclusion, the sum of the findings in tables 3 and 4 shows that the
major causes of the deviant pronunciation of some English words is as a result
of the phonemic differences between the two languages. This fact is supported
by Ngonebu when she states that phonological interference occurs when the
speech patterns phonemes, intonation, stress, or the bulk of the phonemic
system of the first language (L1) adversely affects the use of second language
(L2). This particularly occurs when a phoneme in English does not exist in the
speakers first language or when the second language user finds it difficult to
articulate a particular configuration of speech pattern (22).
Ikwerre Language has (9) nine vowels. These vowels are /a e i o u /
(Enyia 42). While the English Language has 20 vowel sounds, they are / : e
 57

a: : u u: a: e u a u e u/. secondly the Ikwerre has 28

consonant sounds and these sounds are:/ b ch d f g gb gh gw h j k kp
kw I m n nw ny n p r s t v w wh y z/.Whereas English has 24 consonant
sounds, these sounds are: /P, b, t, d, k ,g , f , v , , , s, z, , , h, t,
d , I, r, w, j, m, n, /. Some of the consonants of English Language differs
from that of Ikwerre Language while some others are absent in Ikwerre
phonology, examples are: / t d /. Also in English, distinction
in vowel sound is marked by Length i.e. the long and the short vowels whereas
in Ikwerre Language, the distinction in vowels is made with a dot under the
vowel. Examples are seen in the English and Ikwerre vowels above.
Next to this problem of phonemic differences is the wrong placement of stress
on words which represents 10.3% and 13.4% in the two tables above. This also
shows that part of the problem encountered by the Ikwerre learners of English
as second language is the stress patterns of the English language. Onuigbo
asserts that the way stress and intonation are used in English differs greatly
from the way the same features are used in most Nigerian languages and he
further stated that the difference between the stress-timed English Language
and the syllable time Nigerian Languages creates some difficulty for Nigerian
learners of English pronunciation(5).
Also, the application of the Ikwerre vowel harmony and nasalization system
into the English language also constitutes part of the problem responsible for the
deviant pronunciation of some of the words by the students. As shown in the
tables above, each factors is responsible for 9.6% of the errors in JSS1, and
6.2% for JSS2 representing the total percentage of 71% for JSS1 and 62% for
JSS2.
In chapter two of the literature review, Enyia stated that nasalization is a
very typical feature of the Ikwerre language and its presence or absence makes a
 58

difference to the meaning of words in the language (46). As a result of the

constant use of this factor in the Ikwerre language, the students tend to transfer
it to the English language.
Finally, the insertion of vowels between consonant clusters also constitutes part
of the reason for the deviant pronunciation of some of the English words, as
8.3% for JSS1 and 9.6% for JSS2 of the deviant pronunciation is as a result of
this factor. The insertion of these vowels between these consonant clusters
could be attributed to the absence of consonant clusters in Ikwerre language.
Onuigbo supported this fact when he states that in many Nigerian languages,
there are no consonant clusters but in English, there may be an initial cluster of
two or three consonants (75).
Conclusively, the phonology of Ikwerre language affects the learning and
proficiency of the English language

4.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation on Research Question No.2

RQ2: Does the syntax of Ikwerre affect the learning and proficiency of the
English language?
The written essay and the stories contained in the tapes, sought to find out if the
syntax of Ikwerre affects the learning and proficiency of the English language.
 59

Table 5 below shows the statistics of JSS1 and JSS2 students errors in
making a grammatical sentence.

Total Total Frequency Total no. of Total no of % % of

NO. of population of the grammatical ungrammatic Of grammatica
senten of student total NO sentences al sentences % grammatical l sentences
ces of sentences
sentences

2 100 200 50 150 100 75% 25%

The table above shows that 2 sentences were collected from 100 students in
JSS1 and 2, which gives a total frequency of 200 sentences,50 sentences were
grammatically correct out of these 200 sentences representing 25% of the total
number of sentences while 150 sentences were incorrect grammatically also
representing 75% of the total number of sentences.
To further illustrate the causes of these ungrammatical sentences, the researcher
decided to concentrate on three aspects of syntax which were the major causes
of these errors, they are: wrong use of tenses, omission/ wrong use of the rules
of concord and wrong use of prepositions.
Table 6 below shows the statistics of the causes of the ungrammatical sentences
made by the students.
 60

