Hospitality Marketing Management PDF

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hospitality
MARKETING
MANAGEMENT
Fourth Edition
robert D. Reid
James Madison University
David C. Bojanic
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
WILEY
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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hospitality
marketing
management
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hospitality
MARKETING
MANAGEMENT
Fourth Edition
robert D. Reid
James Madison University
David C. Bojanic
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
WILEY
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Reid, Robert D.
Hospitality marketing management / Robert D. Reid, David C. Bojanic.4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-471-47654-4 (cloth)
1. Hospitality industryMarketing. 2. Food serviceMarketing. 3. RestaurantsMarketing.
I. Bojanic, David C. II. Title.
TX911.3.M3R443 2006
647.950688dc22
2004016223
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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CONTENTS
Preface x
acknowledgments xiv
PART ONE
INTRODUCTION TO HOSPITALITY
MARKETING 1
Chapter 1 The Functions of Marketing 3
Industry Profile 5
Introduction to Marketing 9
The Marketing Mix 17
The Marketing Environment 20
The Marketing Management Cycle 29
Marketing Within the Organization 31
Summary of Chapter Objectives 34
Key Terms and Concepts 35
Questions for Review and Discussion 36
Case Study: Location, Location, Location? 38
Chapter 2 Introduction to Hospitality Services
Marketing 41
Industry Profile 43
Introduction to Services Marketing 45
Service Quality 54
Customer Satisfaction 61
Service Trends Affecting the Hospitality and Tourism
Industry 69
Case Study: Service Quality at the Excelsior Hotel 77
PART TWO
UNDERSTANDING AND TARGETING HOSPITALITY
CONSUMERS 79
Chapter 3 Understanding the Behavior of Hospitality
Consumers 81
Industry Profile 83
Introduction to Hospitality Consumers
Behavior 85
Factors That Influence Consumer Behavior 87
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vi contents
Consumer Decision-Making Model 98

Consumer Problem-Solving Processes 103
Consumer Problem-Solving Techniques 106
Organizational Buyer Behavior 108
Case Study: Tempura Garden 116
Chapter 4 Market Segmentation and Positioning 119
Industry Profile 121
Introduction to Market Segmentation 123
Segmentation Variables 126
Market Segmentation Decisions 135
Market Segmentation Strategies 138
Positioning the Product-Service Mix 141
Case Study: Springfield Convention and Visitors
Bureau 153
PART THREE
MARKETING PLANNING AND INFORMATION 155
Chapter 5 Developing a Marketing Plan 157
Introduction 161
The Marketing Planning Process 166
Sales Forecasting 182
Case Study: Planning at the Westwind Resort 193
Chapter 6 Information for Marketing Decisions 197
Introduction 203
Sources of Marketing Information 209
The Marketing Research Process 218
Ethical Issues in Marketing Research 230
Case Study: Bel Air Motel 237
Appendix: Data Collection and Sampling 239
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contents vii
PART FOUR
PRODUCT-SERVICE MIX AND DISTRIBUTION
STRATEGIES 243
Chapter 7 Developing New Products and Services 245
Introduction 249
Planning for New Products 252
Organizing for New Product Planning 256
New Product Development Process 257
Identifying Products and Services 262
Case Study: Product Development Dilemma at
Roccos 268
Chapter 8 Product-Service Mix Strategy 271
Introduction 276
Product Life Cycle 278
Applying the Product Life Cycle 282
Tourist Area Life Cycle 288
Other Product Concepts 290
Managing in the Service Environment 297
Case Study: Outback Steakhouse 306
Chapter 9 Marketing Channels 309
Introduction 312
Channel Strategy 312
Franchising 328
Case Study: The Wing Shack 334
Chapter 10 E-commerce 337
Introduction 341
Management Issues Related to Electronic
Commerce 351
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viii contents

Case Study: Electronic Commerce Strategy at
Malone Golf Club 365
Digital Case Study: Priceline.com 366
PART FIVE
PROMOTIONAL STRATEGY 367
Chapter 11 Promotion and Advertising 369
Introduction 373
Managing the Promotional Mix 376
Advertising Management 386
Planning and Evaluating Advertising
Campaigns 392
Effects of Advertising 403
Case Study: The Glen Pub 412
Chapter 12 Advertising and Media Planning 415
Introduction 418
Print Media 424
Broadcast Media 430
Direct Mail 439
Support Media 444
Case Study: Advertising Decisions for the Alexandria
Inn 452
Chapter 13 Sales Promotions, Merchandising, and Public
Relations 455
Introduction 459
Sales Promotions 459
Merchandising 470
Public Relations 476
Case Study: Princess Suites 486
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contents ix
Chapter 14 Personal Selling 493

Introduction 496
Selling to Group Markets 500
the Personal Selling Process 512
Asking Probing Questions 522
Personal Selling Tools 524
Ethical Issues in Personal Selling 527
Case Study: Contract Foodservice Firm Scenario 534
PART SIX
PRICING STRATEGY AND MENU DESIGN 535
Chapter 15 Pricing Strategy 537
Introduction 541
Factors That Affect Pricing Decisions 541
Broad Pricing Strategies 547
Pricing Techniques and Procedures 550
Segmented Pricing 556
Revenue Management 559
Pricing Laws and Ethics 565
Case Study: The Pasta Shack 573
Chapter 16 Using Menu Design as a Marketing Tool 575
Introduction 580
Menu Planning Considerations 582
Producing the Printed Menu 588
Issues Surrounding Menu Planning 598
Menu Evaluation 605
Case Study: Matts Bar and Grill 613
Index 616
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Preface
The fourth edition of Hospitality Marketing Management represents the next
step in the continuous improvement of the book. The hospitality and tourism
industry continues to mature and change. New strategic alliances emerge, and
new marketing strategies are developed and tested in the marketplace. The
fourth edition mirrors the developments in the industry, with the addition of
new and enhanced materials.
New to the Fourth Edition

The changes made to this fourth edition were done with the goal of improv-
ing the text. Some of these changes include:
Enhanced design. For the first time, the book has been redesigned and is
now presented in a full-color format. This new package, including up-
dated photos, enhances the overall look of the book.
New chapter on electronic commerce. In keeping with the current trends
in the industry, a new chapter has been developed to address the area of
electronic commerce. This chapter focuses on using the Internet as a mar-
keting tool.
Distribution chapter expanded to include more information on franchis-
ing. The discussion of franchising was enhanced to represent its current
importance in hospitality and tourism. Many of the new restaurants, lodg-
ing facilities, and travel firms are franchises because of the advantages this
form of ownership provides. However, there are also disadvantages asso-
ciated with franchising, and these are presented as well.
More coverage of international marketing throughout the text. The im-
portance of the global economy directly affects the hospitality and tourism
industry. An effort was made to provide more international examples and
references throughout the text to illustrate this trend. For example, peo-
ple from around the world were included in the industry profiles open-
ing the chapters.
x
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preface xi
Section on service blueprinting. Service blueprinting is a method used

by hospitality and tourism firms to illustrate the service delivery pro-
cess. A discussion of this process and an example of a service blueprint
were added to Chapter 2 to provide students with an understanding
of this valuable tool.
How-to approach to developing a marketing plan. More emphasis was

placed on developing marketing plans, including an example of an actual
marketing plan. This is a complicated procedure, but marketing plans are
important for firms of any size.
More coverage on branding and strategic alliances. The strategy behind

branding is discussed throughout the chapters.
Detailed explanation of budgeting for advertising. This edition includes

a more in-depth discussion of the budgeting process for advertising, us-
ing a detailed example from an actual firm.
Real-world examples of actual media plans. In an attempt to provide

students with a better understanding of media selection and pro-
gramming, some real-world examples of actual media plans were
added to the advertising and promotion material. This will help to
bridge the gap between theory and practice, reflecting the goal of the
text in general.
Sections on SPINSelling and sales software. Readers are introduced

to another personal selling approach known as SPIN selling. This ap-
proach is used by many Fortune 500 companies and offers an alterna-
tive to the traditional selling approach that focuses more on closing
techniques. In addition, there is a discussion of the use of sales and
catering software (i.e., Delphi) in booking meetings and functions.
Enhanced Pedagogical Tools

New case studies. Each chapter now includes a case study that deals with
the content of that chapter. The case studies contain enough information
to be used as group projects but also are concise enough to be used for in-
dividual assignments and class discussions. The cases are based on real-
world situations, whether they reference an actual company or disguise
the name for proprietary reasons.
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xii preface
More examples and practical applications. One of the best features of this
text is its practical focus. Even more effort was applied in this edition to
providing practical examples and step-by-step guides throughout the text.
For instance, there is an example of each pricing technique presented in
Chapter 15.
Industry profiles. Each chapter begins with a profile of a hospitality and
tourism industry professional. The profiles are balanced across the var-
ious disciplines (lodging, food service, travel and tourism) and include
people in various positions from entry level to senior level. The ques-
tions they discuss can be examined across disciplines, job levels, and
countries.
More visual aids: tables, figures, and pictures. This is the first edition of
this text to be produced in color, so more visual aids were added to en-
hance the presentation of the materials. There are more photographs
throughout the text, and concepts are demonstrated with tables and fig-
ures in an effort to provide students with an easy-to-understand reference
for the material.
Technical discussions moved to the Appendix. In some of the chapters,
the technical discussions were moved to an appendix to enhance the flow
of the text (e.g., the discussion of sampling in the research chapter). This
gives the instructor the option to cover the material in more advanced
classes, or leave it as a supplement for the introductory classes.
Supplementary Materials
An Instructors Manual (0-471-69609-9) with test questions has been updated and
accompanies the text. In addition, PowerPoint slides can be downloaded by qual-
ified adopters and students from the Wiley Web site, www.wiley.com/college/reid.
The National Restaurant Association (NRA) Educational Foundation,
in consultation with the authors, has developed a Student Workbook for
its ProMgmt. certificate program. The workbook contains exercises and a
study outline for each chapter, and a practice test of 80 multiple-choice
questions. This practice test will assist students in preparing for the cer-
tificate examination.
In addition, an Instructors Guide (0-471-69608-0) is available to qualified
instructors to complement and highlight the information in the textbook and
Student Workbook.
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preface xiii
We hope that you will find these improvements and changes to the fourth
edition of Hospitality Marketing Management useful in your quest to learn
more about the exciting world of marketing in the hospitality and tourism
industry.
Robert D. Reid
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia
David C. Bojanic
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
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Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the assistance of talented educators who have contributed
to this fourth edition and previous editions through their constructive com-
ments. They include:
Billy Bai, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Seyhmus Baloglu, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Jeffrey A. Beck, Michigan State University
David. G. Bennett, York Technical Institute
John Brady, University of Southern Mississippi
Michael G. Brizek, University of Maryland, Eastern Shore
Jamal Feerasta, University of Akron
Lyle Hildahl, Skagit Valley College
J. Norman Howard, State University of New York, Plattsburgh
Ken Jarvis, Anne Arundel Community College
Marjorie F. Jones, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Shiang-Lih Chen McCain, Widener University
Tal Moore, Central Missouri State University
Gail J. Myers, University of Minnesota, Crookston
Bruce Neil, Luzerne County Community College
Walter Rapetski, Asheville Buncombe Technical Community College
Howard Reichbart, Northern Virginia Community College
Judy Siguaw, Cornell University
Camille Stallings, Pima Community College
Ralph Tellone, Middlesex County College
James Turley, New York Institute of Technology
Elizabeth Vargo, Pennsylvania State University, New Kensington Campus
Harvey Weiss, Fairleigh Dickinson University
David Whitney, Central Michigan University
xiv
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part 1
INTRODUCTION TO
HOSPITALITY MARKETING
Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach, Florida.

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Courtesy of Cendant Corp.

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chapter
1
The Functions
of Marketing
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of marketing to the success of a
hospitality operation.
2. Define the term marketing.
3. Explain and diagram the marketing process.
4. Distinguish between the concepts of marketing
and selling.
5. Outline in detail the traditional marketing mix and
contrast it with the hospitality marketing mix.
6. List examples of external environments that influence
the hospitality marketing process.
7. Describe the typical marketing management cycle.
8. Identify the marketing-related roles fulfilled by internal
departments of a hospitality operation.
3
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Chapter Outline
Industry Profile The Marketing Management Cycle
Marketing planning
Introduction to Marketing Marketing execution
Marketing defined
Marketing evaluation
The marketing process
The emergence of the marketing concept Marketing Within the
Marketing versus selling Organization
Operations
The Marketing Mix Finance
The traditional marketing mix
Human resources
The hospitality marketing mix
Research and development
The Marketing Environment Summary of Chapter Objectives
The economic environment
The social environment Key Terms and Concepts
The competitive environment
The political and legal environment
Questions for Review and
The technological environment
Discussion
Case Study: Location, Location,
Location?
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industry profile 5
industry profile
Jenny Lucas Manager of Education and Career Development
Loews Hotels New York, New York
1. What are the major components or duties

associated with your current position?
My job has two key aspects, as you probably gathered from my title: training
and development. The training piece includes the facilitation of manager
workshops throughout the company as well as the creation of hourly and man-
agement programs that can be taught by managers at the property level. We
chose Stephen R. Coveys The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People when look-
ing to add a higher level of learning, one that embraced our company culture,
to develop our leadership. I teach that workshop to our executive committees
and department heads across the company. In addition, I develop and facili-
tate our own management workshops, designed to reinforce the company cul-
ture, share basic management skills, and ensure that our managers are able
to use the training tools that are available to them.
The management development area of my job has several different lev-
els depending on the managers interests and current position. On the execu-
tive level, we partnered with Talent , using their structured interview
process to discover our leaders natural strengths and talents. In order to en-
sure that we are leveraging the talents within each team, we share their top
five talents with each participant and their executive team. The goal is to im-
prove individual and overall team performance. On the management level, I
meet individually with managers at all properties who are interested in grow-
ing with Loews and relocating from one hotel to another. Participants work
with their managers to develop a personal career development action plan.
With the information discussed during our session, I look to match each man-
ager with open positions throughout the company. Over the past two years,
with the implementation of our career development program, we have seen
internal management promotions increase from 32.9 percent to 51.3 percent.
Another management development tool we implemented is a formal men-
toring program. Working with the human resources director and GM at each
property, we match interested managers with higher-level managers at their
property from a different discipline through an application process. I teach a
skill-building workshop on each property with mentor-mentee pairs to start
their formal yearlong relationship as well as facilitate a feedback session on a
360-degree assessment each mentee receives. This program offers a different
learning dimension with a higher-level manager the mentee may not have in-
teracted with otherwise.
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6 chapter 1 the functions of marketing
2. What are the components of your position that

bring you the most satisfaction? What about
your position causes you frustration?
I guess its pretty much a clich to say peoplebut in this field its all about
seeing someone reach their goal and hearing how excited or proud they are
of their accomplishment. I enjoy taking my ten-plus years of hotel operations
experience and using it to help managers throughout the company. Whether
I am sharing Covey principles or company culture, having real-life hotel ex-
periences that I can share to help others better understand or get excited about
a concept is very rewarding. Great satisfaction comes from seeing people make
the connectionthe light goes on, that Aha, now I get it! Follow-up e-mails
and phone calls from the people out at the properties after a workshop or
seeing a familiar face in a new position and hotel makes all the traveling
worthwhile!
industry profile
The greatest frustration for me is that there is simply never a good time
to trainits either too busy or too slow. Unfortunately, training is oftentimes
seen as an unnecessary costa luxury, especially in the current economy. Usu-
ally the red line goes through training dollars as soon as times get tough. A
couple of months down the line, when managers are wondering why the guest
satisfaction scores are lower, you just have to bite your tongue and ask what
you can do to help. Failing to make that investment can lead to an apathetic
staff providing average service at best. It is easy to forget that training, even
in small doses every day, helps energize the teamwhen employees see the
investment being made in them, they put in extra effort to deliver the stan-
dards and exceed our guest expectations.
3. What are the most challenging aspects

youre facing?
The biggest challenge continues to be the economyin down times training
dollars are very limited, and sometimes corners are cut in order to meet the
budget. Our department had five people seven years agosince then we have
doubled the number of rooms in the company but now operate with just a
two-person department. As we continue to grow and develop our brand it is
harder and harder to do it with limited manpower, especially since we have
been opening one hotel a year for the last five years. Ensuring that each ho-
tel opens with the Loews culture and standards in place while continuing to
meet the existing hotels needs takes a lot of careful coordination and creative
juggling. At times my manager and I can go a month without being in the
office at the same time.
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industry profile 7
industry profile
4. What major trends do you see for your
segment of the hospitality and tourism
industry?
In the training world there seems to be a growing interest in Web-based learn-
ing, which works well for some large hotel chains. In our culture we have not
found a substitute for live training, whether it be working with a new hire or
facilitating manager workshops. As tough as finding the time can be, the in-
teraction and team building that happens in a live environment simply cant
be replaced by a computer. As far as the management development piece,
fewer and fewer managers are willing to relocate to another city, which makes
it difficult to continue to fill open positions from within. Once upon a time,
to grow with a company you had to be willing to go anywhere the company
asked you to, but times have changed, and people are looking more and more
to stay close to home. Certainly positions can be filled within the same prop-
erty, which helps, but that can sometimes slow down someones growth as
they wait for the next step to open within their property. It can be difficult to
keep a high-potential manager who isnt interested in relocating challenged
in his or her current position until an opportunity comes available. From time
to time we lose a manager to another hotel in the city that can offer the per-
son the next step. Our property human resources managers work at keeping
in touch with good managers weve lost and hope to be able to hire back when
the right spot opens up.
5. What role does marketing play within your

company?
In the training world we work to market our programs to our internal
guestsour managers and employees. Developing our employees is part of
our company mission statement, so our department is charged with making
that a reality. Our new-hire orientation program ensures that all new em-
ployees are given the proper tools to succeed. We show them from day one
that we are committed to their success. Each of our programs is marketed on
the property to encourage attendance and reinforce the importance of con-
tinuing education throughout ones career.
Training and education does play an outside marketing role as well. While
we own many of our hotels, we also manage a number of hotels for the prop-
erty owners. When preparing a presentation to potential managed-hotel own-
ers, our vice president of development includes an overview of our different
education and development programs as well as the measurement tools we
have in place to ensure that our standards are being upheld throughout the
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company. While financial results certainly play a major role in an owners de-
cision, many companies may offer a similar returnour investment in our
employees can be what makes us unique.
6. If you could offer one piece of advice to an

individual preparing for a career in the
hospitality and tourism industry, what would
you suggest?
Be proactive and take responsibility for your careernow. Theres no sub-
stitute in this business for hands-on experiencethink of it as the hospitality
school of life. That experience can be what separates you from your peers.
Worse yet, dont wait until a required internship at the end of your junior
year to find that this industry isnt for you. Youve got to have a passion for
what you doto love the service business and taking care of people. Be will-
industry profile
ing to put in the energy and effort right from the beginning so that you can
stand out from the rest of the graduates just starting out on their careers.
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introduction to marketing 9
INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING
In recent years, most of the growth in the hospitality industry has occurred
in chain operations or in the industrys corporate segment. The hospitality in-
dustry leaders, such as Marriott International, Hyatt, Hilton, McDonalds,
Burger King, Choice International, and Starwood Lodging, continue to in-
crease their share of the market at the expense of smaller chains and inde-
pendent operators. While independent operators have continued to prosper,
especially in the food service sector, the marketplace is much more competi-
tive. An increased level of competition has meant greater emphasis on mar-
keting. No longer is it possible for an individual to open and operate a food
service facility successfully on good food alone. To ensure a steady flow of
customers, a hospitality manager must possess a thorough understanding of
marketing. Without the marketing management skills the hospitality indus-
try demands, a hospitality manager is less likely to achieve success today. With
this continual change and increased competition, what are the marketing func-
tions that a successful hospitality manager must fulfill? This chapter intro-
duces basic marketing definitions and concepts, including the marketing mix,
the marketing environment, the marketing management cycle, and the role
of marketing within the operation of a hospitality and tourism organization.
Marketing Defined
The term marketing encompasses many different activities, and it is neces-
sary to discuss some of the terms used in the definition of marketing, and
throughout the text. First, the term product refers to all of the goods and ser-
vices that are bundled together and offered to consumers. For example, com-
puters and automobiles are sold as tangible goods, but they include warranties
and service contracts as part of the overall product. Therefore, the term prod-
uct refers to both goods and services, but it is often thought of as a good or
commodity. Nearly every product sold includes both tangible and intangible
elements. Another term that is used to refer to the product as a bundle of
goods and services, and eliminate the confusion, is the product-service mix.
A service is defined as an intangible product that is sold or purchased in
the marketplace. A meal purchased at a fast-food restaurant or an occupied
room in a hotel is considered a part of the service segment. Why? Simply
stated, after the meal is consumed and paid for or after the individual checks
out of the hotel, the individual leaves the facility and does not have a tangi-
ble product in exchange for the money spent. This individual has consumed
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a service that is a part of the hospitality and travel industry, one of the largest
service industries.
Each year, millions of individuals spend billions of dollars vacationing and
traveling for business and pleasure; when the trip is over, nothing tangible re-
mains. To more clearly reflect the role of service industries, such as the hos-
pitality and tourism industry, the definition of marketing can be expanded to
include references to services. This will eliminate the confusion caused by the
semantic differences between products, goods, and services, discussed earlier.
According to the American Marketing Association, marketing is the process
of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribu-
tion of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual
and organizational goals.1
The vast majority of hospitality establishments, however, are operated to
generate a satisfactory return on investment in the form of profits or excess
revenue. These profits are used to pay dividends to stockholders and are rein-
vested by the organization to promote expansion and further development.
Even nonprofit hospitality operations, such as selected hospitals, nursing
homes, college or university hospitality operations, and government-run hos-
pitality operations must be concerned with marketing. Managers of nonprofit
operations must still understand the wants and needs of their consumers and
provide goods and services at a satisfactory level to as many individuals as pos-
sible. A universal concern of all hospitality managers is the financial condi-
tion of the organization. Whether a manager is trying to achieve a 20 percent
annual return on investment (ROI) or is instead aiming to break even on a
very limited budget, the overriding concern is still financial.
Another factor that any definition of marketing must include is a focus
on the exchange that takes place between a producer and a consumer. In or-
der for an exchange to take place, both parties must receive something they
are satisfied with. In most cases, consumers give producers money in exchange
for products and services that meet the consumers wants and needs. How-
ever, the exchange can include anything of value to the parties. Before there
was a monetary system, people would barter, or exchange goods and services
rather than money. There are still companies that engage in bartering today.
For example, PepsiCo chose to exchange its soft drink product with a com-
pany in Mexico for wine and other products to avoid incurring the foreign
exchange risk associated with the peso, which was devalued at the time.
The Marketing Process

The process of marketing can be best understood by examining the diagram
presented in Figure 1.1. As you can see, the target market, or those groups of
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Competitive
Economic Price Product

Political
and
legal
Target
market
Promotion Place
Social Technological
figure 1.1 The marketing mix.
consumers that the firm chooses to target with its marketing efforts, is at the
center of the process. The marketing concept is based on the premise that
firms determine customer wants and needs and then design products and ser-
vices that meet those wants and needs while at the same time meeting the
goals of the firm. This concept is an extension of earlier concepts that focused
on the production process as a means to design products and services, or the
selling of already produced products and services. Today, most firms realize
the value of customer input in the new product design process. Chapter 2
looks at the issues unique to marketing services, Chapter 3 focuses on the be-
havior of hospitality consumers, and Chapter 4 discusses the process of choos-
ing target markets and positioning products in the market.
In Figure 1.1 the first layer around the target market, or consumers, is
referred to as the marketing mix. The marketing mix has four components:
price, product, place, and promotion. These are often referred to as the four
Ps of marketing, and they are the variables that managers can control.
Firms will manipulate the marketing mix variables to formulate strategies
that are combined in a marketing program for a product or service. This
program is the basis on which the firms products and services compete
with the offerings of other firms in the competitive environment. The mar-
keting mix will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. The product
component is covered in Chapters 7 and 8, the place (distribution) compo-
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nent is covered in Chapters 9 and 10, the promotion component is covered in

Chapters 11 through 15, and the price component is covered in Chapter 15.
The outside layer of the diagram represents the external environments
that influence the marketing process. The state of the economy, trends in so-
ciety, competitive pressures, political and legal developments, and advances in
technology all affect the performance of a product or service. Firms cannot
control these environments, but they must monitor the changes and trends in
the respective environments and look for opportunities and threats. Later in
this chapter the different environments and some of the current trends that
affect hospitality and travel firms will be examined in more detail.
Firms must continually monitor environments and make changes in their
marketing programs. The marketing management cycle involves marketing
planning, marketing execution, and marketing evaluation. This cycle is dis-
cussed briefly in this chapter, and Chapter 5 covers the marketing planning
process in depth. To be successful in marketing planning, firms need to con-
duct research and collect information that can be used to evaluate their pro-
grams. Chapter 6 discusses the marketing research process used to gather
information to be stored in marketing information systems and used to make
marketing decisions.
The Emergence of the Marketing Concept

If a hospitality organization is to market its product-service mix successfully,
it is essential that the marketing concept be thoroughly understood and fully
implemented. Understanding the marketing concept is not difficult, but im-
plementing it may prove to be very challenging for management. Simply
stated, the marketing concept is a consumer-oriented philosophy that focuses
all available resources on satisfying the needs and wants of the consumer,
thereby resulting in profits. As an old rhyme states, To sell Jane Smith what
Jane Smith buys, youve got to see things through Jane Smiths eyes.
Clearly, it is difficult to sell something to someone who has no need for
it. If the firm adopts a consumer-oriented marketing philosophy, however,
the product-service mix will be designed in direct response to unsatisfied con-
sumer needs. As a result, very limited actual selling will be necessary. In such
instances, supply and demand are in balance, and both the consumer and the
hospitality providers are satisfied.
Table 1.1 illustrates the two different philosophies of the marketing con-
cept that are often practiced in the hospitality and tourism industry. One dem-
onstrates the actions of a manager who applies the marketing concept; the
other demonstrates actions that are not consistent with the marketing con-
cept. The key question to ask when trying to distinguish between the two ap-
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when the marketing concept when the marketing concept

decisions is applied is not applied
Menu design Lets conduct focus group Lets add two steaks to the menu;
interviews using our current and thats what I like to eat.
target market customers to
determine which potential new
menu items we should add to our
menu.
Pricing How do you think our guests will Lets increase the price by 5
perceive the price value of our percent; thats what we did last
new weekend package if we year.
increase the price by 5 percent?
Guest service Im very sorry that you had to Im sorry you had to wait, but we
wait 20 minutes for your breakfast were short-handed today. One of
this morning. May I offer you a the servers called in sick.
complimentary breakfast today, or
would you like the credit applied
toward your breakfast tomorrow?
Guest requests We dont have any rooms with a We dont have any rooms with a
king bed available at this time, but king bed left. Youll have to take a
I can have one ready for you in 30 room with two double beds.
minutes. Can I have the bell staff
check your bags until then?
Reactions to That is a very good idea. Ill talk Your idea isnt feasible, and
negative guest about it at our staff meeting besides, its against our policy.
comments tomorrow and see if we can use
your suggestion to improve
service. Thanks for suggesting
that.
table 1.1 Marketing concept philosophies.
proaches is whether consumers are given priority, or whether the operation

is run to suit the needs of the employees, management, or owners.
A manager of a hospitality operation has a difficult series of daily chal-
lenges. First, a manager is expected to successfully satisfy the needs of the hos-
pitality consumers. Second, the owners expect a manager to maintain the level
of expenses within certain predetermined limits that are usually defined in
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actual dollars or as a percentage of sales. Third, a manager is expected to gen-

erate a satisfactory return on investment (ROI) for the owners.
This return might be the break-even point in a nonprofit operation or a
10, 12, 15, or 20 percent rate of return in a commercial operation. Whatever
the return, a manager is faced with a series of difficult objectives to achieve,
and these objectives often conflict with one another. Even in the most suc-
cessful companies, there are limited resources that must be used to accomplish
seemingly unlimited goals and objectives. Regardless of how well the com-
pany has performed in the past, owners and senior management will always
expect a little more in the future. Guests develop ever-increasing expectations
for all aspects of the product-service mix. Owners want increased profits, and
the employees want a little more each year. The managers task is to balance
the three objectives mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Managers often
view profitability as the single most important objective of the firm. Yet for
the long-term financial well-being of the firm, profits may not be the most
important objective. It is quite possible, as many shortsighted owners and man-
agers have demonstrated, to achieve high levels of short-term profitability at
the expense of long-term consumer satisfaction and long-term profits. After
a period of time, however, consumers will perceive that they are not receiv-
ing a high level of value for their money, and the operation will develop a
reputation for being overpriced and/or offering poor service. As a result, the
number of patrons is likely to decline, and so will profitability.
On the other hand, if management establishes a consumer orientation and
places customer satisfaction as the number one priority, the firms products
and services are more likely to meet customers expectations. As a result, they
will return more frequently to the hospitality operation, and this will have a
positive influence on long-term sales and profits. In addition, by telling their
friends and acquaintances about their positive experiences, satisfied consumers
are likely to influence others to patronize the establishment. This word of
mouth passed on by satisfied customers can become a very important part of
a firms promotional efforts. It doesnt cost anything, yet it can be a very pow-
erful influence on sales, and as sales increase, so does profitability. Experience
shows that when the marketing concept is understood and applied by all of a
firms employees, substantial changes have often been made in the establish-
ments manner of operation, and the financial results have often been im-
proved significantly.
Marketing Versus Selling

Many hospitality managers engage in activities that they incorrectly refer to
as marketing. Many people confuse advertising or personal selling with mar-
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:45 AM Page 15
keting. Although such activities are without question a part of the marketing
function, alone and unsupported they cannot be referred to as marketing. Mar-
keting refers to the entire process that is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Advertis-
ing and personal selling are merely forms of promotion, and promotion is just
one component of the marketing mix. Managers engaging in activities of this
type are merely attempting to sell their products and services.
The product-service mix is composed of all the tangible and intangible
products and services that make up a hospitality operation. The product-
service mix includes the food, beverages, guest rooms, meeting facilities, table-
top appointments, and personal attention by service personnel, as well as a
host of other tangibles and intangibles. Advertising or personal selling per-
formed alone focuses only on the hospitality operations product-service mix,
and the goal is to convince the consuming public to purchase and consume a
portion of the product-service mix. Little consideration is given to the needs
and wants of the consuming public; instead, the hospitality manager is hop-
ing that a sufficient number of consumers will patronize the operation to al-
low the operation to achieve its financial objectives.
The hospitality and tourism industry, especially the food service segment,
is filled with examples of operations that have failed because the owners cre-
ated operations they liked or always wanted to operate, yet the owners and
managers failed to consider fully the needs and wants of potential consumers.
The results are predictable: low volume, poor sales revenue, and frequent
bankruptcy. Because this mistake is so prevalent in the food service segment,
restaurants have one of the highest failure rates of any type of business in the
United States. In some instances, the failure rate of new independently owned
restaurants may reach 90 percent in the first 12 months of operation.2
The difference between selling and marketing is very simple. Selling
focuses mainly on the firms desire to sell products for revenue. Salespeo-
ple and other forms of promotion are used to create demand for a firms
current product(s). Clearly, the needs of the seller are very strong. Mar-
keting, however, focuses on the needs of the consumer, ultimately benefit-
ing the seller as well. When a product or service is truly marketed, the
needs of the consumer are considered from the very beginning of the new-
product development process, and the product-service mix is designed to
meet the unsatisfied needs of the consuming public. When a product or
service is marketed in the proper manner, very little selling is necessary be-
cause the consumer need already exists and the product or service is merely
being produced to satisfy the need.
Another brief example will illustrate the critical difference between sell-
ing and marketing. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, many restaurant
operations became very successful by targeting the under-30 singles market
segment. The pattern for success consisted of developing a high-energy
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:45 AM Page 16
lounge style of operation with lots of dynamic lighting and loud music that
sold a high proportion of liquor to food. For many years, these operations
were very successful, generating very substantial sales and profits.
However, times changed and several factors combined to cause a prob-
lem for these restaurants. First, the market segment to which this type of
facility was appealing was declining as a percentage of the total market.
Those who had previously patronized the high-energy restaurants were
now seeking a more relaxed atmosphere. Often, the single people who had
patronized the facilities were now married, and many had small children.
They either did not patronize food service facilities of this type or wanted
a very different type of dining experience. Second, societal attitudes toward
alcohol consumption, especially as it related to drinking and driving, had
undergone significant change. Public awareness about the dangers of drink-
ing and driving and the enforcement of laws against driving under the in-
fluence of alcohol combined to produce a decline in the annual per capita
consumption of alcohol and reduce the demand for restaurants of this type.
Third, consumers nutritional requests were changing, as they started opt-
ing for healthier choices. The relationship between diet and overall health
and well-being was becoming more pronounced.
To remain competitive, hospitality organizations must keep up with the ever-changing

market. Courtesy of The Melting Pot.
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the marketing mix 17
With these three factors in mind, the high-energy restaurant concept

began to change, with less emphasis on alcohol consumption and more em-
phasis on food sales. Menus were researched and rewritten. Music selections
were changed, and the volume levels were reduced. Also, more emphasis was
placed on service. In the end, the restaurant concepts evolved to meet the needs
of ever-changing consumer tastes. Even the most successful concept will not
be successful indefinitely. If the operators of these restaurants had continued
to sell their product-service mix, they would not have been successful. Instead,
they were sensitive to the changes occurring in the marketplace, especially
within their target market segment, and were able to adapt their product-
service mix to meet the needs of consumers. They found the key to success-
ful marketing: recognizing trends and being ready and willing to make
necessary changes to ensure continued success.
THE MARKETING MIX

The term marketing mix has been used by marketing managers for a long time.
The concept of the marketing mix has gained universal acceptance. It is im-
portant for hospitality marketing students to understand this concept, both
conceptually and strategically. This section outlines the major components of
the traditional marketing mix, and the next section covers the hospitality mar-
keting mix that was offered as an alternative for the industry. We will ex-
plain the similarities and differences between the two approaches.
A successful hospitality organization is one that focuses on the needs and
wants of the consumers and markets the product-service mix of the opera-
tion. Management of this type of operation involves integrating the compo-
nents of the marketing mix into a marketing program that will appeal to
potential consumers and meet the goals and objectives of the firm. The fol-
lowing sections will introduce the components of the marketing mix, which
will be discussed in more detail in Chapters 714.
The Traditional Marketing Mix

The marketing mix, many believe, consists of four elements, often called the
four Ps of marketing:
PRICE. The price component refers to the value placed by a firm on its prod-
ucts and services. Some of the decisions involve pricing the product line, dis-
counting strategies, and positioning against competitors.
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Hospitality firms use the elements of the marketing mix to establish a competitive position
in the market. Courtesy of Red Lobster Restaurants, Orlando, Florida.
PRODUCT. This component refers to the unique combination of goods and

services offered by a firm to consumers. The product includes both the tan-
gible and intangible elements of the service offering. Product decisions in-
volve product attributes such as quality, the breadth and mix of the product
line (i.e., the number and type of products and services offered by a firm), and
services such as warranties and guarantees.
PLACE. The place component refers to the manner in which the products
and services are being delivered to consumers. This component is sometimes
referred to as distribution, and it involves decisions related to the location of
facilities and the use of intermediaries. In addition, the marketing of services
includes the decision regarding customer involvement in the production
process.
PROMOTION. This component refers to the methods used to communi-
cate with consumer markets. The promotion mix includes advertising, per-
sonal selling, sales promotions (e.g., coupons, rebates, and contests), and
publicity. These are the vehicles that can be used to communicate the firms
intended messages to consumers. The decisions for promotion involve the
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the marketing mix 19
amount to be spent on each component of the promotion mix, the strategies

for each of the components, and the overall message to be sent.
To achieve success in marketing a hospitality operation, a manager must
closely examine and understand all of the components of the marketing mix.
To be successful, these components must be combined into well-conceived
marketing programs and managed properly. There is no magical formula that
will guarantee success. If there were, no hospitality operation would ever fail
or go out of business. Yet each year, many hospitality operations fail because
they are not able to combine the elements of the marketing mix into effective
marketing programs, or they fail to implement them properly.
The Hospitality Marketing Mix

Just as researchers have demonstrated distinct differences between goods and
services, some researchers believe that the traditional four Ps approach to the
marketing mix does not apply to the hospitality industry. Rather, a modified
marketing mix is more appropriate. This hospitality marketing mix consists
of five components:3
PRODUCT-SERVICE MIX. This is a combination of all the products and
services offered by the hospitality operation, including both tangible and in-
tangible elements. For example, it includes such things as the type of guest
room, the amenities offered, and the broad array of elements offered to the
consumer. Chapter 2 addresses further the unique nature of services. Keep in
mind that once a hospitality consumer leaves the hotel or restaurant, there is
nothing tangible to show. Because the consumer has purchased and consumed
the service, the largest part of the hospitality industry product-service mix is
indeed the intangible elements of service.
PRESENTATION MIX. This includes those elements that the marketing
manager uses to increase the tangibility of the product-service mix as per-
ceived by the consumer. This mix includes physical location, atmosphere (light-
ing, sound, and color), and personnel.
COMMUNICATION MIX. This involves all communication that takes
place between the hospitality operation and the consumer. It includes adver-
tising, marketing research, and feedback about consumer perceptions. The
communication mix should be viewed as a two-way communication link,
rather than as a simple one-way link with the hospitality operation commu-
nicating to the consumer. This two-way link allows for the traditional ad-
vertising and promotion that flow from the seller to the buyer, but it also
allows for marketing research and other data collection vehicles. In these cases,
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:45 AM Page 20
the seller is seeking information and data from the consumer, thereby estab-
lishing open communication with the various market segments.
There are some similarities and differences between the traditional mar-
keting mix and the hospitality marketing mix. In the hospitality version, the
product component is expanded to include some aspects of distribution. Peo-
ple are part of the production process in services, and distribution occurs in
the presence of the consumer. The communication mix is almost identical
with the promotion component in the traditional marketing mix, although it
does include some additional communications such as marketing research. Fi-
nally, the presentation mix represents the largest departure from the tradi-
tional marketing mix. It includes price and some of the aspects of the place
component such as location, and it adds elements such as atmosphere and the
personal contact between customers and employees.
PRICING MIX. In addition to the actual price a firm charges, the pricing
mix encompasses the consumers perception of value. The pricing mix in-
cludes such variables as volume discounts and bundling multiple products to-
gether for an overall discounted price. This bundling approach is used
extensively by fast-food chains as a method to increase spending per customer.
DISTRIBUTION MIX. This includes all distribution channels available be-
tween the firm and the target market. Historically, distribution occurred at
the point of production, such as the restaurant where the food was produced.
This has changed since newer distribution channels, such as the Internet, have
developed; the importance of the distribution mix has increased.
The marketing mix, whether designed in the traditional or modified hos-
pitality services format, is an important concept for managers of marketing
functions. Initially, the marketing mix is used to formulate a marketing strat-
egy and plan (see Chapter 5), but it pervades all aspects of marketing man-
agement. Several external factors can reduce the effectiveness of the managers
efforts to successfully implement all the components of the hospitality mar-
keting mix. These factors, which may have either direct or indirect influence,
are consumer perceptions, attitudes, and behavior; industry practices and
trends; local competition; broad national and international trends; and gov-
ernment policy and legislation.
THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

During the past decade, many changes have had an impact on the hospitality
industry in the United States. The industry has confronted and adapted to
such diverse situations as economic recession, overbuilding, increased compe-
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the marketing environment 21
Hotels such as the Wingate Tulfarris Hotel and Golf Resort in County Wicklow, Ireland,
offer a range of room rates and amenities for guests with differing levels of purchase power.
tition, increased emphasis on technology, newer forms of distribution and sales

using technology, increased foreign ownership of previously American brands,
changes in dining habits, changes in food consumption patterns, and the ever-
increasing globalization of the hospitality and tourism industry. Each of these
external forces has brought with it changes that hospitality firms have had to
make to remain competitive in a global marketplace.
When marketing managers consider changes in marketing strategy or tac-
tics, they often examine the changes in five major marketing environments:
competitive, economic, political and legal, social, and technological. Firms can-
not directly influence their external environments, but they can monitor
changes and be somewhat proactive. It is critical for firms to engage in some
level of environmental scanning so they can take advantage of marketing op-
portunities while at the same time anticipating any threats to their business.
Environmental scanning can be a formal mechanism within a firm, or merely
the result of salespeople and managers consciously monitoring changes in the
environment. The larger the firm, the more likely it will have a structured
approach to scanning the environment and documenting trends. The follow-
ing section contains brief descriptions of each of the external environments.
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the Economic Environment

The goal of all marketing activity is to create and satisfy customers. Consumers
purchasing power, or ability to purchase products and services, is directly re-
lated to the economic health of the city, state, and country. As marketers study
the economic environment, they are concerned about such things as inflation,
recession, unemployment, resource availability, interest rate trends, personal
income growth, business growth and performance, and consumers confidence
in the economy. There are other key economic terms that relate to marketing
and will be used throughout the text. The consumer price index (CPI) is a
measure of the relative level of prices for consumer goods in the economy. As
this measure rises, there are more concerns about inflation and a poor econ-
omy. The term disposable income refers to the portion of an individuals in-
come that is left for spending after required deductions such as taxes.
Discretionary income is probably a more important measure for most mar-
keters because it refers to the income that is available for spending after de-
ducting taxes and necessary expenditures on housing, food, and basic clothing.
Some examples of issues and trends related to the economic environment
that affect the hospitality and travel industry:
The percentage of independently owned hospitality operations has de-

clined, resulting in a concentration of power among large hospitality
chains. In turn, these chains have become large, multinational firms based
in the United States or abroad.
An increase in the amount of discretionary income has resulted in an in-
crease in the percentage of the household food budget spent outside the
home. The hospitality industry today receives in excess of 50 percent of
all consumer expenditures for food.4
After a period of excess supply due to overbuilding in the 1980s, hotel oc-
cupancy percentages fell to the low 60s. This trend later reversed itself be-
cause of the strong economy and business growth. Following a recession
in the early 1990s, occupancy and profitability reached all-time highs for
many lodging companies. In the early 2000s, and especially after the events
of September 11, 2001, and the recession of the early 2000s, hotel occu-
pancies fell and many properties suffered operating losses.
Variations in consumer purchasing power have led the hospitality and
travel industry to offer products and services at different price levels. For
example, most of the major lodging chains now have established multi-
ple brand names, ranging from economy to luxury, based on prices and
amenities.
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Some of the issues in the economic environment are closely related to the
trends in the social environment that will be discussed next.
the Social Environment

There are constant changes in the social environment as consumers evolve.
The social environment is affected by all of the other environments. Changes
in the economy, advances in technology, competitive actions, and government
regulations all shape the way consumers view the world. These changes may
be sudden, or they may take place over a number of years or even decades.
First, there have been changes in demographics, or characteristics that de-
scribe the population, such as age, income, education, occupation, family size,
marital status, and gender. Second, there have been changes in consumers at-
titudes, interests, and opinions that determine their lifestyles.
Some examples of issues related to the social environment that affect the
hospitality and travel industry include:
The proportion of two-income families and the impact that the increased
discretionary income and time pressures have on their lodging, dining,
and travel behaviors. These families take more but shorter vacations to fit
their busy lifestyles. Also, they are quality-conscious and focus on brand
names.
The proportion of older Americans and their purchasing power are con-
tinually increasing. Senior citizens are becoming a very important mar-
ket segment because people are living longer. Further, there is an
improved quality of life among seniors, and their disposable income con-
tinues to increase. This segment has specific needs, and the American As-
sociation of Retired Persons (AARP) is one of the strongest political
lobbying organizations in the nation.
The dietary habits of the American people have also changed, and in some
ways are bipolar: the percentage of individuals characterized as over-
weight or obese is at an all-time high, yet many individuals are showing
an increased concern for their health. The trend has been toward health-
ier, more natural foods. In support of this, the United States Department
of Agriculture publishes Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which outlines
the dietary goals for the nation. The American Heart Association pro-
vides menu review and recipes that meet their dietary guidelines for good
health. Many food service operations now feature menu items that have
been approved by this organization. The National Restaurant Association
has also been active in this area, especially in educating its members.
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Fast-food restaurants, extended-stay hotels, and the growth in the cruise

industry are all the result of changes in the social environment. These changes
can offer opportunities for new products and services while posing a threat to
existing companies. For example, the increasing emphasis on brand names has
resulted in tremendous growth in restaurant chains such as Outback Steak-
house, Panera Bread, Chilis, and Applebees. This growth of regional and
national brands has come at the expense of many independent restaurants.
the Competitive Environment

Within all markets, a variety of competitors seek to win the favor of the con-
sumer. Each offers what it believes will be the best combination of products
and services designed to result in maximum consumer satisfaction. The com-
petitive structure in an industry can range from a monopoly, with one seller
and many buyers, to perfect competition, with many buyers and sellers of ho-
mogeneous products that are almost exactly the same. In between, there is the
oligopoly, with a few sellers and many buyers, and the most common form of
competitive structure, monopolistic competition, where there are many buy-
ers and sellers with differentiated products. The price elasticity of demand is
a measure of the percentage change in demand for a product resulting from a
percentage change in price. The price elasticity of demand normally increases
as the competitive structure changes from monopoly to oligopoly to monopo-
listic competition and ends with perfect competition. The hospitality and
tourism industry is highly competitive, with new companies entering the in-
dustry every day. In the business world, four levels of competition must be con-
sidered in order for firms to be able to protect their positions in the market:5
Product form competition exists among companies that provide similar

products and services to the same customers at a similar price level. For
example, McDonalds competes with Burger King and Wendys; Delta
Airlines competes with United Airlines and US Airways; Hertz competes
with Avis and National; and Four Seasons Hotels competes with Ritz-
Carlton and other luxury hotels.
Product category competition exists among companies that make the same
class of products. In this case, McDonalds competes with other fast-food
restaurants such as Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and KFC; Delta Airlines com-
petes with charter airlines and commuter airlines; Hertz competes with
all the local rental car companies; and Four Seasons Hotels competes with
nonluxury hotel chains such as Marriott and Sheraton.
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General competition exists among companies that offer the same basic
service that fulfills the same basic consumer needs. For example, Mc-
Donalds competes with all restaurants as well as with convenience stores
and supermarkets; Delta Airlines and Hertz compete with all forms of
transportation, such as bus and rail; and Four Seasons Hotels competes
with all forms of lodging, such as bed-and-breakfasts and YMCAs.
Budget competition exists among all companies that compete for con-
sumers disposable incomes. Most consumers have limited budgets that
can be used for purchasing products and services, and all companies com-
pete for these consumer dollars, especially discretionary income. The hos-
pitality and travel firms discussed earlier would compete with department
stores, movie theaters, health clubs, and financial institutions for con-
sumers limited resources.
As companies examine the competitive environment, three important

questions need to be addressed. The questions may seem straightforward, but
the answers are often difficult to determine, and many firms do not make the
correct decision. The questions are:
1. Should we compete?
2. If we compete, in what markets should we compete?
3. What should our competitive strategy be?
The response to the first question should be based on such things as the
firms resources and objectives. The company must examine the level of po-
tential sales, potential profitability, and the overall feasibility of competing. A
firm may decide that it should not compete if the risks outweigh the poten-
tial returns or if the projected returns are not as high as it would like to see.
The second question relates to the markets in which a firm wishes to com-
pete. Most firms elect not to compete in all potential markets. For example,
although many firms, such as Marriott International, have developed brands
that compete in all price segments of the lodging industry (economy through
luxury), others, such as Hyatt Hotels and Resorts, have chosen not to com-
pete in all price segments. This firm believes that this strategy would not serve
its best long-term interests. This area is covered in more detail in Chapter 5.
The third question relates to marketing strategy. How should the firm
attempt to gain a competitive advantage? These decisions, which will be ex-
plored in much greater depth throughout the text, are related to issues such
as products and services, pricing, distribution, and promotion.
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the Political and Legal Environment

Understanding the political and legal environment means understanding the
rules and regulations by which the competitive game is played. At all levels
of governmentlocal, state, national, and internationalthere are laws and
regulations that businesses must follow. To compete successfully, a firm must
understand not only the current laws and regulations, but any new ones that
might come into play in the future. Most professional hospitality and tourism
managers belong to one or more professional associations. One of the goals of
these associations is to help members not only understand developing laws
and regulations, but have influence in how they are written through lobby-
ing efforts with politicians and government officials. Two examples of hos-
pitality industry associations are the National Restaurant Association (NRA)
and the American Hotel & Lodging Association (AH&LA).
Some examples of issues related to the political and legal environment that
affect the hospitality and tourism industry include:
Changes in the federal tax codes have made hotel development less de-
sirable than under previous tax codes. So-called passive investments, in
which the investor is not an active participant in the daily management
of the facility, are not treated as favorably under the new federal tax codes
as they were in the past. As a result, future hotel development decisions
are based more on operational feasibility and less on the real estate in-
vestment aspects of the project.
As a means to reduce the federal budget deficit, costs are being shifted to
state and local governments. To raise tax revenues at the local level with-
out incurring the disapproval of local voters, many localities have imple-
mented or increased taxes on lodging and restaurant meals. These user
taxes serve to increase consumer perceptions of the prices for hospitality
and travel products and can have a major negative impact on operations.
Another related tax issue that affects the hospitality industry is the re-
duction in the tax credit for business meals and expenses. The lobbyists
for the NRA argued that this tax change would have a major negative
impact on restaurant sales.
National, state, and local governments also pass laws that can affect firms
operations without using taxes. For example, while the national govern-
ment has chosen to stay on the sidelines, local and state governments are
taking on the issue of smoking in public places such as restaurants and are-
nas. This directly affects the competitive structure of the industry when
regulations do not affect all firms equally. For instance, in some areas with
smoking bans, consumers can go to restaurants in nearby towns and smoke.
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:45 AM Page 27
Express check-in stations are one of the most recent technological innovations in lodging.
The idea of a level playing field is critical when governments evaluate new
taxes and regulations. It is often difficult for firms to address social issues as
a priority over profits, especially small firms with very limited resources. How-
ever, governments can make sure that their laws and regulations do not dis-
tort the balance of competition.
the Technological Environment

We live in an increasingly technological and interconnected society. With the
evolution of the personal computer from an expensive desktop machine to ei-
ther a notebook computer or a personal digital assistant (PDA) and the per-
vasive access to the Internet via both wired and wireless connections, our lives
have changed in ways we perhaps could not have even dreamed about before.
The power of computers doubles roughly every 18 to 24 months, with prices
constantly dropping. Computers are being used for more and more applica-
tions every day. Although the hospitality and tourism industry remains a
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:45 AM Page 28
highly labor-intensive and personal-contact-oriented industry, computers and

technology have had and will continue to have an impact. The area in which
technology will have the greatest impact in the next ten years is in direct mar-
keting and mass customization, where a product-service provider can cus-
tomize the experience for each individual customer. Through the use of
database software technology, marketers have improved their ability to tar-
get their customers, track their behavior and preference, and then provide ex-
actly what the customers desire when they want it. Through the careful use
of technology, marketers can monitor guests purchasing behavior and then
tailor service offerings to meet their needs.
Some examples of issues related to the technological environment that af-
fect the hospitality and travel industry:
New technologies have helped to combat labor shortages and the high
cost of labor by enabling hospitality and travel firms to shift some of
these duties to consumers through self-service operations (e.g., auto-
mated check-in and checkout). This is occurring within all segments
of the industry, from fast-food restaurants to luxury hotels and resorts.
The very competitive environment in which commercial airlines oper-
ate has made them leaders in cost-saving applications of technology.
The increasing sophistication and decrease in price of computer technol-
ogy have had a significant impact. Most of the larger firms maintain re-
lational databases and use resource management systems that can provide
managers with the potential to better serve customers. This technology is
becoming more accessible to smaller firms through service contractors and
consultants.
The development and growth of the Internet has changed the competi-
tive structure in the hospitality and travel industry. Even small firms can
now market on a national or international basis. Selling on the Internet
also reduces the costs associated with service delivery, thereby increasing
the profit potential for service firms. The trend toward consumers
evaluating service alternatives and making online purchases has been
significant.
Along with these changes, the hospitality industry has experienced

growth. Most of the leading hospitality experts are projecting continued in-
dustry growth, albeit somewhat slower than during the 1980s and the mid-
to late 1990s. Certainly, a few large obstacles loom on the horizon. Existing
economic cycles will cause some upward and downward shifts in the hospi-
tality industry, and further changes in the tax codes may have some negative
impact on business travel and entertaining.
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the marketing management cycle 29
THE MARKETING MANAGEMENT