Total no of Wrong Omission/wrong Wrong use % % %Wrong

ungrammatical use of use of the rules of % Wrong Omission/wrong use of
sentences tenses of concord preposition use of use of the rules preposition
tenses of concord

150 100 30 20 75 50% 15% 10%

From the above table, 100 sentences out of the 150 incorrect sentences were as a
result of wrong use of tenses, which represents 50% of the total number of
incorrect sentences. While 30 sentences out of the 150 ungrammatical sentences
were as a result of omission/wrong use of the rules of concord, which represents
15% of the total number of ungrammatical sentences. The remaining 20
ungrammatical sentences were as a result of wrong use of tenses which also
represents 10% of the total number of sentences.
This result shows that the major problem encountered by the students in making
a grammatically correct sentence is as a result of wrong use of tenses which
according to the table forms about 50% of the total number of sentences .This
could be attributed to the fact that the Ikwerre verb is not inflected in any way;
be it for tense, aspect, mood or whatever. However, when talking about
temporal relationships, the message is not confused. Actions are completed or
non- completed. Furthermore, although the verb is not inflected, there are
isolated preverbial elements that indicates the completeness of an action (Enyia
74). While in English language verbs change forms by the use of inflections,
such as ed as in form formed; -d as in use used; -s as in run runs; and es
as in go goes(Ngonebu 34). This could be the major reason inhibiting the
student from using their tenses correctly. This wrong use of tenses is not only
attributed to the negative influence from the mother tongue but could also be
traced to how English language forms its tenses, for instance some irregular
 61

verbs have the same form for past tense and past participle(Akudolu and
Osakwe 18). They further stated that there are some irregular verbs that are
often used incorrectly. The error in usage stems from the fact that one verb may
be used in place of the other (Akudolu and Osakwe 19). So, these
inconsistencies in the rules of the target language could also be responsible for
the wrong use of tenses.
Secondly, the complicated nature of the rules of concord (which is the
agreement between words in gender, number, case and person) also contributes
to the difficulties the students encountered in making a grammatical sentence.
This accounts for 15% of the ungrammatical sentences out of the 75% of the
total percentage of ungrammatical sentences.
Preposition poses a very great difficulty for second language learners since there
are various prepositions in English language. As a result of this, the students
tend to use the English language prepositions indiscriminately. An example is
seen in the sentence I am schooling on community secondary school Rumuji
(see appendix).
Based on these findings, we can conclude that students make ungrammatical
sentences because of the mother tongue interference; however, their biggest
number of syntactical errors emanates from the inconsistencies in the rules of
the English language.
 62

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion of Findings

In view of the data analysis presented in chapter four and its

interpretations, the following were the findings of the research work based on

the two research questions. They are as follows:

5.1.1 The Phonological Effect of the Ikwerre Language on the English

Language

Under this phonological aspect, the following factors were observed as been

responsible for the deviant pronunciation of words: they are phonemic

differences, wrong placement of stress, interference of Ikwerre vowel harmony,

interference of Ikwerre vowel nasalization system, and insertion of vowels

between consonant clusters.

Phonemic differences between the two languages: from the data analysis

in chapter four, it was observed that about 28% of the pronunciation

problems encountered by JSS1 students and 31% of the pronunciation

problem encountered by JSS2 students are as a result of the phonemic

differences between the Ikwerre language and the English language. As a

result of these differences, the Ikwerre learners of English tend to

 63

substitute the English dental fricative /
/ and // for either /t/ or /d/. (see

appendix) This constitutes part of the reason Onuigbo stated that we

should note the distinctive characteristics of each consonant and pay

special attential(sic) to the three consonants which do not occur in

Nigerian languages. These consonants are //, / / and // and experiences

shows that they are usually substituted with other consonants which occur

in the learners mother tongue (66).