CYCLE
Marketing is an ongoing process. It needs constant attention to be successful.
Management must regularly obtain feedback and use it to revise strategic plans.
Managements role in the marketing effort is critical, for without diligent effort,
the results will be less than satisfactory.
Large hospitality and tourism organizations normally have a director of
marketing who is responsible for the management of all marketing activities.
However, in most hospitality and tourism units, and especially in indepen-
dent firms, the marketing function is the responsibility of an operations man-
ager who must be concerned with other functions as well. This, together with
the lack of a sizeable budget, results in a low priority for marketing in these
situations. For the larger organizations, the units are all treated the same,
which could lead to some missed opportunities and competitive disadvantages.
For smaller organizations, it is difficult to compete with larger chains that
benefit from national and regional marketing campaigns.
The successful marketing of a hospitality operation is not something that
can be accomplished overnight or with only a few hours of attention each
week. Establishing and maintaining a successful marketing program requires
significant management time and effort. The management activities in mar-
keting a hospitality operation can be divided into three major areas that form
a marketing management cycle: marketing planning, marketing execution,
and marketing evaluation. Each of these areas will be discussed in more depth
in later chapters; however, a brief overview of the major functions of each el-
ement of the marketing management cycle is presented in Figure 1.2.
Marketing Planning
The marketing planning process is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. There are
three basic questions that should be addressed during this process. The first
question is Where are we now? A situation analysis should be performed
to determine the companys strengths and weaknesses. This information is
based on past trends and historical performance, and it should include an anal-
ysis of the market and the competition. In addition, it is necessary to scan the
environment for opportunities and threats. Once the company has a good grasp
of the situation, it is time to move on to the next question.
The second question is Where do we want to go? It is at this point that
a company must set its goals and objectives for operating in the future. These
goals and objectives should be clear, concise, and measurable over a specific
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Marketing planning
Marketing evaluation Marketing execution
figure 1.2 The marketing management cycle.
time frame. All employees and stakeholders should be made aware of the strate-
gic direction of the firm. Also, these goals and objectives become targets for
evaluating the performance of the companys employees. Finally, these goals
and objectives should be consistent with the companys mission statement.
The third question is How are we going to get there? Once the com-
pany determines its direction for the future, it is necessary to devise strategies
and action plans that can serve as a road map. Basically, marketing managers
develop marketing programs that are consistent with the goals of the firm.
The components of the marketing mix are under the direct control of man-
agers, and they can be used to form strategies that will help the company to
reach its goals. The actions taken with price, the product-service mix, pro-
motion, and distribution should be integrated and lead to a common end.
Marketing Execution
Once the objectives and strategies are determined, the next step is to imple-
ment the action plans developed during the planning process, using the spe-
cific timetable that was part of the marketing plan. This is accomplished using
the promotional, advertising, personal selling, and direct marketing materi-
als and methods that were devised in the planning stage. Employees should
be informed about the companys plans for its service offerings and receive
additional training if necessary. Unit managers and franchisees should be
made aware of the changes in the marketing plan so that they can implement
them in their respective units.
Marketing Evaluation
The final step in the marketing management cycle is to monitor and control
the elements of the marketing plan. Data are collected and evaluated using a
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marketing within the organization 31
variety of marketing research methods and stored in forms that allow for easy
retrieval. Organizational performance needs to be analyzed in comparison
with goals and objectives, looking for the underlying reasons for the differ-
ence between stated performance goals and actual performance.
Specifically, the company should analyze the effectiveness of its market-
ing programs, including its strategies for pricing, promoting, and distribut-
ing its products and services. The firms performance can be evaluated relative
to its competitors, using measures such as sales, market share, and customer
satisfaction. Finally, at this point, firms can return to the planning stage of
the marketing management cycle and make any desired changes in their ob-
jectives or their strategies.
MARKETING WITHIN
THE ORGANIZATION
Marketing management, as practiced today, differs tremendously from the
techniques used earlier. Marketing within the hospitality and travel industry
is in a constant state of flux, as corporations plan, implement, and evaluate
new marketing strategies and tactics. Marketing management practices and
techniques should be analyzed and used as guidelines, but it is necessary for
each hospitality organization to adjust and modify these general guidelines
and techniques as dictated by the competitive environment. The competitive
environment is ever changing, and this serves to attract management person-
nel who want to be continuously stimulated and who dont want to work in
a repetitive environment.
It is also important to remember that marketing is but one of the key re-
sult areas with which management must be concerned. Within large hospi-
tality organizations, specialists are hired to staff positions within each of the
functional areas. In small organizations, however, managers must wear many
hats and successfully perform all or some of these managerial functions. The
following discussion places marketing in its proper place as a major part of
the successful management of any hospitality organization. To fulfill an or-
ganizations potential, management must integrate its various key result ar-
eas and manage them successfully. The key result areas are interdependent
and must support each other, thereby increasing the overall strength of the
organization. The primary focus of all marketing efforts is to create and sus-
tain customers. In order to do this successfully, marketers must understand
and work with other managers who have responsibilities in the other key re-
sult areas discussed below.
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Operations
Management is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the hospitality fa-
cility. This includes diverse activities such as purchasing, receiving, inventory
control, production, service of guest rooms, and all of the other activities that
take place each day within a successful hospitality or tourism operation. With-
out a strong focus on operations, the quality of the product-service mix is likely
to be poor or inconsistent. Problems in the operations area of a firm can lead
to declining customer counts and possible business failure. People in opera-
tions are mainly concerned with efficiency and cost containment, which are
best achieved by limiting product flexibility and standardizing production and
delivery. Conversely, marketing personnel are concerned with pleasing cus-
tomers by providing them with the types of products and services they pre-
fer. This requires a good deal of variety and individual customization that
conflicts with the goals of production personnel. Management must balance
the goals of the two areas with the goals of the firm in order to be successful.
Finance
A central and overriding goal of all businesses, including hospitality and
tourism organizations, is to increase the wealth of the owners or stockhold-
ers. In periods of economic uncertainty, such as during high rates of inflation,
high interest rates, or periods of recession, skilled management of the finan-
cial function becomes even more critical to the success of the hospitality or-
ganization. All hospitality organizations need to focus considerable attention
on this function to manage the organizations assets and financial affairs suc-
cessfully. Most areas within a firm have bottom-line financial responsibility,
and managers need to understand the fundamentals of finance and account-
ing. All firms have limited resources, regardless of size, and it is important to
invest in areas that demonstrate a high potential for meeting the targeted re-
turn. For example, financial considerations must be applied when developing
new products and services, creating advertising campaigns, and setting pric-
ing policies.
Human Resources
As a service industry, the hospitality and tourism industry places a heavy em-
phasis on customer service. The success of a hospitality venture depends
greatly on the ability of its employees to provide a consistently high level of
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marketing within the organization 33
customer service. Management is responsible for establishing the overall di-

rection, but it is left to each employee to implement managements strategies
and action plans. The major activities of human resources include recruit-
ment, selection, orientation, training, professional development, benefits man-
agement, compliance with laws and regulations, and other aspects of personnel
relations. Historically, the turnover rate in the hospitality industry has been
much higher than in other industries. Wages tend to be low in relation to re-
sponsibility, and in some cases, there is a lack of upward mobility unless the
employee is willing to relocate. High rates of turnover for all positions ad-
versely affect the entire organization. It is the responsibility of the human re-
sources department to select employees who fit the profile of a dedicated
service employee and then train them and provide support throughout their
careers. In essence, the human resources department must market the firm to
employees, who will then be motivated to market the firm and its products
to customers.
Research and Development

To compete successfully in the years ahead, hospitality firms must invest time
and money in the key result area of research and development. These efforts
typically focus on developing new market segments and new elements of the
product-service mix. The growth of new concepts and new types of product-
service mixes is an example of the outgrowth of research and development ef-
forts. Lodging organizations such as Choice Hotels International, Marriott
International, Starwood Hotels and Resorts, Promus Hotel Corporation, and
others developed all-suite hotel brands and other segmented brands in re-
sponse to research and development efforts that identified a substantial con-
sumer market for a specific set of product-service mix attributes at varying
price points. Each year, they further refine their products and services offered
to the traveling public with the goal of meeting and exceeding customer ex-
pectations. Because it is unlikely that a single hospitality concept will be suc-
cessful indefinitely, management must be future-oriented and must anticipate
necessary changes. Research and development efforts must be attuned to what
consumers will want in the future. Being ready and able to change to meet
future consumer needs is the real challenge of research and development.
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SUMMARY OF CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

This chapter serves a vital function in introducing many concepts that will be
used throughout the book. First, it provides an introduction to marketing, in-
cluding the definition of marketing, the marketing process, and the differ-
ence between marketing and selling. For the purposes of this book, marketing
is defined as the process of determining consumer needs, creating a product-
service mix that satisfies these needs, and promoting the product-
service mix in order to attain the goals and objectives of the firm.
The marketing process starts with research to determine the wants and
needs of consumers so that products and services can be developed to fulfill
those needs. Then, once the product-service mix is determined, the firm de-
velops a marketing program using the other three elements of the marketing
mix: price, place, and promotion. The strategies for each of the four Ps are
combined into a marketing program that is used to position the firms prod-
Chapter review
ucts and services in the marketplace. The marketing management cycle con-
sists of marketing planning, execution, and evaluation. Finally, the firm scans
the environment throughout the marketing management cycle to identify any
potential opportunities or threats that should be addressed. The external en-
vironment can be divided into five subenvironments: economic, social, com-
petitive, political and legal, and technological.
Marketing is different from selling because marketing focuses on the needs
of consumers, whereas selling focuses on the needs of the seller. In addition,
the marketing concept advances the philosophy that the needs of the consumer
should be given priority over any financial goals that the firm may have. The
concept holds that if the consumers needs and wants are totally satisfied, then
financial success will follow.
Finally, it is managements responsibility to understand the role of mar-
keting within the organization. It is important to understand how marketing
interfaces with the other key result areas in the firm: operations, finance, hu-
man resources, and research and development. These key areas are normally
well defined within large organizations. However, it may be difficult to sep-
arate these functions in smaller firms because the same employees are often
responsible for more than one key area. One of the most critical issues is to
balance the often conflicting goals of the operations area and the marketing
area with the overall goals of the firm.
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chapter review 35
Chapter review
Key Terms and Concepts
Barter
Competitive structure
Consumer price index (CPI)
Demographics
Direct marketing
Discretionary income
Disposable income
Distribution
Environmental scanning
External environments
Hospitality marketing mix
Marketing
Marketing concept
Marketing information systems (MIS)
Marketing management cycle
Marketing mix
Marketing planning
Marketing program
Marketing research process
Monopolistic competition
Monopoly
Oligopoly
Perfect competition
Place
Price
Price elasticity of demand
Product
Product-service mix
Promotion mix
Purchasing power
Service
Word of mouth
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:46 AM Page 36

Discussion
1. Why has marketing assumed a position of increased impor-
tance in the management of hospitality
organizations?
2. What is marketing? Why is it important to the success of a
firm?
3. Explain the difference between selling and marketing. How
are the two similar? Think of an example to illustrate
each concept.
4. What is the marketing process? Briefly explain the process
Chapter review
and its elements.

5. What are the key variables in the marketing environment?
In your opinion, which is the most important? Why?
6. Of the variables in the marketing environment, are there
one or two that you believe a marketing manager can
control or predict more easily than the others? If so,
which one(s) and why?
7. What changes in technology will impact the hospitality
and tourism industry in the next five years? What specific
positive and negative impacts from technology do you
foresee?
8. What is the marketing concept? What role should the
marketing concept play in managing a hospitality or
tourism facility?
9. Discuss the components of the traditional and hospitality
marketing mixes. What role does the hospitality manager
play in managing the marketing mix? How is the market-
ing mix used?
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:46 AM Page 37
chapter review 37
Chapter review
10. What factors can affect the marketing mix? How might
these factors affect the marketing mix? How might a man-
ager anticipate the impact that these factors might have?
11. What is the marketing management cycle? Explain and dis-
cuss the major activities with which a manager must be
concerned.
12. How does the marketing function interface with other
areas in an organization?
Notes
1
AMA Board Approves New Marketing Definition, Marketing News, March 1, 1985, p. 1.
2
American Express Open Services, television commercial, 2003.
3
Leo Renaghan, A New Marketing Mix for the Hospitality Industry, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Admin-
istration Quarterly, April 1981, pp. 31, 35; Robert C. Lewis, Richard E. Chambers, and Harsha E. Chacko, Mar-
keting Leadership in Hospitality: Foundations and Practices, 2nd edition (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1994), pp. 39495.
4
William Fisher, president of the National Restaurant Association, presentation at the annual conference of the
Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education, July 1994.
5
Donald R. Lehman and Russell S. Winer, Analysis for Marketing Planning, 2nd edition (Homewood, IL: Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., 1991).
c01.qxd 2/2/05 11:46 AM Page 38
Case Study
Location, Location, Location?
B ruce Adams stood in the parking lot facing an empty restaurant build-
ing. The restaurant had closed 60 days earlier, after being in business
for about eight months. As he visually surveyed the area he noticed
several things of interest. The building itself was fairly new, having been built
ten years ago by a franchisee of a national budget steakhouse chain. In the
current configuration, the building had three separate dining areas, with seat-
ing for 40, 50, and 30 in the respective areas. In addition, there was a lounge
that had 12 seats at the bar and space for an additional 16 seats. The quality
of the building was very good, and the equipment, while not new, was cer-
tainly better than what hed seen in other locations.
Bruce, who owned three other restaurants in another city within the state,
believed that the local area offered potential. A successful 130-room, four-
story Days Inn was located next to the restaurant, and it was positioned at an
interchange of an interstate highway. There was a small residential commu-
nity north of the restaurant that consisted of approximately 100 single-family
homes priced slightly above the average for the city. To the east and south of
the restaurant were over 1,500 apartments, occupied predominantly by stu-
dents attending a local university. The city in which the building was located
had a rapidly growing population of 50,000, and the effective trading area
population for businesses in the city was over 200,000. Several universities and
case study
a community college were within a ten-mile radius of the restaurant. The lo-
cal industrial base consisted of a number of small manufacturing operations.
The largest employers manufactured parts for the automotive industry, pub-
lished books for national and international distribution, manufactured equip-
ment for the agricultural industry, produced beer for one of the nations largest
brewers, and provided trucking and transportation services. In addition, there
was a growing service economy, and the city was home to a regional medical
center and a strong professional community. At the present time, overall eco-
nomic conditions in the area were good. Unemployment was very low, less
than 2 percent, well below both the state and national levels.
As he stood in the parking lot, Bruce discussed the restaurant site with a
business associate and a commercial real estate agent. He asked what he felt
was an obvious question: With what appear to be so many positive attributes
for this location, why hasnt anyone been successful here? In the ten years
since the building was constructed, there had been five different restaurant
concepts, none of them successful. The failed concepts included a budget
steakhouse, a southern barbecue restaurant, two different midpriced casual
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case study 39
case study
dining concepts, and most recently a somewhat upscale fine-dining concept.
All had proven to be unsuccessful. Most closed their doors within 9 to 12
months. The longest-running restaurant remained open for 22 months. The
only individuals making any money from this location were the commercial
real estate agents. As the discussion continued, Bruce wondered aloud, What
type of product-service mix might be successful here? What type of concept
might attract and retain customers? How might we approach the develop-
ment of a successful restaurant?
Case Study Questions and Issues

1. How can the marketing concept be applied to this situation?
2. Should Bruce be considering the potential product-service mix for a
restaurant at this location at this time? Or should he be focused on
other issues? If so, what might they be?
3. What information does Bruce need in order to make a decision about
the possible purchase or lease of this site?
4. How should he go about gathering this information? What should his
action steps be?
5. Based on what Bruce has said, do you perceive him to be a marketer or
a seller? Why?
6. Based on the information you have, assess the marketing environment.
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 40
Courtesy of LEGOLAND California. LEGO, LEGOLAND, the

LEGO and LEGOLAND logos and the brick configuration are trade-
marks of the LEGO Group and are used here with special permission.
2004 The LEGO Group.
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 41
chapter
introduction to hospitality marketing 41
2
Introduction to
Hospitality Services
Marketing
Chapter Objectives
1. Explain reasons for the growth in hospitality services and
the marketing of these services.
2. Describe the differences between a product and a service.
3. List attributes that are used to evaluate services.
4. Define service quality and describe potential gaps in
service quality.
5. Describe philosophies for managing the quality
of services.
6. Use improved customer satisfaction as a marketing tool.
7. Identify reasons for service failures and describe
measures that can be taken to recover from these failures.
8. List service trends that will continue to impact the
hospitality industry.
41
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Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Service Trends Affecting the
Hospitality and Tourism Industry
Introduction to Services Shrinking customer loyalty
Marketing Increasing consumer sophistication
Services defined
Increased emphasis on the needs of
The nature of services: differences
individual customers
between goods and services
Search, experience, and credence qualities Summary of Chapter Objectives
Service Quality Key Terms and Concepts
The service quality process
Managing service quality
Discussion
Customer Satisfaction Case Study: Service Quality at the
Improving customer service and customer
satisfaction
Excelsior Hotel
Service failures, customer complaints, and
recovery strategies
Techniques to assess customer satisfaction
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industry profile 43
industry profile
Joanne Tripp Senior Sales Manager
Omni Hotels Richmond, Virginia

The major duty assigned to me is to book $1.3 million in room revenue for
future years. My market is associations: state, regional, and national. I am
a member of many organizations for networking purposes. Some of them are
VSAE (Virginia Society of Association Executives), and MPI (Meeting Plan-
ners International). I am the most senior member of our sales team, and while
no one reports to me, I am very much a mentor to our less senior sales staff.

I get my greatest satisfaction when I make the sale! I thoroughly enjoy work-
ing with my repeat customers and local people who want to bring their asso-
ciations meeting to Richmond. It is particularly satisfying when the group I
have booked was looking at several cities, and several hotels in each city, and
they selected us! That is when I know that I have really earned my salary!
My greatest frustration comes when I work on a citywide group because
I do not have as much control over the decision. We are rarely able to be the
headquarters because we are not large enough.
3. What are the most challenging aspects that

youre facing?
The greatest challenge I face today is negotiating the attrition clause in our
contract. It is very fair, but still makes planners nervous. The other challenge
I face is maintaining rate integrity when many hotels are lowering rates.

industry?
Fortunately, associations will always have meetings. The major trend I see is
that planners are not trying to up the numbers each year. In fact, many pre-
fer to contract for smaller numbers than the previous years meeting. Group
business is even more important for our hotel now, because we realize we can-
not count on business travel. This is a major change!
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44 chapter 2 introduction to hospitality services marketing

company?
Marketing is important for Omni Hotels, but most advertising is done through
our corporate office in Texas. Our director of sales and marketing tries to get
us involved in a lot of community things to keep the Omni name visible. We
do very little local print advertising. Our sales departments are well staffed,
and we have specific goals as to number and types of callsprospecting, per-
sonal, site inspections, et ceterathat we do each week.

you suggest?
For people who think this is the industry for them, I strongly suggest that
industry profile
they really think about their personality and be sure they can thrive (and sur-
vive) in the atmosphere. It truly is different from anything else. It is critical
that they work for a hotel while they are still in school, preferably in a few
different hotels, and departments, so they can get a feel for it and know where
they would be the happiest and most successful.
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introduction to services marketing 45
INTRODUCTION TO SERVICES
MARKETING
The growth in the services sector of the worldwide economy has been phe-
nomenal in the last 25 years. In the United States, services currently account
for more than 75 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), which is a
popular measure of an economys productivity. Similarly, on an international
scale, services continue to account for an ever-increasing percentage of eco-
nomic activity. Most new jobs are created in the service sector, and the growth
in the hospitality and tourism industry is a major contributor.
Until the mid-1980s, the emphasis within the marketing community was
on products. Now services have surpassed products and have taken on a more
important role in marketing. Services, such as those offered by providers in
the hospitality and tourism industry, have developed marketing strategies and
practices that are unique. It has been established that the strategies, tactics,
and practices that have been used successfully for product marketers do not
always work successfully for those who market services. With the distinct dif-
ferences between products and services in mind, the field of services market-
ing has evolved.
Services Defined
Unlike products, which are tangible, services are usually intangible. A service
is not a physical good; rather, it is the performance of an act or a deed. This
performance often requires consumers to be present during the production or
delivery of the service. Service industries, including hospitality and tourism,
are actually selling consumers an experience.
Services have been defined to include all economic activities whose
output is not a physical product or construction, is generally consumed at
the time it is produced, and provides added value in forms (such as con-
venience, amusement, timeliness, comfort or health) that are essentially in-
tangible concerns of its first purchaser.1
Service employees such as front desk agents, housekeepers, hostesses, wait
staff, car rental agents, flight attendants, and travel agents are responsible for
creating positive experiences for customers. These frontline employees are crit-
ical to the success of service firms and play boundary-spanning roles because
of their direct contact with customers. These roles are important because cus-
tomers perceptions of service firms are formed as a result of their dealings
with the boundary-spanning employees.
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Several reasons underlie the remarkable growth in services. Two leading

services marketing experts, Christopher Lovelock and Lauren Wright, cite
numerous reasons for this growth:2
Changing patterns of government regulation. The reduction in govern-

ment regulation has spurred the growth of services. In recent years, there
has been a very noticeable shift toward the government taking a much
less active role in the regulation of business activities. The most notewor-
thy of these shifts have been in the airline, trucking, telecommunication,
and electrical generation and distribution industries. All of these indus-
tries have seen significant changes, as the barriers to entry have been re-
moved and regulations governing such marketing elements as price have
also been relaxed or entirely removed.
Relaxation of professional association restrictions on marketing. A new
element of competition has been introduced into professions such as law
and medicine as more of the practitioners in these areas advertise their
services. Bans or restrictions on promotion have been largely removed.
Within the hospitality and tourism industry, standards have also changed.
We have seen an increase in advertising focusing on direct comparisons,
Image rights not available
The front desk agent often sets the tone for guest service. Courtesy of Hilton Hospitality, Inc.
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 47
or attacks, on competitors products and services. This type of advertising

strategy creates, or sustains, the perception of superiority in the mind of
the consumer in favor of the brand being advertised.
Privatization of some public and nonprofit services. The term privatiza-

tion was first used in Great Britain when the government adopted the
policy of returning national industries from government to private own-
ership. This transformation has resulted in a greater emphasis on cost con-
tainment and a clearer focus on customers needs. Later, in Central and
Eastern Europe, following the fall of communism, we witnessed a con-
tinuing transformation from planned or government-run economies to
market-driven economies fueled by private companies. Many of these
countries governments have released the control of airlines and travel
agencies to private firms.
Technological innovation. Technology continues to alter the way firms

do business and interact with consumers. In all types of businesses, con-
sumers take a more active role in the service delivery process. For exam-
ple, airlines, in an effort to reduce labor costs and increase speed of ser-
vice to customers, have aggressively promoted self-check-in, both at the
ticket counter and through their Web sites prior to arrival at the airport.
Customers print boarding passes, receipts, and other documents without
intervention by an airline employee. Express checkout for hotel guests has
been in place for many years, but hotel chains continue to experiment with
ways to enhance the service, thereby reducing labor costs and/or increas-
ing the customers perceived value. In other settings, touch-screen com-
puters collect feedback from guests, in much the same manner that com-
ment cards have been used previously. The ease with which a company
can maintain and access a database has permitted the development of so-
phisticated reservation systems and has led to more sophisticated frequent
traveler programs. The use of more sophisticated reservations and prop-
erty management systems has allowed hospitality and tourism firms to
improve the level of service provided to guests. Guest history data serve
as another example of how a hospitality organization can use technology
to gain a competitive advantage. If a hotel guest requests a specific type
of pillow, staff can record this preference within the individuals guest his-
tory file. When this guest checks into another hotel operated by the chain,
the items that were previously requested can be waiting, without the guest
even having to request them.
Growth in service chains and franchise networks. Much of the growth in

service firms, including the hospitality industry, has been the direct result
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 48
of franchising efforts by some of the major companies. Franchising rep-

resents a contractual arrangement whereby one firm (the franchisor) li-
censes a number of other firms (the franchisees) to use the franchisors
name and business practices. Notable lodging organizations such as Choice
Hotels International and Marriott International, as well as food service
firms such as McDonalds, Burger King, Taco Bell, and Wendys, have
all used franchising as a major vehicle for growth. The continued growth
of the hospitality industry by means of franchising has put additional stress
on independent owners and operators. In fact, each year the percentage
of hospitality and tourism operations that are independently operated
decreases.
Internationalization and globalization. Increasing shareholder value of-

ten remains directly associated with increasing company sales and profits,
and globalization is one means of achieving this. As more and more of
the prime locations are developed domestically, companies look interna-
tionally for expansion opportunities. This has been particularly true for
fast-food franchisors: a significant proportion of their expansion during
the last few years has occurred outside of their traditional domestic
markets.
Pressures to improve productivity. In many industries within the service

economy, competition stays very intense. This factor, when combined with
the pressure from investors for higher returns on capital, has resulted in
pressure to increase productivity and reduce costs. In many cases, man-
agers seek to reduce labor costs by running leaner operations or using tech-
nology to replace humans for some tasks An example of this was when
Delta Airlines encouraged passengers to check in via the Internet, thereby
reducing the number of passengers who wanted to check in at the airport.
They offered an incentive of 1,000 extra frequent-flyer miles to any pas-
senger who used this service. While increasing productivity and profits
remains a highly desirable goal, it must not be done at the expense of long-
term customer satisfaction. Without long-term satisfaction, future prof-
itability may exist in jeopardy.
The service quality movement. With the advent of consumerism, the pub-
lics perception is that service quality has declined. In response, successful
firms are using the customers perception of quality to set performance
standards, rather than relying solely on operationally defined standards
for service quality. They often conduct extensive research to determine
the key elements that impact the customers perception of service quality.
When Ritz-Carlton won the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award,
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this was tangible evidence that paying careful attention to customers ser-
vice expectations can have a dramatic impact on the firm.
Expansion of leasing and rental businesses. The expansion of businesses
that lease equipment and personnel to firms has been a contributing fac-
tor in the growth of the service sector. More and more firms are looking
to outsource some elements of their operation, and they often start with
elements that are not part of the firms core product or business. For ex-
ample, most hotels that host meetings and conventions have outsourced
the servicing of the audiovisual needs of groups to a company that spe-
cializes in that type of business. The company in turn leases the audiovi-
sual equipment to groups that are holding meetings in the hotel. The com-
pany is able to provide more up-to-date and specialized equipment to
groups than the hotel might if it provided the service itself. The hotel does
not have to maintain an inventory of equipment, and therefore capital
costs are reduced.
Manufacturers as service providers. Some of the firms that traditionally
manufactured and distributed tangible products have found it profitable
to provide services as well. For example, most automobile manufacturers
have consumer credit agencies to facilitate the leasing and purchasing of
automobiles. In the hospitality industry, PepsiCo decided to enter the
restaurant industry and distribute its products through acquisitions such
as Taco Bell and KFC, but the company later reconsidered this strategy
and sold these brands to Yum! Brands, Inc. In the computer industry,
firms such as IBM and Hewlett-Packard provide services in addition to
hardware and software. In most cases, the profit margins on services are
higher than on products, contributing significantly to the bottom line of
the firm.
Pressures on public and nonprofit organizations to find new income
sources. All organizations are under pressure to increase sales, which of-
ten becomes difficult within the traditional products that a firm sells.
There are many reasons for this, but increasing competition and mature
industries are often contributing factors. In an effort to find new sources
of income, firms often seek new services that will generate new net sales,
without cannibalizing sales of existing products. For example, a limou-
sine company might expand its city tour business in addition to the other
services offered.
Hiring and promotion of innovative managers. In the past, managers in
the service industries often spent their entire careers within a single in-
dustry, or perhaps even with the same firm. This situation no longer re-
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 50
mains the same, especially at the corporate level of management. Firms

often hire individuals from other industries to provide a fresh perspec-
tive and fresh ideas. The results can become dramatic. One such indi-
vidual is Steven Bollenback, president and CEO of Hilton Hotels. Prior
to his very positive impact on Hilton Hotels, he had engineered inno-
vative financing at both Marriott International and Trump Hotels and
Resorts.
The Nature of Services: Differences

Between Goods and Services
Along with the growth in services, an appreciation for the ways in which ser-
vices are different from products has developed. The traditional ways of mar-
keting tangible products are not equally effective in services marketing. In
many industries, marketing involves tangible manufactured products, such as
automobiles, washing machines, and clothing, whereas service industries fo-
cus on intangible products such as travel and foodservice. However, before
we can explore how services get successfully marketed, we need to examine
the ways services differ from products. Lovelock and Wright have identified
nine key differences.3
No ownership by customers. A customer does not take ownership when

purchasing a service. There is no transfer of assets.
Service products as intangible performers. The value of owning a high-
performance car or the latest computer lies in the physical characteristics
of the product and to some extent the brand image it conveys. The value
of purchasing services lies in the nature of the performance. For example,
if you decide to celebrate a birthday or anniversary by dining at an ex-
pensive restaurant, the value lies in the way in which the service actors
perform. When servers come to the table and present all the entrees si-
multaneously, the choreographed presentation appears in the same man-
ner as a choreographed play or performance.
Greater involvement of customers in the production process. Because con-
sumers tend to be present when receiving service within a hospitality op-
eration, they remain involved in the service production. In many instances,
they are directly involved through the element of self-service. Examples
of this can be seen in fast-food restaurants as well as in hotels that pro-
vide automated check-in and checkout by means of either a machine or
a video connection through the television. Airlines have greatly expanded
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 51
Intangible products, such as a cruise, are the basis of services marketing. Courtesy of Car-
nival Cruise Lines.
self-service within their operations as a means of reducing labor costs. In

any case, the customers level of satisfaction depends on the nature of the
interaction with the service provider, the nature of the physical facilities
in which the service gets provided, and the nature of the interaction with
other guests present in the facility at the time the service is provided.
People as part of the product. People or firms that purchase services come
in contact with other consumers as well as the service employees. For ex-
ample, a hotel guest waits in line at the front desk or the concierge desk
with other guests. In addition, the guests share facilities such as the pool,
the restaurant, and the fitness center. Therefore, service firms must also
manage consumer interactions to the best of their abilities to ensure cus-
tomer satisfaction. For example, a hotels sales office would not want to
book group business with a nondrinking religious group at the same time
as a reunion of military veterans. The two groups are significantly dif-
ferent in behavior, and the expectation is that they would not mix well
within the facilities at the same time. Similarly, restaurants separate smok-
ers and nonsmokers, and they should try to separate other patrons that
show some potential for conflict.
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 52
Greater variability in operational inputs and outputs. In a manufactur-

ing setting, the operational production can be controlled very carefully.
For example, staff carefully manage inventory and precisely calculate
production times. Services, however, are delivered in real time, with
many variables not being fully under the control of managers. For ex-
ample, if a guest has been promised an early check-in but all of the guests
from the preceding night are late in checking out, it becomes more dif-
ficult for the hotel to honor the arriving guests request. A service set-
ting remains a more difficult site in which to control quality and offer
a consistent service experience. Service firms try to minimize the amount
of variability between service encounters, but much of the final product
stays situational. There are many uncontrollable aspects of the delivery
process, such as weather, the number of consumers present, the attitudes
of the consumers, and the attitudes of the employees. Therefore, it be-
comes impossible to consistently control the quality for services in the
same manner as the quality of manufactured products.
Harder for consumers to evaluate. Consumers can receive considerable in-

formation regarding the purchase of products; however, they often do not
obtain it for services. Prior to buying a product, a consumer can research
the product attributes and performance and use this information when
making a purchase decision, especially an important one.
No inventories for services. Due to the intangible nature of services, they

cannot be inventoried for future use. Therefore, a lost sale can never be
recaptured. When a seat remains empty on a flight, a hotel room stays va-
cant, or a table stays unoccupied in a restaurant, the potential revenue for
these services at that point in time becomes lost forever. In other words,
services are perishable, much like produce in a supermarket or items in a
bakery. It remains critical for hospitality and tourism firms to manage
supply and demand in an attempt to minimize unused capacity. For ex-
ample, restaurants offer early-bird specials and airlines offer deeply dis-
counted fares in an attempt to shift demand from peak periods to non-
peak periods, thereby increasing revenue and profits.
Importance of time. Hospitality services are generally produced and con-

sumed simultaneously, unlike tangible products, which are manufactured,
inventoried, and then sold at a later date. Customers must be present to
receive the service. There are real limits to the amount of time that cus-
tomers are willing to wait to receive service. Service firms study the phe-
nomenon of service queues, or the maximum amount of time a customer
will wait for a service before it has a significant (negative) impact on his
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 53
or her perception of service quality. Airline companies offer curbside

check-in for the most time-conscious passengers, and restaurants have de-
vised practices such as providing guests with pagers and expanding the
bar area in order to reduce the negative effect that results from waiting
for service.
Different distribution channels. The distribution channel for services is usu-
ally more direct than the traditional channel (i.e., manufacturer-wholesaler-
retailer-consumer) used by many product firms. The simultaneous produc-
tion and consumption normally associated with service delivery limits the
use of intermediaries. The service firm usually comprises both the manu-
facturer and the retailer, with no need for a wholesaler to inventory its prod-
ucts. Consumers are present to consume the meals prepared in a restaurant,
to take advantage of the amenities in a hotel, and to travel between cities by
plane.
Search, Experience, and

Credence Qualities
Consumer behavior is covered in greater depth in Chapter 3, but a brief in-
troduction to the subject as it relates to services becomes useful at this point.
When consumers make purchase decisions, they move through a series of steps
that explain the thought process leading up to and following the purchase of
a product or service. Prior to making a purchase decision, consumers look for
information about the product or service. Search qualities are attributes that
the consumer can investigate prior to making a purchase. When purchasing
hospitality and tourism services, consumers rely heavily on word of mouth
and on promotional elements such as advertising and publicity. Since services
are intangible, search qualities can be difficult to evaluate. However, advances
in technology and the increase in consumer advocacy groups have resulted in
more information being available to consumers prior to purchase.
The second set of qualities consumers use to evaluate services are experi-
ence qualities. These refer to the attributes that can be evaluated only after the
purchase and consumption of a service. The intangible nature of services forces
consumers to rely heavily on experience qualities in the final evaluation of ser-
vices. Therefore, a high risk remains associated with the purchase of services.
For example, consumers who want to purchase an automobile will test-drive
the car and review and consult the consumer performance data that are avail-
able on that model. Conversely, consumers who rent cars cannot evaluate their
purchases until after they have committed their payment. Few consumers will
take the time or make the effort to test-drive potential rental cars prior to mak-
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 54
ing a decision at the time of rental. Similarly, consumers are taking a risk when
they choose a restaurant because they cannot sample meals before they are
purchased.
Finally, credence qualities are those attributes that are difficult to evalu-
ate even after the service is consumed. Even though you arrive safely at your
destination after a flight, you cannot evaluate the pilots work in any real
depth. In many cases, you know a service was not performed correctly only
when an obvious mistake exists. For example, bacteria often appear on food
served in restaurants, but the public becomes aware of it only when major
ramifications such as food poisoning or deaths get publicized.
Purchase decisions related to services are more difficult to make because
of the lack of search qualities and the difficulty in evaluating credence qual-
ities. Consumers tend to rely on their own past experiences and those of oth-
ers when making purchase decisions. Therefore, service firms must obtain as
much feedback from consumers as possible. If consumers do not return, the
firm may not know why, and the consumers will probably tell others about
their experience. Service firms should know if consumers are not satisfied so
that appropriate actions can be taken to improve the quality of service and in-
crease repeat business.
SERVICE QUALITY
Firms use two basic strategies to compete: become a low-cost provider of a
particular service and focus on price competition, or focus on quality and try
to differentiate your service from those offered by your competitors. Firms
that can project high-quality images can charge higher prices. Pricing strate-
gies are discussed in detail in Chapter 15, but the concept of quality will be
introduced in this chapter.
Service quality is a perception resulting from attitudes formed by cus-
tomers long-term, overall evaluations of performance.4 Maintaining high-
quality service in the hospitality and tourism industry remains difficult be-
cause of the variability in service delivery mentioned earlier in this chapter.
Service quality is affected by all of the individuals who have contact with cus-
tomers. If one employee provides below-standard service or fails to satisfy the
customer, a negative experience could result. Therefore, it is important to un-
derstand the entire process of service delivery that leads to consumer percep-
tions of quality.
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 55
service quality 55
Satisfied customers are repeat customers, one of the goals of managing service quality.
Courtesy of Mobile Bay CVB.
The Service Quality Process

The service quality process is the product of the expectations and perceptions
of a firms management, its employees, and the customers it serves (see Fig-
ure 2.1).5 Whenever there are differences in expectations or perceptions be-
tween the people involved in the delivery and the consumption of services, a
potential for a gap in service quality exists. Firms should diagnose any service
quality gaps because there is a direct relationship between service quality and
customer satisfaction. Simply stated, when customers are satisfied, they are
much more likely to purchase from the service provider again. Over time, if
they remain satisfied, they become loyal customers. The service gap is the fi-
nal gap that exists when there is a difference between customers expectations
of a service and their perceptions of the actual service once it is consumed.
When this difference occurs, it is the result of one or more gaps that occur
earlier in the service quality process.
The first potential gap is referred to as the knowledge gap, which occurs
when managements perception of what consumers expect is different from
the consumers actual expectations. This gap may lead to other gaps in the
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 56
Expected service
GAP5
Perceived service
External
GAP4
GAP1 Service delivery communications
to consumers
GAP3
Translation of
perceptions into
quality specifications
GAP2
Management
perceptions of
consumer expectations
figure 2.1 Service quality process. Reprinted with permission of the Journal of
Marketing, published by the American Marketing Association.
service quality process, and it is usually the result of a failure in the firms re-
search program or organizational structure. Firms need to obtain feedback
from customers and employees that can be used to design services that will
appeal to customers. If the current service offering is not satisfying customers,
then the firm should know from its customer surveys or because its employ-
ees are willing, and able, to provide valuable information that they obtain
from customers, either voluntarily or involuntarily.
The second potential gap is referred to as the standards gap, which refers
to the discrepancy that can occur between managements perception of what
customers expect and how the service delivery process is designed to meet
those expectations. Management establishes the specifications to provide the
desired service at the desired level of quality. Therefore, even if management
remains accurate in its perception of customer expectations, a gap could still
exist in service because the delivery process does not accomplish the goals of
the firm. For example, management may have correctly determined the
amount of time that customers are willing to wait to check in to a hotel, but
they may not schedule enough front desk clerks to meet the customers ex-
pectations. This could result from a lack of commitment on the part of man-
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 57
service quality 57
agement or the result of management trying to reduce the firms operating

costs. One of the techniques used by management is to develop a service blue-
printa flow chart that details the delivery process, including the points of
contact with customers. This will help to uncover any shortcomings in the de-
livery process that may lead to a gap in service quality. Management should
document each step in the process to identify areas for improvement.
The third potential gap is referred to as the delivery gap, which occurs when
there is a difference between the service delivery specifications and the actual ser-
vice delivery. Management may have correctly assessed customer expectations
and developed specifications that will meet these expectations, but employees may
not deliver the service properly. For example, a restaurant may specify that wait
staff should approach customers within two minutes of seating. However, the
wait staff may stand around discussing their plans for later in the evening and
ignoring the specifications. Firms must find ways to create an atmosphere for
employees that ensures their willingness to perform the job tasks as desired by
management. Employee selection and training are critical in this process, as are
the rewards and recognition provided for good performance.
The fourth potential gap is referred to as the communications gap, which
occurs when there is a difference between the service delivered and the ser-
Reservation
Customer
Room
request Occupy Receive Consume Check
Arrival Check in service
via 800 room order food out
order
number
Employee
On-stage
Doorman
Registration Deliver Process
and
processing food checkout
Bellman
Backstage
Employee
Reservation Process
processes order
Processes
Invisible
PMS PMS PMS

Prepare
Computer Computer Computer
food
system system system
figure 2.2 Service blueprinting.

c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 58
vice promised through the firms external communications with customers.

Many firms have a tendency to promise more than they can deliver in an at-
tempt to persuade customers. For instance, advertisements for hospitality and
tourism firms lead customers to believe that in the event of a problem or
mishap the firms will do whatever they can to satisfy customers. Making
promises to consumers that cannot be delivered is a big mistake that service
providers often make. It results in service performance levels that are below
consumer expectations, leading to dissatisfaction. Each individual consumer
makes purchase decisions and has established, based on past experiences, a set
of expectations for the performance of a product or service.
Anyone who travels on a regular basis can provide stories related to ex-
periences with airlines, hotels, and restaurants. Ironically, firms that advertise
100 percent satisfaction guarantees are banking on the fact that most customers
will not complain or force the issue. In other cases, firms simply neglect to in-
form customers about procedures or policies that would affect their expecta-
tions. For example, a good waitress will make sure that customers know that
a dish is spicy or that a certain entre will take longer to properly prepare, so
that customers can make informed decisions and are less likely to become dis-
satisfied, because the actual performance will more closely match consumer
expectations.
If any of the first four gaps occur, then the service gap will occur because
the actual service will not meet the customers expectations. Comment cards
and basic surveys will often uncover a service gap, but they may lack the de-
tail needed to evaluate the other potential gaps. Therefore, firms should have
a mechanism in place to obtain feedback from customers and employees that
can be used to examine the entire service quality process. If services do not
meet customers expectations of quality, then the customers become dissatis-
fied and will likely not return. Also, they will convey these negative experi-
ences to their friends and colleagues.
Managing Service Quality

To provide high-quality service, all members of the staff, from the highest
to the lowest level on the organizational chart, must view the guest as the
highest priority. Delivering high-quality service is based on an attitude of
serving customers. For example, the mission statement of The Greenbrier, a
well-known resort, states, We are ladies and gentlemen serving ladies and
gentlemen.6
Developing an attitude that places the customer as the highest priority for
the business remains critical. Without satisfied customers and repeat patron-
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service quality 59
age, the business will not succeed in the long term. To develop a service-
quality orientation, customers should be perceived in the following way:
Each customer is the most important person in any business.

Customers are not dependent on us, but we are dependent on them.
Customers do not interrupt our work. They are the purpose for it.
Customers do us a favor when they call. We are not doing them favors
by providing them services.
Customers are part of our business, not outsiders.
Customers are human beings like us, with the same feelings and
emotions.
Customers bring us their wants, and it is our job to fulfill them.
Customers deserve the most courteous and attentive service we can
provide.
Customers are the lifeblood of every business.
Firms that use a customer orientation become more successful at provid-

ing products and services that meet customers needs and expectations. In con-
trast, firms that assume they know what is best for the customer are more
likely to fail. This is further illustrated by those firms that successfully engage
in relationship and internal marketing.
RELATIONSHIP MARKETING. All progressive companies devote mar-

keting resources to attract and retain new customers. Relationship marketing
is based on the proposition that it is less expensive to keep the customers you
already have than to acquire new customers. It is shortsighted to think that
merely attracting new customers will keep the business headed in a success-
ful direction. Rather, an equal amount of attention and resources should be
devoted to keeping the customer base that already exists. In times of slow mar-
ket growth and increasing competition, it will be less expensive to maintain
an existing customer base than to seek new customers.
Relationship marketing involves attracting, developing, and retaining cus-
tomer relationships.7 This long-term view toward the customer must be seen
as being equal in importance to attracting new customers. Many firms make
the mistake of focusing on new customers at the expense of existing customers,
and the level of service quality diminishes. For example, hotel sales managers
are expected to develop new accounts with corporate and association groups.
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Sometimes they spend so much time trying to get these new accounts that
they neglect some of their existing accounts. This lack of attention may cost
the hotel the groups future business because they took the customer for
granted. Service firms should build relationships and maintain them.
A relationship marketing approach is highly desirable upon meeting the
following conditions:
A customer has an ongoing or periodic desire for the service.