Wrong placement of stress on English word: next to this problem of

phonemic differences is the wrong placement of stress on some English

words which accounted for 10.4% for JSS1 and 13.3% for JSS2 students

of the total number of deviant pronunciation of words. This problem is

not only attributed to the fact that the Nigerian languages are syllable-

time languages while the English language is stress- time language but

to the fact that there are no clearly defined rules governing the stress

pattern of words of three or more syllables(Onuigbo 88).

Interference of Ikwerre vowel nasalization system: The researcher

observed that the use of nasalization in Ikwere language affects the
Ikwerre learners of English as a second Language. Findings from the data
analysis showed that 9.6% of the deviant pronunciation in JSS1 and 6.2%
of the deviant pronunciation in JSS2 is as a result of this factor. From the
researchers observation, majority of the students were having problems
 64

with these sounds y, n, w, especially when they occur in the initial

position of words. For instance, the phoneme n is usually added in the
beginning of the word young, hence pronouncing the word as Nyoung.
But this problem is not peculiar to the students pronunciation only but
also reflects in their writings. The students interchanged the nasal sounds
/m/ and /n/. For examples, the word man is pronounced as mam
thereby replacing n with m, other examples include cane as came,
own as owm (see appendix).

Interference of Ikwerre vowel harmony: One of the concepts that were

also observed was the interference of the Ikwerre vowel harmony system
into the English language, which resulted in the wrong pronunciation of
some of the words that were presented in chapter four. From the words,
the JSS2 students were given to pronounce, it was also observed that
some words were also wrongly pronounced due to this interference of
Ikwerre vowel harmony, an example is seen in the pronunciation of
table as tabulu(see appendix).

Insertion of vowels between consonant clusters: absence of consonant

cluster in Ikwerre language could be a major reason why the students
insert vowels between consonant clusters. This accounted for 9.6% of the
pronunciation problem for JSS1 and 8.3% for JSS2. Supporting this fact
Onuigbo states that in many Nigerian languages, there are no consonant
clusters but in English, there may be an initial cluster of two or three
consonants. (75) In line with this, the researcher observed that Ikwerre
learners of English tend to insert a vowel before a syllabic consonant in
order to simplify the pronunciation. An example is seen in the
pronunciation of the word Scrap as Sucrap (see appendix)
 65

5.1.2 Syntactical Effect of the Ikwerre Language on the English language

Apart from the problem of the wrong use of tenses which was partly traced to
the way Ikwerre language shows tenses by not inflecting the verbs, the other
two syntactical problems (which have to do with omission/wrong use of
concord and wrong use of the preposition) occurred mainly as a result of the
students either making over-generalization or the inconsistencies in the rules of
the English language. From the findings one could state that, the syntax of
Ikwerre language does not hinder the effective learning and proficiency of the
English language rather the inconsistencies in the rules of the English language
contributed to the problems that resulted to the ungrammatical sentences.
5.2 Conclusion

The impact of the mother-tongue Ikwerre on the learning and

proficiency of the target language was the research problem that prompted this
research work. The problem was formulated in chapter one as follows: What
impact does the mother-tongue Ikwerre have on the learning and proficiency of
the target language. Throughout the investigation the guiding factor was this
problem. Thus by means of a detailed literature review and an empirical
investigation other studies related to this were reviewed. The data collection,
analysis and interpretation supported the evidence that the research problem has
been solved. That is to state that the mother-tongue Ikwerre actually influences
the learning and proficiency of the target language. This is seen in the cases of
phonological interference discussed above, but the syntax of Ikwerre language
to an extent does not interfere with the learning of the English language, rather
the inconsistencies in the rules of the second language contributed to hindrances
in the effective learning of the language.
 66