The service customer controls the selection of the service organization.
Alternative service providers make it easy for customers to switch.
All three of these conditions are present in the hospitality and tourism in-
dustry. Many firms offer special prices and additional services to highly de-
sirable customers in an attempt to build long-term relationships. These prac-
tices are most commonly used with business accounts and frequent users. For
example, hotels provide contract rates for corporations that supply a high vol-
ume of annual business. Airlines receive one of the lowest rates possible in
hotels near airports because they have flight crews who need guest rooms on
a daily basis. Also, airlines build relationships with frequent flyers by pro-
viding them with additional services such as preboarding, free upgrades, and
airport clubs where they can rest or conduct business away from crowded
lounges at departure gates.
INTERNAL MARKETING. In addition to focusing efforts on consumers,
firms can achieve higher levels of service quality by marketing to their em-
ployees. Internal marketing encompasses all activities used by a firm in an ef-
fort to improve the marketing effectiveness of its employees. Efforts should
be made to communicate with all employees, especially those in boundary-
spanning roles who come in contact with customers. The ability to deliver
consistent, high-quality service depends on the organizations ability to re-
cruit, train, retain, and motivate dedicated service personnel.
First, service firms need to select and hire employees who are willing and
able to provide high-quality service. There are many people in the job mar-
ket, and firms need to create attractive positions that appeal to highly moti-
vated individuals. A range of potential service exists that an employee can
provide from the minimum necessary to retain the position and not be pe-
nalized to the maximum possible service. This variability in the level of pos-
sible service is referred to as discretionary effort. For example, if an airline
passenger leaves a carry-on item on a flight, the airlines personnel have some
discretion as to the level of service they will provide. They can take their
time and forward the item to the travelers next destination, or they can try
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customer satisfaction 61
to deliver it to the traveler before he or she boards the next plane or leaves
the airport.
Second, service firms should provide employees with adequate training so
they possess the skills that are required in performing their job tasks. In ad-
dition, the firm should communicate with employees so they are aware of
changes within the organization as well as upcoming events. If service per-
sonnel are well trained and they understand what management expects, the
environment is right for success. Firms can use both internal communications,
such as newsletters and e-mail, and external communications, such as adver-
tising and public relations, to convey their expectations to employees. An
advertisement can be used to create and manage consumer perceptions and
expectations, but at the same time, the ad can be used to educate employees
as well. One of the major airlines aired a commercial on television that showed
an athletic employee running through the airport to catch a traveler who left
his briefcase at the check-in counter. This commercial served two purposes:
(1) it let customers know that the airline provided high-quality service, and
(2) it gave employees an idea of the firms service expectations.
Finally, firms need to provide employees with rewards and recognition
when they perform at a high level of discretionary effort. This motivates ser-
vice providers to continue performing at high levels and to remain loyal to
the firm. Retaining good employees is important in providing high-quality
service, and it reduces the costs associated with turnover. It takes a great deal
of time and effort to hire and train good employees. Firms can use extrinsic
rewards such as salary increases and bonuses or intrinsic rewards such as
recognition and job satisfaction to motivate employees. Many firms recognize
employees of the month by honoring them with plaques displayed where
customers can see them or allowing them to use special parking spaces close
to the building.
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
Most firms understand the importance of customer satisfaction and will pro-
vide basic training to their employees. The more sophisticated firms actually
have instruments that they use to measure customer satisfaction and establish
benchmarks for future comparisons. Benchmarking is a process whereby a
firm establishes a level of performance by comparing current performance
against past performance, or by comparing current performance against the
performance of other companies or an entire industry. Data are used to cre-
ate benchmarks, which then become the standard against which current and
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 62
future performance is evaluated. Unfortunately, many firms still only pay

lip service to customer satisfaction and the complaints received from cus-
tomers. The following information was collected through the efforts of the
Technical Assistance Research Program in the 1980s, but it remains accurate
today:8
The average business does not hear from 96 percent of its unhappy
customers.
For every complaint received, 26 other customers have the same problem.
The average person with a problem tells 9 or 10 people, and 13 percent
will tell more than 20.
Customers who have their complaints resolved to their satisfaction tell an
average of 5 people about the experience.
Complainers are more likely to do business with you again than non-
complainers who have a problem: 5470 percent if resolved, and 95 per-
cent if resolved quickly.
These statistics support the contention that a dissatisfied customer tells

people about a bad experience more often than a satisfied customer tells peo-
ple about a good experience. However, firms should take note that it is ben-
eficial to have customers voice their complaints so that they can be resolved
and increase the likelihood that the customers will return.
Improving Customer Service and

Customer Satisfaction
Improving customer service should be a top priority of all managers work-
ing in the hospitality and tourism industry. Customer satisfaction occurs
when a firms service, as perceived by customers, meets or exceeds expecta-
tions. Firms that can consistently meet or exceed customer expectations will
develop good reputations and often good quality images. When we travel,
we encounter service providers in hotels and restaurants who provide ex-
ceptional service. This type and consistency of service does not happen by ac-
cident; it begins with a commitment by management to make it that way.
Conversely, when the opposite occurs, the finger should be pointed at man-
agement as well.
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Define your own standards of

quality service with measurable
indicators
Assess your current situation
Develop effective service

improvement strategies
Initiate your solutions carefully
Provide feedback, recognition,

and rewards
figure 2.3 Martins five-step process for improving customer service.
Quality Service: The Restaurant Managers Bible by William Martin remains

an excellent source for methods to improve service.9 Martin recommends the
five-step process for improving customer service that is shown in Figure 2.3.
1. Define your standards of quality service with measurable indicators. Be-

fore you can evaluate the level of service provided by employees within
your organization, you must establish the standards by which they will be
judged. These standards, or benchmarks, should be observable and mea-
surable. For example, it might be reasonable to expect front desk agents
to answer the telephone within four rings or room service to deliver meals
within 30 minutes of when the order was received. Once these standards
are developed, they must be communicated to all personnel. It remains
crucial that standards be clearly defined before any plans are developed
to improve the level of service.
Martin suggests two major dimensions to define quality service: the
procedural dimension and the convivial dimension. The procedural di-
mension includes incremental flow of service, timeliness, accommodating
consumer needs, anticipating consumer needs before they occur or are re-
quested by the consumer, communicating in a clear and concise manner,
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obtaining consumer feedback, and coordinating through proper supervi-

sion. The convivial dimension includes displaying a positive attitude and
body language, using the guests name as a means of delivering personal
attention, attending to the guest on a personal basis, providing guidance
to guests who are indecisive, and solving problems that arise.
2. Assess your current situation. As in any continuous improvement pro-
gram, before you move forward, you must determine your current position.
This can be done by objectively assessing the level of service currently pro-
vided within the organization; this involves conducting an audit of the
services provided by service personnel within the organization. As a re-
sult of the audit, the strengths and weaknesses of the firm can be deter-
mined; this will provide a means of building on the aspects of service that
are positive and improving the areas that are deficient. Audits can be con-
ducted using mystery shoppers, or corporations may use staff members to
audit the performance of units within the company.
3. Develop effective service improvement strategies. This must be accom-
plished through well-planned and thorough training of service providers.
Attention must be paid to identifying objectives for the training and pro-
viding specific instructions and clear descriptions of the expected out-
come(s) of the training.
4. Initiate your solutions carefully. As with any plan, implementation is the
most critical stage. You should proceed with caution, taking steps incre-
mentally rather than all at once. You should build on small successes,
rather than trying to accomplish too much too soon.
5. Provide feedback, recognition, and rewards. Positive feedback must be
provided if the change in behavior continues. A reward structure must be
provided that will maintain the level of interest and enthusiasm among
the service providers throughout their careers. This represents a major
challenge for management, but one that is well worth the effort.
Finally, management must continually evaluate the performance of its

employees and make the appropriate changes. Over time, customers expec-
tations of service firms change, and competitive firms may increase the level
of service that is considered the standard in an industry. Therefore, firms must
constantly reassess their strategies and redefine their service standards. Ser-
vice performance and customer satisfaction should be measured and evalu-
ated using benchmarks established during previous periods. Also, direct
comparisons with the performance of firms considered industry leaders are
an excellent way to establish goals for future improvement.
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Service Failures, Customer Complaints,

and Recovery Strategies
Service failures occur at critical incidents, or moments of truth, in the ser-
vice encounter, when customers interact with a firms employees. It is im-
portant to provide service personnel with the authority and the recovery tools
necessary to correct service failures as they occur. This section will discuss the
types of service failures, common consumer complaints, and recovery strate-
gies that can be used to repair the service failures.
SERVICE FAILURES. The timeliness and form of response by service

providers to service failures will have a direct impact on customer satisfaction
and quality perceptions. Service failures are assigned to one of three major
categories: (1) responses to service delivery system failures, (2) responses to
customer needs and requests, and (3) unprompted and unsolicited employee
actions.
The first category, system failures, refers to failures in the core service
offering of the firm. These failures are the result of normally available ser-
vices being unavailable, unreasonably slow service, or some other core ser-
vice failure that will differ by industry. For example, a hotels pool may have
a leak and be closed, a customer may have to wait a long time for the shut-
tle to an airport car rental agency, or an airline might mishandle a passen-
gers luggage.
The second category, customer needs failures, are based on employee re-
sponses to customer needs or special requests. These failures come in the form
of special needs, customer preferences, customer errors, and disruptive others
(i.e., disputes between customers). For example, a hotel guest may want to
have a pet in the room, a customer may want to be switched to an aisle seat
on an airplane, a customer at an event may lose his ticket, or a customer in a
restaurant may be smoking in a nonsmoking section.
The third category, unsolicited employee actions, refers to the actions,
both good and bad, of employees that are not expected by customers. These
actions can be related to the level of attention an employee gives to cus-
tomers, to unusual actions that can be performed by employees, to an ac-
tions reinforcement of a customers cultural norms, or to an employees
actions under adverse conditions. For example, a hostess in a restaurant
could anticipate the needs of a family with a small child, a hotel front desk
clerk could give a free upgrade to a guest who waited in line too long, a
flight attendant could ignore passengers with children, or a cruise ship em-
ployee could help to evacuate passengers during a crisis.
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CUSTOMER COMPLAINT BEHAVIOR. As mentioned earlier in this

chapter, certain undesired outcomes are associated with dissatisfied cus-
tomers. Two of the most common are to engage in negative word of mouth
and to change service providers. A third, less common reaction is to en-
gage in some form of retaliation. This retaliation can range from a nega-
tive word-of-mouth campaign to causing physical damage or launching a
major protest. The way a firm approaches and handles complaints will de-
termine its long-term performance. Some firms show a dislike for cus-
tomers who complain, while other firms create an atmosphere that en-
courages customers to voice their concerns. For example, Bertuccis Brick
Oven Pizzerias, headquartered in Massachusetts, offers customers a toll-
free number that they can call to register a complaint. One of the primary
reasons for doing this is to provide dissatisfied customers with an outlet to
have their concerns heard and to take immediate steps to resolve the com-
plaint. By doing so, the firm hopes to reduce negative word of mouth and
to retain customers.
Most customers complain in an attempt to reverse an undesirable state.
Other more complicated reasons for complaining are to release pressure, to
regain some form of control over a situation, or to get the sympathy of oth-
ers. Whatever the reason, the outcome is that customers are not completely
satisfied, and it is in the firms best interest to know when this occurs. There
are many other dissatisfied customers who do not complain because they dont
know what to do or they dont think it will do any good.
RECOVERY STRATEGIES. When customers complain, firms are presented
with the opportunity to recover from service failures. Recovery strategies, and
actions occur when a firms reaction to a service failure results in customer
satisfaction and goodwill. In fact, customers who are involved in successful
service recoveries often demonstrate higher levels of satisfaction than cus-
tomers who do not report service failures or complain. The following list de-
scribes popular service recovery strategies:
Cost/benefit analysis. Service firms should compare the costs of losing cus-
tomers and obtaining new customers with the benefits of keeping existing
customers. Most firms place a high value on retaining customers. However,
some guests take advantage of satisfaction guarantees and complain on every
occasion. Many hotel chains, such as Doubletree, maintain a database on com-
plaints and will flag chronic complainers.
Actively encourage complaints. It is better to know when customers are
not satisfied so that action can be taken to rectify the situation. It is im-
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portant to note that while unhappy customers may not complain to

service firms, they will often complain to their family and friends. Hos-
pitality and tourism firms use comment cards and toll-free numbers to
encourage customers to provide feedback. Also, service personnel are
trained to ask customers whether everything was satisfactory.
Anticipate the need for recovery. Service firms should blueprint the
service delivery process and determine the moments of truth, or critical
incidents, where customers interact with employees. The process can be
designed to avoid failures, but recovery plans should be established for use
in the event that a failure occurs.
Respond quickly. The timelier the response in the event of a service failure,
the more likely that recovery efforts will be successful. Once a customer leaves
a service establishment, the likelihood of a successful recovery falls dramat-
ically. Based on this principle, firms such as Marriott International provide
service hotlines at each hotel to help resolve problems quickly. Managers and
associates know that the speed with which they respond is often as critical as
what the final resolution becomes.
Train employees. Employees should be informed of the critical incidents
and provided with potential strategies for recovery. For example, some
hotel training programs use videotaped scenarios of service failures to
show employees potential problems and the appropriate solutions.
Empower the front line. In many cases, a successful recovery will hinge
on a frontline employees ability to take timely action and make a deci-
sion. Firms should empower employees to handle service failures at the
time they occur, within certain limits. For example, Ritz-Carlton allows
its employees to spend up to $1,000 to take care of dissatisfied customers.
One of the classic examples of a service failure involved Northwest Air-

lines during a major winter storm at the Detroit airport. Unfortunately, due
to the heavy snow, many outbound flights were canceled, and no gates were
available for unloading passengers from the inbound flights. This traffic jam
left many passengers stranded as the airplanes sat on the taxiways for as long
as eight hours. Northwests inability to provide the passengers with informa-
tion or a solution resulted in hundreds of unhappy passengers and a class
action lawsuit. Having delayed flights and a shortage of gates is not a new
phenomenon at airports in climates such as Detroits, and Northwest Airlines
should have had a viable service recovery program in place that could have
lessened the severity of the problem.
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Techniques to Assess
Customer Satisfaction
One of the critical components of a firms commitment to customer satisfac-
tion is feedback that provides an assessment of the firms performance. Then
benchmarks can be established and future progress can be evaluated. Also,
these measures can be used to reward service personnel in a way that stays
consistent with a firms customer satisfaction goals. The following section
describes the most common techniques used by firms to assess customer
satisfaction.
SPOKEN COMMENTS AND COMPLAINTS. Listening to consumer
comments and complaints remains the most straightforward way to evaluate
customer satisfaction. Service firms should set up formal systems that en-
courage customer and employee feedback regarding service experiences.
Management should not overlook the value of the information obtained by
boundary-spanning personnel through their normal contact with customers.
One of the most recent approaches is providing toll-free numbers so that cus-
tomers can call to voice complaints.
SURVEYS AND COMMENT CARDS. Many hospitality and tourism firms
leave comment cards in guest rooms, on tables in restaurants, and at other
points of contact so that they can obtain feedback. One of the problems asso-
ciated with this method is the lack of representation. The response rate is
small, and it tends to be biased toward those who are most upset and chronic
complainers. Larger operations will conduct surveys through the corporate
offices by either telephone or mail. Surveys will normally be more represen-
tative than comment cards and provide more detailed information. These
types of surveys also provide for a more representative sample of customers.
NUMBER OF REPEAT CUSTOMERS. Service firms can gauge customer
satisfaction by keeping track of repeat business. Higher levels of satisfaction
would be associated with higher percentages of repeat customers. This mod-
els an unobtrusive method of assessing customer satisfaction, but it does not
provide much detail.
TRENDS IN SALES AND MARKET SHARE. Another way to evaluate
customer satisfaction without direct contact with customers is to examine the
firms internal sales records. Comparisons can be made on a month-to-month
basis and with the same period of the previous year. Higher levels of satis-
faction would be associated with increases in sales. However, firms should be
careful with this method because there are many possible explanations for in-
creases in sales. For example, the firm may have launched a new advertising
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service trends affecting the hospitality and tourism industry 69
campaign, a competitor may be renovating or going out of business, or the

firm may have decreased its prices. In addition to examining sales records,
firms should also look at market share. This measure considers sales in rela-
tion to the competition, which is a more accurate assessment of improved mar-
ket performance. However, there could also be other explanations for changes
in market share besides customer satisfaction.
SHOPPING REPORTS. Another approach used by hospitality and tourism
firms involves having someone consume a service just like any other customer.
The secret shopper can be an employee of the firm, an outside person cho-
sen by the firm, or an employee of an outside firm that specializes in this ser-
vice assessment activity. These shoppers are normally equipped with detailed
evaluation forms based on company guidelines that can be used to record the
desired information. It is often recommended that someone outside the firm
be used in an attempt to maintain some level of objectivity. It is important to
have a particular operation evaluated by more than one shopper on several
occasions throughout the desired period. Doing so will result in a more rep-
resentative sample of service experiences.
SERVICE TRENDS AFFECTING

THE HOSPITALITY AND
TOURISM INDUSTRY
Identifying trends within any business is one of the keys to success. Being in
a position to identify what is occurring and what is likely to occur in the fu-
ture remains very important. As discussed in Chapter 1, when studying trends
in a broad sense, one should examine five major areas: the competitive envi-
ronment, the economic environment, the political and legal environment, the
social environment, and the technological environment.
Several issues and trends are critical to understanding hospitality and
tourism marketing. They help put into proper perspective what occurs within
the competitive marketplace. Three trends that are having an impact on the
hospitality industry and will continue to do so are shrinking customer loyalty,
increasing customer sophistication, and increasing emphasis on the needs of
individual customers.
Shrinking Customer Loyalty

Advertising and promotion for the hospitality and tourism industrys
product-service mix have traditionally focused on the product, the services
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provided, and the physical plant or atmosphere in which the customer en-
joys the product-service mix. Today, many hospitality and tourism firms
focus their promotions on price; that is, heavy price competition exists along
with a good deal of discounting. Unfortunately, price discounting exists as
a short-term strategy that seldom builds brand loyalty. Consumers often
shop around for the best deal and are loyal only to organizations that give
them a consistently superior one. Recognizing this, companies have sought
ways to increase brand loyalty, especially among heavy users of the product-
service mix. The best examples of this approach are the frequent flyer
programs promoted by the airlines and the frequent traveler programs pro-
moted by the lodging companies. These loyalty programs are commonplace
in the lodging industry; all of the major chains use loyalty programs to en-
courage and reward frequent guests. The strategy behind loyalty programs
is to hook the customer with points which can be redeemed for products
or services. The more frequently the customer stays at a hotel operated by
the company, the more points are earned. The basic concepts common to
all of these programs are:
Identify individuals who frequently purchase your product-service mix.

Recognize the contribution those individuals make to the success of your
company.
Reward those individuals with awards and incentives that will increase
their loyalty to your company and its brands.
Tie-ins with other companies providing travel-related services are also

frequently used. For example, airlines, hotels, and car rental companies fre-
quently offer bonus points within their programs if the traveler uses the
services offered by one of the companies participating in the tie-in. Both
the airlines and the hotel companies are constantly making minor alter-
ations to their programs.
Increasing Consumer Sophistication

The budget segment of the lodging industry has undergone significant growth
in the last several years. This growth has been fueled by the consumer de-
mand for affordable accommodations that provide good value. In fact, con-
sumers focus more on value and less on quality or price alone. Consumers
have become more sophisticated and understand the concept of value at any
price level. Companies have responded with brands that offer good quality at
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service trends affecting the hospitality and tourism industry 71
Affordable price and familiar brands are important in a global market. Visitors to Jaipur,
India, can stay at this Days Hotel. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
an affordable price (e.g., Hampton Inn, Comfort Inn, Holiday Inn Express,
and Fairfield Inn). Each of these brands features nicely appointed guest rooms,
limited or no public meeting space, limited or no food service provided on the
hotel site, and a complimentary continental breakfast for guests. These lim-
ited-service brands incur lower development and operating expenses and
thereby can provide guests with a lower price and good value, something that
all consumers are seeking.
Hotels in the upscale segment are also trying to increase the consumers
perception of value. They continually provide a broad assortment of ameni-
ties, such as health clubs on the property, business centers, rooms that provide
more work space for business travelers, and personalized concierge service.
These properties are striving to become one-stop destinations, providing a
complete product-service mix that includes many food and beverage outlets,
in-house office services, a wide variety of meeting room configurations, and
other services, such as recreation, that will appeal to potential guests.
Within the fast-food service segment, companies often bundle their
products in an attempt to increase sales and provide a better value for their
customers. For example, they combine a sandwich, a large order of french
fries, and a large soft drink at a price lower than what the items would cost
if purchased separately. Similarly, tour operators and travel agents attempt to
provide customers with more value by bundling the various components of
travel (e.g., airline ticket, hotel room, car rental, and tickets for tourist at-
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Hotels in the upscale market include small touches to increase the consumers perception of
value. Courtesy of Hyatt Hotels Corporation.
tractions) at a price lower than the sum of the individual components. This
approach is known as product bundling.
Increased Emphasis on the Needs of

Individual Customers
The markets within both hospitality and tourism segments have been seg-
mented for a long time. In the past 5 to 15 years, this trend has become even
more pronounced. Mass marketing has become a thing of the past as more
firms extend their product lines to meet the specific needs of smaller segments
of travelers and diners. This phenomenon has become most apparent in the
lodging industry. During the last decade, most of the major lodging chains
developed several new brands or types of lodging properties to appeal to mar-
ket segments that they were not currently serving. In addition, many hotel
chains have merged with or acquired other hotel chains that focus on differ-
ent market segments.
Improvements in technology have given firms the ability to maintain large
databases that detail consumer purchasing behavior and preferences. This in-
formation can be used to direct marketing efforts toward individual customers
or market segments. Instead of relying on the mass media for promotions, a
marketer can target past customers through direct mail and e-mail with spe-
cial promotions and incentives that have a higher probability of being suc-
cessful. There is more customization of products and promotions and less
wasted coverage with media campaigns.
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chapter review 73
Chapter review
This chapter introduced you to the important area of hospitality services mar-
keting. It began by defining services and explaining the characteristics that
separate tangible products and services. Services are intangible and cannot be
inventoried. This requires changes in the distribution process, and it makes
it difficult to maintain consistent quality. It also requires more involvement
on the part of customers, who actually become part of the product. The in-
tangible nature of services results in more of an emphasis on experience qual-
ities that are evaluated after a product becomes consumed, and less on search
qualities that can be evaluated prior to purchase.
The concept of service quality remains important because consumers
form perceptions of a firm based on its ability to provide a consistent level
of service. This chapter introduced the service quality process and the po-
tential gaps that could occur throughout the process. These gaps in service
will decrease the level of service quality and lead to a decrease in customer
satisfaction. Firms learn to manage service operations and improve quality
through employee selection and training. Once a firm focuses on the needs
of consumers, it can build customer loyalty through relationship marketing.
The overall performance of the firm can be improved through internal mar-
keting efforts that attempt to communicate with employees and provide
them with an environment for success.
Customer satisfaction exists as the ultimate goal for a firm because it leads
to brand loyalty and repeat purchases. Firms must meet or exceed customer
expectations on a consistent basis in order to satisfy them. This chapter dis-
cussed ways to improve customer service and increase customer satisfaction.
There are critical incidents, or moments of truth, when customers interact
with employees and service failures can occur. Firms should encourage cus-
tomers to voice their complaints so that the firms can anticipate and avoid
possible failures. Also, firms can prepare service recovery strategies and train
their employees to use them. A firms progress concerning customer satis-
faction can be assessed using the techniques provided in this chapter, and
benchmarks can be set for future comparisons.
Finally, the chapter discussed some of the current trends in the hospital-
ity and tourism industry that affect service operations. First, there is shrink-
ing customer loyalty. Customers have many alternatives for fulfilling their
needs, and it is easy to compare these alternatives using all of the information
that is available. The stronger the competition, the more incentives customers
are given to switch service providers. Second, consumers are becoming more
sophisticated. Consumers have access to a proliferation of information about
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 74
products and services. This information allows them to focus on overall value,
rather than price or quality alone. Also, consumer advocacy organizations pro-
vide helpful tips for getting bargains and avoiding firms with poor reputa-
tions. Finally, there is an increased emphasis on the individual needs of cus-
tomers. Improved technology has made database marketing possible, allowing
more precise targeting of markets and less wasted coverage with promotions.
Firms are able to service more market segments by introducing new brands
or forming relationships with other firms (e.g., strategic alliances, mergers,
and acquisitions).
KEY terms AND CONCEPTS

Benchmarking
Boundary-spanning roles
Communications gap
Chapter review
Consumer expectations
Convivial dimension
Cost/benefit analysis
Credence qualities
Critical incidents
Customer needs failures
Customer satisfaction
Delivery gap
Discretionary effort
Experience qualities
Franchising
Globalization
Internal marketing
Knowledge gap
Perceived value
Privatization
Procedural dimension
Product bundling
Recovery strategies
Relationship marketing
Search qualities
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chapter review 75
Chapter review
Service blueprint
Service failures
Service gap
Service quality
Services marketing
Standards gap
System failure
Unsolicited employee action
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND

DISCUSSION
1. What are services? Do you believe that service marketing
should be studied separately from product marketing? Why
or why not?
2. List and discuss several of the reasons behind the growth
in services. Which of these do you consider to be the most
important? Why?
3. How do services differ from products?
4. Define service quality. Discuss the service quality process.
5. Using a foodservice operation with which you are famil-
iar, develop a methodology to assess the service quality.
Based on the data collected, how could their service stan-
dards be improved? What would be required to implement
the recommended changes?
6. What are search and experience qualities? How are they
used by consumers to evaluate services?
7. Define relationship marketing. How can it be applied to
the hospitality and tourism industry?
8. Based on your knowledge of the hospitality and tourism
industry, which firm does the best job of developing a
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:43 AM Page 76
positive relationship with customers? Why? What specific

actions have they taken to accomplish this?
9. What are the types of service failures? What recovery
strategies can be used in the event of a service failure?
10. How would you define customer satisfaction? How can you
improve customer satisfaction?
11. What are the techniques that can be used to assess cus-
tomer satisfaction?
12. Based on a careful review of the current trade magazines
for the hospitality and tourism industry, cite and discuss
current trends that affect hospitality and tourism firms.
Chapter review
NOTES
1
James Brian Quinn, Jordan J. Baruch, and Penny Cushman Pacquette, Technology in Services, Scientific
American 257, 6 (December 1987): 5058.
2
Christopher H. Lovelock and Lauren Wright, Principles of Service Marketing and Management, first edition (En-
glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999), pp. 714.
3
Ibid., pp. 1417.
4
Douglas Hoffman and John E. G. Bateson, Essentials of Services Marketing (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press,
1997).
5
A. Parasuraman, Valerie Zeithaml, and Leonard Berry, A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Impli-
cations for Service Quality Research, Journal of Marketing 49 (fall 1985): 4150.
6
Mission statement card, The Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, WV, 1994.
7
Leonard L. Berry and A. Parasuraman, Marketing Services: Competing Through Quality (New York: The Free
Press, 1991), p. 133.
8
Karl Albrecht and Ron Zemke, Service America! Doing Business in the New Economy (Homewood, IL: Business
One Irwin, 1985), p. 6.
9
William B. Martin, Quality Service: The Restaurant Managers Bible (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1986).
c02.qxd 2/2/05 11:44 AM Page 77
case study 77
case study
Case Study
Service Quality at the
Excelsior Hotel
K risten Adams had recently transferred to the Excelsior Hotel to im-

prove the level of customer service. She had been with the company
for five years and had been quite successful in improving the level
of customer satisfaction at the two previous hotels to which she had been as-
signed. Kristen knew that the Excelsior was going to be a real challenge. The
mix of business was 60 percent individual transient guests and 40 percent
group business. Of this group business, about one-third was motor coach tour
groups.
On her first day on the job, she witnessed quite a sight. There was a line
of about 20 guests waiting to check in when two motor coaches arrived and
more than 80 additional guests and guides walked into the lobby to check in.
Needless to say, the two front desk agents had a look of terror in their eyes
as they worked diligently to process the registrations for those waiting to check
in. Some 40 minutes later, everyone had been checked in, but the general man-
ager said to Kristen, Im glad that you are here; we need to work out a bet-
ter system. Lets meet for lunch tomorrow to discuss your initial ideas. Kris-
ten had just picked up a pen to start brainstorming ideas to present to the
general manager when a guest approached her desk.
Hello, my name is Bill Foster, and I stayed at your hotel last night with
my family. We really did not have a good experience, and I want to tell you
about it. I want to make sure that this does not happen again, to me or any-
one else. Mr. Foster then proceeded to tell Kristen his account of the events.
I was traveling with my wife and our son, who is four years old. Our con-
necting flight was delayed, so we did not arrive at our final destination un-
til 10 p.m. The Excelsior had an advertised check-in facility at the airport,
and I assumed that I would be able to secure my room while waiting for the
luggage. When I approached the employee at the hotels airport facility, I
was told that check-in service was not available at that time of the day. I
found this to be surprising, since this was the very type of situation in which
an airport facility would be beneficial.
Next, my family took a shuttle van from the airport to the hotel, where
we were given directions to the front desk. Two front desk clerks were on
duty when the passengers from the airport shuttle arrived a little before 11
p.m. However, one of the front desk clerks was apparently going off duty at
11, and she proceeded to close her drawer at that exact moment. This left a
line of approximately 10 or 12 guests to be checked in by one clerk. Needless
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to say, it took some time to process all of the guests, and we had to wait 20 or
30 minutes for our turn. We were assigned to a room, but at this point we
had a few bags and my son was fast asleep and had to be carried. When I
asked for assistance with our luggage, I was told that no one was available at
that time of night. The hotel was large, having over 1,000 rooms, and the
rooms were spread out among several adjacent buildings. Our room was two
buildings away from the lobby area. My wife and I struggled to carry the lug-
gage and our son to the room. We arrived there about 11:30 and attempted
to enter the room. The key unlocked the door, but the door would not open.
After a couple of attempts, we heard a womans voice in the room. Obviously,
the room had been double-booked and the woman woken from her sleep. I
used the house phone to call the front desk and explain the predicament. The
front desk manager offered a quick apology and said that she would send
someone with a key to a nearby room. About ten minutes later, a housekeeper
happened to be going through the hallway, and she let my family into the
room that I had been given over the phone. However, the housekeeper had
no idea what was going on and took my word. After we had been in the room
for ten minutes, the phone rang and I spoke with the front desk manager.
She acted as though she had sent the housekeeper to open the room, but she
still needed to send someone with the room keys. She apologized one last time
and told me to call the front desk if I had any other problems.

case study
1. What steps should Kristen recommend to the general manager?

2. What action steps and timetable should she recommend? How should
decisions be made about which steps should be done initially?
3. Develop a service blueprint of the check-in process. How might this be
used to improve the situation?
4. Discuss the gaps in the service quality process that Bill Foster
experienced.
5. What kind of service failures occurred and what recovery strategies
were employed?
6. How did the Excelsior Hotel fail to meet Mr. Fosters expectations?
7. What other actions could have been taken?
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part 2
UNDERSTANDING AND TARGETING
HOSPITALITY CONSUMERS

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Courtesy of Carnival Cruise Lines.

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chapter
3
Understanding the
Behavior of
Hospitality Consumers
Chapter Objectives
1. List external and internal influences on consumer
behavior.
2. Describe the consumer decision-making model.
3. Explain the three problem-solving process strategies
employed by consumerscompensatory, noncompensatory,
and combination.
4. Outline the three levels of consumer problem solving
routine response, limited, and extended.
5. List characteristics unique to organizational buying.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Factors That Influence
Consumer Behavior
Introduction to Hospitality External influences on consumer behavior
Consumers Behavior Internal influences on consumer behavior
Describing consumer behavior
Consumer adoption process
Reasons to study consumer behavior
(continues)
81
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Chapter Outline (continued)
Consumer Decision-Making Model Organizational Buyer Behavior

Problem recognition Characteristics of organizational buying
Information search Members of the buying unit
Evaluation of alternatives Factors that influence organizational
Purchase decision buying
Postpurchase evaluation
Summary of Chapter Objectives
Consumer Problem-Solving Key Terms and Concepts
Processes
Compensatory strategies Questions for Review and
Noncompensatory strategies Discussion
Combination strategies
Case Study: Tempura Garden
Consumer Problem-Solving
Techniques
Routine response behavior
Limited problem solving
Extended problem solving
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industry profile 83
industry profile
Thomas Lee Owner and General Manager
Mooncakes Restaurant West Hollywood, California
I started out as an assistant restaurant manager for Renaissance Hotels in

Washington, D.C., and then moved to California to work at the Los An-
geles Music Center for Restaurant Associates. My next job was with Wynd-
ham Hotels at the Los Angeles Airport (LAX) as a restaurant manager. With
Wyndham, I progressed to being the food and beverage director before taking
a position with Holiday Inns as a general manager in Anaheim. Eventually, I
reached my goal of opening my own restaurant. Mooncakes is a quick-casual
concept with Asian food in a contemporary environment.

As the owner of a small fast-casual restaurant, my position entails three ma-
jor components. Those components are financial, employee, and customer.
Each component entails several subcomponentsfor financial, my duties in-
clude forecasting, budgeting, cost control, et cetera. For the employee com-
ponent, my job is to train and retain employees, and for the customer com-
ponent, my job entails marketing (including menu creation), quality control,
and of course customer satisfaction.

The most enjoyable part of my job is quality control and menu creation, which
ultimately lead to customer satisfaction. When I choose the freshest and highest-
quality ingredients and put them together to create a menu, there is the feel-
ing of satisfaction from creating something that my customers enjoy.

youre facing?
The greatest challenge at my job is the challenge of promoting a new concept
in the restaurant industry. Because we are a completely new company with a
completely new concept, consumers still have the fear factor of trying some-
thing new. It is my job to get them through the door and to keep them com-
ing back. The greatest challenge is to get them through the door for the first
time and to get them over that initial fear of trying something new.
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84 chapter 3 understanding the behavior of hospitality consumers
4. What major trends do you see for

your segment of the hospitality and tourism
industry?
I see the fast-casual segment of the restaurant industry following with the
trend of going toward a more health-conscious menu. As consumers become
more and more aware of staying fit and healthy, and as society keeps stress-
ing the notion of being lean and fit, consumers want to eat something that
not only tastes great but is great for them too. There are too many fad diets
out there right now that are becoming more and more popular (Atkins, Zone,
etc.), and as a restaurant operator, it is my job to adapt to consumer needs or
else fall behind.

company?
industry profile
Marketing plays a huge role within our company because in order to be

successful in the industry, a restaurant must start with critical marketing
research. For example, before coming up with a new concept, we need to
find out if there is a demand for this new concept. It also goes hand in hand
with choosing locations for our restaurants. Each community must have a
strong enough demand to support our concept, or else the community is
not even considered. Once a location is chosen, there is the challenge of uti-
lizing the marketing tool of promotion to get people through the door and
to get them back over and over again.

you suggest?
In the hospitality industry you will spend an enormous amount of time work-
ing at your job, and you may not be rewarded with a compensation that co-
incides with your amount of hours put in on the job. However, remember
that the long hours that you put in will all be extremely valuable in the end,
not only in dealing with whatever ventures you may encounter in the future
in the hospitality industry, but in life as well.
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introduction to hospitality consumer behavior 85
INTRODUCTION TO HOSPITALITY
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Successful marketing managers focus on understanding their consumers
wants and needs as clearly as possible. Thorough marketing research has al-
lowed marketing managers of tangible products such as automobiles, tooth-
paste, laundry detergent, and most other products to understand their cus-
tomers. More recently, marketers have begun to better understand the subject
of consumer behavior as it relates to the consumption of services. This knowl-
edge enables marketing managers to develop sophisticated marketing pro-
grams aimed at very specifically targeted market segments.
One of the most perplexing problems confronting hospitality managers is
to understand why hospitality consumers behave as they do. This chapter ex-
plores several important aspects of consumer behavior, including the internal
and external factors that influence consumer behavior, the way in which con-
sumers make purchase decisions, satisfaction of hospitality consumers, and
how continuous quality improvement can be used as a marketing tool.
Understanding the behavior of hospitality and tourism consumers is
among the most important challenges facing management. It is critical that
managers remain in constant communication with those who consume the
products and services, and pay close attention to consumer needs so that they
will be ready to change elements of the marketing mix when consumer pref-
erences, wants, or needs change. For example, in recent years many consumers
have demonstrated an increasing emphasis on healthier diets. This concern
has led them to requesteven, in some cases, demandmenu choices that
are healthier. Restaurants have responded by providing menu choices that are
lower in fat and salt and adding more fresh fruits, vegetables, and grains. The
products and services made available to consumers must respond to the chang-
ing needs of the target market segments.
The study of consumer behavior focuses on understanding consumers as
they purchase products or services. This behavior takes place within the larger
context of the environment in which each individual operates. Therefore, con-
sumer behavior examines the roles and influences that others have on the be-
havior of individual consumers.
The study of consumer behavior is based on two fundamental ideas: that
consumer behavior is rational and predictable and that, as marketers, we can
influence this behavior. Contrary to what some may think, the behavior of
consumers is not irrational or random. Consumer behavior that appears to
be irrational to the outside observer is very rational to the individual mak-
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ing the purchase decisions. As weve noted, restaurants are increasing the
number of healthier menu choices because restaurant guests were demand-
ing them. Yet at the same time, the sale of desserts and other sweets has also
increased. Is this rational? Does it make sense from a consumers point of
view? How can consumers appear to exhibit this conflicting, and perhaps ir-
rational, behavior? Consider it from the restaurant guests point of view and
it is very rational. Suppose that a particular customer has made healthy menu
choices all during the week. This individual has reduced the amount of calo-
ries, fat, and salt in his diet throughout the entire week. However, when din-
ing out on Friday evening, he indulges in a high-calorie, high-fat dessert,
saying to his friends, Its been a long, hard week, and Im going to treat my-
self to the mocha swirl cheesecake. This is not irrational behavior in the
mind of the consumer. He believes that he has cut back on calorie and fat
consumption all week and in fact deserves a special treat at dinner on
Friday. The challenge for restaurant marketers is to recognize the trends in
consumer behavior and provide the products and services that consumers
demand.
Describing Consumer Behavior

Consumer behavior can be described, and to some extent it can be predicted
based on theory. James McNeal, in his classic book Consumer Behavior, ad-
vances the idea that human behavior is influenced by several factors:1
SOCIAL SETTING. All consumers make decisions and take actions within
the larger social setting and, in doing so, are influenced by their peers. In
addition, the same consumers will, in turn, influence the actions of other
consumers. Social settings will vary greatly. For example, the social setting
of a consumer living in New York City is very different from that of some-
one living in Ames, Iowa; Paris, France; or an Eastern European country.
SOCIAL FORCES. Forces within the society set the standards of acceptable
behavior. These rules are both written and unwritten, and they are established
by those within the society with the most influence. For example, the behav-
ior that a college student exhibits at a party on campus is likely to be quite
different than the behavior exhibited while at home during break. Different
social forces are at work in these two situations.
ROLES. A role is a pattern of behavior associated with a specific position
within a social setting. Each of us assumes a variety of roles, some professional,
others personal. Each role brings with it a set of expectations for behavior.
For example, when an individual is in a position of authority, such as the man-
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factors that influence consumer behavior 87
ager of a hotel, employees look to the manger to provide direction, make de-
cisions, and help the operation to run smoothly. However, when this man-
ager leaves work and goes home, he or she may assume a less active decision-
making role when interacting with his or her children. For example, at home,
the manager may defer to the children the decision about what type of activ-
ity they will engage in during a day that they spend together.
ATTITUDES RELATIVE TO ROLES. Within each of the roles that we
play are attitudes and knowledge that we gain about the setting. Attitudes
are defined as favorable or unfavorable evaluations of objects or situations.
Knowledge is defined as facts that we gain about objects or situations. At-
titudes are directly tied to a consumers needs. These needs, which are the
cause for all consumer behavior, are linked to an individuals attitudes and
knowledge.
Reasons to Study Consumer Behavior

Why should you study consumer behavior? First, because managers in the
hospitality industry come into direct contact with many consumers on a
daily basis. One of the primary goals for each of these managers is to cre-
ate and maintain satisfied consumers. Without a working knowledge of
their wants and needs, it will be much more difficult to satisfy them. Keep
in mind that the fundamental reason for being in business is to create and
satisfy consumers.
Second, if a company is to grow and prosper, management must antici-
pate the wants and needs of consumers. For example, if a hospitality company
is considering whether to build a new hotel, appropriate personnel must an-
ticipate a particular locations demand for hotel rooms, meeting space, and
food and beverage services. In doing so, they are likely to project demand for
several years into the future. One of the ways to help make a better decision
in this case is to more thoroughly understand the current and future behav-
ior of consumers.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumers do not make purchase decisions in a vacuum. Rather, they are
subject to both external and internal factors that influence them.
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Consumer behavior is influenced by both internal and external factors. Courtesy of Fox-
woods Resort Casino.
External Influences on
Consumer Behavior
External influences include culture, socioeconomic level, reference groups,
and household.
CULTURE. Culture is defined as the patterns of behavior and social relations
that characterize a society and separate it from others. Culture conveys val-
ues, ideals, and attitudes that help individuals communicate with each other
and evaluate situations. It is important in viewing culture to draw legitimate
generalizations about a given culture or subculture without resorting to stereo-
typing. An individuals culture provides a frame of reference concerning ac-
ceptable behaviors, and as such, culture is a learned set of arbitrary values.
The dominant culture in the United States today stresses equality, use of re-
sources, materialism, individualism, and youth.
Difference in culture is most apparent when a hospitality and tourism firm
attempts to expand into international markets. There are significant differ-
ences between, for example, the way that Europeans make purchase decisions
and exhibit travel behavior and the way that Americans do so. For example,
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in much of Europe, it is very common for a family to take an extended vaca-

tion that might last for two, three, or more weeks. In France, it is very com-
mon for businesses to shut down for much of August while the entire coun-
try is on vacation. In the United States, the opposite trend is prevalent. Families
are less likely to take a vacation of more than one week and are more likely
to take a series of mini vacations that extend over three-day weekends. In fact,
in the early 1990s, Stouffer Renaissance Hotels went so far as to trademark
the phrase break-ation to use in their promotion and advertising to describe
the mini or getaway vacations that have become common in the United States.
In addition to the general culture of the United States, marketers must
also be concerned with subcultures. Subcultures might include African Amer-
icans, Jews, Hispanics, Asians, and youths.
One example illustrates the importance of subcultures in marketing. Al-
though families are one of the major markets for fast-food chains, and par-
ents pay the bills for the family, much of the advertising for these chains is
directed toward the youth subculture. Research has shown that it is often the
children who influence the decision on where to dine, once the adults have
decided to dine out.
SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL. Socioeconomic level has a large influence in
consumer decision making. Marketing managers have long attempted to cor-
relate socioeconomic level with dining-out habits and travel patterns. Hospi-
tality managers must identify the relative socioeconomic levels to which the
operation appeals and appeal directly to those groups with the marketing mix
that they use. For example, an upscale and expensive four- or five-star resort
property will target its promotional efforts to those in upper income groups.
These resorts are likely to advertise in publications read by professionals and
those who are in the top 25 percent of annual household income. That is their
target market.
REFERENCE GROUPS. A reference group is a group with whom an in-

dividual identifies to the point where the group dictates a standard of behav-
ior. Reference groups exert tremendous influence on consumers hospitality
and tourism purchase decisions. Every individual is influenced directly and
indirectly. Marketing research has identified three types of reference groups:
comparative, status, and normative.
First, individual consumers use reference groups to compare their own
feelings and thoughts with those of others. For example, an individual may
have gone to dinner at a restaurant and felt that the food and service were ex-
cellent. Before these perceptions are internalized, however, a reference group
is often consulted to validate the perceptions. An individual may check with
friends who are members of a reference group, asking for their perceptions
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of the restaurant. The individual will then compare her friends perceptions
against her own. In many cases, the perceptions of a reference group can in-
fluence purchase and repeat purchase behavior.
Second, reference groups also serve a status function. For example, when
an individual seeks to become a member of a group, his or her actions are
likely to emulate the group members behaviors. If someone looks up to a ref-
erence group as a source of status, he or she is likely to model the behavior
exhibited by the members of the reference group.
Third, reference groups establish norms and values that regulate the be-
havior of individuals. For example, consider a high-school-age reference
group dining out. The group norm may state that patronizing chain restau-
rant A is more desirable than going to locally owned restaurant B, yet objec-
tive analysis indicates that restaurant Bs product-service mix is superior. The
groups norms and values might still point toward the established chain restau-
rant. Simply put, dining at restaurant A is cool and dining at restaurant B
is not. What is in favor within the reference group will change over time. For
example, 10 to 15 years ago college students seeking the most exciting desti-
nation for a spring break getaway often went to Daytona Beach, Florida. In
recent years, Cancun, Mexico, and cruises in the Caribbean have become more
popular.
A hospitality manager can also influence consumer behavior through the
use of opinion leaders. Opinion leaders include formal and/or informal lead-
ers of reference groups, and their opinions normally influence opinion
formation in others. Common opinion leaders are leaders within the com-
munity, such as doctors, lawyers, and politicians, and those who are viewed
as subject matter experts. For example, a travel agent is clearly an opinion
leader for travel-related products. Potential travelers often seek advice from
a travel agent because they believe that the agent has knowledge far superior
to their own. Another example is the food critic who writes for a local news-
paper. The opinions that the critic expresses in a newspaper column have di-
rect and immediate influence on readers.
Hospitality managers often strive to create their own reference groups and
opinion leaders. Frequent guests can be rewarded with complimentary sam-
ples of new menu items or perhaps a complimentary flavored coffee or bot-
tle of champagne. The champagne creates excitement and is very likely to
increase sales, as individuals sitting at other tables want to become part of the
excitement and often order a bottle for their own table. The desired result is
of course a snowball effect among many tables, which results in increased
sales. Frequent guests can also be used for feedback about potential new menu
items or new services. If they are favorably impressed with the new products
or services, they will tell their friends and colleagues, and increased business
can result.
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HOUSEHOLD. A household is defined as those individuals who occupy a

single living unit. There are more than 80 million households in the United
States, and within every household certain characteristics, leadership, and
norms exist. Leadership is normally rotated among members of the house-
hold. For example, the children may decide which breakfast cereal to eat or
which fast-food restaurant to patronize, while an adult selects the type of
living accommodations. Hospitality marketing research points out that lead-
ership is often shared. For example, the parents normally decide when the
household will go out to eat, but it is the children who decide which restau-
rant will be patronized.
All external influences discussed can affect the decision-making process
of a consumer whenever a decision about hospitality and tourism products
and services is made. The culture, socioeconomic level, reference groups, and
household members influence directly and indirectly, consciously and uncon-
sciously, the dining habits of all consumers.
Internal Influences on
Consumer Behavior
In addition to external influences, internal influences affect consumers choices
as wellpersonal needs and motives, experience, personality and self-image,
and perceptions and attitudes. The exact influence of internal factors is less
well known than the external factors, as internal factors are not as observable
and therefore are not as well documented and understood.
PERSONAL NEEDS AND MOTIVES. A need is defined as a lack of some-

thing or the difference between someones desired and actual states. Motive
is defined as a persons inner state that directs the individual toward satisfy-
ing a felt need. For example, consumers may be hungry and tired (their ac-
tual state), yet they desire to be well fed and rested (desired state). This felt
need would, therefore, cause them to have the motivation to seek out a restau-
rant where this need could be satisfied.
Despite years of consumer behavior research, it is very difficult, if not im-
possible, to fully explain all of the needs consumers feel. Figure 3.1 illustrates
the role of needs in consumer behavior. Simply stated, needs lead to motiva-
tion, which leads to behavioral intentions, which ultimately lead to observable
behavior. Following behavior, feedback affects and may change a consumers
motivation. To continue our earlier example, once the consumer had been to
a particular restaurant, if the meal was satisfying and met prior expectations,
then the feedback would be favorable and the consumer would likely plan to
return to this particular restaurant. If, however, the meal was not satisfying
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Needs Motivation Behavioral Behavior

intentions
Feedback
figure 3.1 Needs related to consumer behavior.
or did not meet prior expectations, then the individuals negative feelings
would likely result in not returning to this particular restaurant. It is impor-
tant to remember that successful marketing is about identifying and then
meeting or exceeding the expectations of consumers.
In the mid-1900s, Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, devel-
oped a model identifying five classes of needs; today the model remains one
of the influential cornerstones of consumer behavior. As shown in Figure 3.2,
Maslows hierarchy of needs is arranged in the following order, from the low-
est to highest level: physiological needs, safety needs, social and belonging
needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.2 Individuals are believed to
satisfy the lower-level needs before they move to the higher-level needs.
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS. Physiological needs are primary needs for food,
shelter, and clothing, which one must have before thinking about higher-
order needs. Nearly all products and services offered to consumers by hospi-
tality and tourism firms address these needs.
SAFETY NEEDS. These second-level needs include personal security and
protection from physical harm. The movement toward greater security and
Self-
actualization
needs
Esteem
needs
Social
needs
Safety
needs
Physiological
needs
figure 3.2 Maslows hierarchy of needs.

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safety within the hotel industry has addressed these needs. Electronic door
locks, increased lighting, outside entrances that are locked after dark, and
more sophisticated fire detection devices all are designed to meet safety needs.
SOCIAL AND BELONGING NEEDS. Once needs at the lower two lev-
els are satisfied, consumers look toward achieving social acceptance by oth-
ers. From the hospitality and tourism perspective, we cater to consumers who
want to join private clubs that offer a variety of social and recreational activ-
ities. We also make consumers feel like they belong by making special prod-
ucts and services available for frequent guests. Hotels that target longer-term
guests, such as Marriotts Residence Inns, will often schedule social events for
their guests in order to satisfy the social needs of guests who are away from
family and friends for an extended period of time.
ESTEEM NEEDS. Once consumers feel accepted, they seek to enhance their
self-esteem. Hospitality and tourism companies cater to these individuals by
providing a higher level of personal service. For example, airlines provide first
class and business class, in addition to coach. Airlines also provide special
lounges and waiting areas for frequent travelers and for individuals who pur-
chase memberships in their airline clubs. Another example is expensive
restaurants that offer only the finest food, beverages, and service. They pro-
vide a level of products and services that cater to the esteem needs of guests,
and they expend a good deal of effort to make guests feel very special and
important.
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS. The highest-level needs within Maslows

hierarchy focus on an individuals need to reach his or her full potential. For
the most part, these needs are often beyond the scope of what hospitality and
tourism marketers can expect to fulfill. However, there are examples from
within the hospitality and tourism industry regarding the consumers attempt
to satisfy self-actualization needs. For example, when guests are attracted to
sports programs at five-star resorts focusing on how to play the best golf or
tennis possible, they are seeking to reach a state of self-actualization with re-
gard to the sport.
An alternative approach combines the work of Maslow with the work on
personality development by Erik Erikson.3 In this model, adults pass through
three life stages, and each stage will help to determine the kinds of experi-
ences that they will seek as consumers (see Figure 3.3). Consumers purchase
products either because they need them, because they desire them, or both.
Purchases based on need are considered nondiscretionary, while purchases
based on desire are considered discretionary. Consumer satisfaction is achieved
mainly through discretionary purchases.
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Being
experiences
Catered
experiences
Possession
experiences
Aged 40 or younger Aged 40 to 60 Aged 60 to 80+
figure 3.3 Consumer discretionary purchasing over a life span.
In the first stage, young adults (age 40 or younger) are seeking satisfaction
through purchasing possession experiences in their early career-development and
family-building years. Examples of products purchased during this stage are
cars and houses. Then, as they grow older (age 40 to 60), consumers focus
more on purchasing catered experiences such as travel, restaurants, education,
and sports. Finally, the third stage (age over 60) finds consumers shifting their
focus toward being experiences associated with interpersonal relationships and
simple pleasures. In this context, hospitality services would be purchased more
in the second stage, although they would be purchased merely for survival
throughout a consumers life span. Some resorts, spas, and travel destinations
target the third stage as well. For example, some destinations market them-
selves to older travelers who are seeking a more spiritual experience.
Psychologist David McClelland identified three social motives: achieve-
ment, affiliation, and power.4 Achievement causes an individual to work
harder to reach a goal. Affiliation causes individuals to belong to groups or
to seek the approval of others. Each person has the need to belong and to be
accepted. Finally, McClelland identified individuals need for power. Indi-
viduals want to feel that they are in control and that they have some control
over their immediate environment. Many individuals extend this need for
power to others; that is, they want to be able to control others as well.
EXPERIENCE. Experience is also a major internal influence on consumer
behavior. As individuals encounter new situations, such as dining in a par-
ticular restaurant for the first time, they integrate their perceptions into an
experience framework that influences future decisions. The old adage First
impressions are important applies directly to the hospitality and tourism in-
dustry. If consumers are turned off the first time that they walk up to the
front desk in a hotel or are greeted by a host in a restaurant, they are unlikely
to return. One of the factors that have led to the success of Walt Disney World
is that the staff, called cast members, focus on the guests needs from the
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moment they arrive on site until they depart. In the morning when carloads
of excited families arrive, they are greeted by smiling parking-lot cast mem-
bers who help to get everyones day at Disney off to a memorable start. These
initial impressions are the start of a great day for the guests.
Hospitality managers must remember that people (consumers) are prod-
ucts of their environments. Each new experience is integrated into a frame of
reference against which new situations are evaluated. This frame of reference
includes each individuals beliefs, values, norms, and assumptions. Consider
the following example. A guest who travels more than 100 days each year
checks into a hotel at which she has not previously stayed. As the guest checks
in, she is evaluating the quality of the service received against prior check-in
experiences. Based on her prior experience, she may believe that the check-in
process should not take more than 60 seconds to complete. Any time in ex-
cess of 60 seconds will likely result in dissatisfaction with the hotel. In this ex-
ample, the guest has a belief that check-in should be accomplished quickly
and easily. This is the norm against which the guest will judge all check-ins.
PERSONALITY AND SELF-IMAGE. Each individual consumer develops

a unique personality and self-image over a period of time. For marketing pur-
poses, individual personality types can be grouped into various classifications
such as swingers, conservatives, leaders, and followers. The important thing
for hospitality managers to remember is that no hospitality operation can be
all things to all people. Firms must select one or more target markets that are
subsets or segments of the total market and then appeal directly to these con-
sumers. Many hospitality organizations experience difficulty when attempt-
ing to appeal to too wide a segment of the total market. The result is quite
predictable: failure to satisfy any of the target markets, which leads to poor
financial performance and often failure.
One example of this type of thinking involved a restaurant that featured
a beef and seafood menu, with moderate to high prices and a semiformal
atmosphere. This restaurant had been successful, but the owners and man-
agers felt that more profits could and should be generated. In an attempt to
broaden the target market, the atmosphere was made more informal, and the
menu was changed to include hamburgers, snacks, sandwiches, and pizza, as
well as steaks and seafood. Thirty days after the change was made, sales vol-
ume had increased by 15 percent. Within three months, however, volume had
fallen by 38 percent, and what had once been a profitable operation was now
running a deficit. Following careful examination of the performance of sev-
eral hospitality organizations, one finds that it is normally those with well-
defined target markets that are the most successful. Those attempting to be
all things to all people often fail.
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PERCEPTION AND ATTITUDE. Each day, consumers are exposed to thou-

sands of stimuli. Some of these stimuli are consciously received, resulting in
a thought process, while others are simply ignored. Perception is the process
by which stimuli are recognized, received, and interpreted. Each individual
consumer perceives the world differently. Perceptions are manifested in atti-
tudes. Attitudes are learned predispositions to act in a consistently favorable
or unfavorable manner. For example, some individuals attitudes are that fast-
food meals are very good because they are of high quality and low cost and
come with fast and courteous service. Other individuals attitudes are that fast-
food meals are of low nutritional value and poor culinary quality and that
they are not visually attractive. Both types of individuals hold attitudes based
on their perceptions. Their perceptions may or may not be valid, but it is im-
portant for the marketing manager to remember that perceptions are the way
an individual sees the world. In the mind of the individual consumer, the per-
ceptions and resulting attitudes are correct and valid. It is very difficult to
change the perceptions and resulting attitudes that individuals have devel-
oped over time.
Consumer Adoption Process

Hospitality consumers today are demanding more sophisticated dining and
lodging experiences. Consumers are better educated, earn more money, and
are more confident when they travel and dine outside the home. Todays hos-
pitality consumers are seeking products and services tailored to meet their spe-
cific needs. They are more concerned about nutrition and safety, and they
know more about value. Some of the following trends in individual behavior
are affecting consumerism:
Receiving instant gratification rather than the concept of self-denial

Feeling terrific rather than feeling responsible
Improvising rather than planning
Choosing simplicity over complexity
Showing concern for status rather than egalitarianism
These trends shape the way firms develop and market their products and
services. There are consumer models that aid marketers in understanding con-
sumers and determining strategies.
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Sales
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline Life Cycle Stage
Innovators Early Early Late Late Adoption Stage

adopters majority majority adopters
23% 1215% 3040% 2730% 1215%
figure 3.4 Diffusion and adoption across the product life cycle.
Individuals have been classified according to willingness to change. Some

are not upset by change, while others resist change in any form. Figure 3.4 il-
lustrates the diffusion of consumers over a typical product life cycle. Con-
sumers will adopt new products at different rates depending on their level of
aversion to risk and change. When a new hospitality operation opens, it is
very important that individuals representing the innovators and early adopters
are reached by marketing efforts. These individuals offer excellent potential
as early customers, for if they are satisfied, they will tell friends and associ-
ates, and these people in turn may become customers. People falling into the
early and late majority categories will not usually try a new hospitality oper-
ation until they have heard positive comments from others.
This process of influencing the innovators and early adopters is called dif-
fusion and adoption. The key is to get the consumers who are most likely to
try new products and services to make a trial purchasethat is, to dine at the
restaurant, stay in the hotel, rent a car, or purchase a flight. If they are satis-
fied with the products and services received, they will then help to spread the
positive word to others, and the number of customers will increase over time.
How quickly consumers adopt a new product depends on the actual need for
the product and the risk associated with the products purchase.
First, products that are necessary will be adopted more readily than prod-
ucts that are not essential. For example, a fine-dining restaurant may take
longer to build a clientele than a fast-food restaurant in a growing suburb.
Second, the more risk involved with a products purchase, the slower the adop-
tion process. Several types of risk are associated with the purchase of a prod-
uct or service:
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Financial risk is the monetary loss that would result from a wrong
decision.
Performance risk is the chance that the product or service will not meet
a consumers expectations.
Physical risk is any mental or physical harm that could occur.
Social risk is the possibility that the product will not meet the approval of
ones peers.
For example, a cruise can be expensive, it carries a certain prestige, and

consumers have high expectations. Also, there have been instances in which
passengers have been harmed or even killed, as the result of fires, taking on
water, and terrorists.
CONSUMER DECISION-
MAKING MODEL
When consumers make decisions concerning the purchase of goods and ser-
vices, a very complex decision-making process takes place. Numerous vari-
ables influence this decision-making process, as the many models of consumer
behavior demonstrate. Figure 3.5 draws together several theories into a model
that shows both the external and internal influences we have just discussed,
as well as the process by which consumers make purchase decisions.
This model illustrates the major steps in the decision-making process, as
well as the role external and internal influences play as the individual makes
purchase decisions. Because both external and internal variables influence con-
sumers decision-making processes, hospitality managers need to develop
awareness of the specific influences that are most important to their particu-
lar target market segments. Figure 3.5 shows five key elements in the decision-
making model: problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alter-
natives, purchase decision, and postpurchase evaluation. Each element is
affected by external and internal influences.
Problem Recognition
The decision-making process begins with problem recognition, which occurs
when a consumer realizes a difference between her actual state and her de-
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consumer decision-making model 99
External Influences Problem recognition Internal Influences
Culture Information search Needs
Socioeconomic level Evaluation of alternatives Experience
Reference groups Purchase decision Personality and self-image
Household Postpurchase evaluation Perceptions and attitudes
figure 3.5 A consumer decision-making model.
sired state. Thousands of different stimuli can trigger the awareness of a need
or a problem. For example, if one feels hungry when driving down an inter-
state highway, this may trigger a need to search for a restaurant to satisfy the
hunger need. In another situation, the need to feel important and be treated
with the utmost respect may lead a potential guest to search for an upscale
hotel with a concierge floor when making a reservation. The need may not
begin within a single individual. For example, if a couple comes home after
both have worked all day, and one says to the other, Lets go out tonight;
Im too tired to cook, this manifests a joint need that only one of the indi-
viduals may have felt. Hospitality marketing managers should recognize the
wide variety of needs that consumers are attempting to satisfy when they dine
out.
Information Search
Once the need is raised to a conscious level, the model holds that consumers
seek to retrieve information. This search can involve a variety of information
sources, including reference groups and members of the immediate house-
hold, as well as the mass media in the form of advertising. Table 3.1 provides
a comparison of information sources based on the effort required and the cred-
ibility of the source.
If the felt need is as basic as the need to eat because of hunger, the infor-
mation retrieval process is likely to be brief. That is, the restaurant facility se-
lected in this case is likely to be chosen primarily because of convenience, and
the number of sources of information consulted is likely to be quite small. In
other situations, the number of sources consulted could be much larger. Con-
sider the meeting planner who is coordinating the annual meeting for a pro-
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information source effort required credibility
Internal (past experience) Low High
External
Personal (friends and family) Low High
Marketing (advertising, High Low

promotions, salespeople)
Public (consumer information, High High

Internet)
table 3.1 Comparison of information sources.
fessional association. This individual is likely to consult several sources of in-

formation before selecting an appropriate hotel for this important event. The
important thing for the hospitality marketing manager to remember is that
consumers rely to a certain extent on the mass media for information.
The amount of information to research and the length of the consumer
decision-making process will increase with the consumers level of involve-
ment. Consumers tend to be more involved when there is a greater perceived
risk of making a wrong choice, which is normally associated with products
or services with higher prices, more visibility, or greater complexity. Con-
sumers tend to compare the benefits of search (e.g., value, enjoyment, self-
confidence) with the costs (e.g., money, time, convenience) to determine the
perceived risk. There are also many other situational factors that will affect
the amount of information search, such as product knowledge, demograph-
ics (e.g., income and education), and the market environment.
Evaluation of Alternatives
Once the consumer has gathered a sufficient amount of information, the
third element in the decision-making process is to evaluate alternatives.
Consumers who ask, At which one of several possible restaurants should
I dine tonight? go through a cognitive process in answering this question,
whereby they weigh the positive and negative aspects of each alternative.
They also examine the attributes of the product-service mix of each restau-
rant. Consumers consider the relative importance of each attribute of the
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consumer decision-making model 101
product-service mix by making trade-offs between the various attributes

and their levels. The final result is an evoked set, or group of brands that
will be considered in the final purchase decision.
Marketing managers in other industries have long recognized this cogni-
tive process and have used it to their advantage in advertising and promoting
their products and services. Rather than simply discussing their products or
services as if they existed in a vacuum, firms make direct comparisons with
the competition. This assists the consumers cognitive process of evaluating
alternatives. Of course, every advertiser makes certain that its product or ser-
vice compares favorably with those of the competition based on the criteria
selected.
The following example illustrates how a hospitality firm can gain a better
understanding of the consumer decision-making process. Assume the informa-
tion in Table 3.2 represents one consumers evaluation of the importance of ho-
tel attributes and the ratings of three competing hotels on those attributes. The
first column under each hotel represents the actual rating and the second col-
umn represents the weighted rating based on the importance assigned to the at-
tribute by the consumer. The consumer was instructed to divide 100 points be-
tween the three attributes based on their relative importance. The figures were
converted to decimals and the weighted rating was computed by multiplying the
importance rating by the actual rating. The final average for the weighted rat-
ing is simply the sum of the scores for each attribute. The ratings were based on
a 4-point scale: 1 poor, 2 fair, 3 good, 4 excellent.
The hospitality manager can see from the information in Table 3.2 that
this consumer feels that price is the most important factor in choosing a ho-
attribute importance holiday inn marriott four seasons
Actual Weighted Actual Weighted Actual Weighted
Price .50 4 2 3 1.5 2 1
Location .30 3 .9 3 .9 4 1.2
Service quality .20 2 .4 3 .6 4 .8
Average 3.00 3.30 3.00 3.00 3.33 3.00
table 3.2 Evaluation of alternative hotels.