5.3 Implications of the study

In view of these findings by the researcher, the following measures are
hereby recommended, they are as follows:
5.3.1 Organizing Seminars on Ikwerre Language for Teachers within the
Region.
The introduction of Ikwerre language and English phonology to both the
newly employed teachers and the old ones should be done regularly through
organizing seminars and workshops. This seminar should not be for language
teachers alone, but teachers from other disciplines should also be included, so as
to create awareness on the problems encountered by the Ikwerre learners of
English, and to also make them become a good model to the students.
5.3.2 Allotting More Time to the Teaching of Oral English
Since English is a second language in Nigeria, the researcher suggests
that enough time should be made available for the teaching of oral English.
Adequate time is one way the goal of effective communication in the language
will be achieved. Emphasis should also be laid on stress and intonation right
from the primary school.
5.3.3 Motivation of Students by Teachers
Teachers motivation of the students is necessary, especially in encouraging the
students to use Received Pronunciation even when they are been made jest of
by their fellow students. They should be made to understand that English is not
just a subject to be passed during examinations but that the ability to express
one clearly and to be understood by the native speakers of English is the
ultimate goal.
 67

5.4 Recommendation For Further Studies

The sampled population that was used for this study was the JSS1 and JSS2
students from Emohua local government area of Rivers State, which is just one
of the local government areas that use the Ikwerre language as its medium of
communication outside the classroom. In view of this, the researcher is
suggesting that another research could be carried out in this area of study using
the five local governments where Ikwerre is been used as the medium of
communication outside the school environment.
Secondly, the researcher is also suggesting that researches could be carried out
in this field using the senior secondary school students or the undergraduate
students from these local governments to ascertain if the problems encountered
by the junior secondary school student, is the same with those of the senior
secondary schools.
 68

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 76

APPENDIX I

The following are deviant pronunciations of JSS1 and JSS2 student as a

result of phonemic differences.

s/no English Words Students Pronunciations

1 Then Den
2 Thin Tin
3 Birth Bat
4 Above Abouv
5 What Wot
6 Another Anoda
7 Follow Folo
8 Game Gem
9 Date Det
10 Name Nem
11 House Hauss
12 Aloud Alawd
13 Hurt Hot
14 Purse Pos
15 Nurse Norse
16 Rub Rob
17 Throw Trow
18 Mother Moda
19 Brother Broad
20 Church Chorchi
21 Three Tiree
22 Thought Tought
23 Work /w:k/
24 Threat Tret
25 They Dey
26 Comfort Comfot
27 University Univasity
28 Teacher Teacha
29 Furniture Furnicho
30 Heir he
31 Hesitate Hasitate
32 Board Bord
33 Packet /pket/
 77

APPENDIX II

The following are the JSS1 and 2 students deviant pronunciation as a

result of Ikwerre system of vowel harmony

S/No English word Students Pronunciations

1 Table Tabulu
2 Tomorrow Tumuoro
3 Note Notu
4 Witch Witchi
5 Operation Oparation
6 Comb Combu
7 Cockroach Cocukruchi
8 Bucket Bucketi
9 Cube Cubu
 78

APPENDIX III

Deviant pronunciation of words by JSS1 and 2 students as a result of

influence from Ikwerre vowel nasalization system

s/no English word Students Pronunciation

1 Witcth Nwitchi
2 Doll Dom(baby)
3 Man Mam
4 Enjoyment Emjoyment
5 Zoo Zoon
6 Yam Nyam
7 Young Nyoung
8 Own Owm
9 Christmas Christmans
 79

APPENDIX IV

Deviant pronunciation of words by JSS1 and 2 students as a result of

wrong placement of stress

S/No English Language Students Pronunciations

1 Milk /m'k/
2 Oneday /'wn'day/
3 Individual /'n'd'v'ul/
4 Finish /'f'n's/
5 Nurse /n: s/
6 Control /'kn'treul/
7 Village /'vl.'/
8 Woman /wu'mn/
9 College /'k'.l
10 Toilet /t.'lt/
11 Mosquitoes /'ms'k:teuz/
12 Yellow /'jel.'u/
13 Citizen /st..zen/
14 Book /'buk/
15 Infection /'n'feksn/
 80

APPENDIX V

The following ungrammatical sentences were made as a result of wrong use

of tenses.