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tel, followed by location, and then service quality. The manager can also tell
how each hotel is perceived on the same list of attributes. This same process
can be used for a market segment by combining the scores of a sample of con-
sumers and using the aggregate figures.
Purchase Decision
The fourth stage in the consumer decision-making model is the purchase de-
cision. It is at this point that the individual actually makes the decision. All
external and internal variables come together to produce a decision. This de-
cision is made based on the perceived risk associated with each alternative and
the willingness of the individual to take risks. This risk factor offers a tremen-
dous competitive advantage for hospitality chains. When consumers step
through the front door of a McDonalds, Burger King, Red Lobster, or any
other nationally recognized chain, they are taking a much smaller risk than
if they entered an independent restaurant about which they knew very little.
There is less risk with the chain operation because the product-service mix is
well known to customers. Independent hospitality operations must work very
hard to establish themselves and thereby reduce some of the risk consumers
associate with patronizing a restaurant where the product-service mix is not
well known.
Postpurchase Evaluation
Following the product-service mix consumption, the final stage is postpur-
chase evaluation. How did the actual experience compare with the expecta-
tions prior to purchase? Was the product-service mix better than or not quite
up to the standards anticipated? Postconsumption feelings are based on two
factors: the consumers expectations and the actual performance by the hos-
pitality operation. For this reason, it is very important for any hospitality op-
eration to deliver the product-service mix promised in advertising promo-
tion or personal selling. Failure to perform at or above the level anticipated
by the consumer is likely to lead to negative postconsumption feelings. These
negative feelings produce dissatisfaction and reduce the level of repeat pa-
tronage. From a management perspective, it is important to promise less and
deliver moreunderpromise and overdeliver. This is a key concept in pro-
ducing satisfied customers.5 Finally, there is a period of time between the
purchase of hospitality or tourism services and when they are consumed. Dur-
ing this period, consumers may have second thoughts or negative feelings
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consumer problem-solving processes 103
about the purchase that are referred to as cognitive dissonance. That is why
it is important for hospitality firms to run advertisements that depict satis-
fied customers.
Consumer decision making is extremely complex. Marketing managers
constantly strive to learn more about the way consumers reach decisions. As
with other forms of human behavior, consumer behavior may never be to-
tally understood.
CONSUMER PROBLEM-
SOLVING PROCESSES
Consumers, either consciously or subconsciously, employ certain processes to
integrate the information that they have obtained over time to evaluate and
choose among the various alternatives. These formal integration strategies can
be termed compensatory, noncompensatory, or a combination of the two.
Compensatory Strategies
When consumers use compensatory strategies, they use a products strengths
in one or more areas to compensate for deficiencies in other areas. In other
words, consumers view products and services as bundles of attributes. The set
of alternatives that a consumer is considering for purchase will contain prod-
ucts or services that have various combinations of these attributes and their
levels. This multiattribute approach assumes that consumers are capable of
evaluating each of a products attributes and then arriving at an overall as-
sessment, or score, for the product that can be compared to alternative prod-
ucts. It is believed that consumers make these complicated comparisons and
trade-offs and then choose the product that achieves the highest rating.
For example, the consumer information in Table 3.2 can be used to illus-
trate the differences between the various consumer problem-solving processes.
According to the information in the table, if all of the attributes were equally
weighted, the consumer would choose the Four Seasons because it received
the highest average score (3.33) based on the actual ratings. Even though the
hotel received a lower rating for price, its higher ratings on location and ser-
vice quality compensated for the deficiency. However, if the weighted aver-
ages are used, the Holiday Inn received the highest average score because this
consumer (or market segment) is relatively price sensitive and Holiday Inns
higher rating on price offset the lower ratings on location and service quality.
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Noncompensatory Strategies
When using noncompensatory strategies, consumers do not allow product
strengths in one area to compensate for deficiencies or weaknesses in another
area. Instead, consumers place more emphasis on individual attributes and in
some cases develop minimum thresholds to use in evaluating products and
services. There are three main noncompensatory strategies that are used by
consumers: conjunctive, disjunctive, and lexicographic.
CONJUNCTIVE. A conjunctive approach involves setting minimum thresh-
olds for each attribute and eliminating brands that do not surpass this thresh-
old on any one salient attribute. The consumer determines which attributes
will be important in choosing between brands. For example, a certain indi-
vidual might consider location, food quality, food variety, and price to be the
salient attributes in choosing a restaurant while on vacation. Upon examining
the menus that are posted in the windows of restaurants in a busy tourist area,
the individual can quickly eliminate restaurants that are deficient on menu
variety or have prices that are too high. In addition, restaurants with good
reputations for food quality and menu variety that are within the acceptable
price range will be eliminated if they are not within walking distance.
Referring back to the example in Table 3.2, assume that the consumer has
a minimum threshold of 3.0 (good) for all of the attributes. Even though the
Four Seasons received the highest scores for location and service quality, it
did not meet the threshold for price. Therefore, the consumer would choose
the Marriott if he was using a conjunctive strategy. It is the only hotel that
received a minimum of three on all of the attributes.
DISJUNCTIVE. Some consumers do not get as involved in the purchase pro-
cess and may prefer to take a less complicated approach to making purchase
decisions. With the disjunctive approach, consumers still establish minimum
thresholds for their salient attributes. However, a brand will be acceptable if
it exceeds the minimum standard on at least one attribute. Consumers ap-
plying this approach tend to have only one or two salient attributes, the prod-
ucts or services tend to be very similar, and they are not as highly involved in
the decision-making process. For example, a truck driver might consider price,
location, and basic quality in choosing a hotel or motel to stop for the night.
However, it is not unusual for truck drivers to choose the closest hotel or mo-
tel when they are starting to get tired. Similarly, an international tourist might
choose the first hotel that looks clean or fits his price range.
Once again, the information in Table 3.2 can be used to illustrate the
thought process behind a disjunctive strategy. Assume that the consumer was
concerned about only one attribute. In this case, it would probably be price,
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consumer problem-solving processes 105
since it received the highest importance rating. The consumer would choose
the hotel that received the highest rating for price, which would be the Hol-
iday Inn. This strategy would assume that location and service quality werent
as important, given that the Holiday Inn received the lowest ratings on both.
LEXICOGRAPHIC. The lexicographic approach falls somewhere between
conjunctive and disjunctive choice processes in terms of complexity. Just as in
the other two approaches, the consumer determines a set of salient attributes,
or choice criteria. Next, the consumer places these choice criteria in rank or-
der from most important to least important. Then the consumer evaluates the
alternative brands, starting with the most important attribute. The brand that
rates the highest on the most important attribute will be selected. If two or
more brands tie or are closely rated, then those brands are evaluated using the
second most important attribute. This continues until one brand remains or
the list of attributes is exhaustedforcing a choice between the remaining
brands. It is important to note that all brands are not evaluated on all crite-
ria. For example, a business traveler might rank the most important attrib-
utes in airline travel to be convenience, comfort, food quality, and price, in
that order. Depending on the airport where the flight is going to originate,
the traveler might be able to narrow the choices down to two airlines that of-
fer direct flights at the preferred time. The final choice might then be made
based on the fact that one of the airlines is perceived by the traveler to pro-
vide better service or comfort.
Finally, the information in Table 3.2 can be used to demonstrate this last
noncompensatory strategy. This strategy would make use of the actual rat-
ings based on the importance, or priority assigned to each of the attributes.
The consumer put the attributes in order of price, location, and service qual-
ity based on importance (highest to lowest). Therefore, the first step is for the
consumer to evaluate all three hotels on price. Since the Holiday Inn received
the highest rating for price, the consumer would choose that hotel. However,
if one of the other hotels also received a 4.0 rating for price, the consumer
would have eliminated the one that didnt and move to the next attribute.
This process would be repeated until there was one alternative left.
Combination Strategies
One of the main questions regarding problem-solving strategies is the ability
of consumers to obtain, integrate, and evaluate the information available on
the myriad brands in most product categories. The compensatory approach is
particularly cumbersome in this respect, as can be noncompensatory ap-
proaches such as conjunctive or lexicographic strategies. And in many cases,
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the disjunctive approach would seem overly simplistic. Therefore, it could be

argued that consumers actually use a combination of approaches in an attempt
to adapt to the purchase situation and simplify the decision process. For ex-
ample, using a conjunctive strategy, a family might eliminate all restaurants
that dont have childrens menus. Then the remaining restaurants could be
evaluated using a more complicated compensatory strategy or a more simple
disjunctive strategy.
CONSUMER PROBLEM-
SOLVING TECHNIQUES
The consumer decision-making process differs in the length of time and ef-
fort expended on each stage based on the consumers level of involvement and
experience with a product category. Also, the level of involvement may change
depending on the purchase situation. For instance, a young mans choice pro-
cess for a restaurant could differ greatly when it is for a date versus a dinner
with his buddies. Table 3.3 provides a comparison of the three levels of prob-
lem solving: routine response behavior, limited problem solving, and extended
problem solving.
Routine Response Behavior

For some products, consumers exert very little effort in the decision-making
process. Some marketing professionals believe that consumers actually skip
stages of the process, while others feel that consumers merely move through
all of the stages very quickly. This routine, or habitual, response involves very
little information search or cognitive processing because the decision is almost
automatic. Routine response behavior is typical for low-priced, frequently pur-
chased products where consumer involvement is low. The amount of effort
that consumers exert in the problem-solving process tends to decrease over
time as they learn more about a product category and gain experience through
consumption. An example of this behavior would be workers choosing the
employee cafeteria for lunch.
Limited Problem Solving

Many consumers purchase decisions involve limited problem solving because
of some product differentiation and alternative brands. There is some infor-
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consumer problem-solving techniques 107
routine limited extended

response problem problem
characteristics behavior solving solving
Amount of search Minimal Moderate Substantial
Number of brands One Few Many

considered
Number of attributes One or two Few Many

evaluated
Cognitive processing Minimal Moderate Substantial
Number of external None Few Many

information sources used
Level of involvement Low Medium High
Total amount of effort Low Medium High
table 3.3 Problem-solving techniques.
mation search, including external sources, unlike in routine response behav-

ior. Consumers have a low to moderate level of involvement, and they con-
sider a moderate number of attributes in making the purchase decision. At
this point, the consumer usually has some knowledge and experience with re-
gard to the product category. Consumers are willing to exert some time and
effort to ensure a good choice. For example, choosing a restaurant for every-
day dining is a limited problem-solving task for most consumers. Similarly,
the choice an of airline or rental car agency usually involves a few salient at-
tributes, and the choice of alternatives is easily reduced to two or three brands.
Extended Problem Solving

This type of problem solving is most often associated with high-priced prod-
ucts that are purchased infrequently. Consumers need to engage in an exten-
sive search process to identify salient attributes and alternative brands. Con-
sumers are highly involved because of the price and risk of making a bad
choice, and they exert a good deal of time and effort. The cognitive process
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is substantial because consumers need to evaluate the alternative brands us-

ing many attributes. For example, a couple planning a cruise will talk to
friends, as well as a travel agent, and take their time to evaluate the various
cruise lines based on price, accommodations, destinations, cabin availability,
service, and quality.
ORGANIZATIONAL BUYER BEHAVIOR

Purchase decisions differ between organizations and individual buyers, but
both types of buyers are trying to satisfy their particular needs. The buy-
ing process for organizations is much more structured and formal in com-
parison to the individual buying process. The most common organizational
markets in hospitality and tourism are the meetings market for hotels and
the tour market for travel. In addition, food service firms will offer cater-
ing services to groups such as corporations and institutions, wedding par-
ties, and tour buses. Finally, hospitality firms purchase supplies needed for
their operations from various vendors. For example, restaurants and hotels
purchase uniforms, computer hardware and software, paper, and large food
quantities. This section highlights some of the main characteristics of or-
ganizational buying.
Characteristics of Organizational Buying

The organizational buying process includes the stages used by organizations
to determine needs (problem recognition), search for information, evaluate al-
ternatives, make a purchase, and evaluate the purchase (postconsumption eval-
uation). In general, organizations go through the same decision-making pro-
cess as individual consumers. However, there are some major differences
between the activities within the stages.
Larger-volume purchases. Organizational buyers usually purchase in large

volumes. For example, meeting planners book anywhere from 10 to 1,000
or more rooms, and tour operators package trips for groups of 10 or more.
Derived demand. The demand for organization products is derived from
the demand for consumer products. For example, when the demand for
insurance increases, insurance companies have more sales meetings and
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organizational buyer behavior 109
sponsor more incentive trips. Corporations and associations tend to have

larger travel budgets when their industries are doing well.
More emphasis on specifications and service. The products in organiza-
tion markets tend to be more technical in nature, and buyers are more
concerned about specifications and service after the sale. For example,
meeting planners are concerned about meeting room dimensions, audio-
visual equipment, room temperature control, and conference service.
Rarely do transient customers get into detail about the room dimensions
and other specifications.
Professional buyers and more negotiation. Organization buyers tend to be
professionals with an extensive knowledge of the product. Therefore, the
purchase process tends to be longer and more involved for organizations
than for regular consumers. Also, when buying large volumes, organiza-
tion buyers have more power and can negotiate. For example, hotels and
tour operators are willing to make more concessions in the price and
product-service mix to sell higher volume to one buyer.
Repeat business. One of the benefits of selling to organizations is that they
tend to become repeat purchasers. For example, corporations will use the
same hotel throughout the year to amass higher volume and receive more
concessions. Then, if the corporation is pleased with the service, it will use
the hotel for meetings in subsequent years.
Multiple buyers. Often, more than one individual is involved in the buy-
ing process and making the ultimate purchase decision for organizations.
A buying center or buying unit is a group of people that influences buying
decisions for organizations. For example, many associations have site selec-
tion committees that choose destinations and hotels for future meetings.
Table 3.4 provides a comparison of the stages in the buying process be-
tween consumers and organizations. The example involves the purchase of
hotel services and provides a step-by-step summary of the possible activities
at each stage.
Members of the Buying Unit

As mentioned earlier, organizations will normally have buying centers or buy-
ing units that influence their purchase decisions. Five specific roles have been
identified for individuals constituting a buying unit: user, influencer, buyer,
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organizational purchase of
stage in the consumer purchase of hotel facilities for an
buying process a weekend hotel room association meeting
Problem Recognition A couple feels like getting An association has to hold its
away for a weekend. annual meeting for members
to elect officers.
Information Search Based on past experience, The planner looks through

they may contact a travel information on file, contacts the
agent or rely on word of local CVB and hotel salespeople,
mouth and other forms of considers past experience, looks
promotion. at Web sites, or looks at meeting
magazines or other advertising
materials.
Evaluation of They use routine or limited The planner reviews hotel

Alternatives problem solving based on specifications, makes site visits,
a few salient attributes. and talks to salespeople.
Many attributes are important.
Purchase Decisions A specific hotel is chosen The meeting planner negotiates

and the room is charged to with a salesperson, the terms
a credit card. are determined, and a contract
is signed.
Postpurchase There is some time before Association meetings are planned

Evaluation the actual visit for three to five years in advance,
cognitive dissonance, but leaving time for cognitive
it is difficult to evaluate dissonance. The hotel or the
the service before it is city could undergo some major
consumed. changes within that period.
table 3.4 A comparison of consumer and organizational buying.
decider, and gatekeeper. In some instances, there is more than one person in
each role, or the same person occupies more than one role.
Users. These are the people in the firm who actually use the product. For
example, front desk personnel will use a reservation system, waiters will
use a point-of-sale system, and meeting attendees will use hotel facilities.
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organizational buyer behavior 111
Influencers. These are the people who have some expertise in the prod-
uct area and help define the necessary specifications. For example, com-
puter systems personnel would help choose a reservation system or a point-
of-sale system, and human resources personnel often influence site
selection for meetings.
Buyers. These are the people who have the formal authority and respon-
sibility for making the purchase decision. For example, an employee at
the corporate office for a hotel or restaurant chain will purchase reserva-
tion systems or point-of-sale systems, and a meeting planner will sign a
contract for hotel facilities.
Deciders. These are the people who have the authority to select or ap-
prove a supplier. They are often top executives within the organization
who have the formal power to make decisions, but they are normally in-
volved only with high-dollar purchases. For example, general managers,
CEOs, directors, and presidents usually have this type of authority.
Gatekeepers. These individuals control the flow of information that is rele-
vant to a purchase decision. For example, administrative assistants or recep-
tionists have the ability to restrict the flow of information to buyers and other
members of the buying unit. Hotel salespeople must often rely on adminis-
trative assistants to get information to meeting planners.
Factors that Influence

Organizational Buying
Most of the factors that affect consumers buying behavior are also relevant to or-
ganizational buying behavior. This includes external influences such as environ-
mental factors (i.e., political/legal, technological, economic, and competitive), ref-
erence groups (e.g., trade associations and certification boards), and cultural
differences. Cultural differences can be external, such as individualism versus
collectivism, social gender roles, long-term versus short-term orientation, and
the societys level of risk aversion. For example, Asian countries such as Japan and
South Korea tend to have more of a long-term business focus than the United
States, and many developed countries are individualist societies while developing
countries tend to be more collectivist.
In addition, cultural differences can be internal influences such as the char-
acteristics of the organization (e.g., size, level of technology, and the internal
reward system), the characteristics of the individuals in the buying unit (e.g.,
c03.qxd 2/2/05 1:51 PM Page 112
personality, motivation, and education), and the characteristics of the buying

unit as a whole (e.g., size, authority, leadership, and structure). For example,
the Ritz-Carlton hotel chain focuses on quality and stresses that in its train-
ing and reward structure. Buying decisions are based on the suppliers will-
ingness to adhere to this same concept and support the chains quality goals.
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chapter review 113
Chapter review
This chapter provides a broad overview of the complex subject of consumer
behavior. Management must constantly strive to learn more about consumer
behavior, for this will allow managers to better serve the needs of customers.
In this way, sales and profits can be increased and a competitive advantage
can be gained.
A variety of factors influence consumers purchase decisions. External in-
fluences include culture, socioeconomic status, reference groups, and house-
hold. All of these entities have an influence on the way a consumer progresses
through the five stages of the decision-making process: problem recognition,
information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post-
purchase evaluation. In addition, internal influences such as needs, experi-
ences, personality, perceptions, and attitudes affect the decision-making
process.
In theory, consumers are believed to apply certain processes, or strategies,
when they evaluate alternatives. Compensatory strategies allow product
strengths to compensate for weaknesses, while noncompensatory strategies re-
duce the number of salient attributes to streamline the process. However, it
is possible that consumers use a combination of more than one approach or
strategy. There are various problem-solving techniques that consider the con-
sumers level of involvement and explain how the decision-making process
may differ across product categories. The level of problem solving ranges from
routine response behavior to limited problem solving and extended problem
solving, depending upon the situation.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Attitudes
Buying center or buying unit
Cognitive dissonance
Compensatory strategies
Culture
Evoked set
Extended problem solving
External influences
Internal influences
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Limited problem solving

Maslows hierarchy of needs
Motives
Needs
Noncompensatory strategies
Opinion leaders
Organizational buying
Perception
Personality
Reference groups
Routine response behavior

DISCUSSION
Chapter review
1. What are some of the internal and external influences on

consumer purchases?
2. List and discuss the five stages in the consumer
decision-making process.
3. What are the differences between compensatory strategies
and noncompensatory strategies for problem solving?
4. Give an example of how a consumer would use a combination
of problem-solving processes.
5. What are the three problem-solving techniques used by con-
sumers? Explain how they differ, using the stages of the con-
sumer decision-making process.
6. How would a hospitality marketer use the consumer adoption
process in planning a promotional strategy?
7. How does the decision-making process differ between con-
sumers and organizations?
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chapter review 115
Chapter review
8. What are the five components of the buying unit? Give an ex-
ample of a buying unit in hospitality or tourism.
NOTES
1
James U. McNeal, Consumer Behavior (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 515.
2
Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).
3
David B. Wolfe, The Ageless Market: The Key to the Older Market Is to Forget Age and Focus on Consumer
Wants and Needs, American Demographics 9, 7 (July 1987): 26(6).
4
David C. McClelland, Toward a Theory of Motive Acquisition, American Psychologist 20 (1965): 32133.
5
Kenneth Blanchard and Sheldon M. Bowles, Raving Fans: A Revolutionary Approach to Customer Service (New
York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1993), p. 101.
c03.qxd 2/2/05 1:51 PM Page 116
Case Study
Tempura Garden
T empura Garden restaurant offers Asian cuisine consisting of Japan-

ese and some Korean dishes. The meals are competitively priced
($7$10 for lunch and $8$16 for dinner) compared with other full-
service restaurants in the area, but the location and parking are a problem:
the restaurant is located away from the main traffic area, and there is limited
parking available. Fortunately, the restaurant is doing fairly well because it is
one of the few places in town that offer sushi and other Japanese and Korean
dishes. However, the downturn in the economy has affected the full-service
restaurant market, and the owner is concerned about competing in the new
environment.
The restaurant has a group of loyal customers that live nearby, as well as
some of the local Asian population. The owner is concerned about keeping
these customers satisfied, but he must also find a way to attract new customers
to continue to be profitable. Therefore, he decides that the first step would be
to survey his current customers to determine how they had first heard about
Tempura Garden and what is important to them when choosing a restaurant.
The following are the results to the first question.
How did you first become aware of Tempura Garden?

Newspaper advertisement 10%
case study
Radio advertisement 5%
Word of mouth 55%
Val-Pak 10%
Drove by 20%
This provided some useful insight into how people became aware of the
restaurant. Apparently, word of mouth was the main vehicle, which is con-
sistent with other studies reported in trade publications. The owner didnt
do much radio advertising, but he did place ads in the newspaper and Val-
Pak (various retail coupons combined and delivered through direct mail) on
a regular basis.
The other area of concern is the importance of various attributes or
characteristics in choosing a restaurant. In particular, he wanted to know
if his location was a major weakness relative to other full-service restau-
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case study 117
case study
rants in the area. In addition, he could determine what characteristics were
most important to customers when choosing a restaurant. The survey con-
tained a section for respondents to rate the importance of a list of charac-
teristics on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 not important at all to 7
very important. The following table contains the mean importance ratings.
importance performance
characteristic rating rating
Timeliness of service 5.64 4.17
Quality of service 6.21 4.36
Cleanliness 6.43 4.37
Quality of food 6.63 4.50
Menu variety 5.29 4.32
Employee friendliness 5.91 4.46
Atmosphere 5.44 4.11
Convenience of location 5.08 4.23
Value for the price paid 6.01 4.18
In addition to the importance ratings, respondents were also asked to rate

Tempura Gardens performance on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 poor to
5 excellent. The mean performance ratings appear in the third column in
the table. The owner must now examine the results and make some decisions
based on his analysis.

1. How did people first become aware of the restaurant? How does this
affect the owners approach to creating awareness and getting people to
try the restaurant? What strategies would you recommend?
2. What are the most important factors in choosing a restaurant? How
does Tempura Garden rate on these factors?
3. Discuss the owners potential responses to the ratings for each of the
consumer problem-solving processes.
4. What additional information would be useful?
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 118
Courtesy of PhotoDisc, Inc.

c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 119
chapter
understanding and targeting hospitality consumers 119
4
Market Segmentation
and Positioning
Chapter Objectives
1. Define the term market segmentation.
2. List variables that are commonly used to segment
markets.
3. Outline the four-step process used to segment potential
markets.
4. Explain the relationship between market segmentation
and the development of marketing strategies.
5. Define positioning and describe its role in gaining a
competitive advantage.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Psychographic
Behavioral
Introduction to Market Benefits sought
Segmentation
The nature of market segmentation Market Segmentation Decisions
Criteria for effective segmentation Identify segmentation bases
Develop profiles for each market segment
Segmentation Variables Forecast performance for each market
Geographic segment
Demographic Select the best market segments
(continues)
119
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Market Segmentation Strategies Develop a strategy for obtaining the

Mass-market strategy desired position
Differentiated strategy Summary of Chapter Objectives
Concentrated strategy
Positioning the Product-Service
Mix Questions for Review and
Determine the ideal mix for consumers Discussion
Measure consumer perceptions of Case Study: Springfield Convention
available services and Visitors Bureau
Look for gaps in coverage and select a
desired position
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industry profile 121
industry profile
Patti Lloyd Vice President of Sales
Cape Cod Chamber of Commerce and Convention and Visitors Bureau
Hyannis, Massachusetts
I started my career in food service in the Boston area and eventually moved
to Cape Cod, where I was the general manager for a couple of restau-
rants. I traded the money and the hours to take a position with the Cham-
ber of Commerce in order to have a better quality of life.

Promoting Cape Cod as a viable year-round meeting, incentive, motor coach,
golf, and wedding destination.

I get satisfaction from my daily interaction with people in the industry and
also the members of our chamber. Having tasks to be determined by com-
mittee rule and not being able to make quicker decisions is the most frus-
trating part of my job.

youre facing?
Doing more work with less money because of budget cuts and staff reduc-
tion.

industry?
Last-minute booking has been on the rise, along with planners looking for
better value for their moneymore bang for their buck.

company?
Within the Chamber, marketing plays a huge role. We have two constituen-
cies. One is our members or prospective members. This group is one that we
market to in a variety of ways: newsletters, e-newsletters, special events, and
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122 chapter 4 market segmentation and positioning
public relations and news media stories. The second constituency is our mem-
bers customersthe visitors to Cape Cod. We expend a great deal of our
resources marketing to potential visitors. We spend money on advertising,
public relations, information centers, and sales staff as means of marketing to
visitors.

you suggest?
Appearance and personal skills such as follow-through and aggressiveness are
what will set you apart from the rest.
industry profile
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introduction to market segmentation 123
INTRODUCTION TO MARKET
SEGMENTATION
Gaining and maintaining a competitive advantage in the broad consumer
market for hospitality and travel products is a very difficult task. It is much
easier to be successful if a firm tries to carve out a smaller niche or segment
of the market, in which the firm can establish a competitive uniqueness; hence,
the development of market segmentation. Marketing managers have long
used market segmentation to separate the market into smaller, relatively ho-
mogeneous groups. Therefore, a simple definition for market segmentation
is pursuing a marketing strategy whereby the total potential market is divided
into homogeneous subsets of customers, each of which responds differently to
the marketing mix of the organization.
For many years, most hospitality and tourism organizations attempted to
serve the needs of a fairly wide variety of markets. These groups included
broad segments that cut across much of the spectrum of age, gender, income,
geography, ethnicity, and education. Today, many hospitality chains serve the
needs of markets in all 50 states and several foreign countries. Therefore, it
is imperative that they use some type of segmentation strategy. These firms
must take into consideration the differences between various consumer groups
that represent their target markets. For example, a national fast-food chain
should take into consideration the differences among individuals living in dif-
ferent regions of the United States. In addition to geographic location, firms
must also consider differences in lifestyle and consumer behavior, all of which
add special challenges to the marketing of the product-service mix for hospi-
tality and tourism organizations.
Segmentation can be used effectively in all facets of the hospitality and
tourism industry, even in areas that may appear to be less suitable for seg-
mentation. For example, airline travel may not appear to be well suited to seg-
mentation. Each year, millions of travelers will board aircraft to take them to
their destination. At first glance, one might assume that airline travel is a fairly
homogeneous product serving the same basic need for most travelers. How-
ever, airlines have been successful at segmenting based on price sensitivity and
frequency of use. Within many aircraft today, you will find three levels of ser-
vice: first class, business class, and coach. Each level offers differences in seat
size and comfort, the level of amenities, and the ratio of flight attendants to
passengers. The individual consumer is able to select the level of service de-
sired and is charged a different price for each. Airlines also segment the mar-
ket based on frequency of travel.
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The Nature of Market Segmentation

Why is it desirable to segment markets? Many owners and managers of hos-
pitality organizations ask this question. Often, they believe that they need to
appeal to all potential customers and that by segmenting the market they will
weaken their competitive position and profits. They believe that if they seg-
ment the market and target their marketing and promotional efforts squarely
at a few segments, their sales volume will fall. This approach is shortsighted
and fails to consider the reasons underlying a market segmentation approach.
The basic premise of segmentation is to allocate limited resources so that re-
turn on investment can be maximized.
Market segmentation, when done properly, can improve sales and prof-
its because it allows the organization to target specific market segments
that are much more likely to patronize the organizations facilities. This
approach permits the organization to more effectively allocate scarce mar-
keting resources aimed at those market segments with the highest proba-
bility of purchasing the organizations products and services. Using market
segmentation, companies can identify those market segments that are heavy
users of their products and services. At the same time, segments that hold
little potential for using a companys products receive little or no attention,
so the marketing resources that are available are not wasted chasing after
market segments with little sales potential.
When the market is segmented, different product-service mixes can be
promoted to meet the needs of the different segments. For example, a hotels
bar and restaurant can be used to attract a variety of market segments by vary-
ing the type of entertainment offered. Management could try to increase sales
volume by establishing specific nights of the week such as jazz night, oldies
night, country night, and blues night. Each of these events offers a spe-
cific type of entertainment that appeals to a specific clientele. Within the lodg-
ing segment of the industry, hotels that cater to the business traveler are usu-
ally busy on Monday through Thursday nights and are often quite slow on
the weekends. Therefore, one of the marketing communications and promo-
tional goals is to target those market segments with the most potential for
boosting weekend occupancy. Each hotel chain attempts to present the total
package of amenities, room, and food and beverage in an appealing manner.
By attempting to appeal to those target segments seeking a getaway weekend
or a mini vacation at a good price, the hotel is able to boost occupancy and to-
tal revenue during a time when the hotel would normally not be operating at
full capacity (i.e., 100 percent occupancy).
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introduction to market segmentation 125
Criteria for Effective Segmentation

As firms attempt to segment markets, they have many methods from which
to choose. However, it is important to know when to segment and how far
the segmentation efforts should go in targeting specific markets. There is a
point where a market can be segmented too much, with the resulting subset
being too small to be profitable. Or it may not be efficient to develop several
different marketing programs for the various market segments when one or
two could be used for the entire market. When any segmentation efforts are
undertaken, four criteria should be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
market segmentation strategy:
Substantiality
Measurability
Accessibility
Actionability
First, consider substantialitywhether the market segment is large

enough. As the market is segmented, a hospitality manager manipulates the
elements of the marketing mix to meet the needs of the individual segments
and to achieve the marketing objectives of the firm. The size of each of these
segments must be large enough to warrant this special attention. For ex-
ample, two decades ago, very few restaurants had sections of their menus
dedicated to healthier foods because there werent enough customers to jus-
tify it. Since then, even fast-food restaurants have added healthy menu items
and, today, many restaurants have items targeting a specific diet segment
the Atkins diet. This demonstrates the importance of having a large enough
population to warrant targeting a specific market segment.
Second, each of the segments must pass the measurability test. Measura-
bility should be assessed from two perspectives: the overall size of the target
market segment and the projected total demand or purchasing power of the
target market. Minimum cutoff points should be established relative to the
size and projected demand of any target market segments. If the number of
consumers or projected total demand within a given segment falls below these
cutoff points, target market segments can simply be combined.
Third, look at accessibility. It must be possible to reach the large target
market segments through a variety of marketing communications efforts.
Marketing communication can include a wide variety of approaches, includ-
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 126
LEGOLAND California attracts visitors from many market segments. Courtesy of

LEGOLAND California. LEGO, LEGOLAND, the LEGO and LEGOLAND logos
and the brick configuration are trademarks of the LEGO Group and are used here with
special permission. 2004 The LEGO Group.
ing but not limited to advertising, promotion, direct marketing, telemarket-

ing, and personal selling. Without accessibility, there is very little reason for
segmenting the target market. A major purpose for segmenting the market
is to isolate viable segments of potential business and to direct marketing com-
munication efforts related to specific aspects of the product-service mix to-
ward these segments. Without accessibility, this is not possible, and segment-
ing the target market is of little value.
Fourth, firms must be able to create marketing programs that are effec-
tive in attracting buyers from the market segment. In other words, customers
within a particular market segment should share similar characteristics, while
those in different segments should vary in terms of their characteristics. For
example, if a restaurant offers an early bird special it should appeal to cer-
tain target segments and not others. Families and senior citizens might be
willing to eat earlier to save money and avoid crowds, whereas consumers in
other segments arent as price sensitive and arent willing to compromise on
convenience for a discount. If all consumers reacted the same to a firms mar-
keting program, then there wouldnt be any need to segment the market.
SEGMENTATION VARIABLES
Marketing managers can use five basic types of variables when segmenting
consumer markets: geographic, demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and
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segmentation variables 127
benefits variables. These segmentation variables can be used alone or in com-

bination with one another, depending on the level of segmentation that is de-
sired. Figures 4.1a4.1d illustrate the basic concept of market segmentation.
Figure 4.1a shows a market that has not been segmented. In other words, no
attempt has been made to divide the large, heterogeneous market into smaller,
homogeneous subsets. Figures 4.1b and 4.1c illustrate markets that have been
segmented using one variable, and Figure 4.1d shows a market that has been
segmented using two variables. In practice, it is normally best to use at least
two or more of the following types of variables to segment markets.
Geographic Variables
A geographic variable, as the name implies, relates to the consumers geo-
graphic area of residence. Markets are often segmented by dividing the coun-
try into regions such as Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, North-Central, Southwest,
and Northwest. Segmentation is also accomplished by examining the popu-
lation of a given area. Based on the United States Census (2000), the total pop-
ulation is more than 270 million. However, this population is not evenly dis-
tributed; it is concentrated in major metropolitan areas. For example, in 2000,
80 percent of the United States population lived in metropolitan areas.1
figure 4.1a A nonsegmented market.
C
A
B figure 4.1b A market segmented by age (A 1834, B 3549,
C above 49).
H
M
figure 4.1c A market segmented by income (H high, M moder-
L
ate, L low).
CH CM
AM
BM AL
BL
figure 4.1d A market segmented by age and income.
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In addition to population density, there are differing patterns of popula-

tion migration. According to the 2000 Census, the 1990s was the only decade
in the twentieth century without any state losses in population in the United
States. The non-California West (Arizona, Colorado, and Nevada, etc.) saw
the largest percentage change, with figures over 30 percent. This was followed
by the Southeast, Northwest, and Southwest, with increases ranging from 15
to 29 percent, especially in the New South (Georgia, North Carolina, etc.). Fi-
nally, the Northeast and Midwest lagged behind, with increases below 10
percent.
Several different terms are used to describe cities and metropolitan areas,
but the following designation is the most popular in marketing. The term
metropolitan statistical area (MSA) refers to the smallest urban area with an
urban center population of 50,000 and a total metropolitan population of more
than 100,000. Metropolitan statistical areas are normally urban areas that are
self-contained and surrounded by rural areas. Examples of MSAs include
Roanoke, Virginia, and Peoria, Illinois. The next category of urban area is
primary metropolitan statistical area (PMSA). A PMSA is an urbanized
county or multicounty area with a population of more than 1 million indi-
viduals. Examples of PMSAs include Cook County in Illinois and Nassau
County in New York. Finally, the very largest cities such as New York,
Chicago, and Los Angeles are known as consolidated metropolitan statistical
areas (CMSAs). A CMSA must include at least two PMSAs.
Geographic variables are used extensively by the print and broadcast me-
dia to define and describe their readers and audience. It is also vital to know
the geographic areas your business comes from. For example, nearly 50 per-
cent of all room nights in the hotel industry are generated by the top 25
CMSAs, PSMAs, and MSAs. Segmenting a hotels market based on the ori-
gin of the guests by using their zip codes is an effective way to identify those
areas that merit the heaviest concentration of advertising and promotion.
Demographic Variables
Markets are often segmented based on demographic variables such as age,
gender, income and expenditure patterns, family size, stage in the family life
cycle, educational level achieved, and occupation. When these variables are
used in defining consumers within the hospitality and tourism industry, cer-
tain trends emerge. For instance, as family size increases, the number of times
per week that a family dines outside the home tends to decrease. Also, when
families do dine out, their choice of restaurant changes as the family makeup
changes. This is important because the size of the average family has decreased
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Residents of and visitors to Mobile, Alabama, can enjoy a scenic trip along the Mobile
River in a stern-wheeler. Mobile is an example of a metropolitan statistical area (MSA).
over the years. In 1995, the average family size was 3.15 persons, but this fig-
ure is expected to decrease gradually to 3.05 by the year 2010.2 In fact, the tra-
ditional family (married couples with children, in which only the father
works) accounts for only 7 percent of U.S. households.3 This represents a trend
toward smaller families and people living alone, segments that could become
target markets for hospitality and tourism firms.
The family life cycle provides a good example of how variables can be
combined to create categories that can be used for segmentation. The family
life cycle uses age, marital status, and the number of children to create cate-
gories sharing common discretionary income levels and purchasing behaviors.
The traditional family life cycle proposes that as individuals become adults
and enter the workforce, they tend to be single and have lower incomes, re-
sulting in lower levels of discretionary incomeincome available after cov-
ering current expenses for necessity items like food and housing (see Figure
4.2a). However, these young singles do not have many obligations or respon-
sibilities and so are able to spend money on items that are not necessities. In-
dividuals begin to increase their incomes as they age, and young married cou-
ples without children will have increasing amounts of discretionary income.
However, once married couples have children, their discretionary incomes be-
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Newly Full Empty Solitary

Single
married nest nest survivor
figure 4.2a Traditional family life cycle.
Unmarried
couples
Newly Full Empty Solitary

Single
married nest nest survivor
Single
parent
figure 4.2b Modernized family life cycle.
gin to decrease, until the children are older and move out. At this point the
couples are said to have an empty nest, and discretionary income begins to
increase again. Finally, as individuals reach their golden years, they retire and
see their incomes start to decrease.
This traditional family life cycle has changed over time and now includes
several extensions. First, many people are waiting longer to get married and
extending the single stage. In addition, more people are choosing not to marry,
and some single adults adopt children. Second, the increase in the divorce rate
has resulted in more single parents and second marriages that involve older
parents with younger children. Third, there are more same-sex couples, and
organizations are beginning to recognize this partnership for benefits and
adoptions. Finally, people are living longer, resulting in a higher percentage
of solitary survivors, many of whom form relationships later in life. Figure
4.2b provides an example of a modernized family life cycle.
Segmentation using demographic variables is very common. In fact, firms
should always collect demographic information on their customers so that they
can construct a basic profile of heavy users. Demographic information is easy
to collect and understand. Also, aggregate data collected by the government
at all levels can be used for comparisons in surveys and targeting potential
markets. Finally, demographic classifications are widely used by various me-
dia to describe viewers, listeners, and readers. This allows firms to select me-
dia vehicles that will reach individuals fitting the profile of a typical customer.
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The senior market, often referred to as the gray market, is growing

faster than any other market in America. By the year 2050, it is expected that
one in three Americans will be 55 or older.4 The senior market has been ex-
panding and is becoming more attractive because older Americans have a good
deal of free time, they are healthier and live longer, and they have more dis-
cretionary income than ever before. These trends make the senior market par-
ticularly attractive to firms in the hospitality and tourism industry. However,
although the age of 55 is a common cutoff used for describing this market,
the American Association for Retired Persons (AARP) accepts members start-
ing at 50 years of age, and many firms use a figure in the range of 60 to 65
when offering discounts to the senior market. For example, US Airways of-
fers a senior discount to those 62 and older, and American Airlines uses 65 as
the qualifier. Regardless, this market is growing in size as well as clout when
it comes to influencing the government and marketers. AARP is quite possi-
bly the most influential association in Washington, D.C., and most hospital-
ity and tourism firms offer some type of discount to senior citizens.
The active senior market is an attractive target market for the hospitality and tourism in-
dustries. Courtesy of Corbis Digital Stock.
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 132
If a firm chooses to target the senior market, it should determine the at-
tributes that are important to this market segment in purchasing its types of
products and services. Then products and services can be designed and mar-
keted specifically to seniors. For example, hotels should provide luggage carts
or bell service so seniors can get help with heavy luggage. In addition, rooms
should have wide aisles, telephones and remote controls with larger numbers,
simple alarm clocks with large numbers, and easy-to-use facilities in the bath-
room, including bars near the toilet and in the bathtub that can be used for
getting up and down. Similarly, restaurants should provide menus with large
print, meals that are healthy and have smaller portions, and adequate light-
ing so that seniors can read the menus. Finally, hospitality and tourism firms
should realize that seniors like to travel in tour groups for the companionship
and security, they are very value-conscious, and they require frequent stops
for resting, eating, and using restroom facilities.
Psychographic Variables
Psychographic variables are also commonly used to segment markets. Psy-
chographics refers to segmentation based on lifestyle, attitudes, and personal-
ity. The development of psychographic segmentation is based on lifestyle pro-
files normally derived from survey responses to AIO (attitudes, interests, and
opinions) statements. Psychographics has the following characteristics:
Generally, psychographics may be viewed as the practical application of

the behavioral and social sciences to marketing research.
More specifically, psychographics makes use of research procedures that
are indicated when demographic, socioeconomic, and user-nonuser analy-
ses are not sufficient to explain and predict consumer behavior.
Most specifically, psychographics seeks to describe the human character-
istics of consumers that may have bearing on their response to products,
packaging, advertising, promotion, and public relations efforts. Such vari-
ables may range from self-concept and lifestyle to attitudes, interests, and
opinions, as well as perceptions of product attributes.
Psychographics is used primarily to segment markets, but it can be used

for other purposes as well. Psychographics is useful when selecting the most
effective advertising vehicles, in that the vehicle(s) selected can be matched
with the interests, attitudes, opinions, and personalities of the target market
segment. Psychographics is also helpful when designing advertising and pro-
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motion messages. Illustrations, pictures, and the actual copy can be designed
with the needs of a specific market segment in mind. By pinpointing the tar-
get market in this manner, the advertising and promotional messages and im-
ages are likely to be more effective, resulting in increased sales and profits.
Synergy Consulting developed a segmentation scheme with seven groups
based on consumers attitudes and opinions. Table 4.1 contains the framework
for its Social Value Groups. The first column lists the group and the per-
centage of the population that it represents. The second column lists the types
of needs that the group is seeking to fulfill. The third column lists the char-
acteristics that can be used to describe each group.
The division of the market into segments is not based solely on easily
quantified demographic variables such as age, sex, or income. Rather, the di-
vision is based on less easily defined psychographic factors, such as lifestyle,
attitudes, opinions, and personality. Individual firms can define their target
markets and address the needs of those markets with products and promo-
tional campaigns. For instance, tour operators could design various overseas
tour packages that would appeal to different social value groups.
Behavioral Variables
Another type of variable that can be used to segment markets is the behav-
ioral variable. Behavioral segmentation focuses on the behaviors that con-
sumers exhibit in the marketplace. For example, are consumers loyal or are
they easily persuaded by competitors marketing communications and pro-
motional efforts? How frequently do they dine out? Would they be consid-
ered light, medium, or heavy users of various types of hospitality products?
When they travel on business, at what types of lodging facilities do they stay?
When they travel for pleasure, do they stay at the same types of lodging fa-
cilities as when they travel on business?
One of the best uses of the behavioral variables is to identify those indi-
viduals who are heavy users, meaning that they dine out frequently, stay in
hotels many more nights per year than the average person, or account for a
large percentage of air travel. If these individuals can be identified, then a
marketing plan can be formulated to increase loyalty and frequency of use
even further. For example, most airlines offer a frequent traveler program to
encourage brand loyalty. Within each program are varying levels of mem-
bership. Anyone can join, but the rewards are commensurate with the level
of use. Airline miles can be redeemed for free flights or a variety of other
travel services. Many hotels and restaurants offer similar programs, and of-
ten, hotels and airlines develop strategic alliances and combine their programs.
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group needs characteristics
Self-Explorers (18% of the Inner-Directed Needs Ethical, tolerant, open

population) Cognitive, Aesthetic, understanding, introspective,
Integration nonmaterialistic, individualistic
Experimentalists (10% of Inner-Directed Needs Unconventional, technological,

the population) Cognitive, Aesthetic, creative, self-confident, physically
Integration fit, risk-oriented
Outer-Directed Needs
Esteem, Achievement
Conspicuous Consumers Outer-Directed Needs Acquisitive, competitive,

(18% of the population) Esteem, Achievement assertive, conscious of
appearances, self-indulgent,
materialistic
Belongers (18% of the Outer-Directed Needs Conservative, pragmatic,

population) Esteem, Achievement traditionalist, conventional,
self-sacrificing, tribal, pedantic
Sustenance-Driven
Physiological, Safety,
Belonging
Social Resisters (8% of the Sustenance-Driven Altruistic, concerned with social

population) Physiological, Safety, views, supporters of standards,
Belonging but also doctrinaire, intolerant,
and moralistic
Survivors (25% of the Sustenance-Driven Sustenance-driven, class-

population) Physiological, Safety, conscious, community-minded,
Belonging traditionalist, cheerful, awkward
if treated badly, but quietly
hardworking if treated well
Aimless (6% of the Sustenance-Driven Either old, lonely, purposeless,

population) Physiological, Safety, and disinterested, or young,
Belonging hostile, antiauthoritarian, and
frequently violent
table 4.1 Social value groups.

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market segmentation decisions 135
Each year, more and more research is undertaken to help companies

more fully understand consumer behavior. Behavioral variables represent
an excellent segmentation tool, for as data are collected concerning the man-
ner in which consumers actually behave in the marketplace, the informa-
tion will allow hospitality managers to gain a better understanding of
consumer behavior. As marketing managers gain a better understanding
of what motivates consumers to buy, it will facilitate the development of
product-service mixes that will better satisfy the needs of consumers.
Benefits Sought
Finally, market segmentation can be based on the benefits that consumers are
seeking when they purchase a product. Once a firm has determined the ben-
efits sought by consumers, it can use this information to design products and
services and to create promotional materials that focus on these benefits. Mar-
ket research can be used to identify the benefits that are important to various
types of consumers. This marketing information allows management to seg-
ment the market based on benefits sought, as well as demographic, psycho-
graphic, or behavioral variables.
For example, airlines segment based on the benefits sought by con-
sumers. Business travelers are most concerned about convenience when
choosing flights. They will make reservations at the last minute and want
to travel at a convenient time with short routes. Conversely, leisure trav-
elers will book further ahead and sacrifice some convenience to get a bet-
ter price because it is the most important benefit. Similarly, airlines offer
first class and business class seats with additional amenities for a higher
price, and hotels offer a concierge or business level room for consumers
who want additional amenities at a higher price.
MARKET SEGMENTATION
DECISIONS
When faced with market segmentation decisions, a hospitality and tourism
marketing manager should use a systematic approach that employs critical
thinking and careful analysis. Figure 4.3 presents a four-step process that can
be used by marketing managers in segmenting potential markets. The four
steps are: (1) identify segmentation bases, (2) develop profiles for each seg-
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 136
Identify Develop profiles Forecast Select specific

segmentation for each segment target market
bases segment performance segments
figure 4.3 Market segmentation decision process.
ment, (3) forecast performance for each market segment, and (4) select the
best market segments.
Identify Segmentation Bases

The first thing a marketing manager must do is to identify one or more char-
acteristics that can describe the target market segment. Any of the previously
discussed segmentation criteria can be used to accomplish this. In almost all
cases, several characteristics will be used. For example, a new restaurant might
elect to target a consumer market consisting of the following individuals: 25
to 40 years of age, living in cities with a population greater than 500,000, who
have annual incomes greater than $35,000.
The objective of identifying the segmentation bases is to develop a rela-
tively homogenous market segment made up of individual consumers who
will respond in a similar manner to the marketing strategies and marketing
communications efforts of the firm. It is also important that the members of
the selected target markets place a high value on the combination of attrib-
utes that the firm has used in the product-service mix. For example, the econ-
omy segment of the lodging industry has experienced exceptional growth in
recent years by offering basic amenities at a relatively low price, resulting in
a high level of perceived value to consumers. However, it would not make
sense for this type of lodging chain to target the midlevel and senior execu-
tives of Fortune 500 companies. These individuals, for both business and per-
sonal reasons, normally elect to stay in and conduct business in full-service
hotels.
Develop Profiles for Each

Market Segment
Once the target market has been identified, it is very important to compile as
much information about the target market consumers as possible. The over-
all goal is to match the stated wants and needs of the targeted segment with
the product-service mix offerings and marketing communications that the
firm uses. The importance of matching consumers wants and needs with the
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market segmentation decisions 137
marketing offerings and communication efforts of the firm cannot be overem-

phasized. It is also important to identify the similarities and differences among
and between various target markets. People within the same market segment
should share similar characteristics and react in a similar fashion to changes
in marketing programs. When developing a profile of the target markets, it
is necessary to use the various segmentation variables described earlier in this
chapter.
Forecast Performance for Each

Market Segment
To forecast the sales potential of a given market segment or an entire market
for any given product-service mix is an extremely difficult task. Computer
models and statistical approaches have facilitated the process somewhat, but
it is still very difficult to account for all of the variables that can influence con-
sumer demand. Even the best forecasts may be subject to a margin of error
of several percentage points in either direction. However, marketing man-
agers must have some knowledge of the level of market demand in order to
plan for short- and long-term contingencies as well as day-to-day operations.
Without reasonably accurate forecasts, management must operate by the seat
of their pants. The demands of the competitive situation in the hospitality and
tourism industry today will not permit this casual approach.
Market demand can be defined as potential consumers having both pur-
chasing power and motivation. Many variables can affect the demand within
any given segment. Variables such as consumer motivation are often difficult
to quantify. Market demand for a product or service is the total volume that
would be bought by a clearly specified customer group in a defined geographic
area in a defined period. Only when clear definitions are available for each of
these variables can market demand be precisely calculated. Determining to-
tal market demand is an important marketing function because so many other
assumptions are based on its forecast. Hospitality managers should be able to
examine forecasts for market demand and understand their uses and limita-
tions. Primary demand is the demand for the entire product class and sec-
ondary demand is the demand for a particular brand. For example, hotels in
the same area are normally members of the convention and visitors bureau
and work together to bring tourists and meetings to the local area. This will
benefit all of the hotels, which can then compete for the various market seg-
ments based on their particular needs.
Projected demand for the product-service mix is calculated based on the
total market demand multiplied by the market share, or the percentage of the
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 138
market that the firms product-service mix will capture. Market share is cal-
culated by dividing the firms sales by the total industry sales. Determining
the projected market share is an imprecise science. It should be based on a
thorough and objective assessment of the firms capabilities, the relative com-
petitiveness of those also targeting the same consumers, and marketing strate-
gies used by all firms. Once decisions have been made about the specific mar-
keting strategies and tactics that will be used, then resource needs can be
determined to market the product-service mix to specific target market seg-
ments. There is a more detailed discussion of sales forecasting in Chapter 5.
Select the Best Market Segments

Based on the steps previously discussed, those responsible for developing and
implementing the marketing plan must decide on the specific target market
segments that are selected. While the use of data and factual information is
very important, the judgment, insight, and experience that a seasoned mar-
keting manager brings to the decision are also valuable. The overall goal is to
limit the uncertainty surrounding market segmentation decisions. Decisions
should be based on a careful analysis of the data and how the forecasts of pro-
jected demand and market share were determined. It is imperative that the
marketing manager examine the projected return on investment (ROI) that
the target market will provide. ROI is calculated by dividing return, or net
profit, by the amount of the investment. Firms will normally have target ROIs
for their investments, but the higher the ROI, the better the investment.
MARKET SEGMENTATION
STRATEGIES
Once specific target markets have been identified, the marketing managers
must begin to develop broad marketing strategies. In general, there are three
segmentation strategies that can be applied: a mass-market strategy, a differen-
tiated strategy, and a concentrated strategy.
Mass-Market Strategy
A mass-market strategy calls upon a firm to develop one product-service mix
that is marketed to all potential consumers in the target markets. This ap-
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market segmentation strategies 139
Coca-Cola has expanded from its original single product to a variety of products to meet
the needs of various market segments. Coca-Cola is a registered trademark of The
Coca-Cola Company. Nestea is a registered trademark of Socit des Produits Nestl S.A.
licensed to BPW or its subsidiary. All other trademarks are owned by The Coca-Cola
Company.
proach considers the market to be one homogeneous market segment with

similar wants and needs. There is no reason to develop more than one mar-
keting program, since consumers are alike and react in a similar fashion to
the components of the marketing program. For example, when McDonalds
first opened, the firm offered a very limited menu that was consistent across
the entire organization. It featured only a couple of hamburger choices, milk-
shakes, soft drinks, and french fries. No other choices were available, and all
stores offered the identical menu. This strategy was also used by hotel chains
(e.g., Holiday Inns), airlines (e.g., United Airlines), and tourism destinations
(e.g., cities and countries) in the early stages of their life cycles.
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However, in reality, few products or services appeal to all segments of the

market. Since its inception, McDonalds has changed this strategy in response
to trends in the demographic and social environments. The fast-food restau-
rant now offers chicken sandwiches, salads, and other menu items that ap-
peal to a more health-conscious market segment. Hotels, airlines, and other
hospitality and travel firms have moved away from mass marketing as well.
The largest threat when using this strategy is that competitors will tailor their
product-service mix and take away market share because they are better able
to meet the needs of smaller target market segments of consumers.
Differentiated Strategy
When a firm elects to follow a differentiated strategy, it is following a strat-
egy that calls for the firm to appeal to more than one market segment with a
separate marketing program for each segment. The overall objective of this
approach is to increase sales and market share by capturing sales from several
smaller market segments. Each of the marketing programs, including the
product-service mix, is tailored to the specific needs of a market segment.
Perhaps the best example of this approach within the hospitality and
tourism industry is the strategy followed by Choice Hotels International. The
hotel chain has developed numerous product-service mixes or brands, each
targeting a different market. Among the brands offered by Choice Hotels are
Clarion Hotels and Suites, Quality Inns and Suites, Comfort Inns and Suites,
Sleep Inns, Econo Lodge, and Travelodge. Each of the brands offers a dif-
ferent array of amenities at various price levels in an attempt to have at least
one brand that will appeal to any consumer in the economy or midpriced mar-
ket segments.
A differentiated strategy can also be used at the unit or property level.
Consider a hotel that is targeting the following markets:
Individual travelers, including those traveling for both pleasure and busi-
ness during the week
Group meetings, representing corporations, associations, social, and other
smaller segments
Tour and travel groups, including those traveling by motor coach
Each of these target markets has needs and wants that differ from the
other markets. Those responsible for the marketing efforts of the hotels will,
using a differentiated strategy, develop a product-service mix that meets the
needs of the individual market segments.
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positioning the product-service mix 141
Most successful firms use some type of a differentiated marketing strat-

egy. While the marketing costs associated with a differentiated strategy are
higher in most cases, the return on investment is also higher. Targeting the
needs and wants of specific target markets and communicating directly to
these target markets with separate marketing programs mean that overall sales
usually increase.
Concentrated Strategy
A concentrated, or focused, strategy calls upon firms to develop modifications
of one or more product-service mixes that are marketed to one or relatively
few market segments with limited changes in the marketing program. This
strategy can be used successfully by smaller firms that dont have the resources
to compete in a broader market. Consider that many firms in the lodging in-
dustry have developed multiple product-service mixes and brands targeting
many markets, while companies such as Hyatt Hotels and Resorts and Re-
naissance Hotels have not taken this approach. Instead, these two hotel chains
concentrate marketing efforts on business travelers and those who need full-
service lodging. It is not a question of which company is correct. Rather, it is
a question of which strategy is the most appropriate in light of the firms mis-
sion and long-term goals.
POSITIONING THE PRODUCT-

SERVICE MIX
Once market segments have been selected, management must develop a po-
sitioning strategy for its products and services in each target market. Put sim-
ply, positioning is the process of determining how to differentiate a firms
product offerings from those of its competitors in the minds of consumers.
This requires the firm to know how important certain attributes are to con-
sumers in purchasing the firms product, and the consumers perceptions of
how well the firm and its competitors are doing with respect to these attrib-
utes.5 Marketers want to position their products so consumers purchase them
instead of competing products.
Generally, firms have choices on the positioning of their products, and it
is important to consider the alternatives. For example, car rental companies
have chosen different bases to position their products. Hertz stresses the ben-
c04.qxd 2/2/05 1:53 PM Page 142
efits of using the number-one rental car company to satisfy consumer needs,
emphasizing the employee ownership of the company, while Avis positions
itself against Hertz using the We try harder slogan. In addition, Enterprise
Rent-a-Car stresses pickup service, and Budget stresses a specific product fea-
ture (i.e., price). Other bases for positioning could be specific usage occasions
or user category. For instance, Marriott positions its Residence Inns for ex-
tended stays and its Courtyard Hotels for business travelers. Also, firms could
base their positioning on intangibles such as the food or ambience. Applebees
uses the slogan eating good in the neighborhood to create a personal atmo-
sphere, and Subway uses the slogan eat fresh to focus on food quality. Fi-
nally, it is also possible to use more than one basis for positioning when tar-
geting a specific market.
Several factors will affect a firms decision regarding which positioning
bases it should use. First, a firms current market position and the positions
of its competitors are important. Second, a firm should consider the compat-
ibility of a desired position with the needs of consumers and the goals of the
firm. Third, a firm must have the resources necessary to communicate and
maintain the desired position. Figure 4.4 provides a four-step process that con-
siders these factors and can be used in positioning a firms products.
Determine the Ideal Mix for Consumers

The first step in the process is to determine what consumers are looking for
when they purchase a specific product or service. Once a firm establishes this
ideal mix of attributes, it can begin to examine the ability of its product-
service mix to meet the needs of consumers. Normally, there are a few salient
attributes that are important to consumers in evaluating the alternative prod-
ucts or service offerings. These attributes will differ by product or service, but
Table 4.2 provides some of the more important attributes for hospitality and
tourism products.
As you can see, many of the attributes are important for all products
and services. Price is not always the most important attribute but is almost
Measure Look for gaps Develop a

Determine consumer in coverage strategy for
the ideal mix perceptions of and select a obtaining the
for consumers available services desired position desired position
figure 4.4 The positioning process.

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type of firm list of attributes
Restaurant Price, value, quality of food, type of food, service quality,

menu variety, employee friendliness, location, atmosphere,
speed of service, cleanliness, parking
Hotel Price, value, room quality, restaurant quality, location,

number and types of restaurants, other facilities (e.g., pool
and fitness center), cleanliness, atmosphere, employee
friendliness, speed of check-in and checkout, amenities
(e.g., valet parking and room service), service quality
Airline Price, value, service quality, employee friendliness, on-time

performance, baggage handling, direct routes, cities served,
scheduled flights, frequent flyer programs
Rental Car Price, value, service quality, convenience, location,

Company types of cars, condition of cars, speed of service, pickup and
drop-off policies
table 4.2 Important attributes for hospitality and travel firms.
always one of the top three. Service quality is another attribute that is im-
portant to consumers in choosing service providers, and it is commonly
used to differentiate between brands. Other attributes are more specific to
a particular type of firm. For example, food quality is very important to
consumers in choosing a restaurant, and room quality is important in choos-
ing a hotel.
It is necessary for firms to obtain importance ratings from consumers us-
ing some type of research method. These methods will be discussed in more
detail in Chapter 6, but the most common method is to conduct some type
of survey. Normally, individuals are asked to rate a list of attributes using
an importance scale. For example, a restaurants comment card may ask a
customer to rate the quality of food on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being not
important at all and 5 being very important. The answers to these ratings
are combined to provide an average rating for each desired target market.
The averages for all of the attributes can then be examined and used to con-
struct an ideal mix for the product. In other words, what are consumers look-
ing for?
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Measure Consumer Perceptions of

Available Services
Once the ideal mix is determined, the next step is to examine the current
offerings of your firm and its competitors to evaluate their abilities to meet
consumer needs. More important, it is necessary to obtain consumer percep-
tions of your service and your competitors services. Even if a firm believes its
product-service mix offers good value to consumers, it is only true if con-
sumers believe it to be true. In marketing, perceptions are everything. It would
be a critical mistake for a firm to assume that it knows what consumers want
and that its products are meeting consumers wants and needs. Once again, it
is essential for firms to evaluate consumer perceptions through the use of con-
sumer surveys and other research methods. Table 4.3 provides an example of
a competitive benefit matrix that can be used by restaurants to compile con-
sumer perceptions for the firm and its closest competitors.
At this point, it may be helpful for a firm to be able to visualize the in-
formation in the competitive benefit matrix by using a perceptual map. Per-
ceptual mapping is a technique used to construct a graphic representation of
how consumers in a market perceive a competing set of products relative to
each other. Because of the difficulties associated with graphing and under-
standing multidimensional presentations, in evaluating competing products
managers must determine which two or three dimensions consumers consider
most important, and use these dimensions to construct the perceptual map. For
example, Figure 4.5 provides a hypothetical perceptual map for hotel chains.
potential benefits our operation competitor a competitor b
Value for price
Quality of food
Quality of service
Atmosphere
Location
Menu variety
table 4.3 Competitive benefit matrix.

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High
Perceived price Four Seasons
Hilton
Sheraton Marriott
Holiday Inn
Low High
Perceived quality Hampton Inn
Days Inn
Econolodge
Motel 6
Low
figure 4.5 Perceptual map for hotel service.
The perceptual map was constructed using perceived price and per-
ceived quality as the two dimensions. Assuming the ratings for the hotel
chains on these dimensions were collected using consumer research, the
placement of the firms in the perceptual space depicts their relative posi-
tions in the market. The results of perceptual mapping can be used for the
following purposes:
To learn how consumers perceive the strengths, weaknesses, and similarities

of the alternative product-service mixes being offered
To learn about consumers desires and how these are satisfied or not sat-
isfied by the current products and services in the market
To integrate these findings strategically to determine the greatest oppor-
tunities for new product-service mixes and how a product or services im-
age should be modified to produce the greatest sales gain
Several methods can be used to construct a perceptual map. Similarity-

dissimilarity data involve asking consumers to make direct comparisons be-
tween alternative brands. For example, consumers might be given the names
of restaurants and asked to select the ones that are most similar or the ones
that are least similar. Preference data involve asking consumers to indicate
their preferences for a list of alternative brands. For example, consumers might
be asked to rank-order a short list of restaurants or rate a specific restaurant
on a 1 to 5 scale, with 1 being least preferred and 5 being most preferred.
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Attribute data involve asking consumers to rate the alternative brands on a

predetermined list of attributes. For example, consumers might be asked to
rate a given restaurant based on a series of attributes.
After the data are collected, sophisticated statistical techniques are used
to reduce the list of attributes into two or three dimensions for easier presen-
tation and interpretation. Then management can use these perceptual maps
to fine-tune current product-service mixes and uncover gaps in market cov-
erage between the ideal mix and the alternative offerings.
Look for Gaps in Coverage and Select a

Desired Position
Once consumers perceptions are obtained, measured, and plotted on a per-
ceptual map, the third step in the process is to examine the map for gaps in
coverage. In other words, are there any areas on the map depicting ideal mixes
that are not being adequately served by the brands in the market? Or is there
a difference between the position sought by management and the position per-
ceived by consumers? For example, Taco Bell entered the market in response
to a lack of variety in foods being offered by fast-food restaurants such as Mc-
Donalds and Burger King Similarly, extended-stay hotels were created in re-
sponse to consumers who had to travel for extended periods and did not like
staying in typical hotels. They wanted the ability to cook, do laundry, avoid
crowded lobbies, and stay in a more residential setting.
The results of the consumer research and perceptual mapping enable
firms to develop a positioning statement. The positioning statement should
differentiate the organizations product-service mix from that of the com-
petition. For many years, hotels and restaurants have advertised and pro-
moted fine food, prompt, courteous service, elegant atmosphere,
first-class accommodations, and top-flight entertainment. As might be
expected, these promotional approaches are not as effective as they could be.
Consumers usually do not believe these statements because they have heard
them many times before and have often been disappointed when they pa-
tronized the properties that had made these promotional claims. Also, these
statements do little to separate the organizations product-service mix from
that of the competition. If other hospitality organizations are promoting
fine food or similar benefits, then all the promotion and advertising is ba-
sically the same.
The key to success in positioning is to establish some unique element of
the product-service mix and promote it. This allows management to differ-
entiate the product-service mix from that of the competition and thereby gain
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a competitive advantage. This approach is known as establishing a unique

selling proposition (USP). With a USP, every effort should be made to link
the benefits with tangible aspects of the product-service mix. In this way,
consumers have something tangible with which to associate the hospitality
operation.
Develop a Strategy for Obtaining the

Desired Position
The final step in the positioning process is to develop strategies for obtaining
the desired position that results from the analyses performed in the first three
steps. As with any other discussions of strategy in this text, marketing managers
must use the components of the marketing mix to develop marketing programs
that can be used to achieve the firms objectives. In this case, decisions regard-
ing price, product-service mix, promotion, and distribution must be made to
help the firm achieve its desired position. It should be noted that the easiest
changes in the marketing mix involve price and promotion. Changes to the
product-service mix and distribution are more complicated and often involve
expensive changes in tangible elements.
One of the most effective ways to change consumer perceptions of the
product-service mix is through promotion and advertising. There are many
examples of how products have been positioned or repositioned using adver-
tising and promotional campaigns. For instance, there are some classic ex-
amples of positioning within the fast-food industry. The first example involves
Burger Kings attempt to differentiate its product-service mix as superior to
those of other hamburger restaurants in the fast-food industry. The focus of
Burger Kings advertising is on charbroiling, its method of cooking ham-
burgers. The objective of the advertising is to promote the unique process as
providing a better-tasting burger of higher quality than its competitors.
A second example of using product-service mix positioning is the man-
ner in which Taco Bell used price and packaging to gain a competitive ad-
vantage. At a time when the typical meal at a fast-food restaurant cost be-
tween $3.50 and $4.00, Taco Bell took a very different positioning strategy. It
introduced a line of value-priced products and meals at price points between
59 and 99 cents. The focus of all promotions and point-of-purchase displays
was on low price and value. As a result of these promotions, Taco Bell was
able to increase its market share, largely at the expense of other fast-food
restaurants.
Al Ries and Jack Trout provide a useful set of guidelines to use in devel-
oping positioning strategies in their text entitled Positioning: The Battle for
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Your Mind.6 The authors formulated six questions that should be used to guide
your thinking:
1. What position do you own? It is critical that you look at the marketplace
and your image from the consumers point of view. How do consumers
view your product? What image does your product have in their minds?
Keep in mind that you must be objective and look at your product from
the consumers perspective.
2. What position do you want? Remember that those who are most suc-
cessful tend to carve out a niche of the broad market. Those who attempt
to be all things to all people often are not successful. Dont think beyond
your organizations capabilities. You must be able to own the position,
even if that means displacing a competitors brand. Not every firm can be
the leader, but firms can be successful with other strategies.
3. Whom must you outgun? No positioning statement is created in a vac-
uum. You must clearly visualize the positions held by the major com-
petitors. Do they have a firm lock on their positions, or are they vulner-
able? If they are strong, its wise to avoid a direct frontal attack and instead
go around them.
4. Do you have enough money? Establishing and maintaining an image in
consumers minds is no small task. Every day we are exposed to hundreds
of advertising images. If a change in positioning strategy is planned, then
the necessary marketing resources must be appropriated for the change to
be successful.
5. Can you stick it out? A key to successful positioning is the ability to de-
fend that position. The most successful companies dont change their po-
sition, only the short-term tactics they use to communicate their position.
6. Do you match your position? It is critical that the exact positioning state-
ment be communicated in the advertising and promotions that follow.
The desired position should be consistent with the image of the firm and
fit with the image of the firms other products and services.
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chapter review 149
Chapter review
Market segmentation is defined as pursuing a marketing strategy whereby
the total potential market is divided into homogeneous subsets of customers,
each of which responds differently to the marketing mix of the organization.
Market segmentation involves considering several segmentation variables as
well as segmentation criteria. Criteria for effective segmentation are substan-
tiality, measurability, and accessibility to the selected target markets. Variables
that can be used to segment markets include geographic, demographic, psy-
chographic, behavioral, and benefits sought.
Once potential target markets have been identified, decisions must be
made concerning which market segments offer the best opportunity to suc-
ceed; once determined, these should be pursued. A four-step process was in-
troduced to accomplish this. Firms need to identify segmentation bases, de-
velop profiles for each segment, forecast potential demand, and select specific
target market segments.
The important link between target market segmentation and marketing
strategy was also introduced. The vast majority of firms follow one of three
broad strategies: a mass-market strategy, a differentiated strategy, or a con-
centrated strategy. The market segmentation strategies differ in the number
and type of marketing programs and target markets.
Positioning is a very important aspect of the marketing efforts of any hos-
pitality organization. The positioning statement, and thus the promotional
messages, should clearly reflect image, benefit package and support, and dif-
ferentiation of the product-service mix. Only when all three of these elements
are reflected in the hospitality organizations advertising and promotion does
the organization realize its full potential. The positioning statement should
be supported with tangible clues, rather than the intangible and ineffective
fine food or excellent service slogans used by many firms.
Hospitality and tourism firms should go through the positioning process
by (1) determining the ideal mix for consumers, (2) measuring consumer per-
ceptions of available services, (3) looking for gaps in coverage and selecting a
desired position, and (4) developing a strategy for obtaining the desired posi-
tion. Consumer research is vital in this process of collecting information on
consumer perceptions regarding the brands in the market. Perceptual maps
can be constructed that provide a graphical representation of the consumer
preferences and resulting brand positions. Then firms can select their desired
positions and devise strategies for obtaining those positions.
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Accessibility
AIO (attitudes, interests, and opinions) statements
Attribute data
Behavioral variables
Benefit segmentation
Competitive advantage
Consolidated metropolitan statistical area (CMSA)
Demographic variables
Family life cycle
Forecast
Frequent traveler program
Geographic variables
Chapter review
Margin of error
Market demand
Market segmentation
Market share
Marketing communication
Measurability
Metropolitan statistical area (MSA)
Perceptual map
Positioning
Positioning statement
Preference data
Primary metropolitan statistical area (PMSA)
Projected demand
Psychographic variables
Return on investment (ROI)
Salient attributes
Similarity-dissimilarity data
Substantiality
Unique selling proposition (USP)
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chapter review 151
Chapter review
DISCUSSION
1. What is market segmentation?
2. Of what value is market segmentation to marketing
managers?
3. What variables are used to segment target
markets?
4. Which of the variables from question 3 do you see as most
and least useful to a manager working in the hospitality
and tourism industry?
5. Cite and discuss the criteria for effective segmentation.
6. Is it possible to oversegment a market? If so, provide an
example.
7. What are the four steps in the market segmentation deci-
sion process?
8. Explain and give examples of each of the three market
segmentation strategies.
9. What is positioning? Why is it important?
10. Describe the four steps in the positioning process.
11. What is perceptual mapping?
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NOTES
1
United States Census Bureau: Census 2000. http://www.census.gov/
2
Ibid.
3
AmeriStat, Population Reference Bureau, Traditional Families Account for Only 7 Percent of U.S. House-
holds, March 2003, www.ameristat.org.
4
Anthony Marshall, Common Complaints Often Arise from Mature Travelers, Hotel & Motel Management
24, 5 (March 15, 1999): 10.
5
James H. Martin and James M. Daley, How to Develop a Customer-Driven Positioning Strategy, Business 39
(OctoberDecember 1989): 11.
6
Al Ries and Jack Trout, Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981).
Chapter review
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case study 153
case study
Case Study
Springfield Convention and
Visitors Bureau
T he Springfield Convention and Visitors Bureau represents the

second-tier city of Springfield and its surrounding region. Most of
the region is rural except for Springfield and a couple of smaller
cities. Bart Simpson is the executive director of the Springfield CVB, and
many describe him as outgoing and a bit of a cartoon character. The major
objective of the CVB is to promote tourism for the region. The CVB pub-
lishes a promotional guide containing information on lodging, restaurants, en-
tertainment, and tourist attractions. The guide is available free of charge by
calling an 800 number, filling out a magazine insert, or requesting it through
the Web site. Bart was curious about the conversion rate and wanted to know
more about the people who actually visited the region. Therefore, he contracted
with a research firm to conduct a survey of people who requested the guide.
The sample was drawn randomly from the list of people who requested
the guide over the previous year, including requests from all three vehicles
mentioned above. The final sample consisted of 400 respondents, and ap-
proximately 52 percent of them indicated that they had actually visited the re-
gion. The following table provides a breakdown of visitation by demograph-
ics. The percentages indicate the number of respondents in each demographic
category who visited the region, and the numbers in parentheses indicate the
total number of respondents in each category.
variable % who
demographic categories visited
Age 1845 (n 100) 48.4
4655 (n 126) 57.4
56 and over (n 174) 50.0
Gender Male (n 178) 52.4
Female (n 222) 51.7
Marital status Single (n 90) 35.8
Married (n 270) 55.6
Divorced (n 40) 63.0
Income $40,000 or less (n 90) 43.1
$40,001$70,000 (n 150) 57.9
$70,001 and over (n 160) 53.3
This information provided the CVB with a profile of the respondents who
actually visited the region within a year of receiving the promotional guide. In
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addition to the demographics, the survey also asked respondents to provide in-
formation regarding the amount of money they spent on their trip. The follow-
ing table provides the dollar expenditures per person per day for the various
categories.
lodg- shop- attrac- transpor-

age ing food ping tions tation total
1845 $14.78 $14.29 $11.20 $ 7.96 $ 6.12 $57.68
4655 21.36 15.34 20.75 7.39 5.21 69.99
Over 55 18.14 18.34 16.73 5.61 5.11 65.98
Gender
Male 23.00 17.81 17.87 7.62 3.97 74.23
Female 13.52 14.73 15.63 6.19 6.74 56.72
Marital
Single 19.53 19.24 15.62 6.91 12.64 80.90
Married 16.88 15.54 15.62 6.23 3.60 59.13
Divorced 27.52 18.74 25.59 11.58 9.63 95.03
Income
$40,000 11.31 11.72 14.77 4.38 4.58 49.80
or less
$40,001 23.56 16.36 13.94 8.20 6.98 72.24
$70,000
Over $70,000 17.76 18.22 18.83 6.74 5.14 65.92
This is the first time the Springfield CVB ever collected this kind of in-
formation about the visitors to the region. The main purpose was to deter-
case study
mine the primary market segments for promotional activities, as well as some
potential secondary markets for growth. Bart Simpson wasnt quite sure how
to analyze the information, so he relied on the research firm.

1. How would you describe the primary market segment(s) for this
region?
2. Which market segments show potential for future growth? Explain
your answer.
3. What could you do to make the destination more appealing to the
primary and secondary market segments?
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part 3
MARKETING PLANNING AND
INFORMATION
Courtesy of Corbis Digital Stock.

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Courtesy of Corbis Digital Stock.

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chapter
5
Developing a
Marketing Plan
Chapter Objectives
1. Compare and contrast two types of marketing plans
strategic and tactical.
2. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of planning.
3. Define the terms mission, goals and objectives, organizational
resources, market risks and opportunities, evaluation plans,
marketing strategies, and action plans.
4. Describe in detail the four steps of the marketing
planning process.
5. Explain qualitative and quantitative techniques for
developing sales forecasts.
6. Evaluate criteria to select appropriate sales
forecasting techniques.
157
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Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Sales Forecasting
Sales forecasting techniques
Introduction Selecting a forecasting technique
Advantages and disadvantages of
planning Summary of Chapter Objectives
Why marketing plans fail
The Marketing Planning Process Questions for Review and
Conducting a situation analysis
Defining the firms goals and objectives
Discussion
Formulating marketing strategies and Case Study: Planning at the
action plans Westwind Resort
Implementing action plans and evaluating
performance
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industry profile
Chris Gabaldon Vice President, Sales Strategy and Operations
The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company Washington, D.C.

I develop and manage sales strategy for the Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company
worldwide. That includes sales deployment, business development, market
research and analysis, customer research and analysis, and sales measurement
and evaluation. I also manage sales operations, including sales systems, oper-
ating procedures, capital budgeting for sales initiatives, budget management,
sales programs and initiatives, and general operational needs. Furthermore, I
manage and develop sales-related relationships with the parent company,
Marriott International.

Enhancing and building a world-class sales organization for the most recog-
nizable luxury hotel brand in the world (according to Future Brands survey,
2002). Also, providing leadership and stimulating change that continually
grows revenue and brand equity.
Change is difficult and takes longer than anyone ever would like. Also,
the hotel industry is continually behind the technology curve. We are mak-
ing great strides, but there is still a lot of opportunity in inventory manage-
ment and guest recognition.

youre facing?
Balancing growth while maintaining and enhancing the power of the Ritz-
Carlton brand. Also, managing cost while investing in new markets and new
strategies in the volatile post-9/11 environment.

industry?
Customer recognition is more and more important. The Internet threatens to
push lodging toward being a commodity, similar to what happened in the air-
line industry. Brands must continue to look for ways to differentiate their
products and provide unique experiences.
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160 chapter 5 developing a marketing plan

company?
Marketing funds are limited, so the majority of the effort is focused on brand
image campaigns. Secondarily, marketing is used to build awareness in new
markets and for new products such as spas or enhanced group capabilities. At
the property level, most marketing is very tactical and call-to-action-oriented.

you suggest?
Gain practical experience. When it comes down to it, this is still and always
will be a people-to-people business. Understand what really makes the dif-
ference between guests who leave satisfied and beyond, who will likely re-
industry profile
turn, and the ones who will never come back.

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introduction 161
INTRODUCTION
Planning focuses on the future. It involves assessing current environmental
trends and determining what is most likely to occur in the future. People who
are responsible for developing marketing plans chart a course of action that
they believe will allow the firm to achieve its stated objectives. Planners can
never be 100 percent certain that they will achieve their stated objectives, but
well-developed plans have a much higher probability of accomplishing the
desired results.
In general, a marketing plan can be defined as a written document con-
taining the guidelines for the business centers marketing programs and allo-
cations over the planning period.1 Several key parts of this definition must
be discussed. First, marketing plans are written documents, requiring man-
agers to analyze the company, its products, and the environment so that they
can prepare well-organized documents to guide their companies. Second, mar-
keting plans are written for the appropriate business center as defined by the
organization. Such a business center is referred to as a strategic business unit
(SBU) because it consists of products that share common characteristics and
have the same competitors. For example, within a large multi-brand lodging
company such as Marriott International, an SBU might be classified as one of
the brands, such as Fairfield Inns or Courtyard. Finally, marketing plans are
developed for a specific time period that varies from product to product or
unit to unit based on the scope or breadth of the planning activity. For ex-
ample, strategic plans are broad, have far-reaching implications, and often ex-
tend three or more years into the future. Conversely, tactical plans are more
short-term in focus, with an emphasis on implementation.
Strategic marketing plans result from a careful examination of a firms
core business strategy and primary marketing objectives. When involved in
this type of planning, firms should focus on key areas, starting with the type
of business the firm is in or wishes to be in. Next, the firm should ask where
it is now and whether it is where it would like to be. If not, what should the
firm do to get there? Questions such as these are not easy to answer, but they
are the foundation on which strategic plans are developed. Strategic planning
is the process of determining the firms primary goals and objectives and ini-
tiating actions that will allow it to achieve those goals and objectives. All types
of hospitality and tourism firms conduct strategic marketing planning, but it
is an absolute necessity for multiunit firms or chains.
Tactical marketing plans focus on implementing the broad strategies es-
tablished in the strategic plan. For example, if a hotels strategy is to increase
occupancy by 2 percent by focusing on a specific target market, how will this
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market segment be approached? The actual methods used are part of the tac-
tical plan. Tactical plans typically cover a period of one year and primarily fo-
cus on specific activities that must be implemented if the firm is to achieve
the goals and objectives stated in the longer-range strategic plan. One of the
focal points for tactical plans is the allocation of resources to achieve the stated
objectives. Tactical plans may get modified, based on the actions of the pri-
mary competitors and the availability of resources, but strategic plans are nor-
mally not modified without considerable reflection.
Within small chains and independent operations, the unit management
is often granted great autonomy. Within larger chain organizations, most
aspects of the marketing function are tightly controlled, and the manager
of an individual unit is more involved in implementing rather than plan-
ning. Planning is conducted at a higher level within the organization to en-
sure coordination of marketing efforts and consistency throughout the chain.
Corporate-level marketing managers normally work with managers of the
individual units to help them formulate and implement tactical plans that
allow the unit to remain successful, while at the same time supporting the
overall corporate marketing strategic plan.
Tactical plans prepared for a one-year time horizon are based on the an-
swers to questions similar to those listed below.
What is our market share? Is it increasing or decreasing?

How have the strengths and weaknesses of our firm changed in the last
year?
How has our mix of guests changed in the last year?
What advertising and promotions were the most and least successful dur-
ing the last year?
What types of promotions and sales efforts should we use to build busi-
ness during our slow periods?
What specific promotion and advertising schedules will lead to success?
What in-house promotions should we schedule?
Advantages and Disadvantages

of Planning
Formulating an organized and well-conceived marketing plan can have a
tremendously positive impact on a hospitality firm. Some of the main advan-
tages of marketing planning are:
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introduction 163
1. It helps the firm cope with change more effectively. If the competitive en-
vironment changes rapidly, a firm that has developed strategic plans with
several contingency options is in a better position to effectively deal with
the change.
2. Developing marketing plans ensure that the firms objectives are achieved.
The formulated plans serve as guides to help the firm achieve the objec-
tives. If, in some unforeseen circumstances, the objectives are not attain-
able, objectives and plans can be modified. This is done after a very care-
ful analysis of the situation, investigating why the original objectives could
not be achieved.
3. Establishing a marketing plan aids management in decision making. The
established plans can easily serve as a point of reference for management
to consult when confronted with a difficult decision. Given the alterna-
tives, managers can decide which ones will contribute the most to the
achievement of their objectives.
4. Planning forces managers to examine the firms operations. Marketing plans
make it necessary for managers to relate employee tasks and resource allo-
cation to the firms objectives. There must be a clear delineation of how the
use of resources and employee time will help the firm achieve its objectives.
5. Developing both strategic and tactical marketing plans helps management
when evaluating the marketing efforts. Results of marketing efforts are
compared with projected results, giving management a control process for
the marketing function.
While establishing a marketing plan has many advantages, there are also
some disadvantages associated with marketing planning. Some of the main
disadvantages of marketing planning are:
1. Establishing objectives and formulating a marketing plan are very time-

consuming. The time that management invests in planning can be ex-
pensive, and the results of planning must be cost-effective. The overall
benefits of these efforts, however, normally far exceed the cost to the firm.
2. If planning is to be successful and have the desired impact on an organi-
zation, it must have the support and commitment of the top management.
If those involved in the planning process perceive that they are merely go-
ing through the motions and that their activities will not have any impact,
they will have a negative opinion about planning. Under these circum-
stances, managers perceive the planning process as an extra duty. There-
fore, they give it a low priority, resulting in an inferior plan.
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3. If managers develop poorly conceived plans or plans based on false as-

sumptions, the plans may be inaccurate or ineffective. For this reason,
some managers feel that planning is of little value. Additionally, un-
planned scenarios can develop rapidly, rendering marketing plans much
less effective.
4. Since plans often need to be prepared within a short period, it may not be
possible to conduct as much background work as necessary for a high-
quality plan. In addition, the planning task is often assigned to a manager
who has other duties and responsibilities, limiting the amount of time the
manager has for planning. Managers must view the development of a plan
as a means to an end, such as increased sales and profits, not as an end
unto itself.
5. Many firms do not have the personnel with the required knowledge and
expertise in planning. Many aspects are involved in marketing planning
(discussed later in this chapter); hence, the employee responsible for plan-
ning should have some level of formal training. Often, managers are fo-
cused on day-to-day operations and do not have the time or ability to step
back and view the business from a strategic perspective. If plans are to be
successful, it is important to adopt a longer-term, strategic perspective.
Why Marketing Plans Fail

Despite the best efforts of marketing planners and all those involved in the
planning process, some plans fail to fully achieve the desired results because
of tactical shortcomings. The following are the most common reasons that
some plans fail, based on the findings of several research studies:
Managers do not integrate strategic planning into the day-to-day activi-

ties of the firm. In these cases, managers view the plan as an end in itself,
rather than a means to achieve a desired result. Often, plans are carefully
prepared, but they remain unused because employees are either unable or
unwilling to implement them. The planning process functions as a dy-
namic, ongoing process. Plans should be implemented, evaluated, revised,
and implemented again. Only when this cycle is continual can planning
truly succeed.
Those responsible for planning do not understand the planning process.
When managers develop a marketing plan, they must take time to work
through all steps of the planning process. Sometimes managers want to
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introduction 165
jump ahead and draw conclusions before all environmental variables are
considered and before a clear consensus is determined. Managers must
avoid this tendency, for the results are usually unreliable. Every member
of the planning team must fully understand the steps involved in the plan-
ning process and should actively contribute during each step.
Lack of input from line managers. For a marketing plan to succeed, man-
agers who have major responsibilities in areas other than marketing must
implement the plan. In some cases, professional marketing managers as-
sume responsibility for developing marketing plans, while implementa-
tion is left to line managers who are concerned mainly with day-to-day
operations. These managers did not participate in the planning process
and do not see the advantages or importance of planning. In addition, the
planners did not benefit from the operational knowledge possessed by the
line managers.
Financial projections are not marketing plans. Some hospitality and
tourism firms make projections or forecasts for sales and call this activity
marketing planning. Projections by themselves are not plans. Only when
plans contain clearly defined tactics for achieving the desired objectives
does planning take place.
Inadequate input and insufficient consideration of all environmental vari-
ables. Although it remains impossible to consider every single variable,
the real danger is basing decisions and plans on an insufficient amount of
information. Managers often want to rush to a conclusion rather than
gather information and make informed decisions. This type of informa-
tion is available through environmental scanning and the use of the firms
marketing information systems.
Managers planning focuses too heavily on short-term results. Managers
must emphasize formulating plans that will allow the firm to move to-
ward the achievement of long-term goals. Too frequently, the managers
emphasize short-term profits at the expense of long-term objectives and
profits.
No procedures established to monitor and control the planning process.
It is important to establish procedures to monitor the planning process
from beginning to end. This will allow the firm to make necessary changes
based on new information or problems that may arise.
There are many other reasons why plans fail to achieve the desired re-
sults. However, if the members of the planning team clearly focus their at-
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tention on the initial stages of the planning process, the later stages will be-
come much easier to complete, and the probability of success will increase. It
is important to avoid the temptation to rush through the initial steps in order
to produce quick results.
An old saying that still holds true notes that there are three types of com-
panies: companies that make things happen, companies that watch things hap-
pen, and companies that wonder what happened. Companies that make things
happen are generally engaged in planning. They have established a mission
statement as well as goals that lead to the formation of overall strategies that
result in success. Becoming overly concerned with day-to-day operations
causes the downfall of many hospitality organizations. The result is that man-
agers become so engrossed in meeting the daily demands of their positions
that they fail to see the big picturethey cannot see the forest for the trees.
Because of this myopic perspective, they are not aware of trends, and when
the competitive environment does change, they are not prepared for it.
Successful planning is a key element in the financial success of all firms.
Hospitality and tourism firms that allocate human and monetary resources
for planning are much more likely to reach their financial goals than firms
that do not engage in planning.
THE MARKETING PLANNING

PROCESS
No magic formula will guarantee success for a firm in the hospitality and
tourism industry. Even well-managed firms may fail to achieve the desired
level of success. However, managers can take steps that will increase the prob-
ability of success. Figure 5.1 illustrates the basic steps in the marketing plan-
ning process. If managers focus on these elements, they are more likely to lead
the firm in a direction that will accomplish its goals.
Before actually beginning the marketing planning process, each firm
should establish a mission statement. A firms mission statement defines its
purpose and how to differentiate it from its competitors. It should provide
managers with the general guidelines for decision making. Typically, mission
statements are brief, often only a sentence or two and always less than two
paragraphs; they define the scope of business for the corporation, and they an-
swer the question What business are we in? For example, if a corporation
defined its mission as providing outstanding hospitality services in the budget-
priced segment of the market, this would be its primary focus. This is the
message that is conveyed to the firms internal stakeholders: owners/investors,
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the marketing planning process 167
Conduct a situation
analysis
Define the firms

goals and objectives
Formulate marketing
strategies and action
plans
Implement action plans

and monitor
performance
figure 5.1 The marketing planning process.
managers, and employees. Second, those involved in the planning process of-
ten create a series of value statements, which describe what the firm believes
in and how it will attempt to execute the mission statement. Finally, man-
agers create a position statement, which describes this mission to the firms
external stakeholders (customers, suppliers, and the general community) in
terms of the publics perceptions of the benefits offered.
This idea of focus, or purpose, is important when proceeding with the
marketing planning process. A firms mission is a function of its available re-
sources and capabilities. It is difficult to operate outside these parameters and
still remain successful. For example, the budget hotel mentioned earlier would
not be able to compete for customers with full-service hotels that offer a wide
array of amenities and services that are not available at budget properties.
Budget hotels know that they appeal to price-sensitive customers who want
a nice room that is clean and safe. If the hotel adheres to its mission, there
will be no confusion among the stakeholders, and there is a better chance for
success. Once the mission statement is established, the firm can begin the plan-
ning process.
Conducting a Situation Analysis

The first step in the marketing planning process requires a firm to perform
a situation analysis. This begins by looking at the history of the firm, followed
by an objective assessment of the firms strengths and weaknesses relative to
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Budget hotels know that they appeal to price-sensitive customers who want a nice room
that is clean and safe. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
competitors, and includes an analysis of the potential opportunities and threats

posed by the changes in the firms external environment. The situation anal-
ysis provides the background information necessary to make decisions re-
garding the future direction of the firm. It answers the questions Where are
we now? and How did we get here? Managers engaged in planning can
gain a better understanding by studying the history of an organization.
HISTORICAL APPRAISAL. The historical appraisal starts by examining
the market, looking at its size, its scope, and competitors market shares. It is
important to look at the trends in the market to understand how the firm ar-
rived at its present position. The firm should examine internal data regard-
ing its sales history, including costs and profits. It is helpful to see the trends
in sales, costs, and profit margins that resulted from changes in marketing
programs and the environment. This provides insight into possible future di-
rections based on the current position of products in the market. Many trends
can be attributed to changes in the external environment. For example,
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changes in technology and government regulations will force firms to rethink

their strategies and react appropriately. Travel agents are competing with on-
line reservations, and hotels and airlines are benefiting from customers hav-
ing access to their Web sites on the Internet. Restaurant managers adapted
their strategies to changes in tax laws and smoking regulations.
Firms must also examine sales histories for changes in consumer pur-
chasing patterns. Consumers usually change their buying procedures and
practices over time. For instance, there may be changes in frequency, quan-
tity, or timing of their purchases. Understanding these changes remains cru-
cial for firms that want to be competitive at getting products to consumers
how and when they want them. Firms will undoubtedly use this information
to gain competitive advantages through pricing and product design. Firms
should communicate these advantages to consumers through advertising and
promotions. For example, restaurant managers may notice that a larger per-
centage of customers are dining earlier as a result of the aging population and
the increase in families with small children. Similarly, resort managers may
find that consumers are taking more vacations of shorter duration. All types
of hospitality and tourism firms will benefit from conducting a formal situa-
tion analysis, beginning with a historical appraisal.
Management should conduct a consumer analysis to identify the buyers
and users of the product and to make sure they are the same. In some cases,
the person who purchases the product is not the user (e.g., meeting planners,
travel agents). In addition, it is important to identify the individuals who may
influence a purchase (e.g., family members, buying centers). Next, firms must
identify other factors that could influence the purchase (e.g., demographics,
socioeconomic status, lifestyle) and any variations in purchase behavior (e.g.,
seasonal or cyclical variations). Related areas include determining what mo-
tivates consumers to purchase this type of product, deciding how the markets
can be segmented, and identifying the most frequent purchasers. Once man-
agement identifies the salient attributes and the end benefits that consumers
are seeking, they can determine if there are any unmet needs that can be
targeted.
Next, management should conduct an industry analysis to determine ac-
tual and potential industry size, historical growth rate and future predictions,
industry structure (including costs and distribution), industry trends, and key
success factors. It may be useful to rank competitors by market share and iden-
tify both direct and indirect competition. For example, restaurants face com-
petition from supermarkets, convenience stores, and delivery services. The
next section will elaborate on the process of assessing the internal strengths
and weaknesses of firms, relative to the competition, and the opportunities
and threats posed by the environment.
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Internal items
Strengths Weaknesses
Leverage Problem
items items
Opportunities Threats
External items
figure 5.2 SWOT analysis.
SWOT ANALYSIS. The next part of the situation analysis involves a de-
tailed examination of the firms internal strengths and weaknesses, and the
external opportunities and threats. This analysis is often referred to as a
SWOT analysis. Figure 5.2 illustrates the various components of a SWOT
analysis and their relationships with one another.
The strengths and weaknesses components of a marketing plan reflect an
evaluation of the firms internal situation. What are the things that the firm
does well, and where are they below standard? The opportunities and threats
reflect an assessment of the external environment that the firm faces. Strengths
and opportunities represent positive attributes that the firm can use to gain a
competitive advantage. If items that appear as strengths and opportunities for
the firm are similar to weaknesses and threats for the competitors, then the
firm has a distinct competitive advantage to leverage for gains in sales and
market share. Similarly, weaknesses and threats are viewed as problem areas.
Firms need to compensate for weaknesses until they can eliminate them, and
if possible, threats need to be anticipated so strategies can be developed to min-
imize their impact.
As shown in Figure 5.2, strengths and opportunities are items that can be
leveraged to gain a competitive advantage. For example, if a food service op-
eration found that there would be minimal competition for an off-premise
catering business in addition to its existing restaurant operation, this would
represent an opportunityan area for potential growth. Using the same ex-
ample, a food service operation might find that if it decided to enter the off-
premise catering business, competition might follow. This potential competi-
tion represents an external threat.
Inherent in this analysis is the need for managers to examine what the
business does well and what could be improved. At the same time, a critical
assessment of the market is needed to determine, as specifically as possible,
the threats and potential opportunities that exist outside the firm. Manage-
ment must ask, What do we have or offer that is different, unique, or supe-
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rior to what the competition offers consumers? Management must also ex-
amine the organizations shortcomings by asking, What do we provide that
is below average?
The process of identifying internal strengths and weaknesses or external
threats and opportunities is similar to examining a balance sheet with assets and
liabilities. The strengths and opportunities are used to promote the business and
to make decisions about new directions that should be taken. Conversely, man-
agers must make every effort to correct or neutralize the weaknesses and threats.
Many managers find it difficult to identify an organizations weaknesses or
threats clearly, tending to overlook or downplay negative factors.
Successful managers can usually predict the future and adapt to meet the
changes that are occurring in the marketplace. Although this may not be en-
tirely true, those who are successful seem to know what will occur in the mar-
ketplace before it actually happens. Is it luck or successful planning? One def-
inition of luck is preparation meeting opportunity. Successful managers are
students of trends. They carefully watch the broad marketing environment
discussed in Chapter 1, looking for subtle changes in the economic, political
and legal, social, and technological environments that may potentially influ-
ence their businesses. They carefully study the moves made by their com-
petitors and do everything they can to stay close to their customers. In doing
so, they attempt to match their product-service mix to the ever-changing needs
and wants of their customers and potential customers.
Defining the Firms Goals and Objectives

A firms goals and objectives should evolve from the mission statement. Goals
are broad statements of what the firm seeks to accomplish. For example, a
firm may develop a goal that states, We are seeking to achieve the number
one market share in the mid-Atlantic region. The goal does not tell how the
results are to be achieved; rather it states, in broad terms, the desired result.
Objectives are more detailed statements, or refinements, of what the firm in-
tends to accomplish. A good objective includes (1) what will be accomplished
in measurable terms, (2) within what specific time frame it will be accom-
plished, (3) which individual or group will be responsible for achieving the
objective, and (4) how the results will be evaluated.
The objectives serve several functions. First, they enable management to
arrive at a consensus concerning the primary activities of the organization.
Second, responsibility for specific objectives gets assigned to specific managers,
thereby establishing accountability. If a well-defined objective is assigned to
a specific manager, that individual assumes responsibility for following
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through and seeing that the objective is completed. Therefore, the results are
likely to be more positive than if no one individual is assigned responsibility.
Third, establishing objectives with the input of all managers serves as a brain-
storming and motivational tool. When individuals have input into formulat-
ing the organizational marketing objectives, they develop a sense of owner-
ship and allegiance toward the objectives. As a result, employees are likely to
work more diligently to achieve stated objectives.
Formulating well-written and measurable objectives takes time, and care
should be taken to ensure that the objectives remain feasible. Several charac-
teristics of good objectives follow:
Objectives should be specific and easy to understand. They should not be

too broad and difficult to define. Everyone involved in formulating the
objectives should clearly understand the precise objectives toward which
the organization seeks to move.
Objectives should identify expected results. They should be quantita-
tive so that no gray area will exist for purposes of evaluation. When
managers state an objective in quantitative terms, the expected results
are more readily understood.
Objectives must be within the power of the organization to achieve. When
establishing objectives, management must keep in mind the relative abil-
ities of the organization.
Objectives must be acceptable to the individuals within the organization.
Management must come to a consensus concerning the objectives. It is ex-
tremely difficult for a firm to achieve the stated objectives if the managers,
who have input into the formation of the objectives, do not agree.
Table 5.1 provides examples of both objectives that are well stated and
some that are poorly stated. It is easy to see how the two types differ in their
abilities to steer firms and allow for the measurement of performance. The
well-stated objectives are clear and concise. They provide a specific time frame
for completion, and they contain quantified targets. In addition to stating ob-
jectives, it is necessary for firms to explain how the results will be evaluated
and who has the actual responsibility for attaining the objective. Finally, ad-
equate resources must be committed to achieving each objective, including
personnel, facilities, and financial resources.
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES. Objectives are grouped into four main categories:
financial, sales, competitive, and customer. Table 5.2 contains a list of specific
objectives that can be used under each of the four categories. Financial objec-
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well-stated objectives poorly stated objectives
Our objective is to increase occupancy rate Our objective is to increase occupancy rate.
from 70% to 75% within one year by
decreasing group rates by 5%.
Our objective is to increase our awareness Our objective is to increase awareness over
rating from 60% to 70% within one year the next year.
by allocating $200,000 to advertising for an
awareness campaign.
Our objective is to increase the average Our objective is to increase the average
check by 10% within six months by check by training waiters.
providing waiters with a 2-hour suggestive
selling training program.
table 5.1 Examples of objectives.
main category specific objectives
Financial Maximize profit

Target rate of return
Increase cash flow
Sales Increase or maximize sales revenues

Increase volume (number of units sold)
Increase or maximize market share
Competitive Position against competitors

Long-term survival
Maintain competitive parity (market share or
marketing expenditures
Customer Increase market awareness

Increase customer satisfaction
Improve or change image
Create goodwill
table 5.2 Types of objectives.