1. I go to farm and work with my parents

2. I help them do other thing at home

3. I enjoy myself very well

4. We cook rice

5. I spend my holiday in port Harcourt

6. We go back to our various houses

7. I enjoy myself over there

8. I help my parent

9. We follow and go to beach

10. God has bring us to a new year

11. We eat and drink

12. I am there during my holiday

13. I went to my friends house and we play together because we Jehovah

witness

14. I enjoy it because nobody die in my family

15. I spend my charismas holiday with my aunty at Benin city

16. He buy a cloth for me

 81

17. I help her in the farm to weed the grass

18. When we get to our uncle house

19. We help him to wash his machine

20. I spend my Christmas holiday at Rumuji

21. She care for me

22. During the holiday, I help my parents and I read my book

23. I enjoy myself by eating rice, bean, banana, ndomic ,yam, egg, plaintain
etc

24. We enjoy our self in the Christmas time

25. We have a carnival that is party.

26. This is how I spend my last Christmas holiday

27. My sister buy a cloth for me

28. When I was ready to returned she gave me some gifts

29. My father take me to Mr. Bigs

30. I help her to sell the tablets

31. My holiday was so fantastic that I even go Lagos

32. We prepare some delicious food for them

33. I am very happy in that day because we eat and enjoy ourselves
34. This was how I spend my holiday

35. My sister take me to port Harcourt

 82

36. We are there the first day

37. I watch a football match

38. I was first position in my school

39. As we get there.

40. My uncle tooks me to the village

41. I enjoy my holiday with my ground mother

42. My father used to bought cloth for us during holiday

43. This is how I spend my holiday

44. When school has open my aunty send message to my grandmother

45. My grandmothers sister who is 34yrs give birth to twin girl

46. In my home I see my brother, sisters, and everyone was happy to see me

47. I go to farm during my holiday

48. I help my mother at Rumuewhor on her farm

49. We go back to our various houses

50. Emeka run after the boy, the boy begin to cry, slap and push him

51. Emeka tell me what happen

52. His aunt become angry with emeka

53. Ngozi help her aunt in the market and emeka help his father on the farm

54. She did well in the school

 83

55. Chike was the only first son

56. When they reach the sky

57. When they reach there

58. Tortoise beg eagle for another wing, eagle refuse

59. As they was eating

60. The policemen asked who kill this man

61. They go market and bought bananas

62. The rabbit come and checked the banana

63. The next day coming the banana are ripe

64. The girl do as if she is died

65. Both of them go to uniport

66. The mother love the one that is poor

67. Because the town boy want Emeka to get out of his way

68. The town boy slap and pushed him

69. Because he think that emeka was the one that pick the quarrel

70. All of them refuse her to go

71. The bird fly away

Note: most of these sentences were repeated by some of the student and that
was what gave rise to the 100 sentences
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APPENDIX VI
The following ungrammatical sentences were made as a result of
omission/wrong use of the rule of concord
1. The one that is rich went there with the one that are poor

2. I spend my holiday in my sister house

3. I saw many thing like animals

4. My youngest brother are in my primary school

5. The Christmas day are the happiest days of my life

6. My father bought me and brother cloth to wear

7. She care for me

8. Emeka prefer hunting and fishing

9. Because he was farm boy and like the activities of the farm

10. No the twins were not alike, Emeka look like the father and Ngozi
look like the mother

11. I also likes going out with my friends

12. I also likes reading my books every night

13. I was with my parent, my brother and sister and other too numerous to
mention

14. My grandmother sister who is 34years give birth to twin girls

15. The person I saw in the masquerade was friend brother

16. Sokari does not tell lie

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17. The two foolish goat

18. the one that is rich went there with the one that are poor

19. one day, two men are dragging onething, one are reach and one are
poor
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APPENDIX VII
The following ungrammatical sentences were made as a result of wrong
use of prepositions
1. I am schooling on community secondary school Rumuji

2. The animals will be having the meeting there on the farm

3. As he was waiting on the airport

4. We can be more serious to our studies

5. We enjoy our ourself in the Christmas time

6. My brother bought me a cloth in the Christmas time

7. I am very happy in that day because we eat and enjoy ourself

8. I help my mother at Rumuewhor on her farm

9. I came back to Rumuji and continued by education

10. My name is Beauty Otena from JSS1

11. They have never spoken English since their life

12. She was hoping on God

13. Ngozi help her aunt in the market and Emeka help his father on the
farm
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