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tives focus on the firms ability to generate enough money to pay its bills, of-
fer investors an adequate return, and retain some of the earnings for invest-
ing in the firm. Sales objectives focus on the level of sales in units or dollars,
and the firms sales relative to its competitors (i.e., market share). Competitive
objectives focus on the firms ability to compete in the marketplace. The firm
positions itself against the competition, determines the best strategies for sur-
vival, or tries to keep pace with the competition in terms of sales growth, mar-
ket share, and/or marketing expenditures. Finally, customer objectives focus on
the firms ability to make consumers aware of its products, provide them with
a product-service mix that meets their expectations, and create a level of good-
will among customers and other stakeholders.
Firms can use a combination of objectives, such as a desire to maximize
profit and increase customer satisfaction. These objectives do not conflict, so
the firm can work at attaining both. However, it is necessary to prioritize mul-
tiple objectives and allocate resources appropriately. One potential problem
with multiple objectives is that there could be a conflict between them. For
example, consider the case of a firm that wants to increase market share and
maximize profit. In the short run, increases in market share are accomplished
by lowering price and/or increasing marketing expenditures on changes in the
product-service mix and promotion. Either decreasing price or increasing
marketing expenditures will result in a decrease in short-term profits. The
firm must rethink its objectives or make a distinction between short-term and
long-term profits.
Formulating Marketing Strategies and

Action Plans
A strategy is the manner by which an organization attempts to link with, re-
spond to, integrate with, and exploit its environment. In other words, a firms
strategies integrate its mission, goals, objectives, and action plans. When well
formulated, strategies help firms maximize the use of their resources. This,
in turn, puts them in a viable position within the competitive environment.
Timing is everything. Managers must always look for a strategic window,
or a limited period when marketing opportunities present themselves and the
firm is in a position to take advantage of those opportunities. For example,
imagine that your firm had stockpiled a large supply of frozen beef tender-
loins and your major competitor had not. Due to weather conditions in the
major growing areas, a beef shortage occurred. Prices escalated rapidly and
supplies of beef tenderloins were low. This occurrence would offer your firm
a strategic window in which to gain a competitive advantage. You could un-
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dercut competitors prices for the product and run a promotion that your com-
petition was unable to match.
When developing a marketing strategy, a manager first selects the mar-
kets the firm will target and then blends the elements of the marketing mix,
which includes the product-service mix, price, promotion, and distribution.
Strategic options for each of the marketing mix areas will be discussed in more
detail in later chapters. However, various frameworks can be used by firms
to aid in general strategy formulation. One of the more popular frameworks
provides four basic strategies for achieving growth based on whether the
products are new or currently exist and whether the markets are new or are
currently being served. These growth strategies appear in Table 5.3.
A market penetration strategy focuses on selling the existing product-
service mix to the existing target markets. Most firms will attempt to in-
crease the quality and consistency of the product-service mix as a means of
increasing customer satisfaction, promoting brand loyalty, and increasing
sales and market share. Hyatt Hotels and Resorts continues to focus pri-
marily on transient and group business travelers with only minor modifi-
cations in its product-service mix.
In an effort to increase sales, management attempts to increase the rate of
repeat patronage, building on a solid client base. Another part of this strategy
is to increase initial patronage among members of existing markets who have
not previously patronized the hospitality operation. Management can accom-
plish this by attracting patrons from competing operations, thereby increas-
ing the market share. The overall goal is twofold: to increase sales and to in-
crease market share. Managers frequently select this strategy during periods
of economic uncertainty, such as when the inflation rate is high. As it becomes
more expensive to borrow capital for physical expansion, one of the best ways
to grow is to increase sales within existing units. In this manner, a larger per-
centage of the increased sales will eventually become profits.
The basis of a product development strategy is the idea of developing
new products for existing markets. As new elements of the product-service
mix get introduced, management ensures the long-term financial viability
existing product new product
existing market Market Penetration Product Development
new market Market Development Product Diversification
table 5.3 Product development strategy options.

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Hotels such as Hilton advertise special offers in an effort to penetrate specific markets.
Courtesy of Hilton Hospitality, Inc.
of the firm by increasing sales. Examples of this strategy are common within
the hospitality and tourism industry. For instance, noncommercial food-
service firms such as ARAMARK and Sodexho have long managed the
foodservice operations for host firms, companies whose primary business
is not providing a final food product (i.e., businesses, hospitals, colleges and
universities, and other government and nonprofit organizations). Building
on the successful relationship that has been established through running
the foodservice aspects of the business, ARAMARK and Sodexho have ex-
panded into facilities management (e.g., managing all aspects of stadiums
and arenas for events). Another possible product development strategy for
contract foodservice firms is to manage university housing and dining
services.
No hospitality or tourism firm can remain unchanged for too long and
expect to prosper. Markets change, consumer needs and wants change, and
so too must the product-service mix of any hospitality and tourism firm. For
example, consider the product development of any of the fast-food chains.
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New menu items have been added continually over the years to increase unit
sales and expand the total market. McDonalds was the first to put breakfast
items on its menu, adding significantly to total sales of the individual units
and the total corporation. Later, it added drive-through service. Then it added
soft-serve ice cream and salads in order to expand the product-service mix
and total sales. While McDonalds no longer holds the dominant position in
the fast-food market, it has continually sought ways to expand its product-
service mix and increase sales.
A market development strategy focuses on developing new markets for
existing products and services. In the case of hotels and restaurants, this nor-
mally involves building new units and expanding into new markets. One of
the most lucrative growth areas within the hospitality and tourism industry
is outside the United States. As growth rates slow within the domestic mar-
ket, large hospitality and tourism marketers look to grow internationally. Hy-
att Hotels and Resorts has targeted many Asian countries for its expansion,
while other hotel chains have focused on European countries. Foreign mar-
kets offer attractive growth prospects because many are virtually untapped.
However, this potential for high return is counterbalanced by risks associated
with the political and economic environments in foreign countries. Most lo-
cal and regional hospitality firms still choose to add units in other regions
within the United States before attempting overseas expansion. Or a hospi-
tality firm may form a partnership or strategic alliance with another firm that
has a stronger international presence. For example, when Marriott Interna-
tional acquired the Renaissance Hotels chain, they secured many international
locations that enjoyed both a strong image and profitable hotels. In doing so,
Marriott International did not have to establish a Marriott-branded hotel in
these locations.
A diversification strategy involves introducing new products and services
into new markets. This strategy offers the most long-term potential, but it
is also the strategy with the greatest degree of risk. The upside potential is
important because any sales generated will be new sales. They will not take
sales away from existing products and services. When existing customers buy
new products and services rather than existing products and services, this is
called cannibalization. When a firm introduces new products and services
into new markets, there is no potential for cannibalization. However, the
risk, and potential downside, is that actual sales will lag the companys fore-
casted sales and not meet profit projections. In this case, a diversification
strategy would fail.
Other popular frameworks offer baseline strategies based on the firms
competitive position, or business strengths, and the growth rate in the mar-
ket, or industry attractiveness.2 In general, firms with weak competitive po-
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sitions should look for ways to improve their status either by concentrating
on a single business or through mergers and acquisitions. Firms in markets
with slow growth rates should look for new markets or form alliances with
other firms to strengthen their positions. This allows them to survive and pros-
per, while other firms find it necessary to divest or liquidate.
Many hospitality and tourism firms, particularly small organizations, of-
ten do not devote the human and monetary resources necessary to develop
adequate strategic marketing plans. Without such plans, the marketing strat-
egy can easily become reactionary; the organization merely reacts to each new
competitive force and lacks an overall sense of direction and purpose. Con-
versely, an organization that develops well-defined strategic marketing plans
has laid the groundwork necessary for a proactive marketing effort that takes
the initiative instead of allowing competitors to control the environment.
Implementing Action Plans and

Evaluating Performance
Once management selects the best strategic alternatives, it must develop ac-
tion plans and a timetable for implementation. Action plans are developed,
indicating the specifics of what will happen, when it will be done, and how
the marketing plan will be implemented. This does not mean that it is in-
flexible, but a clear implementation plan remains important. Action plans
should contain the following information:
Who will assume primary responsibility for each part of the action plan?
How will they proceed to implement the action plan?
When should they have it completed?
What resources will be necessary to fully implement the action plan?
How will the results of the plan be evaluated?
Following the development of the action plans but before implementing

them, managers must complete two activities. First, an implementation sched-
ule must be developed. Since not all the action plans will be implemented at
the same time, an orderly timetable or schedule will determine when the var-
ious actions should be carried out. Second, a set of performance criteria for
evaluating the relative success of the action plans must be established. Per-
formance criteria should be measurable. It is important to remember that mar-
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keting planning is a continuous process requiring monitoring and adapting

based on actual performance. Four key control areas exist to evaluate perfor-
mance: sales, costs, profits, and consumers.3 These control areas closely relate
to the types of objectives discussed earlier in this section.
Sales control data should focus on the firms sales by market segment,
market share, and sales input. The quantified sales objectives should be bro-
ken down on a quarterly basis by market segment and used as a standard
against which actual sales results can be compared. Managers should evalu-
ate differences in terms of absolute dollar amount as well as percentages that
allow for easier comparisons. Firms should determine why there are variances
between the targeted sales figures and the actual sales figures, even if the ac-
tual figures are better than expected. Then the elements of the marketing plan
can be adjusted to reflect the changes that are deemed necessary.
Another measure of a firms performance in terms of sales is market share.
Market share data provide the firm with a comparison of its performance rel-
ative to its competitors. The formula to determine market share is the firms
sales divided by total industry sales. Market share is expressed as a percent-
age of sales in the total marketplace. The first step in performing market share
analysis is to define the market. For example, a hotel chain could calculate its
market share based on sales in the entire lodging industry or based on sales
in its key segment(s), such as economy, luxury, extended stay, or all suites.
The firms sales figures would remain the same, but the denominator, which
reflects the basis for comparison, would change. Therefore, the definition of
the market is critical in the overall analysis.
The final type of sales control data involves the firms sales input. In other
words, what resources were used to obtain sales, and how efficiently is the
firm using its resources? Mainly, sales input data deal with the various com-
ponents of the promotion mix: advertising, personal selling, sales promotions,
and publicity. First, firms need to examine the amount of time and money
spent by its sales force. How much time is spent in selling and nonselling ac-
tivities, how many calls are they making per day, what are their expenses, and
what is their conversion rate with customers? For example, hotels can deter-
mine averages, or benchmarks, to evaluate the performance of their sales-
people. Salespeople receive annual quotas that can be evaluated on a quarterly
or monthly basis to determine their progress.
Next, the firm can look at the effectiveness of its advertising and sales
promotions (publicity is difficult to assess because it is free and not easy to
control). How many consumers in their target markets are reached, and
with what frequency? What is the cost per thousand of reaching those con-
sumers, and how many inquiries are received in response to the promotion?
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For example, a restaurant may put a discount coupon in the Val-Pak that
local residents receive. It is important to keep track of the redemption rate
to determine the net impact of the promotion. What did it cost to run the
promotion? How much new business was generated? To what extent did
discounted business cannibalize existing business?
Cost control data are another form of data used to evaluate perfor-
mance. Firms should compare their forecasted budgets with actual bud-
gets to determine where there are large deviations. Normally, sales fore-
casts are the basis for establishing budgets for various expense items and
are usually expressed as a percentage of sales. This cost information is de-
termined on an annual basis, but most often managers evaluate it either
monthly or quarterly. Any large discrepancies are reviewed to determine
the cause, and adjustments are made. Some of the more common expense
ratios are profit margins, selling expense ratio, cost per sales call, and ad-
vertising expense ratio. In most cases, the various expense items are di-
vided by total sales. However, as with sales control data, it is important to
analyze the data by market segment. This will help the firm identify the
profitability of its products and market segments. The standards for some
of these cost items are based on the historical performance of firms within
the industry. For example, a common rule of thumb in the restaurant in-
dustry is to keep food costs between 30 and 35 percent of the total costs of
operation. When the actual percentage exceeds this range, it should alert
the management of a potential problem.
Profit control data is a function of sales and costs and should be broken
down by market segment as well. To perform this type of analysis, it is im-
portant to understand basic accounting and income statements. Here is a typ-
ical income statement:
Sales revenue
Cost of goods sold

Gross profit
Selling expenses
Depreciation
Administrative overhead
Operating profit
Interest expense
Pretax profit
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It is crucial that firms examine the income statement to determine why

net profit is negative or does not meet the target set in the marketing plan.
Often, firms approach profitability from a cost perspective without having a
good understanding of pricing strategy. Chapter 15 covers pricing in detail,
but it is important to know how consumers price sensitivity impacts the firms
products and services. There is no simple solution for obtaining desired profit
levels. It is not easy to maximize sales revenue and minimize costs simulta-
neously. Decreases in costs can lead to lower quality and decreased sales and
profits. In some cases, sales revenue can increase when the firm incurs addi-
tional costs to improve the product-service mix and raises prices. A classic ex-
ample of this situation involved Smirnoff vodka competing with Wolfschmidt
vodka. With the goal of increasing market share, the brand managers for
Wolfschmidt decided to reduce the price of the product. The brand managers
for Smirnoff noted this change and considered alternatives. A normal reac-
tion might have been to reduce the price to the level set by the competition,
with the goal of retaining market share. They decided to take a different
course. They increased the price of the product and allocated additional re-
sources for advertising and promotion. The results are classic: Smirnoff in-
creased both gross sales and market share and for a time became the market
leader. The income statement is a very useful tool for marketers. It should be
studied carefully to determine the level of profitability, and if the desired re-
sults are not being achieved, the source of the problem can be determined by
tracing it back through the sections of the income statement to determine the
cause or causes. Once the cause is identified, a plan for corrective action can
be developed.
Consumer feedback is the final area of performance evaluation, and it
is a key element in understanding the results of the financial analyses. Con-
sumer feedback provides firms with information regarding awareness,
knowledge, attitudes, purchasing behavior, and customer satisfaction.
Chapter 3 discussed consumer behavior, and Chapter 6 discusses the re-
search methods used to obtain this information. In many cases, the finan-
cial data are merely a symptom of problems within the firm. It is often nec-
essary to obtain consumer feedback to gain a true understanding of the
problem.
It can be detrimental if managers focus too much on numbers and not
enough on consumer needs. For example, a hotel in Boston was experi-
encing a decrease in occupancy rate in relation to other hotels in the area.
Management tried to approach the issue by discounting prices, but it had
very little effect. After speaking with customers, the hotel realized that
business travelers found the rooms too small. Business travelers are not as
price-sensitive as other travelers, but they are quality-conscious, which ex-
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plained the ineffectiveness of the price discounting strategy. As a result, the

hotel decided to focus on the government market because of the hotels lo-
cation. The government market is price-sensitive (there is an allowable per
diem) and not as quality-conscious, and the hotel could selectively discount
to this large-volume market.
Once again, it is important to point out that marketing planning is a con-
tinuous process. Marketing managers must evaluate the situation and adapt
to changes that occur. Evaluating the success of the marketing plan is the mo-
ment of truth. Managers develop a plan to increase the probability of success,
and once the plan is implemented, it is important for management to moni-
tor the results. Any variance from the predicted results should be identified,
evaluated, and corrected.
As the environment changes or the results vary, management may need to
return to the appropriate step to reformulate marketing strategy or the action
plans. The marketing planning process continues as a dynamic procedure, with
sufficient flexibility allowing for changes in strategies, action plans, or imple-
mentation schedules.
SALES FORECASTING
One of the most critical components of a marketing plan is the forecast for
sales. Sales forecasting is the process for determining current sales and esti-
mating future sales for a product or service. The success of the firm often re-
sults from the accuracy of forecasts. The decisions about the elements of the
marketing mixproduct-service mix, price, promotion, and distribution
that are made during the situation analysis are based on sales forecasts.
Sales Forecasting Techniques

Sales forecasting techniques are separated into two broad categories: quanti-
tative techniques and qualitative techniques. Quantitative techniques use past
data values and employ a set of rules to obtain estimates of future sales. Qual-
itative techniques rely on judgment or intuition and tend to be used when
data are not readily available. Quantitative methods can be further classified
as either causal or time series. Both types of quantitative methods use trends
in historical data to predict future sales; however, causal analysis techniques
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sales forecasting 183
model the relationships between sales and other variables that can help pre-
dict changes in sales. Time series techniques extrapolate future sales estimates
based on the trend in historical sales. In other words, past sales are used to
predict future sales, assuming all other factors that affect sales will continue
to have a similar effect in the future. The forecasting techniques described in
this chapter are presented in a conceptual framework. Use of these techniques
requires a sound statistical background. The techniques are presented so that
marketing managers will have a better understanding of the range of tech-
niques that are available.
QUALITATIVE FORECASTING TECHNIQUES. The goal of qualita-

tive forecasting techniques is to forecast changes in the basic sales pattern
as well as the pattern itself. Qualitative techniques are often difficult to ap-
ply, and they tend to be very time-consuming and costly. Therefore, these
techniques are used mainly for long-term forecasts and in situations that
are of major importance to the firm. It is important for firms to predict
changes in sales patterns so they can take advantage of opportunities and
minimize the impact of threats. To predict these changes, firms enlist the
aid of experts, or individuals with an intimate knowledge of the product
and its markets. The following four basic approaches are classified as qual-
itative forecasting techniques:
Expert opinion. Marketers look to a panel of experts with knowledge of the

industry and the marketplace to provide a forecast. A variety of sources are
consulted, and the results are combined to form a consensus forecast based
on expert opinion. These experts can be from within the firm or from out-
side the firm. Often, secondary sources, such as forecasts published in major
trade journals or business journals, are used. The resulting forecast can be ob-
tained by simply averaging the individual forecasts, or a more complicated
weighting system can be used based on the experience and knowledge of the
panel members.
Delphi technique. The Delphi technique involves several rounds of fore-

casting and review by a panel of experts. It can be very time-consuming,
but it is often quite accurate. This technique involves collecting forecasts,
developing composites, and sending the data to those participating several
times until a consensus results. The Delphi technique is normally used
when the decision is an important one and there are no time constraints.
Panel members are able to adjust their forecasts after seeing the forecasts
of others on the panel.
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Sales force forecast. The sales force forecast technique aggregates the sales
forecast of each salesperson or unit, depending on the level of the forecast.
For example, a hotel may have each of its salespeople provide a forecast for
his or her territory and then combine the forecasts to obtain an overall esti-
mate. Alternatively, a hotel or restaurant chain may have each unit provide
a forecast and then combine the forecasts to obtain an overall estimate for
the chain. The rationale for using this technique is that it may be more ac-
curate to forecast the sales for each territory or unit rather than to obtain a
higher-level forecast and break it down for operational purposes. Each sales-
person, or unit manager, is in touch with the customers and changes in the
environment.
Survey of buying intentions. Firms can use marketing research to ask po-
tential customers about their future purchase intentions and then esti-
mate future sales. This type of forecast, or survey of buying intentions,
is very subjective because there is no clear relationship between purchase
intentions and actual purchase behavior. However, this kind of infor-
mation is readily available from published sources such as Sales & Mar-
keting Management.
The experts employed in these methods may base their judgment on prior
experience, or they may use sophisticated quantitative techniques to model
the effects of other factors that influence the level of sales. However, the ul-
timate outcome is to predict changes in sales patterns.
QUANTITATIVE FORECASTING TECHNIQUES. The common element in

quantitative forecasting techniques is that they are based almost exclusively on
historical data. These forecasting techniques tend to be quicker and less costly
because the data are readily available through existing sources. Quantitative fore-
casting techniques are also gaining in popularity due to their level of proven ac-
curacy and improvements in computer technology. Many spreadsheet software
packages, such as Microsoft Excel, have statistical applications that can be used
for quantitative forecasting, and other statistical programs and forecasting pack-
ages are available at a reasonable price. In addition, these programs are easy to
use, and many are compatible with software for preparing reports and charts.
The two basic quantitative forecasting techniques are time series analysis and
causal methods.
TIME SERIES ANALYSIS. The time series analysis method uses statisti-
cal techniques to fit a trend line to the pattern of historical sales. The trend
line is expressed in terms of a mathematical equation that can be used to pro-
ject the trend forward into future periods and predict sales. The trend line
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can be linear (a straight line) or nonlinear (a curved line) depending upon the
pattern of the historical data. Four major components of a time series should
be considered in choosing a technique: (1) trend, or the long-term pattern; (2)
cycle, or medium-term changes due to business and economic changes; (3) sea-
sonal, short-term movements based on buying patterns; and (4) residual, un-
predictable influences or disturbances. The most common methods of time
series analysis are:
Trend extrapolation. The simplest method for forecasting sales is the linear
projection of past sales, or trend extrapolation. It assumes that the factors that
influenced sales in the past will have the same effect on future sales, and all
data points are weighted equally. This is somewhat naive, but firms basic
marketing programs and competitive situations normally do not change dras-
tically from year to year. This method is very simple, the data requirements
are minimal, and it can be very accurate for products in industries with low
growth rates.
Moving average. The moving average technique uses short-term forecasts
(e.g., monthly) and takes the average of the most recent periods to predict
future sales. For example, next months sales are forecast using the aver-
age of the monthly sales for the last three or four months. This method
is simple and can be used when sales are fairly stable throughout the year,
with only small fluctuations.
Exponential smoothing. The technique of exponential smoothing uses the
trend line to predict future sales; however, it places more weight on the most
recent periods. This method is better at picking up trends than the pre-
vious time series methods, and there are more complex formulas that al-
low for cycles and seasonal effects.
There are more sophisticated time series techniques, but they are beyond
the scope of this text. For example, there is a group of methods referred to as
autoregressive moving averages (ARMA), which express forecasts as a linear
combination of past actual values and/or past errors. These methods are be-
coming more widespread, but they require more than a rudimentary knowl-
edge of forecasting.
CAUSAL METHODS. These are often referred to as explanatory methods be-

cause they use historical data to establish the relationship between sales and other
factors that are believed to influence sales. The other factors, or causal factors,
can differ based on the level of the forecast. The higher the level or the more
macro-oriented the forecast, the more likely the variables are to be economic,
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such as disposable income, unemployment, and consumer prices. As the fore-

cast becomes more specific, or micro-oriented, the causal factors become more
specific, such as price, advertising expenditures, and competitors prices and ad-
vertising. However, to forecast sales based on these causal factors, one must fore-
cast the causal variables as well. In addition, the data requirements for causal
methods are more extensive than for qualitative or time-series forecasting tech-
niques. The two most common causal methods are:
Regression analysis. A regression analysis identifies the causal factors, or

independent variables, that can be used to predict the level of sales, or the
dependent variable. Single regression analysis uses one independent vari-
able, and multiple regression analysis uses more than one independent
variable. Trend extrapolation is actually a simplified form of regression
analysis that uses time as the independent variable and sales as the de-
pendent variable. For example, a manager might want to study the im-
pact that the growth rate of the economy or intensity of competition has
on annual sales.
Econometric models. In econometric models, statistical techniques are
used to solve a simultaneous set of multiple regression equations. In this
case, a causal factor may be predicted as a dependent variable from sev-
eral other causal factors and then used as an independent variable in an
equation to predict sales. This method is more complicated and requires
some expertise in statistical modeling. In addition, this technique requires
the largest amount of data because of the number of variables being used
in the various equations. Econometric models are best used within a cor-
porate or multiunit competitive situation and are not readily adaptable for
use at the single-unit level.
Selecting a Forecasting Technique

All of the sales forecasting techniques discussed earlier have advantages and dis-
advantages based on the situation. Therefore, it is important to apply a set of se-
lection criteria in choosing the appropriate technique. The following criteria can
be used in forecasting to evaluate the situation and choose the technique that is best
suited to the firms needs.
The time horizon. The period of time over which a decision will have an im-
pact will clearly affect the selection of the most appropriate technique. Time
c05.qxd 2/2/05 1:57 PM Page 187
series methods perform best for short-term (one to three months) and medium-
term (three months to two years) forecasts, whereas qualitative techniques are
best for long-term (more than two years) new product forecasts. Causal meth-
ods perform best in the short term, but they can also be used quite effectively
for medium-term forecasts.
The availability of data. The type and amount of data available can have a ma-
jor effect on the choice of technique. If only historical sales data are available,
then time series methods would be most appropriate. However, if very little
data are available (e.g., for new products), then the qualitative techniques would
be most appropriate. If data are available for a large range of variables, then
causal methods can be employed, providing a good deal of information re-
garding relationships between variables.
The pattern of the data. The majority of quantitative forecasting tech-

niques assume a particular pattern in the data to be forecast. Time series
methods work best when there are defined patterns (trends), including
cycles and seasonal changes. However, causal methods and qualitative
methods work best in high-growth markets and when there may be turn-
ing points in the pattern.
The desired level of accuracy. The desired level of accuracy will vary based
on the use of the forecast. Forecasts for control purposes tend to be short-
term and need to be more precise, whereas forecasts for planning tend to
be longer-term and can be less precise. Causal methods will normally be
the most accurate in the short term under various conditions. However,
time series methods can be very accurate when there is a strong trend in
the data. Qualitative methods will tend to be most accurate for long-term
forecasts because they use the combined forecasts of experts.
Cost. It is necessary to trade off the benefits of the various methods based on the
other criteria with the cost involved in using the technique. Cost will be a func-
tion of data collection, storage, and analysis. The time-series methods require
the least amount of data and expertise, resulting in the lowest cost. Causal meth-
ods can be costly because they require the most data and expertise, while qual-
itative methods incur a large expense for data collection.
Ease of application. The ease with which the various forecasting tech-
niques can be employed depends on factors such as the firms computer
capabilities, the expertise of its employees, and the availability of data.
Time-series methods are the easiest to employ, while causal methods and
qualitative methods are somewhat more complicated.
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When making decisions, managers must use all of these criteria in select-
ing the appropriate forecasting technique. Certain interrelationships among
the criteria may help simplify the selection task. For example, when good his-
torical data are available, time series methods provide accuracy for short-term
forecasts. Choosing the best forecasting technique is important because many
of the elements of the marketing plan are based on the sales forecasts.
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chapter review 189
Chapter review
This chapter has discussed the essential process for formulating marketing
plans. Strategic marketing planning (i.e., building on the firms mission) fo-
cuses on goals and objectives to develop long-term plans. Conversely, tactical
planning is more short-term and implementation-oriented. Effective mar-
keting planning includes both strategic and tactical components. Although
there are numerous advantages and disadvantages to planning, several re-
search studies have clearly demonstrated that firms that engage in marketing
planning hold a decisive advantage over the competition and exhibit improved
financial performance.
The marketing planning process includes four important stages: (1) con-
ducting a situation analysis, (2) defining the firms goals and objectives,
(3) formulating marketing strategies and action plans, and (4) implementing
action plans and evaluating performance. The situation analysis includes a
historical appraisal and a SWOT analysis to determine where the firm is in
terms of internal strengths and weaknesses, and external opportunities and
threats. SWOTs are the basis on which strategic marketing plans are devel-
oped. Strengths and opportunities are leverage items on which firms develop
competitive advantages. Conversely, weaknesses and threats are problem ar-
eas that must be minimized if the firm is to achieve maximum success.
Goals are broad statements of what the firm seeks to accomplish. Objectives
are more detailed statements of what the firm wants to achieve. Well-written
objectives should state (1) what will be accomplished in measurable terms,
(2) within what specific time frame it will be accomplished, (3) which individual
or group will be responsible for achieving the objective, and (4) how the results
will be evaluated. The firms marketing strategies will guide the firm to achieve
its objectives, and the entire process should be monitored and the performance
evaluated so that necessary changes can be made.
The last section of the chapter reviewed sales forecasting, including both
qualitative and quantitative techniques. Sales forecasts are crucial in estab-
lishing objectives and strategies and are used to set budgets for marketing
planning. Firms must understand the advantages and disadvantages of the
various forecasting techniques so they can select the appropriate technique for
a given situation. The selection of a forecasting technique is based on the time
horizon, availability of data, pattern of data, desired level of accuracy, cost,
and ease of application.
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Causal analysis
Consumer feedback
Cost control data
Delphi technique
Diversification strategy
Econometric models
Expert opinion
Exponential smoothing
Goals
Historical appraisal
Market development strategy
Market penetration strategy
Chapter review
Mission statement
Moving average
Objectives
Position statement
Product development strategy
Regression analysis
Sales control data
Sales force forecast
Sales forecasting
Strategic business unit (SBU)
Strategic marketing plan
Strategic window
Survey of buying intentions
SWOT analysis
Tactical marketing plan
Time series analysis
Trend extrapolation
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chapter review 191
Chapter review
Discussion
1. What is the difference between strategic and tactical mar-
keting plans?
2. Provide examples of the types of questions tactical market-
ing plans seek to answer.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with
planning?
4. Why do marketing plans fail? What steps might a market-
ing manager take to increase the probability of success?
5. Illustrate and discuss the steps in the marketing planning
process.
6. What is a SWOT analysis? How can SWOTs be leverage or
problem items?
7. Conduct a SWOT analysis for a restaurant located in your
area. How might this restaurant leverage elements of its
SWOTs?
8. What are the criteria for well-written objectives?
9. What are the four product development strategy options?
Provide examples and justification of hospitality and
tourism firms that you believe use each of the four
options.
10. What are the types of control data that are used to evalu-
ate performance?
11. What is sales forecasting? Why is it important?
12. Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative
forecasting techniques.
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Notes
1
Donald R. Lehmann and Russell S. Winer, Analysis for Marketing Planning, 2nd edition (Homewood, IL:
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1991), p. 1.
2
Arthur A. Thompson Jr. and A. J. Strickland, Strategy Formulation and Implementation (Homewood, IL:
BPI/Richard D. Irwin, 1989), p. 214.
3
Robert E. Stevens, David L. Loudon, and William E. Warren, Marketing Planning Guide (New York: Haworth
Press, 1981), pp. 24451.
Chapter review
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case study 193
case study
Case Study
Planning at the Westwind Resort
W hen Wendell Adams became the general manager at the West-

wind Resort, he knew that it would be a challenge. His prede-
cessor, Manfred Gunlock, was highly regarded and had been in
the position for over 20 years. During that time, the resort enjoyed success by
building a new lodge, adding more than 1,000 time-share units, and adding
more snow-making equipment that extended the ski season. During Mr. Gun-
locks tenure, Westwind Resort became a four-season resort. The golf course
was very good, with golfers playing more than 25,000 rounds annually. These
rounds were divided evenly between resort guests and year-round permanent
residents.
The resort catered to families, as it featured a modest pricing structure
and a focus on providing maximum value for them. About 60 percent of the
resort business came from families. Many of them had children between the
ages of 5 and 17.
Wendell also knew that the resort faced challenges. Westwind Resort had
begun to slip. Sales were down 4 percent, and the quality of the product-
service mix was perceived to have declined slightly as well. While still prof-
itable, the resort was not producing the level of cash flow that it had in pre-
vious years. When Wendell accepted the job, he worried that maybe Manfred
Gunlock had retired because he saw trouble ahead for Westwind Resort.
Wendell had taken some very positive first steps. He assembled the man-
agement team for a half-day off-site planning session. Westwind had been
run in a very entrepreneurial fashion, with Mr. Gunlock making all the im-
portant decisions without much input from other managers or even the board
of directors. While this approach had been successful in the past, Wendell be-
lieved it was time to implement a more systematic approach. He wanted to
develop a mission statement and a complete marketing plan for the resort.
Without a road map, how will we know where we are going? he told his
staff during the planning meeting.
Wendell had hoped to develop a mission statement during the planning meet-
ing, but the members of his management team felt it would be better to complete
an assessment of the resorts current position prior to developing a mission state-
ment. They also felt that the mission statement should come from the board of
directors, not from the managers. In the end, Wendell agreed with them, and they
developed a SWOT analysis. The results of their work are shown below.
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summary of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

(swots) for westwind resort
strengths weaknesses
More than 1,500 year-round residents Lodge occupancy has declined
reside in private homes at the resort. slightly, to 65 percent year round.
The resort has a good reputation for Peak weekends during the ski season
food and beverage service. are overbooked.
Westwind offers four-season sports, The average daily room rate for
including skiing and golf. lodge guests has not kept pace with
The airport on the property is inflation for the past three years.
suitable for up to six-passenger There has been some management
turboprop aircraft. turnover since the retirement of
There is low turnover among staff. Manfred Gunlock.
Westwind Resort is located Due to the location of the resort in
approximately 90 minutes from a the mid-Atlantic region, the ski
major metropolitan area. season is limited to approximately
The resort carries only a small 6075 days.
amount of long-term debt. The The lodge, while only 15 years old,
mortgage on the lodge (built 15 years lacks a freshness in the dcor. It
ago) is paid off. appears to be older than 15 years.
Cash flow, while positive, is lower
than in past years, due to a decline in
profits.
opportunities threats
Westwind has established a Two other four-season resorts are
case study
reputation as being a family-oriented located within a 90-minute drive of

resort. Westwind. Both are newer and offer
No competing resort has an airport. more amenities.
The four-season recreational Sales of time-share units have slowed
offerings can be expanded. in recent years, as buyers have sought
time-share units offered by major
chains rather than independent
resorts.
Of the three competing resorts within
a three-hour driving radius, two are
owned by major corporations with
significant resources and borrowing
capacity.
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case study 195
case study
Having completed the SWOT analysis, the managers were feeling very good.
This was the first time that many of them had ever been involved in such an
activity. They enjoyed having the opportunity to talk about the future of the
resort and how their individual contributions could positively impact the
future.

1. What should the mission statement for Westwind Resort be?
2. How should the mission statement be developed? Who should review it
and have input?
3. How could Wendell use the SWOTs that the management team had
developed to form the basis for a marketing plan?
4. How should he lead the team in the development of a marketing plan?
What should be the next steps?
5. What additional components of the marketing plan need to be
developed? What additional data and input would be necessary to
complete the plan?
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Courtesy of Hilton Hospitality, Inc.

c06.qxd 2/2/05 11:57 AM Page 197
chapter
6
Information Systems
for Marketing
Decisions
Chapter Objectives
1. Define the term marketing information system.
2. Outline key components and requirements of an effective
marketing information system.
3. Identify primary and secondary data sources for
marketing information.
4. Describe in detail the marketing research process.
5. Identify ethical issues surrounding marketing research
and information systems.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Requirements for a successful marketing
information system
Introduction
Definition of a marketing information Sources of Marketing Information
system Secondary data
Components of a marketing information Primary data
system
(continues)
197
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Chapter Outline
The Marketing Research Process Summary of Chapter Objectives
Define the problem
Plan the research
Collect the data Questions for Review and
Analyze the data Discussion
Prepare the final report
Case Study: Bel Air Motel
Ethical Issues in Marketing Appendix: Data Collection and
Research Sampling
Rights and obligations of the respondents
Rights and obligations of the research
suppliers
Rights and obligations of the clients
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industry profile
Sean ONeill President and CEO
Newmarket International Portsmouth, New Hampshire
S ean ONeill joined Newmarket International in the summer of 2001 as

president and chief executive officer. Prior to joining Newmarket In-
ternational, he served as the president and chief operating officer for
Grand Circle Corporation, a dynamic, privately held global travel organiza-
tion. Additionally, he spent several years with ITT Sheraton, where he held
the executive position of chief information officer/senior vice president re-
sponsible for all global and distributed systems worldwide.
In the early 1990s, he worked as senior vice president with Aeronomics
of Atlanta, Georgia, a consulting and systems development firm focused on
revenue management systems for the airline, hospitality, car rental, and tele-
vision industries. He also served as the vice president of development for
ECI, a California-based technology organization that launched the first
Unix-based relational database for property management systems for the
lodging industry.
Sean ONeills career in the hospitality industry includes the position of
corporate rooms and reservations director with the Hilton Hotel Corporation
along with numerous line management roles with Hilton.

As president and CEO of Newmarket International, my primary duties re-
volve around maintaining the continued growth of the company in our cur-
rent target markets while positioning Newmarket International to expand its
market base through the development of new solutions and services in non-
traditional verticals and business lines. There are several key factors critical
to the success of meeting these objectives:
World-class support and services to deliver the highest levels of customer

satisfaction
Continual investment in R&D to bring new products and services to market
with improved quality and at a reduced cost
Recruitment and retention of high-performance employeesThe Best
Team
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200 chapter 6 information systems for marketing decisions
Refinement and use of business metrics to guide our decisions

Achievement of steady earnings growth year over year

The areas of my job that bring me the most satisfaction vary. They include:
Meeting and exceeding our customers expectations

Creating a measured environment where we can successfully meet or ex-
ceed the expectations of each of our constituents: customers, associates, in-
vestors, and partners
Continuous improvement in every area of our business through objective
industry profile
measurement
Development of leading technology solutions as measured by our cus-
tomers adoption and subsequent business result
Striving to establish and motivate the strongest team in our industry
Being guided by integrity when faced with the many difficult decisions
this role brings with it
The fact that Im still learning something new every day
Successfully bringing new products to market
Many executives likely share the areas that bring the greatest frustration. They
include:
Timenever enough hours in the day
Missed opportunities
Our desire to bring high-quality products and solutions to market faster

youre facing?
There are several challenging aspects:
Maintaining growth in a down economy that has a direct and immediate

impact on our customers ability to invest and purchase software solutions
for their organizations
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industry profile
Keeping ahead of the pace in an ever-changing market, and implement-
ing processes and business practices throughout the company that recog-
nize and adapt to new ways of conducting business
Attracting and developing the strongest team in our industry

industry?
I see the following trends:
A slow but steady recovery for our industry

A continued demand throughout the industry for integration among
disparate system applications for best of breed product selection for
hoteliers
An increase in demand for low-cost, simple automation applications for
midscale hoteliers
Continued adoption of B2B business models among the various business
lines within the hospitality marketplace
5. What role does marketing play within

your company?
Marketing plays a critical role in the company on a number of levels. Mar-
keting serves:
As the voice of the company through press releases, Web site design and
content, and outbound communications to customers and prospects
As brand agent for the companybringing the look, feel, and high-level
messages and themes to market
As the platform vehicle to bring new products to market through partic-
ipation in key industry events, analyst meetings, Web seminars, ad and
direct marketing campaigns, and more
As a source to promote and accelerate the sales cycle through prospect ac-
quisition and qualification
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you suggest?
Information is an enormous asset. If youre better informed and educated, you
make better decisions. For someone interested in pursuing a career in the hos-
pitality and tourism industry, the one thing I would recommend is that they
get an education in the industry by attending one of the many universities
that have a curriculum focused on this industry.
industry profile
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introduction 203
INTRODUCTION
Since the advent of personal computers, the world has experienced an infor-
mation explosion, and all industries have made substantial advances in infor-
mation collection, analysis, storage, and retrieval. The hospitality industry was
very much a part of this trend. As the external environment becomes more
intricate and more competitive, informational needs become more complex.
Organizations that employ a systematic approach to collecting, analyzing, stor-
ing, retrieving, and using information effectively and efficiently are likely to
be the most successful in the future. Without the proper types of information
available on a timely basis, management is more likely to make decisions that
will adversely affect the performance of the organization.
A simple example will illustrate this point. Suppose that the management
of a small restaurant chain must make a decision concerning the allocation of
the advertising budget among the available media for the upcoming quarter.
The advertising objectives of this restaurant are to increase the rate of repeat
patronage by 10 percent by reinforcing the chains high level of perceived value
among current customers, and to increase the number of customers who are
patronizing one of the chains restaurants for the first time by 10 percent. To
make an effective decision about media allocation, the management of this
chain has specific informational needs. Management needs access to the fol-
lowing types of information:
The characteristics of the current clientele

The characteristics of the target market segments most likely to patron-
ize the chains restaurants for the first time
The media habits of both of these groups
The profile of the consumers of all available media (e.g., television, radio,
print) and the individual media vehicles (e.g., individual radio stations)
Without all of this information, the management of this restaurant chain

will increase the uncertainty surrounding the decision. The results of a less-
informed decision could adversely affect the advertising effectiveness of the
organization and directly affect its financial performance.
All too often, management is forced to make critical decisions without
the necessary marketing information. On many occasions, managers must
work with information that is not complete, or information that is not in the
desired form. The new versions of hotel reservation systems and restaurant
point-of-sale systems are capable of obtaining more forms of data that can
c06.qxd 2/2/05 11:57 AM Page 204
be used in making managerial decisions. Revenue-management and yield-

management software is available to help organize data for pricing deci-
sions, and statistical programs are available for analyzing data and making
forecasts.
Definition of a Marketing
Information System
A marketing information system (MIS) is the structure of people, equipment,
and procedures used to gather, analyze, and distribute information needed by an
organization. These are the data to be used as a basis for marketing decisions.
Marketing information system is a broader and more encompassing term than mar-
ket research and a variation of the term management information system. Market
research indicates that information is collected for a specific reason or project;
the major objective is a one-time use. For example, a potential restaurant owner
may undertake a feasibility study and use market research to determine whether
to build a new restaurant. Such an information-gathering study is designed to
answer a very specific question: Should we open a restaurant in this area?
A marketing information system, on the other hand, is part of an ongoing
data-gathering process involving initial data collection as well as routine and sys-
tematic data collection procedures. For example, a hotel manager may choose to
collect data by means of a zip code analysis of guest registration information to
determine the geographic profile of the guests of a hotel. This systematic and rou-
tine information gathering is not intended to address one specific question but is
instead part of an overall system designed to monitor the degree of marketing
success that the operation is able to achieve.
A well-designed marketing information system satisfies four basic
criteria:
It must include a structured organization or established system of people

and information-gathering procedures.
The system should be designed to generate a continuous flow of infor-
mation to provide accurate and current marketing information for
management.
Information should be gathered from inside and outside the organization.
External information-gathering methods include consumer surveys while
internal information-gathering methods involve employee meetings, guest
comment cards, analysis of point-of-sale data, all guest registration infor-
mation, and in-house guest surveys.
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introduction 205
Information should be compiled so that management can use it as a basis

for marketing decisions.
It would be extremely difficult and quite hazardous for the management

of a hospitality organization to make decisions without accurate and up-to-
date marketing information. Professional management demands that deci-
sions be based on sound information. Managers can reduce the uncertainty
surrounding marketing decisions when valuable information is available.
Marriott International serves as a good example. For many years this corpo-
ration has relied upon a widely based decision-making process. The resulting
decisions have consistently been very good and have allowed Marriott to es-
tablish and maintain a leadership position in the hospitality industry. This is
not to say that a very good marketing information system alone will allow an
organization to achieve financial success, but it will be of tremendous benefit
to management.
Components of a Marketing
Information System
A key component of an effective marketing information system is having ac-
curate information about the environment. The foundation for this data col-
lection is environmental scanning, which refers to a process whereby external
factors that could affect an organization are continually evaluated. Based on
an initial evaluation, those factors with the greatest potential impact, either
positive or negative, are examined in greater detail. From a theoretical stand-
point, if management is to make rational decisions, all information that could
affect the hospitality organization should be examined and evaluated. Realis-
tically, however, this is not possible because of the finite limits on the valu-
able resources of time, money, and personnel. Instead, only those environ-
mental variables that appear to be the most important or most critical are
examined in greater detail.
In short, a marketing information system that uses environmental scan-
ning provides an overview of the entire environment as well as further detail
concerning those variables within the environment that are most critical to
the successful operation of the hospitality organization. The firms overall en-
vironment can be divided into three subenvironments: the macroenvironment,
the competitive environment, and the organizational environment.
A conceptual model of the components of a marketing information sys-
tem is shown in Figure 6.1. Data are generated for each of the three sub-
environments through an environmental scanning process. The data are then
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Environmental Scanning
Macroenvironment Competitive environment Organizational

environment
Economic, Monitor actions of direct
political, and indirect competitors Internally generated
social, and marketing information
technological Market research activities
trends Point-of-sale information
Marketing audits
Sales histories and trends
Marketing information
complied and
summarized
Marketing trends
evaluated
Marketing plans
formulated
figure 6.1 Components of a marketing information system.
compiled, summarized, and stored until needed by management. At the ap-

propriate time, management can readily retrieve data summaries, evaluate
marketing trends, and formulate marketing plans and strategies. The over-
riding objectives of a marketing information system are:
1. To collect relevant data concerning each of these subenvironments

2. To compile, summarize, and store the data
3. To have data readily available for management on a timely basis
MACROENVIRONMENT. The macroenvironment concerns the broadest
possible effects. Macroenvironmental effects are those that the individual hos-
pitality organization is almost powerless to control and include economic, so-
cial, political, and technological aspects of the environment. As conditions
change within the macroenvironment, the management of hospitality orga-
nizations should collect data concerning these changes. Knowledge of exist-
ing conditions will provide a basis for calculating the impact that these vari-
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introduction 207
ables will have on the operation of the firm. For example, if the federal tax
deductibility of business meals is further reduced or if the annual inflation
rate rises by 3 to 4 percent, what impact is this likely to have on sales volume?
Nearly 20 percent of the population moves each yearhow will these demo-
graphic changes affect a hospitality organization? These are influences that
the management of a hospitality organization is virtually powerless to con-
trol. At best, management can monitor the variables of the macroenvironment
and gauge the effects they might have on business.
COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT. The competitive environment imme-
diately surrounds the hospitality organization. The organization exerts some
degree of control over this environment but can never control it totally. The
major concern for management is to monitor closely the marketing and op-
erational actions taken by direct and indirect competitors. Attention should
be focused initially on changes made in the marketing mix, guest profile, room
and menu prices, and sales volume as measured in both dollars and in guest
counts. Management should also be concerned with the degree of concentra-
tion of competition, entries and exits among competitors, and changes in mar-
ket share among competitors. Exact figures are not likely to be available, but
all competitors should be monitored closely so that management can be pre-
pared for changes before or when they occur, rather than weeks or months
later. By monitoring competition in this way, management can prepare an ap-
propriate competitive response, thereby gaining a differential competitive
advantage.
The two other aspects of the competitive environment for a marketing in-
formation system are market research activities and marketing audits. Mar-
ket research encompasses a wide range of activities undertaken to generate
information about a firms products, customers, and external environment.
Marketing audits are evaluations of the effectiveness of current marketing
practices. In particular, marketing audits are used to monitor marketing plans
on an annual basis.
ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT. The third subenvironment that
is a part of a marketing information system is the organizational environment.
Data collection in this subenvironment involves examining all relevant infor-
mation sources within the hospitality organization. The basis for data collec-
tion in this subenvironment is guest histories, although information can be
generated from other sources as well. Guest histories are records that a hotel
maintains for all types of guests, both individual and groups. In addition, his-
tories should be maintained within all retail outlets, especially food and bev-
erage. Within the food and beverage area, all sales should be recorded, bro-
ken down by menu group and menu item. Only when managers have access
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to records of previous sales are they able to make informed decisions con-
cerning the product-service mix for the organization.
Requirements for a Successful Marketing

Information System
The basic task of gathering data is important to an organization, but an ef-
fective marketing information system is one that is able to organize this task
and supply the firm with useful information. To generate data that are use-
ful for managers and decision makers, a marketing information system should
fulfill three requirements:
It should be objective. Management should be able to quantify and ana-

lyze the information gathered. Management needs as much purely objec-
tive data as possible to make sound decisions. For example, which of these
two statements seems to provide better information for decision-making
purposes?
Statement A: As the owner of this restaurant, I think we should modify

our menu so that we can appeal to more family business.
Statement B: A recent study has indicated a 10 percent increase in the
number of families with children under the age of ten in our area.
Statement B would appear to be more objective and to offer quantitative

data on which to base a decision. On the other hand, Statement A is merely
an opinion and is not supported by any quantitative data.
Too many hospitality managers rely heavily on subjective opinions for
decision-making purposes, and their decisions are often incorrect. Decisions
based on purely personal opinion are often less than successful when imple-
mented. Decisions based on a combination of data and managerial insight and
experience generally yield higher-quality decisions.
It should be systematic. The marketing information system is not an on-off

process; it is a system that should be designed to provide a continuing in-
formation source for management. When information is collected in a sys-
tematic and continuous manner, the quality and quantity of data improve.
It should be useful. Many studies produce information that is of little
value. This is obviously not the purpose of a marketing information
system. One rule of thumb to follow is this: collect, compile, and store
information only if it is used actively; do not collect information and
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sources of marketing information 209
then file it away without using it. This is a needless and expensive waste
of time and effort, yet many hospitality operators, in an attempt to
gather any quantitative information, maintain data that are never used
and are truly useless. The advent of low-cost and increased-capacity
hard disk storage within personal computers has partially encouraged
this storage of little-used data. Every effort should be made to collect
and store only information that is useful.
Sources of Marketing
Information
A variety of sources can be used to obtain the information necessary to fuel
a marketing information system. These information sources can be grouped
into two main categories: secondary data and primary data. Secondary data
were previously collected for another purpose. Primary data are generated
for a specific purpose when the information is not available elsewhere. It is
normally advisable to search for secondary data before engaging in a primary
data collection process. The secondary data may provide the information nec-
essary to make a decision, and even if they dont, they may be useful in de-
veloping the collection process for primary data. Figure 6.2 illustrates the
possible sources of information for marketing decisions.
Secondary Data
As mentioned before, this type of data is already available from other sources
and summarizes information about operations, marketing, human resource
management, financial performance, and other topics of interest to manage-
ment. A shrewd manager will make a thorough check of all available sec-
ondary data sources before undertaking primary data collection. Secondary
data can save many personnel hours and a great deal of money. The major
advantages of using secondary data are:
Cost. It is much less expensive to obtain information from existing sources
than to develop entirely new data. These existing sources may require a
nominal charge for the information, but it will be much less than the cost
of undertaking primary data collection.
Timeliness. Secondary data are available almost instantaneously. A man-
ager can have access to data very quickly and therefore does not have to
wait weeks or perhaps months for primary data to be collected, analyzed,
and summarized.
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Guest histories and

sales data
Internal Employees and
management staff
Customer feedback
Secondary
Trade associations
Travel bureaus
External Trade journals and
other periodicals
University sources
Government sources
Information Syndicated sources
sources Guides, indexes,
and directories
Exploratory
Primary Marketing Descriptive

research
Causal
figure 6.2 Information sources.
By using secondary data whenever possible, a manager avoids the frus-

tration of developing the research methodology design, designing the data col-
lection instrument, pretesting the instrument, devising a sampling plan, gath-
ering the data, checking all data for accuracy and omissions, analyzing the
data, and summarizing and reporting the results. Instead, a manager can
merely locate the appropriate source and access the information desired. This
process can be completed in a few hours or days, whereas primary data col-
lection can take weeks or months to complete. However, secondary data col-
lection does have the following disadvantages.
Limited applicability. A manager has no assurance that information gath-

ered by others will be applicable to a particular hospitality operation. For
example, information obtained in New York about the popularity of a
specific menu item is not necessarily useful to a manager operating in an-
other part of the country. Information that pertains to one operation may
apply only to that operation and be of limited value to anyone else.
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Information may be outdated. Managers need current and accurate infor-

mation on which to base decisions. All too often, secondary data are not as
useful as they might be merely because they are not current. For example,
the results of a consumer attitude survey conducted by a restaurant four
years ago would be of limited value to a manager making plans today. Dur-
ing the four years, a number of changes in consumer attitudes are likely to
have taken place. These changes in attitudes will make the original data
outdated and useful only in a historical sense. If a hospitality manager makes
use of less-than-timely data, the results are likely to be less than satisfactory.
Reliability. Whenever a hospitality operator uses secondary data as the ba-
sis for a decision, the manager runs the risk that the information may not
be reliable and accurate. A manager would do well to determine who col-
lected the data and what method of data collection was used. Information
is only as good as the individuals who collect it and the methods they use.
If a study is administered in a haphazard manner, the results and con-
clusions should be viewed with caution.
There are two main types of secondary data that can be used by managers
within a firm (see Figure 6.2). Internal data exist within the firm and can be
obtained with minimal time and effort. Advances in computer technology
have made it easier to obtain this information and provide it to managers in
a form that is useful. External data are not readily available within the firm.
Managers must obtain this data by spending more time and/or money con-
tacting outside sources. The Internet has made this a much easier task, but
there is still a fair amount of effort involved. The various sources of internal
and external data are discussed below.
INTERNAL DATA. The component of a marketing information system that

is the simplest to design and implement is an internal system, or the compo-
nent designed to collect data from within the organizational environment.
When considering the organizational environment, management needs to be
concerned only with information available from within the physical confines
of the organizations units, whether they are hotels or restaurants. This com-
ponent of a marketing information system requires less time and money than
does the competitive environment or externally generated marketing infor-
mation. The internal component of a marketing information system is very
valuable to management because it provides a wealth of information.
Management has three main sources of internal marketing information:
guest histories and sales data, employees and management staff, and customer
feedback.
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Guest histories and sales data. No rules can tell a manager exactly what
records should or should not be maintained. The management of every
hospitality organization must make this decision based on individual
needs. Within a hotel operation, the minimum records that should be
maintained are both individual and group guest histories. These will per-
mit management to have knowledge and monitor changes in zip code ori-
gin of guests, length of stay, guest expenditure per day, and other perti-
nent data concerning guests. Within a restaurant operation, the records
maintained should include customer counts for each meal period and sales
for each menu item over a specified period of time. Many larger organi-
zations have a sophisticated management information system in place.
However, for the smaller organization, the design of a management in-
formation system is much easier than it has been in the past. Many point-
of-sale terminals interface with personal computers, making the transfer
of data to off-the-shelf database management and accounting software rel-
atively easy. By using a personal computer, a manager is better able to
Pertinent guest information should be obtained by hotels for the purpose of analyzing sales
data. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
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manage the data. The quality and ease of use of off-the-shelf business soft-
ware such as Microsoft Office make it far easier for a manager to capture
and analyze large databases. It is more common for managers to conduct
more sophisticated statistical analysis of the database of customers and to
mine the database for keys to increasing the volume of business from cur-
rent customers. It is obvious that, with accurate information readily avail-
able, a manager is more likely to consult such marketing information prior
to making a marketing decision.
Employees and management staff. All too often, hospitality management
ignores the wealth of information that is informally gathered by hourly
employees such as front desk personnel, telephone operators, restaurant
service people, and hosts and hostesses. These individuals are in constant
contact with guests, yet they are rarely asked to relay customer comments
and reactions to operational changes, such as new menu items or guest
room dcor changes. These employees represent an excellent source of in-
formation, although the information they provide may not be totally ob-
jective. It is a good idea for management to meet with employees on a
regular basis to discuss problems and opportunities. Employees crave
recognition from their supervisors; this recognition increases the em-
ployees satisfaction and commitment to the organization. All employees
need to be exposed to some motivational techniques, although managers
often ignore the simple and basic needs of employees as individuals.
Customer feedback. The focus of the marketing concept is the hospital-
ity operations clientele. All aspects of the entire operation should be aimed
at satisfying these individuals. The purpose of using an internal market-
ing information system is to solicit opinions and comments from the cur-
rent clientele. This can be done in a number of ways, such as having the
manager talk with a few of the customers or having service personnel
check with the customers. One method used frequently is the comment
card. These cards are placed in guest rooms or are provided to the guest
upon checkout or when they have finished a meal in a restaurant. The
purpose is to solicit their opinions and comments concerning the opera-
tions quality.
All three internal sources of marketing information are very valuable. To-
gether they can provide a great deal of useful information with which to make
decisions. Historically, hospitality managers have failed to use these sources
to maximal advantage, but the current competitive situation in the hospital-
ity industry dictates that all sources of information be used to gain a compet-
itive advantage and to earn maximal financial rewards.
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EXTERNAL DATA. Although externally generated marketing information

is extremely valuable, it is normally not collected on a daily basis, as is the case
with internally generated marketing information. This is due to a much larger
investment of time, money, and other scarce resources required for externally
generated information. Management should consider using a wide variety of
sources of external marketing information. Literally thousands of sources are
available, and these sources are limited only by managements own efforts to
locate them. A few typical sources of external marketing information are:
Trade associations. Many industries form trade groups that provide data
for their members. These trade associations collect information from their
members and then provide industry averages that can be used to measure
a firms relative performance. Some of the popular trade associations for
the hospitality industry are the National Restaurant Association, the
American Hotel & Lodging Association, and the Hospitality Sales and
Marketing Association International. Two of the more popular tourism
associations are the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and the Travel
and Tourism Research Association (TTRA). However, most of the data
for the tourism industry are collected by government travel bureaus.
Travel bureaus. Cities, states, and countries usually form organizations
that are responsible for promoting travel to the area. Most cities have a
chamber of commerce that is responsible for promoting business in the
city and, in some cases, tourism as well. Larger cities and regions form
convention and visitors bureaus for the sole purpose of promoting busi-
ness and leisure travel to the region. A chamber of commerce has mem-
ber firms from all types of industries, whereas convention and visitors bu-
reaus tend to have member firms from travel-related industries such as
lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. Finally, most states and coun-
tries have government travel and tourism bureaus that are responsible for
promoting travel to that state or country.
Trade journals and periodicals. Many industry, or trade, journals are avail-
able to firms. Trade associations often publish their own journals, but
many other organizations publish periodicals covering certain industries.
Some of the more popular hospitality publications are Restaurants & In-
stitutions, Restaurant Hospitality, Nations Restaurant News, Restaurant Busi-
ness, Lodging Hospitality, Lodging Magazine, and Hotel & Motel Manage-
ment. The articles in these publications provide information on new
products and advertising campaigns, as well as current trends in the in-
dustry. These articles also provide a valuable resource for case studies in-
volving successes and failures of industry firms.
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Other Periodicals. In addition to trade journals that specialize in a certain

industry, other publications cover business in a variety of industries. Some
of the more popular business publications that cover the hospitality and
tourism industries are Business Week, Wall Street Journal, Fortune, Barrons,
and Forbes.
Internet. The growth in both the quantity and quality of information

available on the Internet is well documented. Using one or more of the
available Internet search engines will uncover information, some of which
will be highly valuable for managers. A key consideration for managers
is being able to determine the accuracy and usefulness of information gath-
ered from the Internet.
University sources. Universities and colleges have well-stocked libraries

that can be a valuable resource for firms in the area. These institutions of-
ten have access to many of the other sources of external data. In addition,
universities and colleges form centers to research specific areas such as
hospitality. This information is often free to the public or available for a
reasonable fee.
Government sources. Local, state, and federal governments maintain de-

tailed data on all aspects of the economy; the data are free or available for
a nominal fee. The United States Census gathers detailed information
about the population and retail business, and the Statistical Abstract of the
United States contains similar information in abbreviated form. Census
and statistical documents are now available in electronic form, enabling
quicker searches and data retrieval. The federal government also collects
information about foreign countries and provides specialists to answer spe-
cific questions and address inquiries.
Syndicated services. Firms such as Harris and Gallup polls, Target Group
Index, Nielsen, and W. R. Simmons specialize in collecting and distrib-
uting marketing information for a fee. These syndicated services provide
information about consumer profiles and shopping behaviors, consumer
responses to sales promotions and advertising, and consumer attitudes and
preferences. This information is useful in focusing on market segments
using aggregate data. These services often advertise in trade publications
and marketing periodicals.
Guides, indexes, and directories. Other valuable sources of external in-

formation include guides, indexes, and directories that are available at
most university libraries and larger public libraries. Guides such as the
Business Periodicals Index provide references by subject matter for articles
c06.qxd 2/2/05 11:58 AM Page 216
in major journals and trade publications. Also, most major publications

such as the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times have indexes that
provide references by subject matter for articles that appeared in those
particular sources. Finally, Lexis-Nexis is an excellent online resource for
data about the performance of publicly traded companies.
A number of guidelines should be followed when collecting external in-

formation. If they are not followed, much time, effort, and money are likely
to be wasted.
1. State known facts. Before undertaking an external study, make an in-

ventory of all data currently available. It makes little sense to conduct an
extensive study or pay to have one conducted only to produce informa-
tion that is available from existing sources. By stating all known facts,
management establishes a base from which to work. This base can be es-
tablished by looking at internal sources before proceeding with more ex-
pensive, external information-gathering techniques.
2. List specific goals and objectives. Once a base of information has been es-
tablished, a plan must be formulated. Goals and objectives are the basis
for this plan. Without goals and objectives, an external study could easily
go astray and would not yield the information needed by a hospitality
manager. The manager needs to ask, What do I want to learn? What
types of information about my clientele, my competition, or my own op-
eration would be most useful? Having answered such questions, a man-
ager can begin to formulate potential questions for a survey to provide the
desired information.
3. Collect all relevant data. At this point the actual legwork must be done to
ensure an adequate sample. The information gathered must be both valid
and reliable. Validity is the degree to which the data gathered measure
what they are supposed to measure. Reliability is the degree with which
data consistently measure whatever they are designed to measure. Data
collection is extremely important and not a process to be treated lightly.
The information generated will only be as accurate and valid as the pro-
cedures used to generate the information. For this reason, great care must
be taken to ensure that the information is gathered correctly.
4. Summarize the data and analyze the situation. No matter which data col-
lection method is used, some type of summary and analysis must be done
to reduce the data into a manageable package. Then management can ac-
cess the organized information and use it for a wide variety of decisions.
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Primary Data
Primary data consist of original research done to answer current questions re-
garding a specific operation. For example, a foodservice manager may attempt
to ascertain consumer attitudes toward new menu offerings or to solicit con-
sumer perceptions of increased menu prices or different portion sizes. This
type of data is very pertinent to an individual operation but may not be ap-
plicable to other situations.
The advantages of using primary data include the following:
Specificity. These data are tailored to one operation and can provide ex-
cellent information for decision-making purposes.
Practicality. Primary data can provide solid real-life information and a
practical foundation to be used in the decision-making process.
The disadvantages of using primary data include the following:
Cost. For an individual manager, gathering primary data is extremely ex-

pensive. To gather primary data even from a city of 100,000 people may
prove to be a monumental task for an operator and may cost too much in
time and money.
Time lag. Marketing decisions often must be made quickly, yet it requires
a good deal of time to conduct a thorough information-gathering study.
While a manager is collecting the data, the competition may be driving
the hospitality or tourism operation into bankruptcy.
Duplication. While primary data are geared toward a specific operation,
other sources of existing data may closely duplicate the information col-
lected and would therefore be appropriate for decision-making purposes.
This duplication of effort is very expensive, and primary data collection
should therefore be undertaken only after all secondary data sources have
been exhausted.
In general, the advantages of using secondary data tend to be the disad-

vantages of using primary data, and vice versa. As mentioned earlier, before
collecting primary data, it is advisable to perform a secondary-data search to
determine the necessity and scope of a primary-data collection effort. The next
section covers the marketing research process that is followed when collect-
ing primary data.
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THE MARKETING RESEARCH

PROCESS
The marketing research process is undertaken to answer a wide variety of
questions, which might include: Where do our guests come from? How fre-
quently do people dine out in this area? In what types of restaurants do they
most frequently dine? If the seating capacity of a restaurant is expanded by
20 percent, what impact will this have on sales and profits? If the city builds
a new convention center, how many additional room nights is that likely to
bring to the city?
Conducting market research is not an inexpensive proposition, and when
research is undertaken, care must be taken to ensure that proper methods are
used. This is true whether the hospitality organization conducts its own mar-
ket research or relies on external consultants. Market research data are only
as good as the methodology used. If poor methodology is used, the results are
not likely to describe the situation accurately, and marketing decisions based
on this information are not likely to be very appropriate. Figure 6.3 contains
the six steps involved in the marketing research process.
Define the problem
Plan the research
Collect the data
Analyze the data
Prepare the final report
figure 6.3 The marketing research process.

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the marketing research process 219
Step 1: Define the Problem

Before initiating any marketing research effort, a firm must first decide
whether marketing research is necessary. In general, marketing research
should be undertaken if it clarifies a problem that could impact your busi-
ness, if it helps in selecting between alternatives for achieving marketing
objectives, if it assists in gaining a competitive advantage, or if it provides
useful information on your markets.1 Marketing research may not be
needed if the information is already available, there is insufficient time for
marketing research, resources are not available, or costs of conducting the
research outweigh the potential benefits of having the information.
If the decision is made to proceed with the marketing research, the re-
search problem should be clearly defined. What does the research effort pro-
pose to do? What types of questions need to be asked? What solutions are
sought? A strong tendency among all researchers, especially novice re-
searchers, is to rush into data collection without giving adequate thought to
defining the problem. This tendency should be vigorously avoided. A small
amount of time spent in defining and refining the problem will save many
hours later on.
First, it is necessary to view the problem from the marketing managers
perspective. Normally, a problem is brought to the attention of a manager
when there is a decrease in a performance measure such as sales volume, profit,
or market share. It is important not to mistake this for the problem; instead,
recognize it as a symptom of an underlying problem. For example, if a ho-
tels occupancy rate has suddenly fallen, there could be a number of causes.
A new competitor may have opened, current competitors may be discounting
prices or increasing advertising expenditures, consumers may be dissatisfied
with the hotel, there may be construction in the immediate area, or there may
be a downturn in the economy. Any one of these factors, or a combination of
them, could be the cause of the decrease in performance.
Once the marketing manager has pinpointed the problem, it is time to
formulate the marketing research problem. In other words, what information
does the marketing manager need to solve the problem? This involves tak-
ing constructs (marketing terms or concepts) such as brand loyalty and cus-
tomer satisfaction and establishing an operational definition that can be used
to measure these constructs. For example, brand loyalty could be measured
by asking travelers for the percentage of their flights that are on a particular
airline. The researcher must also identify the relationships between constructs.
One could assume that as customer satisfaction increases, so does brand loy-
alty. There may even be prior research to support this relationship.
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Step 2: Plan the Research

The second step in the marketing research process involves planning the re-
search design for obtaining the desired information to address the research
problem. The research design is basically a master plan specifying the meth-
ods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information.
There are three main categories of research designs from which to choose,
based on the objectives of the researchexploratory research, descriptive re-
search, and causal research.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH. This type of research is used to gain back-

ground information when a firm doesnt have a good understanding of the
nature of the problem. Exploratory research can be used to obtain addi-
tional information about a topic and to generate hypotheses stating the re-
lationships between two or more variables. This research tends to be in-
formal and unstructured, and it is mainly used to gain background
information, define terms, and clarify problems. The hypotheses that are
generated using exploratory research can be tested in future research
efforts.
Some of the more common methods for conducting exploratory research
are secondary data analysis, experience surveys, case analysis, and focus groups.
Secondary data analysis is the process of reviewing existing information that
is related to the research problem. The sources for secondary data analysis
were discussed previously in this chapter, along with the advantages and dis-
advantages associated with using this method.
Experience surveys are similar to the qualitative methods discussed in the
sales forecasting section of Chapter 5. Basically, information is gathered from
individuals who are believed to be knowledgeable about the research topic.
Case analysis refers to the use of information about a situation that re-
sembles the current situation surrounding the current research problem. Hos-
pitality firms could benefit from the experiences of other firms in their in-
dustry, or of firms in other industries that faced similar circumstances.
One of the most common methods of exploratory research is the focus
group. Focus groups consist of 8 to 12 people who represent the population
being studied and are brought together in an informal setting to discuss the
issues surrounding the research problem. The sessions generally last from one
to two hours and are guided by a moderator, who ensures that all the groups
members give input and that all of the pertinent topics are covered. Focus
groups are valuable for testing new product designs and service concepts, test-
ing advertising campaigns, and gaining insight into the markets basic needs
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and attitudes. The use of focus groups has gained in popularity because the
respondents can interact as the research client watches through a two-way
mirror. Many focus group sessions are videotaped so they can be examined in
more detail at a later date by a number of different people. The potential
weaknesses of focus groups are that, given the small number of participants,
the group may not completely represent the population of interest, and, be-
cause the groups are unstructured, the information provided during the ses-
sion is often very subjective and open to interpretation. Finally, it may be
difficult and expensive to obtain the participants, the moderator, and a facil-
ity for a focus group.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH. The second category of research design is con-
cerned with answering the basic questions of who buys the product, what cus-
tomers do with the product, where they buy, when they buy, why they buy,
and how they buy. Primarily, the researcher is trying to profile the customer
base in terms of demographics, psychographics, attitudes, and purchasing be-
havior. A cross-sectional study measures the population at one point in time;
it provides a snapshot of the population. This type of study is normally used
to address a particular problem when it arises. For example, one hotel sur-
veyed customers in its atrium restaurant over a one-week period to obtain in-
formation that could be used to redesign the restaurant and its menu. A lon-
gitudinal study is used to measure the same population over an extended
period. Generally, these studies use the same sample, referred to as a panel,
and collect the same information over time (e.g., once a year). Longitudinal
data are useful in depicting trends and changes in consumer needs and atti-
tudes. For example, many firms offering syndicated services will track the
trends in an industry by constructing and maintaining a panel of consumers
who complete an annual survey.
CAUSAL RESEARCH. The third category of research design focuses on
cause-and-effect relationships that are pertinent to a research problem. A
series of if-then statements can be used to model certain elements of the hos-
pitality service. For example, a hospitality firm may want to examine how a
particular change in the marketing mix affects sales, market share, and/or cus-
tomer satisfaction. The following relationships could be tested. If the quality
of food is improved, customer satisfaction will increase. If on-time perfor-
mance improves, market share will increase. If an additional salesperson is
hired, occupancy rate will increase. The potential benefits of understanding
causal relationships are great. Firms could design better products, create ef-
fective advertising campaigns, and set prices that will maximize revenue. Un-
fortunately, many factors affect the consumer decision-making process, either
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alone or in combination, and it is almost impossible to understand them com-

pletely. In fact, many researchers argue that there is no such thing as true
causality. Regardless, as managers understanding of consumer behavior in-
creases, the firms performance will improve.
Step 3: Collect the Data

Three major decisions must be made during this stage in the marketing re-
search process. They involve choosing a data collection method, designing data
collection forms, and determining the sampling plan. Weaknesses in any of
these areas can have a profound impact on the reliability and validity of the
results. As previously noted, reliability refers to the consistency of responses
to questions, and validity refers to the accuracy of the measure. It is possible
to have reliability without validity, but for a measure to be valid, it must also
be reliable. For example, a poorly written question can solicit consistent re-
sponses, but it may not be a valid measure of the construct that is being stud-
ied. Even with the best sample, a poorly designed collection form will result
in inaccurate data. Similarly, a well-designed collection form is useless if the
sample does not represent the population.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS. Once the research design has been

planned, it is necessary to determine the best method for collecting the data.
The three possible methods for obtaining primary data are observation, sur-
veys, and experiments. The appropriate method will depend on the research
objectives and the research design. Exploratory research is most often ac-
complished using observation and surveys. Descriptive research uses all of the
data collection methods, but it relies very heavily on information received from
surveys. Finally, experiments are used almost exclusively for causal research.
However, observation and surveys are also used to obtain information to study
causal relationships.
Observation involves watching consumers and making organized notes to
document or record the observed behavior. When doing this type of research,
it is important that all individuals acting as observers record their observa-
tions in the same manner. Direct observation refers to the process of observing
behavior as it actually occurs, by either a person or a mechanical device. For
example, hotels and restaurants use mystery shoppers to experience the ser-
vice firsthand and record their observations. Indirect observation refers to the
process of observing behavior after the fact. For example, airlines search the
trash to determine the eating behaviors of their passengers. This physical trace
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evidence is useful in deciding which meal items to include and which ones to
eliminate. In most cases, the observation is disguised so as not to affect the
consumers behavior; however, there are instances, such as food testing, when
subjects know they are being observed. Unfortunately, subjects behavior can
be difficult to interpret, especially the attitudes and motivation behind it.
Surveys involve asking consumers to provide information regarding the
issues surrounding the research problem on a questionnaire or comment card.
The survey can be filled in by the researcher, completed with the aid of a com-
puter, or completed by the respondent (self-administered). When used prop-
erly, the survey method can gather a great deal of useful information. The
survey method is adaptable to a variety of situations and is relatively inex-
pensive. Surveys may be accomplished using a number of different methods,
including telephone surveys, direct mail surveys, or personal interviews. A
summary of the advantages and disadvantages of these methods is provided
in Table 6.1.
Telephone surveys are the most common method of survey data collection
because they are the easiest to implement and produce very quick results. An-
other major advantage of this type of survey is the cost. No travel is involved,
and a single individual may contact and solicit answers from a large number
direct mail telephone personal

characteristic surveys surveys interviews
Cost per respondent Low Medium High
Speed of response Low High Medium
Response rate Low Medium High
Interviewer bias Low Medium High
Allows feedback Low Medium High
Ability to handle High Medium Low

sensitive topics
Ability to handle Medium Low High

complex questions
table 6.1 Comparison of survey data collection methods.

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of people in a fairly short period of time. On the other hand, there is no face-
to-face contact, and people are often not inclined to answer questions over the
phone, especially if they are complicated. Therefore, the reliability of the an-
swers received over the telephone can be an issue. In 2003, there was a debate
over the national do not call list that would prohibit telemarketers from
contacting individuals who chose to be on the list. However, political polls
and noncommercial surveys were not included in the prohibition.
Direct mail surveys offer ease of completion, respondent anonymity, and a
low cost per response. However, there are a few major drawbacks. First, the
response rate is normally quite low, and the collection process is slow. Often,
less than 25 percent of the surveys are properly completed and returned, and
it may take up to three months, and two or three mailings, to obtain an ade-
quate sample. With such a low response rate, there is a risk that the individ-
uals who returned the surveys do not represent the population, and so any de-
cisions based on the results could be biased. Second, direct mail surveys do
not allow any in-depth questioning, and they do not allow for follow-up ques-
tions. The respondent merely sees the written questions and has no opportu-
nity for clarification. This may make it more difficult to generate answers that
reflect the complexity of opinion within the targeted market segments.
Personal interviews allow more in-depth questioning. An interviewer nor-
mally uses a guide sheet to direct the interview and may adjust the question-
ing to focus on a point of special interest or to follow up an answer given by
the respondent. There are two drawbacks to personal interviews as a survey-
ing technique. First, the major drawback is cost per interview. It is extremely
expensive to have an interviewer spend a long period of time with each indi-
vidual in order to gather information. An in-depth interview can last as long
as an hour; hence, the number of individuals who can be interviewed is lim-
ited, and the cost per interview is quite high. The cost of travel also makes
this type of survey expensive. Second, a good deal of training must be done
for interviewers to be effective. In addition, supervision is required in order
to have control over the interviewers. Intercept interviews are a form of per-
sonal interview conducted in major traffic areas such as shopping malls, in an
attempt to eliminate some of the drawbacks associated with cost and speed of
response.
A comment card is a particular form of survey that is frequently used in
the hospitality and tourism industry. The main objective of the comment card
is to gather information from customers about their lodging or dining expe-
rience to determine if they are satisfied with the service. The card is normally
placed in the guests room in a hotel or on the table in a restaurant. This al-
lows the customer to provide immediate feedback regarding the service and
its delivery. In addition to immediate feedback, comment cards also have other
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Thank you for sharing your thoughts with us. Please return this card and place it
in the comment box located at the entrance. We look forward to serving you again!
Excellent Good Fair Poor
Seating
Employee friendliness
Promptness of service
Menu variety
Food quality
Atmosphere
Value for price paid
What time of day did you visit the restaurant? ____________________________
What day of the week did you visit the restaurant? ________________________
What meal did you order? ____________________________________________
How could we make your experience more enjoyable? ______________________
figure 6.4a Restaurant comment card.
benefits: (1) they are less expensive than other survey methods, (2) they can be
tailored to the needs of the organization, (3) they can be standardized for easy
analysis and comparisons, and (4) customer needs can be tracked over time.
Figures 6.4a and 6.4b are examples of typical restaurant and hotel comment
cards.
There are also some disadvantages associated with comment cards: (1)
there is often a low response rate and the sample may not be representative
of the population, (2) they can deal with only a limited number of issues be-
cause of their short length, and (3) there can be problems with reliability and
validity. However, it is possible to improve the response rate by handing them
out personally (e.g., waitstaff or front desk staff), keeping them simple (e.g.,
using closed-ended questions), leaving a space for comments, offering an in-
centive, and/or promising confidentiality (e.g., use a collection box or postage-
paid return).
When conducting experiments, a researcher divides the sample of people
into groups and exposes each group to a different treatment while trying to
control for other extraneous factors that may affect the outcome. The treat-
ment variable is referred to as the independent variable, and the outcome of
the treatment is measured using a dependent variable because changes in the
variable are dependent on changes in the treatment. In other words, there is
a cause-and-effect relationship in which the independent variable is the cause
and the dependent variable is the effect. Experiments can be conducted in the
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Please help us improve our service . . .

Excellent Good Fair Poor
How would you rate our
hotel overall?
How would you rate the following?
Room reservation as requested
Check-in speed and efficiency
Cleanliness of room
Dcor of your room
Checkout speed and efficiency
Value of room for price paid
Parking
How would you rate our hotel team in terms of friendly and efficient service?
Reservation staff
Front desk clerk
Housekeeping staff
Telephone operators
Bellman
Management staff
Additional comments:_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
If a member of our staff was particularly helpful, please let us know so we can show that
person our appreciation: ______________________________________________
What did he/she do? _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
What was your room number? _________________________
Optional:
Name: ___________________________________________________________
Address:___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Please leave this card in your room or place it in the comment box in the lobby.
Thank you for your time.
figure 6.4b Hotel comment card.

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field under normal conditions or in a laboratory setting, where extraneous fac-

tors can be more easily controlled. Marriott International has been experi-
menting with its sales force in recent years to find the best approach. Recently,
the hotel chain has allowed some salespeople to work from home and sell mul-
tiple properties rather than sell one property from an office in the hotel. The
performance of these two groups in terms of volume and revenues can then
be compared to determine the best approach.
Test marketing is a common form of field experiment consisting of ma-
nipulations in the marketing mix at certain locations that represent the com-
petitive environment and consumer profile of the overall population. For
example, all of the national fast-food companies use cities across the country as
test market centers. In each city, the companies will introduce or test-market
new products or marketing mix changes to obtain customer reactions and to
project future sales. Sales may then be compared with those at other test mar-
ket centers to determine the popularity of new and old items and to decide
which products will be introduced systemwide. It is quite expensive to con-
duct this type of study, and it is also quite difficult to control all external vari-
ables that may affect the outcome of the experiment. For instance, extrane-
ous variables such as the weather or the advertising efforts of competitive
hospitality operations could easily have an effect on the sales volume of new
products.
To ensure good flow and a high response rate, it is necessary for re-
searchers to follow some basic guidelines in organizing questionnaires. The
following format is recommended to improve the probability that respon-
dents will participate in the survey and complete the questionnaire. First, the
questionnaire should start with some easy questions to screen respondents
based on their purchasing behaviors. Respondents who fit the desired pro-
file proceed to the next section, and those who do not are thanked for their
time and cut loose. Second, more detailed information is obtained regarding
respondents purchase and usage behaviors so they can be categorized. This
section focuses on basic information that is easy to provide, and it serves to
warm up the respondent for later sections. Third, respondents are asked to
answer a series of complicated questions, including ratings and rankings. The
fourth and final section of the questionnaire is used to obtain background
information on the respondent. This demographic and psychographic infor-
mation is used to classify individuals for statistical analysis.
The goal of questionnaire organization is to select respondents who rep-
resent the target population and ease them into the questionnaire so they
become involved. Then they are less likely to cut off in the middle of the ques-
tionnaire when they are confronted with more difficult questions and sensi-
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tive questions dealing with topics such as age and income. Therefore, it is im-
portant to pretest the questionnaire on a small sample to check the question
wording and organization. Any problems can be identified and corrected be-
fore attempting to use the data collection form on the final sample.
DETERMINING THE SAMPLING PLAN. Sampling is the process of

using a small subset of the population to obtain information that can be used
to make inferences about the total population. A population is the entire group,
or target market, that is being studied for the purpose of answering the re-
search questions. A sample is the subset of the population that is drawn in
such a way so as to represent the overall population. A sample unit is the ba-
sic level of investigation. The sample unit could be an individual, a house-
hold, or a firm or organization. For example, studies in the hospitality in-
dustry could look at a hotels guest, a specific hotel property, or a hotel chain.
Normally, the cost of a census, or the investigation of the entire population,
is prohibitive, and the survey would take too much time to complete. There-
fore, a sample is used in hopes that the results can be applied to the overall
population. Whenever a sample is used instead of a census, there is some dif-
ference between the sample results and actual population measures. This dif-
ference is referred to as sampling error.
The first requirement in sampling is to define the population from which
to gather information. The population is simply a definition of the group of
individuals from which to gather information. For example, two specific pop-
ulations might be (1) all males and females between the ages of 20 and 26 who
are not married, and (2) all males and females who earn more than $25,000
per year and work within one mile of the restaurant.
The next step is to determine the number of individuals to survey. This
is known as the sample size. The determination of sample size can be based
on financial, statistical, and/or managerial issues. From a financial standpoint,
the size of the sample depends on the available budget, or what the client can
afford. From a managerial standpoint, the size of the sample can be a func-
tion of an arbitrary judgment or based on similar studies. From a statistical
standpoint, the size of the sample may depend on the type of analysis that will
be used. In general, more sophisticated statistical techniques tend to require
a certain number of observations to be valid.
Step 4: Analyze the Data

Two basic forms of statistical analysis are used in marketing research: de-
scriptive analysis and inferential analysis. Descriptive analysis uses aggre-
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gate data to describe the average or typical respondent, and to what

degree respondents vary from this profile. The measures used for central
tendency are the mode, median, and mean. Mode refers to the value that
occurs most often. Median refers to the value that represents the middle of
an ordered set of responses. In other words, the responses are ordered from
high to low, or low to high, and then the middle value is determined. Mean
refers to the arithmetic average, or the sum of all responses divided by the
number of responses. The measures of variability are the frequency distri-
bution, range, and standard deviation. The frequency distribution provides
the counts for each value in the set of responses. The range is calculated by
taking the difference between the highest value and the lowest value of the
ordered set of responses. The standard deviation is a measure of variance
between the observed values and the mean for the set of responses.
The second form of statistical analysis is inferential analysis, which is used
to test hypotheses and estimate population parameters using sample statistics.
Statistics such as the t-statistic and the z-statistic are used to test for differences
between the sample mean and a hypothesized mean. These test statistics can
also be used to test for differences between two groups, and analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) is used to test for differences between more than two groups
based on their respective means and variances. Correlations and cross-tabulations
are used to determine if an association exists between two variables. If so, the
two variables will vary together either directly or inversely. Finally, multi-
variate statistics can be used to test for relationships between more than two
variables. These forms of statistical analysis are beyond the scope of this text,
and interested readers should refer to a marketing research text for more
details.2
Step 5: Prepare the Final Report

Once the research is completed and the data is analyzed, it is necessary to pre-
pare a final report that provides a detailed outline of the research design, sum-
marizes the results, and provides some conclusions or recommendations. The
researcher should consider the audience for the presentation when preparing
the final report. Both written and oral reports have been criticized for things
such as excessive length, impractical recommendations, and the use of com-
plex terms. These mistakes can be avoided if the researcher determines the
personality and requirements of the audience and takes them into considera-
tion when preparing the report. For example, many clients prefer to be shown
the results summarized in tables and charts rather than to read detailed dis-
cussions including statistics.
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There are some guidelines that can be followed when preparing the final
report that will improve the probability of client satisfaction, and success. First,
the research team should plan to devote an adequate amount of time to prepar-
ing the report. In fact, the time for report preparation should be included in
the time frame outlined in the proposal. Second, the original proposal should
be examined and the research objectives should be addressed in the final re-
port. Third, the research team must understand the needs of the audience and
determine the content and length that are appropriate for the report. Fourth,
it is important to anticipate possible objections or concerns and to address
them in the report or presentation.
Most written reports follow a standard outline. The report normally be-
gins with an executive or management summary that clearly and concisely
states the projects objectives, methods, conclusions, and recommendations.
Next, the actual body of the report begins with a detailed discussion of the
research objectives, followed by an explanation of the research methodology,
including its advantages and limitations. The research methodology section
contains the elements of the research plan, including questionnaire design,
sampling, data collection, and type of analysis. The next section contains a de-
tailed description of the results, with references to charts, figures, and tables
that summarize the results. Finally, the report ends with the conclusions, im-
plications, and recommendations of the research team. Any tables, charts, fig-
ures, or other supplemental materials will appear in an appendix at the end
of the report. Examples of supplemental materials would be an annotated ques-
tionnaire containing the results for each question, or a list of responses to open-
ended questions.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN
MARKETING RESEARCH
As with most other areas in marketing, there is potential for unethical be-
havior in marketing research. Research ethics is the code of behavior set by
society and the research industry to define appropriate behavior for firms and
individuals. Three parties are involved in the marketing research process, and
each has its own set of rights and obligations concerning ethics. The follow-
ing is a brief description of the rights and obligations for respondents, research
suppliers, and clients.
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ethical issues in marketing research 231
Rights and Obligations

of the Respondents
Research clients make major decisions based on the information that they
obtain through surveys and other research methods. Therefore, it is in-
cumbent upon respondents to be truthful in their responses and their be-
havior when they choose to participate. Research suppliers count on this
honesty, but the suppliers must be honest with respondents as well. Re-
spondents have the right to privacy and should be allowed to refuse to par-
ticipate. Also, research suppliers should honor any confidentiality agree-
ments that they may make with respondents. Finally, respondents have the
right to be informed about the true nature of the research. Respondents are
often contacted under the guise of research when in reality it is merely a
sales pitch. This type of deception is not acceptable behavior under normal
ethical standards.

of the Research Suppliers
As just mentioned, research suppliers have an obligation to maintain the pri-
vacy and confidentiality of both their respondents and their clients. Research
suppliers should not perform research for the sake of selling, and they should
not sell their lists to other firms. Research suppliers have an obligation to re-
main impartial and objective in performing their research. Also, the results
should be presented accurately, without any attempt to misrepresent them.
Similarly, conclusions should be based on the actual results, not misrepre-
sented, or tailored, to meet the needs of the client.

of the Clients
Clients have an obligation to be open and forthright with research suppliers
regarding the actual nature of the research. If clients send out a request for
proposals, it should be for an actual project, not to obtain information for con-
ducting their own research or for negotiating with other research suppliers.
Clients should not misrepresent the research project as a pilot study that could
lead to more projects in an attempt to decrease the cost. Finally, clients should
have a real commitment to research and plan to use it properly. They should
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not put undue pressure on the research supplier to misrepresent results to suit
the clients wishes.
In some cases, the client firm conducts research through an in-house re-
search department. In this situation, the client and the research supplier are
one and the same, and the firm is subject to the rights and obligations of both
parties. This discussion is not meant to be complete; instead, it provides a list
of the most common areas for unethical behavior.
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chapter review 233
Chapter review
Marketing information systems should be designed to produce data that are
useful to a hospitality manager. This information can be used as a basis for
decisions. This information should not, however, be used as the sole deter-
mining factor when making any decision. Two other factors also come into
play when making a decisionexperience and intuition. If all decisions could
be based solely on information produced by marketing information systems,
there would be no need for managers. Instead, machines could be used to tab-
ulate the information and predict the correct answer. Managers, however,
have far too many uncontrollable variables to contend with in gathering mar-
keting information. For this reason a hospitality manager must view the sit-
uation by considering marketing information, previous experience in similar
situations, and intuition as to what the future holds. Based on these three fac-
tors, a decision must be made, and the hospitality manager must accept the
final responsibility for the decision.
A hospitality marketing information system is a structured organization
of people and procedures designed to generate a flow of data from inside and
outside the operation. It is used as a basis for marketing decisions. A mar-
keting information system scans three subenvironments: the macroenviron-
ment, the competitive environment, and the organizational environment.
Marketing information systems involve both internally and externally gener-
ated marketing information, each with its own set of sources for information
and its own methodology for obtaining necessary information.
The marketing research process is used to collect data to store in mar-
keting information systems to be used in making marketing decisions. The
basics of conducting marketing research are not difficult, but the specifics of
designing, implementing, analyzing, and interpreting the results of a mar-
keting research project are very demanding. It requires great skill to success-
fully manage a marketing research project. This chapter provided an overview
of the research process, which involves five steps: (1) define the problem,
(2) plan the research, (3) collect the data, (4) analyze the data, and (5) prepare
the final report.
Management problems must be defined and converted to research prob-
lems that can be evaluated. Once the research problems are defined, research
objectives are established. Researchers can then choose the type of research to
be performed: exploratory, descriptive, or causal. This decision is based on
many factors, including the clients understanding of the nature of the prob-
lem, past research and experience, and the overall goal of the research. Next,
c06.qxd 2/2/05 11:58 AM Page 234
the decision is made as to the method of data collection, and data collection
forms are designed. Then a sampling plan is devised and implemented to en-
sure the reliability and validity of the research results. Finally, the data are
analyzed using predetermined statistical methods, and the results are sum-
marized in a final report.
The goal of marketing information systems is to collect information that
can be useful in improving the quality of marketing decisions. The market-
ing research process is critical in this endeavor. Therefore, it is imperative that
all parties involved in the research process adhere to the ethical standards set
forth by society and the research industry. Each party to the process has cer-
tain rights and obligations that are crucial to the overall success of the mar-
keting research process.

Chapter review
Causal research
Census
Comment cards
Cross-sectional study
Descriptive analysis
Descriptive research
Direct mail surveys
Experiments
Exploratory research
Focus group
Inferential analysis
Longitudinal study
Marketing information system (MIS)
Marketing research process
Observation
Personal interviews
Population
Primary data
Research design
Research ethics
Sample
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chapter review 235
Chapter review
Sample size
Sample unit
Sampling error
Secondary data analysis
Surveys
Syndicated services
Telephone surveys
Test marketing

Discussion
1. Why would it be useful for a hospitality organization to im-
plement a marketing information system?
2. What do you consider the best sources for internal and ex-
ternal marketing information? Cite sources and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
3. How do you differentiate between primary and secondary
data, including their advantages and disadvantages?
4. What role should a marketing information system play in
the management of a hospitality establishment?
5. Discuss the three types of research. Give an example of a situ-
ation in which you would use each one. Can you use more
than one at a time?
6. What are the three methods of collecting data? Can you give
an example of how each one would be used in the hospitality
and tourism industry?
7. Compare and contrast the three types of surveys.
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8. What are the two major types of data analysis? When should
the decision be made as to which methods will be used for
analyzing the data?
9. Who are the parties involved in the marketing research pro-
cess? What are the rights and obligations of each party?
Notes
1
Alvin C. Burns and Ronald F. Bush, Marketing Research, 2nd edition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1998).
2
David A. Aaker, J. Kumer, and George S. Day, Marketing Research, 8th edition (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
2003); Carl McDaniel Jr. and Roger Gates, Marketing Research Essentials, 4th edition (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 2003).
Chapter review
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case study 237
case study
Case Study
Bel Air Motel
W ill Smith moved from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to take over

as the general manager of the Bel Air Motel in California. Will
had been the assistant general manager of a large chain hotel in
the downtown area of Philadelphia. He encountered problems with some of
the employees and felt it would be a good idea to move to a more relaxed
atmosphere. Will had worked for the chain for ten years, starting in the man-
agement training program and working his way up to his position as the as-
sistant general manager.
The Bel Air Motel is one of the oldest properties in the area, but it has
been renovated periodically over the years. The motel is owned by a group of
independent investors and has 116 rooms with basic amenities. There is no
restaurant or pool, but there are some restaurants in the local area. The mo-
tels room rate is at the low end for the market, which consists mainly of up-
scale properties.
Upon starting his new position as general manager, Will realized that
there were major differences between working for a large chain and work-
ing at a small, independent motel. The chain hotels had sophisticated com-
puter systems for reservations, sales and catering, and revenue management.
In addition, customer information was gathered through surveys and com-
ment cards. This provided managers with valuable information that could be
used to make important decisions about rates and services. Unfortunately, the
Bel Air Motel had a very simple reservations system and no additional infor-
mation except for some historical figures on rate and occupancy. The average
room rate was $125 and the occupancy rate was around 60 percent before Will
took over.
Will understood the necessity of gathering more customer information
and developed a comment card to be placed in every room. Customers were
asked to complete the comment card and leave it in the room for housekeeping
to collect. The purpose of the comment card was to determine how guests
staying at the motel felt about the property and the services. Will wanted to
make sure the guests were satisfied. At the end of the first year, he received
a total of 169 completed comment cards. The first question he looked at was
the one dealing with customer satisfaction:
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Which of the following best describes your experience at the Bel Air Motel?
The motel exceeded my expectations. 19.9%
The motel met my expectations. 55.9%
The motel failed to meet my expectations. 24.3%
The percentages indicate the guests responses to the question. This year
could serve as a benchmark for future years, but Will was concerned that the
motel failed to meet the expectations for approximately one-fourth of the
guests. Next, he looked at the guests ratings of the motels facilities and ser-
vices on a 4-point scale (1 poor, 2 fair, 3 good, and 4 excellent).
Hotel Services Mean

Reservations 3.59
Front desk/check-in 3.55
Front desk/checkout 3.69
Front desk/guest service 3.41
Guest Room
Comfort 3.20
Bedroom lighting 2.88
Cleanliness 3.41
Furnishings 3.07
Adequacy of supplies 3.11
Heating/air-conditioning 3.12
case study
Overall quality 3.07

Price/room rate 3.01
Case Questions and Issues

1. Is the response rate large enough for the comment cards to be
representative of all the guests? How could the response rate be
improved?
2. Are customers satisfied?
3. What are the major areas of concern and how can they be improved?
4. What other information is necessary? How could you go about
collecting that information?
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appendix 239
Appendix
Data Collection and Sampling
DESIGNING DATA COLLECTION FORMS. Data collection forms are
necessary whether the research plan involves observation, surveys, or experi-
ments. Surveys are most commonly used because much of the research being
conducted is descriptive. Therefore, this section will focus on designing ques-
tionnaires to be used in surveys.
Questionnaires consist of questions designed to address the research
objectives. The goal of the questionnaire is to standardize data collection
by using questions that will elicit a consistent response from respondents.
This is accomplished through the use of open-ended and closed-ended
questions. An open-ended question does not provide the respondent with
any options, categories, or scales to use in answering the question. These
questions are valuable for obtaining information for exploratory research,
or in instances when the researcher is not sure what the response might
be. Conversely, a closed-ended question provides the respondent with op-
tions from which to select a response. It is much easier to collect and
analyze information that is in the form of closed-ended questions. The re-
spondents answers are consistent, and the data are in a form that is sim-
ple to record.
While open-ended questions are in the form of a basic question, closed-
ended questions can be in three different forms. The simplest form of
closed-ended question is a dichotomous question, which contains two pos-
sible options. Examples of dichotomous questions would be questions with
yes or no answers, or a categorical question such as gender with two possi-
ble responses, such as male and female. Another type of closed-ended
question is the multiple-category question, which contains more than two
options for the respondent. Demographic information such as education and
income is often obtained using multiple-category questions. When framing
the options for multiple-category questions, it is important for the researcher
to make sure the options are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
Options are said to be mutually exclusive if there is only one possible option
for each respondent, and collectively exhaustive if there is at least one option
that pertains to each respondent. The final form of closed-ended question
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is the scaled-response question. This type of question involves a statement

or question followed by a rating scale. One of the more popular scaled-
response questions is the Likert scale, which has respondents indicate their
level of agreement with a statement on a five-point scale, with 1 being
strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree.
Surveys are used for a multitude of reasons, and it is difficult to establish
rules that will apply in all situations. However, the following general guide-
lines apply to the construction of all survey instruments:
Avoid talking down to the respondent or using technical language. Ask

the questions using language the respondent understands and is familiar
with.
Avoid long and wordy questions. These will tend to discourage the
respondent and may reduce the number of respondents to a written
survey.
Avoid questions that are vague and general in nature.
Avoid including more than one idea per question.
Avoid personal questions that might embarrass the respondent. Make

certain that there is a legitimate reason for asking each question.
Avoid putting any personal bias into the questions.
Make sure that you fully understand the purpose of the question, for if
you do not, the respondent is not likely to understand the question.
In closed-ended questions, provide a dont know or no opinion

response where appropriate.
All responses in a closed-ended question should be mutually exclusive.
The number of choices in a closed-ended question need not be limited

to five or six responses; a larger number of responses can be used where
appropriate.
Indicate very clearly in the directions the number of choices a

respondent should check.
Watch for words and phrases that have more than one meaning, as this
can confuse the respondent.
Questions of a personal nature, such as income, are generally less

threatening if they are placed toward the end of the survey.
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appendix 241
SAMPLING. There are two basic types of samples, probability and non-
probability. A probability sample is more scientific, and a population mem-
bers chance of being selected can be calculated. This type of sample tends
to be favored when the firm has some understanding of the problem, sam-
pling errors are larger, and there is a high degree of variability in the pop-
ulation (i.e., it is heterogeneous). The most common probability sampling
method is the simple random sample, where the process is totally random
and each population member has an equal chance of being selected. With
this method, there is little chance of selection bias or sampling error. An-
other popular probability method is the systematic sample, where a start-
ing point is chosen arbitrarily and then every nth member is selected for
the sample. This method is easier than random sampling, and it is often
used with lists containing addresses and/or telephone numbers (i.e., the tele-
phone directory). Normally, there is no reason to believe that any bias
would occur due to the ordering of members in the list. For example, it
would be unusual for every 100th name on a list to share common charac-
teristics like age and income. A stratified sample is one in which the pop-
ulation is separated into different strata based on an important population
characteristic, and a sample is taken from each stratum using a random or
systematic process. For example, many firms want to include both cus-
tomers and noncustomers in their samples but place more weight on cus-
tomers responses.
A nonprobability sample is based on judgment, and the selection pro-
cess is very subjective. You cannot calculate the chance of a member be-
ing selected, but that does not mean that the sample wont be representa-
tive of the population. The representativeness of the sample will depend
greatly on the judgment of the researcher. Nonprobability samples tend
to be favored when the research is exploratory, there is more potential for
nonsampling errors, and the population is homogeneous. The most basic
method of nonprobability sampling is the convenience sample because the
researcher chooses a sample of population members who, in his or her
opinion, represent the target population. Often, professors use a class of
students, or research firms intercept people at shopping malls. A judg-
ment sample is slightly different in that the researcher makes a determi-
nation as to a subset of population members that will represent the pop-
ulation. This process is similar to the one used in choosing the members
for a focus group. A quota sample is one of the most popular sampling
methods. The sample is chosen to fill certain quotas that are predeter-
mined by the researcher. This method is similar to stratified sampling, ex-
cept that a convenience sample is used to fill the quotas and a probability
technique is used to fill each stratum.
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Key Terms
Closed-ended question
Convenience sample
Dichotomous question
Judgment sample
Multiple-category question
Nonprobability sample
Open-ended question
Probability sample
Quota sample
Scaled-response question
Simple random sample
Stratified sample
Systematic sample

Discussion
1. How are questionnaires organized? What are some of the
guidelines that should be followed in developing questions?
2. What is the difference between a probability sample and a
nonprobability sample? Which one is best? Explain your
answer.
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part 4
PRODUCT-SERVICE MIX AND
DISTRIBUTION STRATEGIES
Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach,

Florida.
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 244

c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 245
chapter
7
Developing New
Products and Services
Chapter Objectives
1. Explain the importance of developing product lines.
2. Describe the two types of planning strategiesreactive
and proactivefor developing new products and services.
3. Outline the roles of new product committees, new
product departments, product managers, and venture
teams.
4. Describe the new product development process.
5. Explain the marketing roles of brands, brand names, and
trademarks.
6. List characteristics of effective branding.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Proactive strategies for new product
development
Introduction
The importance of product lines Organizing for New Product
Planning
Planning for New Products New product committees
Reactive strategies for new product New product departments
development
(continues)
245
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 246
Product managers Summary of Chapter Objectives

Venture teams
New Product Development Process
Idea generation Questions for Review and
Product screening Discussion
Concept testing Case Study: Product Development
Business analysis and test marketing Dilemma at Roccos
Market introduction
Identifying Products and Services
The importance of branding
Characteristics of effective branding
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 247
industry profile
Rodney G. Stoner Vice President, Food and Beverage
The Greenbrier Resort & Club Management Company White Sulphur Springs,
West Virginia

I am responsible for expanding the company and its outside growth, devel-
oping managers and staff for the future, mentoring the new F&B manager
of The Greenbrier, developing successions plans, working with repeat cus-
tomers, and working with our labor unions to ensure a high level of guest
satisfaction.

The interaction with both the external customers (guests) and internal cus-
tomers (employees)when the guests and employees are happy, I am happy.
Frustration comes from having unions to deal with (a third party).

youre facing?
The business cycle changed after September 11. We receive last-minute reser-
vations and encounter more competition, softer dates, and less conference busi-
ness. Our customers used to be 70 percent conference, 30 percent social. It is
now 5050. Getting business is more of a challenge. Staffing is more difficult.
You can find people but not necessarily the right people, so training is a chal-
lenge. Finding time to train and recruit a more diverse staff continues as a
challenge.

industry?
Within the resorts segment, we see a variety of major trends that include the
need for more and more activities for guests, real estate development, mar-
keting focus on soft dates, and special offerings on the Web. Also, use of the
Web site to make reservations and review the resorts offerings and increase
the number of outside activities and those for active young people. Finally,
reviewing tourism development and marketing efforts within the state.
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248 chapter 7 developing new products and services

company?
Marketing plays a large role. We have a strategic planning committee to ac-
cess business opportunities. We have a public relations and marketing firm
out of Philadelphia working greatly with our Web site. Marketing has a huge
budget and a strong committee that is the most important committee on the
property. Changes have taken place with budget. We hold some back now to
adjust to last-minute changes.

you suggest?
Know yourself. Are you really cut out for the hospitality and tourism indus-
industry profile
try? Are you a people person? Are you okay with working on weekends and
holidays? You will need to have a spouse who understands your commitment.
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introduction 249
INTRODUCTION
No matter how successful a hospitality or tourism concept is, if the company
associated with the concept does not evolve and change, then it will be left
behind. If we were to consider the top 100 companies in the lodging and food-
service segments, we would find that each year, some companies drop off the
list and get replaced by new ones. Corporations such as Marriott International,
Carnival Cruise Lines, Hilton, Wendys, and Disney continue to lead the in-
dustry because they have been very successful in developing products that en-
hance their market position. However, it has become increasingly difficult for
hospitality firms to expand sales and market share simply by adding new units.
Today, growth must be accomplished within existing units by developing and
implementing a superior product-service mix or by opening new units in un-
tapped markets that may require a good deal of research and effort. For ex-
ample, many firms have expanded their product-service mix offerings into in-
ternational markets.
To further illustrate this point, consider the following examples. Since the
number of great potential locations for restaurants has been reduced through
market saturation, the leading companies have taken innovative steps to in-
crease sales and grow their respective companies. First, they have sought new
locations and venues to sell their product-service mix. For example, Pizza
Hut, through an agreement with Marriott International, began selling a
scaled-down version of its product-service mix in selected Marriott hotels.
This scaled-down version, or kiosk style of operation, offers a limited menu
with no seating within the immediate kiosk facility. In addition, Pizza Hut
participates in some of the noncommercial foodservice accounts operated by
contract foodservice companies such as ARAMARK. This allowed Pizza Hut
to reach new markets, ones that they had not previously reached. The result
has been increased sales and increased consumer satisfaction. This is a win-
win relationship for both Pizza Hut and its partners. Win-win relationships
are defined as situations in which both parties benefit, without one being a
winner and the other a loser. When companies attempt to negotiate win-win
agreements, they seek long-term relationships that over time benefit both
organizations.
A second example of using product-service mix development to increase
sales would be fast-food restaurants that introduce new products on a reg-
ular basis. Each of these companies routinely introduces new products or
a bundle of products that will be available for a limited time. The goal is
to increase patronage and market share by taking customers away from the
competition. A second goal is to increase brand loyalty, or the repeated pur-
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 250
chasing of a firms brand over time. These limited-time offerings are of-
ten a bundling of several products with a reduced price and/or increased
portion size to convey a high level of perceived value to the consumer. Com-
panies often call such bundling value meals, meal deals, or a similar
term to convey better value.
The third example is best illustrated by the manner in which theme
parks extend the life of their product-service mix life cycle by engaging in
product-service mix development. Each year, thrill seekers want to try the
newest and greatest rides at the many theme parks around the country.
Among the leaders in this market are Disney, Six Flags, and Paramount.
Each of these companies develops new rides each year in an effort to attract
consumers to their respective parks. Having the largest or greatest of these
thrill-type rides can have a very positive impact on theme park attendance,
sales, and profitability.
Finally, product-service mix development includes additions to and en-
hancements of the service elements. For example, several restaurant chains,
such as Outback and Chilis, have increased sales by encouraging cus-
tomers to purchase meals via a drive-up or take-away service. This added
service allows them to capture sales without adding seats in their restau-
rants. Slight additions to staffing levels allow them to provide this service
profitably.
Product development takes two forms: innovation and follow the leader.
Innovators are the risk takers, always seeking to be the first in the market
with a new product or service. The leader, or innovator, will benefit from
being the first to market with a new product or concept. Customers may as-
sociate the innovation with the leader or become loyal to that brand. For ex-
ample, it is not unusual to hear customers at Burger King order a value meal
(a McDonalds product). However, given the ease with which hospitality prod-
ucts and services can be duplicated, those who subscribe to the follow-the-
leader approach can introduce their competing products and services soon
after the market leader introduces its own products and services.
The Importance of Product Lines

For the continued success of a hospitality or tourism firm, it is important to
have a product line, or portfolio of products and services. Few firms can sur-
vive and sustain long-term growth with only one or two products or services,
because of the high risk associated with the lack of diversification. In addi-
tion to diversifying a firms operating risk, there are several other reasons for
developing new product lines, discussed in the following sections.
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introduction 251
The sunburst brand is recognizable whether it is for Days Hotel, Days Inn, or Days Inn
Suites. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
GROWTH OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE BUSINESS. When a company

limits itself to one product or a limited number of products, it limits the firms
growth potential. Consider a firm such as Baskin-Robbins. It was quite suc-
cessful selling ice cream, but when consumer tastes shifted toward lower-fat and
healthier items, the firm developed and offered new products such as frozen
yogurt that met this demand.2 This allowed Baskin-Robbins to appeal to more
consumers and increase sales. McDonalds is another good example of a firm
that has expanded its product line to attract additional business. In addition to
the hamburgers, french fries, and childrens fare, they have added salads and
other items that are targeted toward adults.
EFFICIENT AND EFFECTIVE USE OF COMPANY RESOURCES. As
more products are developed or as a firm develops additional brands, it can
make better use of corporate resources. For example, Choice Hotels Interna-
tional operates and franchises several brands of lodging products, including
such brands as Clarion Hotels and Suites, Quality Inns and Suites, Comfort
Inns and Suites, and Sleep Inns. Marriott International uses a similar strat-
egy, offering traditional Marriott hotels and resorts, as well as Courtyards,
Residence Inns, Fairfield Inns, Renaissance Hotels and Resorts, TownPlace
Suites, SpringHill Suites, and Marriott Vacation Club. Operating multiple
brands allows Choice Hotels International and Marriott International to make
better use of corporate resources by segmenting the market and tailoring their
offerings to the various segments using separate marketing programs.
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INCREASING COMPANY MARKET SHARE AND IMPORTANCE

OF THE COMPANY WITHIN THE OVERALL MARKET. When mul-
tiple products or brands are made available to the public, sales will increase
and overall market share will also increase. This affords the firm a stronger
position in the market and increases the importance of the firm.
DIVERSIFYING A FIRMS BUSINESS RISK. Without a steady flow of
new products and services, a hospitality or tourism firm could have serious
problems if the sales of existing products start to decline. However, increased
sales from new products and services can counteract poor sales from the cur-
rent products. The larger the portfolio of products and product lines, the
smaller the firms business risk, especially when some of the products are in
different industries.
PLANNING FOR NEW PRODUCTS

It is critical for firms to take a systematic approach to developing and mar-
keting new products and services. The potential rewards are high for suc-
cessful new products or services, but the potential risks of failure are equally
high. A firm must do a thorough analysis of a new product idea to deter-
mine if it is compatible with the firms goals, if the firm has the necessary
resources, and if the environment is favorable. Marketing plans should con-
tain information regarding new product development, as well as the goals
and strategies for existing products. As with strategies for existing prod-
ucts, strategies for new products can be either reactive strategies or proac-
tive strategies.3 Reactive strategies are developed as a response to a com-
petitors action, while a proactive strategy is one that is initiated as a
preemptive effort to gain a competitive advantage.
Reactive Strategies for New

Product Development
A defensive strategy is used to counter the effects on an existing product from
a competitors new product. Initially, this strategy involves minor changes in
a firms marketing mix such as advertising, packaging, and/or pricing. This
will negate some of the impact from the competitive product until more in-
formation can be obtained and substantive changes made, if necessary. These
changes could involve the development of a new product or service, or some
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planning for new products 253
Hotels such as the Wingate Inn are targeted at specific markets, such as business groups.
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 254
major modifications to the current product-service mix. Normally, when new

restaurants open, the other local restaurants counter with increased promo-
tions and/or discounts. Similarly, when small airlines have tried to start a new
service in niche markets, the larger airlines have retaliated with price cuts and
promotions for their routes in those markets.
An imitative strategy involves copying a new product or service before it
can have a large impact in the market. This strategy is particularly appealing
when the product or service is not unique or when it can be easily duplicated.
This strategy is heavily relied upon in the fast-food industry. Every time Mc-
Donalds launches a successful new product, Burger King and some of the
other competitors are quick to respond with similar offerings that tend to be
very homogeneous.
An adapted version of the imitative strategy is the second but better
strategy. Once again, firms are responding to competitors new products;
however, the firms primary goal in this case is to improve upon the ini-
tial product. Marriott Internationals introduction of its Courtyard divi-
sion and extended-stay properties was eventually followed by competitors
with similar products. For example, both Wyndham Hotels and Hilton
introduced a line of garden hotels that are targeted at business travelers
with modest budgets and a dislike for large hotels. These new product
lines or brands will compete directly with Marriott Internationals Court-
yard brand, but their ultimate goal is to be better. This strategy is more
common for products or services that require a large investment and a
longer period of time to develop.
The final reactive strategy is referred to as a responsive strategy. Firms
are responsive in that they react to the demands of customers. These new
products are truly market-driven. Hotels often modify their offerings and
design new properties based on the observed behavior of their guests. The
way guests tend to rearrange a room, common complaints, and frequency
of use of amenities and services are all factors that affect the design of
hotel products. A recent response to guests changing demands has been
the addition of spa services at many hotels that are not resorts.
Proactive Strategies for New

Product Development
Another approach to developing new products is to be proactive and initiate
change, rather than react to it. A popular proactive strategy used by manu-
facturing firms is a research and development strategy. Service firms also do
research in an attempt to design and develop new service concepts. Hospital-
ity and tourism firms are continually searching for new ways to improve fa-
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planning for new products 255
cility designs and computer systems for reservations and resource manage-
ment. Marriott International developed proprietary computer systems for
conducting business, whereas many other firms choose to subscribe to systems
developed by outside vendors.
Another proactive strategy used by service firms is marketing. This strat-
egy embraces the marketing concept and the notion that it is important to de-
termine customer wants and needs and then design products and services to
meet those needs. Most hotels and restaurants use comment cards to gather
information from consumers. However, firms such as Ritz-Carlton Hotels
take a more comprehensive approach to gather information on service qual-
ity and satisfaction. Ritz-Carlton received the Malcolm Baldrige National
Quality Award as a result of its efforts to meet customer needs. The hotel
firm obtained feedback from customers, employees, and suppliers in an at-
tempt to completely understand the process of delivering high-quality service
to its customers.
Firms that are innovative and tend to be leaders in their respective in-
dustries try to create an entrepreneurial strategy for their employees. These
firms are looking for new ideas that are generated internally through means
other than research and development. Employees are a great source for ideas
on improving existing products and services and developing new ones. After
all, what employee does not have an opinion about how to improve his or her
firms products or services? Rather than have this be a negative influence on
the organization, some firms choose to encourage employees to share their
ideas and opinions. As a result, some of the new service concepts become sep-
arate operating divisions or separate components of current operations.
Another way to add products or services to a firms portfolio is through
mergers or acquisitions. A firm can acquire the rights to new products or ser-
vices by entering into a legal arrangement with another firm, thereby com-
bining the two firms products and services. Acquisitions are plentiful in the
hospitality and tourism industry. At one time, PepsiCo developed a major
presence in the hospitality industry through its acquisitions of brands such as
Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and KFC. The advantage is that the individual firms
do not have to diversify their offerings because the diversification has occurred
at the corporate level. Later PepsiCo reassessed this strategy and divested it-
self of these brands, which were acquired by Yum! Brands.
Finally, some firms choose to form alliances for a specific goal or purpose
instead of combining ownership. Alliances are designed to take advantage of
synergies that exist between companies by pooling resources such as market-
ing, research, and distribution. Many airlines, hotels, and car rental agencies
have formed strategic alliances to help promote and sell their products and
services. The firms benefit from cooperative advertising and shared databases,
among many other areas. For example, Delta Airlines rewards SkyMiles
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 256
members with free miles when they stay at a Holiday Inn, rent a car from
Alamo, use MCI for long-distance calls, or charge purchases to an American
Express card. Alliances have been used most effectively by airlines. The most
well known of these alliances is the Star Alliance, which brings together 15
airlines to provide a more seamless travel experience. Aimed primarily at busi-
ness travelers, the Star Alliance allows airlines to share information about trav-
elers, as well as allowing travelers to have better access to route information
and reservations among the airlines that are members of the alliance.
Product development is a highly complex issue. It requires critical think-
ing and careful planning. The next section addresses issues related to how
companies organize for product development and how it is conducted.
ORGANIZING FOR NEW

PRODUCT PLANNING
Firms use a variety of organizational structures to develop new products and
services. No one way is best, and each has inherent advantages and disad-
vantages. The primary organizational structures are new product committees,
new product departments, product managers, and venture teams. Each of
these structures is explained in the following paragraphs.
New Product Committees

A new product committee consists of individuals representing cross-functional
areas of the firm. Usually, representatives provide input from operations, mar-
keting, finance, and accounting. Committee members are charged with the
responsibility of reviewing new product ideas and with determining the im-
pact that new products will have on each of their respective areas. The pro-
cess of using new product committees is often slow, and members normally
have their own day-to-day responsibilities within their respective functional
areas of the firm. Although these committees typically make decisions about
which new products or services to offer, they do not develop the actual prod-
ucts or services.
New Product Departments

Some firms establish a full-time new product department. This addresses the
problem of product development being a part-time responsibility of members
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new product development process 257
of the product development department. It is still very important for mem-

bers of the product development department to solicit input from all cross-
functional areas of the firm.
Product Managers
Some firms appoint product managers or brand managers to assume complete
responsibility for determining marketing objectives and marketing strategies
for a specific brand. Included in these responsibilities is product development
as it relates to that brand. For example, suppose that someone was responsi-
ble for the brand Holiday Inn Express. In the role of a marketing manager,
the individual would be responsible for all elements of the marketing mix:
the product-service mix, the presentation mix, the communications mix, and
the distribution mix. The marketing manager would also have the responsi-
bility of establishing and implementing marketing strategies for the brand.
Among the additional responsibilities of this role is being involved in prod-
uct development.
Venture Teams
Venture teams are similar to new product committees, but they are formed to
complete a specific product assignment. Venture teams bring together exper-
tise from operations, marketing, accounting and finance, and, if necessary, ar-
chitecture and construction. The venture team is charged with new product
planning, development, and implementation. Unlike new product committees,
which normally only review and make decisions about whether new products
should be developed further, the venture team is expected to stay on the proj-
ect through the entire new product development process.
NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Developing new products and services is very time consuming and very risky,
but it is essential to the continued long-term success of a firm. Many method-
ologies can be used to develop products and services. In this section, we will
explore the steps in new product development within the hospitality and
tourism industry (see Figure 7.1). Many firms, especially foodservice firms,
use this process when developing new products and services. The examples
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 258
used in this section relate to how new menu items are developed by foodser-
vice firms. Comparable product development processes are used in the de-
velopment of lodging products and other types of products and services within
the hospitality and tourism industry. Similar techniques are used to develop
new services and elements of the total customer experience.
The stages of the product development process are (1) idea generation,
(2) product screening, (3) concept testing, (4) business analysis and test mar-
keting, and (5) market introduction.
Idea Generation
New product ideas should take advantage of opportunities and trends in the
dynamic marketplace, while matching the firms strengths and overall mis-
sion. Ideas for new products can be generated internally as an assigned func-
tion for research and development groups or result from brainstorming by
the structures covered in the previous sectiona process called idea genera-
tion. Other internal sources for ideas include salespeople and other employ-
ees. Many of the employees in a service firm are in customer contact positions.
This enables them to get direct feedback concerning problems and to detect
Idea
generation
Product
screening
Concept
testing
Business analysis
and test marketing
Market
introduction
figure 7.1 New product development process.

c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 259
problem areas as they perform their normal job functions. This type of in-
formation is invaluable in improving customer satisfaction with service en-
hancements and new services.
Some of the external sources for new product ideas are competitors, sup-
pliers, trade shows, and trade magazines. A firm can produce new product
ideas from following the actions of competitors and reading about new de-
velopments in trade magazines. These new developments are also the focus
of companies attending trade shows, whether they are direct competitors or
simply similar firms in other markets. Finally, suppliers can sometimes have
a keen insight into a firms operations. They deal with many different firms
and often generate ideas for improvement based on their own developments.
Firms should seek ideas from all potential sources. For example, menu
items should be sought that expand, extend, or enhance the current menu.
Currently, new menu item development appears to be most active in break-
fast foods, light and healthy menu items, new tastes in foods such as regional
cuisine, foods that cannot be easily prepared at home, foods that lend them-
selves to take-out, and food that is delivered.
Product Screening
Once ideas have been generated, the focus should turn toward product screen-
ingevaluating the list of potential products to select the ones with the great-
est potential for success. Managers should perform both qualitative and quan-
titative analyses to evaluate new product ideas.
The qualitative standards involve answering the following questions:
To what extent will the product increase sales and profits?

Will the product attract new customers, and to what extent will it canni-
balize from the sales of current products?
What price would consumers pay for the product?
Do we have the expertise and capacity to produce this product within our
units?
Does the competition offer a similar product? If so, how can we differ-
entiate our product?
The quantitative analysis involves developing a weighted scoring for each

new product idea to determine those with the greatest potential for success.
The scoring is normally based on the following criteria:
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 260
How the potential product or service contributes in a positive way to the

image of the product and the company
How the potential product contributes to achieving the overall company
goals
The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) that the
firm faces
Impact on current and potential customers
Voids in the current product-service mix
Equipment necessary to produce the new item
Potential sources of supply for the new product or the necessary
ingredients
Once the two types of analysis are completed, new product ideas with the
most potential are selected for further development.
Concept Testing
After new product ideas are screened, the ones that show signs of promise are
subjected to concept testing. At this stage, a written or oral description and/or
a visual representation is shown to consumers in the target market. This can
be done through focus groups or using a more extensive marketing research
data collection method. The consumers are asked a series of questions re-
garding the concept and its value in relation to competitors products. The re-
sults of this analysis are used to refine the new products design and assess its
market potential. At this point, only products with a high probability of suc-
cess are moved forward because the resources necessary to proceed begin to
escalate.
At this stage in the menu design process, the products are typically tested
further in corporate test kitchens. The emphasis at this stage is on recipe de-
velopment to refine the product so that it can be consistently produced. Stan-
dards are established for portions, preparation, holding times, and presenta-
tion. If the development plan proceeds according to schedule, the product is
tested in a few units. At this stage of development, focus groups representing
individuals from the target markets evaluate the product. The focus groups,
led by a skilled facilitator, assess the products potential impact by conduct-
ing taste tests and soliciting consumer feedback about the product, price, ap-
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pearance, and other attributes. If this process continues to be successful, the

product is then ready to undergo limited test marketing in more units.
Business Analysis and Test Marketing

The information obtained from potential consumers, representing the target
market, in the concept testing stage is used in a business analysis to evaluate
the business potential of the new product. Consumer responses are used to es-
timate potential sales and market share so that costs can be allocated and po-
tential profitability assessed. It is important to run more than one scenario
(e.g., best case, worst case, and most likely case) for different market condi-
tions. If the figures are promising, then the new product is prepared for test
marketing.
Test marketing is the limited introduction of a new product in selected
locations. It is necessary to extend the testing period long enough to view con-
sumers true purchase patterns, including repurchase (approximately 3 to 12
months). During the test market period, the product is evaluated based on
(1) consumer feedback concerning quality, price, and various forms of sales
promotion and advertising, (2) sales figures during various days of the week
and times of day, and (3) the financial contribution that the new item has made.
Locations chosen for test markets should possess some common charac-
teristics. First, the city or location should be similar to the planned market for
the final product. It should have the same forms of media, the same demo-
graphic and psychographic backgrounds for potential customers, and the same
or similar competitors. Second, the city or location should be somewhat iso-
lated and of manageable size. There should not be any influence by competi-
tors or media from neighboring locations. The most important point to re-
member when conducting test marketing is to make sure the test market
locations are representative of the planned market to ensure the reliability and
validity of the results.
Market Introduction
The final stage in the new product development process is market introduction
introducing the new product to the entire market, or rolling it out market by
market. New products that demonstrate favorable business projections and
test-market results are given the green light by management. It is very costly
to launch a new product because of the advertising campaigns and sales pro-
c07.qxd 2/2/05 11:59 AM Page 262
motions, the employee training, and any required changes to the facility. At
first, there are negative profits due to fixed start-up costs and inventories, and
little revenue. It may take a good deal of time for the new product to be ac-
cepted and build market share. During this period, the firm must monitor
the results and make any necessary changes in marketing strategy. Once the
product is successfully launched, it is monitored and managed through the
rest of its product life cycle.
IDENTIFYING PRODUCTS
AND SERVICES
Hospitality and tourism firms may offer more than one service or product line
that is targeted at different market segments. It is often necessary to distin-
guish these offerings from one another if they are to hold different positions
in the marketplace. Therefore, branding is a critical component of the mar-
keting strategy for hospitality and tourism firms. The following section defines
the terms related to branding and their use in the positioning of products.
The Importance of Branding

Brands are a very powerful marketing tool, and if properly managed, they
have the potential of increasing sales, increasing profitability, and increasing
customer satisfaction. Definitions of important terms follow.
Brand. A brand is the name, sign, symbol, design, or any combination of

these items that is used to identify the product and establish an identity
that is separate and unique from competitors. Consider the impact that
various brands have within the hospitality and tourism industry. Is any
brand more recognizable than the golden arches of McDonalds?
Brand name. The brand name is the part of the brand consisting of the
words or letters that can be used to identify the firm.
Brand mark. A brand mark is the symbol or logo design that is used to
identify the product. Consider the stylized M and H that represent Mar-
riott International and Hilton, respectively. When we see this brand sym-
bol on the side of the hotel, we instantly know which brand the hotel
represents.
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identifsying products and services 263
Some brands are recognized worldwide. Coca-Cola is a registered trademark of The

Coca-Cola Company, Courtesy of Hilton Hospitality, Inc., Hyatt Hotels Corporation,
and Allied Domecq QSR.
Trademark. A trademark is a brand that has been given legal protection

and is restricted for exclusive use by the owner of the trademark.
The following example illustrates the importance of branding and its

impact on sales and customer satisfaction. In a university dining services
operation, one of the venues that was available on campus was an un-
branded pizza operation. It was successful and turned a reasonable profit
for dining services and the university. Students could purchase pizzas from
the operation la carte or use part of their meal plan as a credit toward
the cost of a pizza. As any professional manager would do, the dining ser-
vices director of the university was seeking ways to increase student satis-
faction with the dining services operations and also increase profitability
for the university. One of the options considered was replacing the un-
branded pizza operation with a regional or national brand pizza operation.
After surveying the student body to determine preference, it was decided
that Pizza Hut was the most popular choice among the students. Working
with the corporate office of the contract foodservice company, which had
previously negotiated with Pizza Hut for franchises at other universities,
they were able to secure a franchise and open the Pizza Hut. In the first
year that the Pizza Hut was in operation, sales increased nearly 30 percent.
This increased revenue more than offset the franchise fee and other types
of royalties that the management services company paid to Pizza Hut, Inc.
The results of surveys administered to the students indicated that customer
satisfaction had also increased. This is one example of the impact that
brands can have.
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Characteristics of
Effective Branding
Marketers, especially in other fields, have long studied the use of brand names
and have established criteria that are believed to make brand names more ef-
fective. Within the hospitality and tourism industry, these criteria are not al-
ways closely followed. Instead, the names of families are often used as the ba-
sis for the brand name. Consider that McDonald was the family name of the
two brothers who first opened a hamburger restaurant in California. J. W.
Marriott Sr. opened his first restaurant, a Hot Shoppe, in Washington, D.C.
Conrad Hilton opened his first hotel in Texas.
Marketing managers recommend that the following criteria be used to es-
tablish brand names:
Easy to pronounce, recognize, and remember. Some of the leading brands

are the ones that are easiest to remember. Some examples are USAir, Red
Lobster, and National Car Rental.
Describes the benefits of the product or service. It is a bonus for adver-
tising and promoting a brand if the name describes the products bene-
fits. Some examples are Comfort Inns and Friendlys Restaurants.
Can be translated into foreign languages. Many firms have been short-
sighted in choosing brand names, overlooking name-related problems that
could occur if they expand into foreign markets. Some examples of good
brand names are Marriott International, Hertz, McDonalds, and United
Airlines. An example of a brand name that would not translate well is Big
Mac, which translates in French as big pimp.4 In many countries, there
are limits on the number of foreign languages which can be used in ad-
vertising and brand names. The most restrictive country is France.
Distinctive and capable of legal protection. Some brands are easy to re-
member and distinctive. It is also important to consider the possibility of
becoming a chain or franchise and to choose a brand name that can be
registered. Some examples are Wyndham Hotels, Avis, and Delta Airlines.
Marriott International has been among the most successful companies

when it comes to developing successful brands. The firm has a long history
of successful branding, while at the same time leveraging the Marriott name
when new brands are created.
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chapter review 265
Chapter review
This chapter introduced the concept of product lines and how companies at-
tempt to manage these product lines to achieve long-term customer satisfac-
tion and financial success. The methods that companies use to develop new
products and services, including the actual development process, branding,
and the organizing of employees, were explored. Without a consistent flow
of new products and services, few companies will achieve long-term success.
New products are important to companies for the following reasons:
(1) growth opportunities for the business, (2) efficient and effective use of com-
pany resources, (3) increasing market share and importance of the company
within the market, and (4) exploiting and extending the product-service mix
life cycle.
New product development strategies can be either reactive or proactive.
The strategy employed depends on a firms resources and market position.
Some firms have chosen to be innovators and leaders in the market, whereas
other firms are more comfortable in the follower role and tend to be more re-
active than proactive. It is important to note that there are many success sto-
ries to support the use of both strategies.
Firms use many organizational structures to develop new products and
services, the most common of which are new product committees, new prod-
uct departments, product managers, and venture teams. The firm should pro-
vide an atmosphere conducive to the development of new ideas and support
their progression through the development process.
The process used by many firms to develop new products includes the fol-
lowing steps: (1) idea generation, (2) product screening, (3) concept testing,
(4) business analysis and test marketing, and (5) market introduction. Ideas
can be generated through formal channels within the firm or through exter-
nal sources such as competitors and customers. Ideas with good potential are
screened, tested, and analyzed until management feels that they are ready for
market introduction.
The importance of brands within the hospitality and tourism industry was
explored. The important concepts of brands, brand names, brand marks, and
trademarks were defined and discussed. Finally, the characteristics of effec-
tive branding were presented.
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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Acquisitions
Alliances
Brand
Brand mark
Brand name
Business analysis
Concept testing
Defensive strategy
Entrepreneurial strategy
Follow the leader
Idea generation
Imitative strategy
Chapter review
Innovation
Market introduction
Marketing strategy
New product committee
New product department
New product development
Proactive strategies
Product line
Product managers
Product screening
Reactive strategies
Research and development strategy
Responsive strategy
Second but better strategy
Trademarks
Venture teams
Win-win relationship
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chapter review 267
Chapter review
Discussion
1. What is a product line?
2. What is the best type of new product development strategy,
reactive or proactive? Explain your answer.
3. What are the four reasons it is important to develop and ex-

tend product lines within a business?
4. What steps are used to develop new products and services?

5. What is a strategic alliance? Why do you think a company
would enter a strategic alliance? What are the pros and
cons of entering a strategic alliance? What impact do you
think strategic alliances have had on the airline industry?
6. How are qualitative and quantitative analyses used in assess-

ing potential new products and services?
7. Define and cite two examples for each of the following:

brand, brand name, brand mark, and trademark.
8. What are the characteristics of effective branding? Do you

agree or disagree with these criteria? Can you cite examples
of successful brands that do not meet these criteria? Why do
you believe these brands are successful?
Notes
1 Jennifer Waters, R & I Special ReportBurger King, Restaurants and Institutions, October 1, 1998, p. 54.
2 Michola Zaklin, Baskin-Robbins Scoops Up Healthier Fare, Adweeks Marketing Week, June 4, 1990, pp. 3031.
3 Glen L. Urban and John R. Hauser, Design and Marketing of New Products, 2nd edition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1993).
4 Adrian Palmer and Catherine Cole, Services Marketing: Principles and Practices (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1995), p. 364.
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Case Study
Product Development
Dilemma at Roccos
Y ou are employed as the vice president of marketing for Jiffy Foods,

Inc., a regional foodservice company that operates 40 restaurants in
the fast-food or quick-service segment. The restaurants that Jiffy
Foods operates are a single brand called Roccos. The restaurants offer a menu
that is fairly typical of a fast-food chainburgers, french fries, milk shakes,
chicken tenders, and the like. In the last year, Roccos has started offering
prepackaged salads, but it has not done any other menu development. The
restaurants founder recently retired and turned over day-to-day management
of the chain to the company president, James OConnor. The founder indi-
cated that the menu development and promotions that are done by the na-
tional chains would not be profitable for a 40-unit chain like Roccos. The
national chains have the advertising clout to support promotions for special
product offerings. We do not. We should stick to the basics: good food, clean
restaurants, and friendly staff. That is what has worked in the past, and it
will work in the future.
In the quick-service market, the brand is a small player, competing against
the national chain companies such as McDonalds, Burger King, and Wendys,
as well as many other regional chains. During the last 18 months, sales at
Roccos have been flatthere has been no increase in sales, despite the fact
case study
that prices were increased 2.5 percent a few months ago. The mix of sales is
much the same as it was five years ago. The prepackaged salads that were in-
troduced last year have not sold well. All the salad offerings combined make
up only 2 percent of total sales.
Earlier today the company president, James OConnor, dropped by your
office in a very frustrated mood. The two of you had a very intense and an-
imated conversation about how the products and services that Roccos offered
were very traditional and not exciting to the targeted consumers. The national
chains are always offering new products and services or modified products
and services that are promoted for a limited period of time at a special pro-
motional price. Jim felt that the competitors promotions were hurting Roccos
and wanted you to do something about it. You were quick to point out that
the marketing strategy of staying the course had been very successful in the
past. In fact, the company founder had used this approach for more than 25
years. Ideas for new products generally came from the managers of the 40
restaurants or the customers who patronized the restaurants. Roccos did not
maintain any product development structure or organization. As the vice pres-
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case study 269
case study
ident of marketing, your primary responsibilities centered around develop-
ing, implementing, and evaluating promotional campaigns, selecting sites for
new stores, and working with the advertising agency to develop and evaluate
campaigns.
As your meeting with the president concluded, he said, Its Friday. I want
you to think over the weekend about the way we develop new products and
services. We need to do a better job. Maybe we should think about a differ-
ent way of doing things. What were doing is not producing the results we
want, and we need to increase our sales. Lets meet on Monday morning to
talk further. I want to see your preliminary plan when we meet on Monday.

1. What should you tell the president when you meet on Monday? What
action steps should you recommend? Why?
2. Should Roccos develop a more structured approach to product
development? Why or why not? If yes, what structure would you
recommend and why? If no, why not?
3. Are there any specific structures or ideas that you might adapt from
what the national chains do?
4. What type of product development strategy should Roccos use
defensive, imitative, or responsive? Why?
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Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach, Florida

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chapter
8
Managing Products
and Services
Chapter Objectives
1. Describe the four stages of the product life cycle and
their effects on marketing activities.
2. Analyze a products life cycle.
3. Describe the four stages of the tourist-area life cycle.
4. Explain marketing-related concepts, such as the wheel of
retailing and resource allocation models.
5. Identify the relationship between resource allocation
models and the product life cycle.
6. Outline the challenges unique to managing services as
opposed to products.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Maturity stage
Decline stage
Introduction
Applying the Product Life Cycle
Product Life Cycle Developing strategies for the product life
Introduction stage cycle
Growth stage
(continues)
271
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Ways to extend the product life cycle Managing in the Service

Pros and cons of the product life cycle Environment
Tourist Area Life Cycle Conflicts between operations and
Inception stage marketing
Growth stage Managing supply and demand
Maturity stage Summary of Chapter Objectives
Decline stage
Other Product Concepts
Wheel of retailing Questions for Review and
Resource allocation models Discussion
Resource allocation models and the Case Study: Outback Steakhouse
product life cycle
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industry profile
Jian (Jane) Zhang Owner
Chu Zhou Hotel and Kang Long Hotel, Beijing, China
J ane Zhang owns the Chu Zhou Hotel (built in 1998, with a two-diamond
rating, consisting of 30 standard roomsall with air-conditioning, TV,
telephone, and Internet accessa full-service restaurant of 100 seats serv-
ing both in-house guests and the local community, six karaoke entertainment
rooms, and two multifunction conference rooms) and the Kang Long Hotel
(constructed in 1996 as an office building, renovated in 2002 to a hotel with
20 standard rooms, no restaurant). The two hotels are on each side of a main
thoroughfare of Beijing, facing each other. They are a 15-minute drive from
Tiananmen Square, at the center of Beijing. Since it is a university commu-
nity, guests are mainly college students and their parents. The rate at both ho-
tels is around 180200 yuan ($25) a night (the local four-diamond hotels are
priced at 400 yuan). The average occupancy before the 2003 outbreak of se-
vere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was 80 percent.

As an owner and operator, I take care of public relations, marketing, overall
quality control, and maintenance.
A big part of my PR job involves dealing with government officials and
making sure they are working with us rather than finding fault with us.
As for marketing, it is usually a routine of giving away coupons and spon-
soring university programs, since we are in a university community and have
regular and repeat business from students and their families.
In the daily operation of the hotels, a great amount of my concerns are
the safety of our guests and their satisfaction. For example, burglary was once
a big problem in our hotels. Some burglars checked in and stole from others
rooms, resulting in other guests filing claims for lost property from us. This
led to the installation of safety locks in our hotels and the reformation of some
check-in procedures. A video system for this purpose will also be installed
soon, but there have been no reports of burglary ever since. Regarding guest
complaints, it is safe to say that all complaints will come to me eventually,
whether they are taken care of or not. They are an important source for know-
ing how well we are doing and how we can do better.
In the hotel business, maintenance is always a big thing since it is an on-
going job, day in and day out. It is routine, but it takes a particularly detail-
oriented manager to do the job well. Without good and detailed maintenance
of the facilities, a hotel will quickly deteriorate.
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274 chapter 8 managing products and services

The position can provide me a great sense of accomplishment. I went
through the process of starting with a small restaurant in a full-service ho-
tel and had hands-on experience in all aspects of running the restaurant and
hotel. With the experience, I understand more about life than those who are
not blessed with the chance. Spiritually, I also feel greatly rewarded in my
position by making others lives more meaningful. Apart from providing
employment, I have influenced my employees to be better people by setting
a good example. This is especially true with my midlevel managers. When
they leave their positions, they know they are rewarded not only financially
but also professionally.
However, being a leader can be a double-edged sword. While it provides
industry profile
me with a great sense of achievement, it causes frustration sometimes. When

everybody looks up to me for leadership, the responsibility involved can be
an enormous stress, a pressure so strong as to make me feel that Ive become
a slave to my work.

youre facing?
Financing in China at the moment is the biggest challenge were facing. It
hinders us from further development of our company. One is unlikely to get
loans from banks if one doesnt have connections at the bank. At the mo-
ment, China sees an unprecedented opportunity for the development of small
to midscale hotels. However, we cannot do much with this opportunity due
to the inability of obtaining funds from banks. The bank system in China is
now under the states control, and banks set stringent requirements on loan
service to individual businessmen. Private banks are not allowed in this coun-
try, and foreign banks do not conduct loan business with Chinese individu-
als. It is a real challenge to turn an opportunity into reality under the pres-
ent system.
Another challenge that is peculiar to individual hotels in China is that
one has to have the capacitytolerance and patienceto deal with govern-
ment officials. It is much more challenging than any other component of run-
ning a hotel. It is safe to say that to be successful in the hotel business in
China, one can ignore marketing, but one must maintain good government
relations.
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industry profile
4. What major trends do you see for
your segment of the hospitality and
tourism industry?
One major trend for the hotel business in China is the development of
small to mid-scale economy hotels. The dramatic development of the high-
way system and the increase of family cars have resulted in much more
domestic travel, which in turn increases the demand for standardized eco-
nomical hotel chains. However, there is a huge gap between the demand
and supply, which provides a valuable opportunity for hospitality people.
The big-name international hotel chains place most of their properties
in gateway cities like Beijing and Shanghai, and comprise upper-scale ho-
tels focusing on the business market, leaving second-tier cities and towns
along the highway untouched. The majority of the existing hotels in these
untouched places are locally owned, inferior in management, and insuf-
ficient in funding.

your company?
Since our hotels are located in a university community and guests are mainly
college students and their families, we depend largely on word of mouth rather
than on any advertisements. However, we find that marketing is an indis-
pensable part of the business. It often facilitates the hotels reputation in the
target market. Coupons and student discounts are our primary forms of pro-
motion. Sponsoring university programs is another way for us to build pub-
lic relations and make us known. Whenever school starts or there are events
held by the universities in the area, the two hotels will be fully booked, and
the 100 percent occupancy can last as long as a month. The successful sales at
the hotels can be attributed to our promotion and marketing as a supplement
to word of mouth.

you suggest?
The most important quality to work in the hospitality field is to have a ser-
vicing spirit. One has to enjoy serving others to do this job. Otherwise, one
will easily get tired with the complexity of the work.
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INTRODUCTION
Developing a sound marketing strategy is a cornerstone of successful mar-
keting. When a company is successful and its marketing programs are the
benchmarks among its competitors, it is often the result of a sound and well-
developed marketing strategy. This chapter examines the key aspects of man-
aging the product-service mix. The first area concerns the product levels and
their importance in differentiating the product. The second area is the prod-
uct life cycle. This advances the concept that all products and services progress
through a life cycle, much as people do. The concept of the product life cycle
is that different marketing strategies are best used at different stages in the
life cycle. The third area involves the resource allocation models used by firms
to determine the most effective use of company resources within their prod-
uct portfolios. Most firms have a limited amount of resources, and it is nec-
essary to prioritize their expenditures based on potential returns and company
goals. Finally, this chapter examines the various issues surrounding manag-
ing services. The characteristics that differentiate services from goods create
different challenges for managers. It is important to manage supply and de-
mand in service industries because of the inability to maintain inventories for
intangible products.
Peripheral services such as a business center are a key competitive advantage for hotels
catering to business travelers. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
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introduction 277
There are basically four product levels: the core product, the facilitating
products, the supporting products, and the augmented product. The core
product is the basic form of the product. In other words, it is the main bene-
fit sought by customers in an attempt to satisfy their needs as recognized by
the gap between the ideal state and actual state. For example, for a restaurant,
the core product is the food that will resolve the consumers state of hunger.
As one can see, there are many ways that this need can be satisfied. Similarly,
consumers in the lodging industry are looking for guest rooms with a shower.
Two of the other product levels can be referred to as peripheral services.
The peripheral services expand the core offering and can be used to obtain
a competitive advantage. The peripheral services must meet or exceed cus-
tomer expectations if customers are to be satisfied. The facilitating products
are services that enable the customer to consume the core product. They
must be present to make the product available where and when the cus-
tomer wants it. Hotels have front desks and reservations departments, and
restaurants have hosts or hostesses and waitstaff. Supporting products are
additional goods and services that can be bundled with the core service in
Supporting services such as a hotel gym are becoming increasingly important to guests.
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an attempt to increase the overall utility or value for consumers. Examples

of supporting products within the hotel industry include concierge service,
multilingual staff, 24-hour room service, and complimentary newspapers
for business travelers.
The augmented product is the core product and peripheral services that
combine to form the package of benefits offered by a product or service. In
addition, the augmented product includes how the service is delivered. In
other words, the augmented product encompasses everything surrounding
the service and its delivery, including intangible attributes such as accessi-
bility and atmosphere. For example, Las Vegas hotels and casinos have aug-
mented the core product to include extravagant design in an attempt to at-
tract visitors and gain a competitive advantage over other hotels and casinos.
The basic hotel service is augmented with casinos, shows, high-quality
restaurants, and incredible atmospheres. Also, the hotels make themselves
very accessible, with good deals and special packages.
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

The product life cycle theory describes how a product progresses from its in-
fancy as a new product in development through a growth phase to a matu-
rity phase and then eventually into decline. Each stage of the product life cy-
cle will be discussed in detail, followed by a discussion of the uses of the theory.
Figure 8.1 illustrates the general shape of a typical product life cycle and its
four stages.
Introduction Stage
The first stage of the product life cycle is called the introduction stage. At this
point, the product has been through the new product development process
Sales and
Profits ($)
Profits Sales
Time
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
figure 8.1 The product life cycle.

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product life cycle 279
presented in Chapter 7. It has survived analysis and testing, and it was deemed
worthy of market introduction. The product represents a new concept, so
there are no competitors offering the same product, and if the product is
unique, there arent even similar products in the market. Therefore, the goals
for the firm are to develop product awareness and stimulate trial and adop-
tion. To accomplish these goals, the firm must make a sizeable investment
even though sales will initially be low, leading to negative profits. The in-
vestment is in the form of capital expenditures on facilities and inventories,
and a promotional campaign to attract customers. However, even though the
cost per unit of manufacturing the product or providing the service is high,
it is often necessary to offer discounts and other promotions to induce poten-
tial customers to try it. The pricing decision is usually based on the estimated
costs and demand for the product because there are no direct competitors.
During the introductory phase, customers tend to be innovators who are
willing to take risks to try new products and services. The distribution of the
product is selective in an attempt to build a customer base before adding new
units or distributors. Many of the large hotel and restaurant chains started
with one unit and eventually grew to become a large chain or franchise. For
example, Holiday Inn started with a single property in Memphis, Tennessee,
in 1952, and Wendys restaurant chain started with a single unit in Colum-
bus, Ohio, in 1969. Some hotels may start with a test-market property, but
many recent concepts were started with more than one property. For instance,
Wyndhams Garden Hotels were opened with multiple units in an attempt
to generate more awareness and interest than could have been attained with
a single property. It is more common for restaurants to begin as single-unit
operations and add more units as they become successful and generate cash
flow. This is due to the fact that repeat business can be generated from the
local market, whereas hotels are dependent on a more transient market.
Growth Stage
If the firm is able to accomplish its goals in the introductory stage and the
product builds an adequate customer base, the product will move into a
growth stage. The growth stage is evidenced by rapidly rising sales and prof-
its, and a decreasing cost per unit for providing the product or service. This
positive outlook attracts competitors who are willing to take the risk because
of customer acceptance and increasing profit margins. In this stage, the prof-
its being generated by the product allow the firm to consider product exten-
sions, new markets, and organizational expansion in the form of additional
properties or units. Minor changes may be made in the unit design and con-
cept, but normally the owners attempt to standardize the physical plant,
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thereby reducing developmental costs. The owners rationalization is that if

the original unit is successful, additional units will also be successful.
During the growth stage, the organization typically expands its distribu-
tion by adding new units. These units are often located in clusters within ge-
ographic regions. The development of the Courtyard brand of hotels by Mar-
riott International is an illustration of this approach. Following a period of
test marketing and research and development in the Atlanta area, the Court-
yard brand was developed in clusters around major cities. This clustering al-
lows the consolidation of staff-support services in a central location, where it
can be provided to several hotel properties, thereby reducing the operating
cost of each hotel.
It is during the growth stage that the second group of consumers, known
as early adopters, begins to enter the market as they obtain feedback from the
innovators. The increase in competitors during this stage and the need to build
market share put downward pressure on price. The use of the intensive dis-
tribution strategy helps the firm build its customer base and market share by
creating more awareness and interest in the product. The intent is that as the
firm penetrates the market and develops loyal customers, it will be possible
to reduce the amount of sales promotions and discounts. Instead, more em-
phasis can be placed on other forms of promotion, such as personal selling
and advertising.
Maturity Stage
If an organization is able to achieve the desired success in the growth stage,
it will eventually move to the maturity stage. At this point, the organization
has expanded as much as the market will allow, and volume, measured in an-
nual gross sales, will level off. Companies in this stage of the product life cy-
cle find that the market is often saturated and competition is increasing from
alternative options. Industry profits tend to peak near the end of the growth
stage as the product moves into maturity. However, there are still high prof-
its due to the large volume and the beginning of a decline in the number of
competitors. In other words, the weaker competitors leave as the market
reaches equilibrium and stronger competitors battle for market share. A com-
mon strategy is for firms to standardize products and remove some of the less-
valued attributes. This streamlining will enable the firm to take advantage of
the economies of scale associated with higher volume, thereby widening the
profit margin. For example, Delta Airlines introduced box lunches that pas-
sengers received as they boarded the plane. A couple of years later, the airline
announced that it would no longer include sandwiches in the box lunches, a
move expected to save tens of millions of dollars.
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product life cycle 281
There may also be changes in consumer preference as the consumer turns

toward newer and more innovative concepts. For example, the original pizza
restaurants have seen competition in the form of gourmet products and
make-your-own concepts. The advertising and promotions during this stage
focus on differentiating the product, although it can be difficult because the
core products tend to be very similar. This product homogeneity increases the
consumers price sensitivity and firms are forced to price at the market. At
this point, the market may fragment into more segments with different needs
and price sensitivities. Most hotel chains offer more than one brand in an at-
tempt to attract consumers from various market segments. For example, Hol-
iday Inns have limited service hotels (i.e., Holiday Inn Express), full service
hotels (i.e., Holiday Inn and Holiday Inn Select), business hotels (i.e., Crowne
Plaza), and luxury hotels (i.e., InterContinental).
In this stage, the distribution of the product becomes even more intensive
to ensure consumer convenience and accessibility. This expansion can be de-
veloped internally, or it can be the result of mergers and acquisitions. Weaker
competitors may be acquired by strongerand often largercompetitors
who wish to gain access to new markets. Most of the products in the United
States are in the maturity phase, which can last indefinitely. Most consumers
have been added to the innovators and early adopters, leaving little room for
growth in the sales for the product category. As a result, individual brands
can only increase sales at the expense of their competitors, rather than rely on
new consumers in the market. The fast-food industry is notorious for its fierce
competition in advertising and pricing. McDonalds and Burger King have
been involved in the burger wars for decades, and the battle for market share
continues.
Decline Stage
The last stage in the product life cycle is decline. During the decline stage,
industry sales and profits are dropping more rapidly, and the number of com-
petitors is reduced to those with very strong positions. The only new con-
sumers entering the market are the laggards, and prices are often cut even
further. Firms have progressed through the experience curve and the cost per
unit has been driven down with accumulated volume. At this point, firms
have phased out the weaker brands and focus more on the strong brands. The
product consists of the core product and only those peripheral services that
are of real value to the consumer. Distribution is selective as weaker outlets
are closed. Hospitality firms will sell or close their properties in markets that
arent performing well in an attempt to free up resources for the more suc-
cessful properties. For example, Planet Hollywood started its decline stage by
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closing restaurants that were not profitable in an attempt to remain viable,

but the company eventually went bankrupt and decided to go out of business
completely.
The major objective during the decline stage is to reduce overall market-
ing expenditures and increase cash flow. This strategy is referred to as milk-
ing the brand because you are trying to get as much profit from it as possi-
ble. The decrease in marketing expenditures comes in the form of reduced
customer service, reduced quality and variety, reduced distribution, and re-
duced promotion and advertising. Firms are left with a group of loyal
customers that may or may not be large enough to continue with a profitable
operation. It is critical that firms are relatively certain about the products sta-
tus in the product life cycle because these actions may force the product into
decline prematurely. Many independent hospitality and tourism firms are
finding themselves in the decline stage as large chains and franchises take ad-
vantage of their lower costs and engage in price wars that force the weaker
firms out of the market.
APPLYING THE PRODUCT

LIFE CYCLE
McDonalds serves as an excellent example of the way a corporation progresses
through the organizational life cycle. McDonalds, under the direction of Ray
Kroc, began with a few units in the mid-1950s. The corporation quickly
achieved a sound financial base and rapidly moved into the growth stage of
the life cycle. New units were continually being constructed, and soon the
familiar red-and-white buildings with the golden arches could be found
throughout the country. However, an important decision was made as
McDonalds was nearing the end of the maturity stage. The upper-level man-
agement felt that the red-and-white buildings with the golden arches had out-
lived their useful life and that a new image was needed.
With this in mind, the corporation began to rethink the design and decor
of both new units and the vast majority of existing units. They determined
that a more subdued appeal was needed to attract different target markets.
The term fast food was not used in any promotional or corporate literature.
Instead, emphasis was placed on the image of McDonalds as a restaurant. In-
stead of seeing its sales level off, McDonalds was able to inject new life into
its concept and therefore continued to expand and increase the number of
units, total sales, and bottom-line profits. Later in McDonalds history, when
sales growth had begun to slow, the corporations leaders launched a break-
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applying the product life cycle 283
fast program (McDonalds had previously served meals only during lunch and
dinner). By serving breakfast, the company was able to increase sales without
adding new units or franchisees. After that, they added another feature that
is very common todaythe drive-through window.
More recently, McDonalds has developed units in nontraditional loca-
tions as a means of increasing sales. These new locations include gas stations
and convenience stores, as well as retail locations such as Wal-Mart. Another
way McDonalds expanded its product life cycle was through entering inter-
national markets in an attempt to increase its growth potential. However, the
future is unsure for the fast-food giant. The beginning of the 21st century
marked the first time McDonalds was forced to close some of its less prof-
itable units since the company was formed.
Developing Strategies for the

Product Life Cycle
A number of strategies have been used for the various stages in the product
life cycle. To develop strategies, however, management must first analyze the
life cycle. This can be done in a seven-step process:
1. COMPILE HISTORICAL DATA. It is imperative that hospitality firms
compile historical sales data. Ideally, the data should be available for the en-
tire history of the organization. The specific type of data needed include sales
volume (in units), prices, total sales revenue, costs, and profits.
2. IDENTIFY COMPETITIVE TRENDS. Recent activities of major com-
petitors should be monitored closely to determine changes in market share
and position, as well as changes in quality of the product-service mix. Addi-
tionally, the other elements of the marketing mix should be monitored for
significant changes.
3. DETERMINE CHANGES IN PRODUCT-SERVICE MIX. The mar-
ketplace must be monitored to learn about new products and services that
other hospitality organizations are introducing and to anticipate the potential
effects on your operation.
4. STUDY THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLES OF SIMILAR PRODUCTS.
It is helpful to study the life cycle of similar products or services to determine
whether a pattern exists. Rarely is a product or service so new and unusual
that it is not possible to compare it with a previous one.
5. PROJECT SALES. Based on the data collected, sales for a two- to three-
year period should be projected. Applying computerized statistical techniques
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may be particularly beneficial at this stage. Specialized software packages are

available that will allow a marketing manager to develop sophisticated sales
forecasts. However, for many business decisions, the statistical procedures and
techniques that are part of spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel, will
suffice. The software will permit the development of multiple scenarios or
what-if scenarios by altering the levels of the decision variables. In addition
to projecting sales, management should examine key financial ratios and other
indicators of financial performance.
6. LOCATE THE CURRENT POSITION ON THE LIFE CYCLE. Based
on the historical data as well as the projections, it should now be possible to
locate the products position on the life cycle. This position is used to deter-
mine the most appropriate baseline marketing strategies.
7. DEVELOP STRATEGIES. Once the position is located on the product
life cycle, strategy formulation begins. Table 8.1 illustrates the characteristics
and strategies that apply to different stages in the product life cycle. These
strategies should not be viewed as being absolutely firm, but they do repre-
sent the most widely accepted ideas in the marketing community.
Ways to Extend the Product

Life Cycle
One of the marketing managers goals is to extend the product life cycle as
long as possible. By doing this, cash flow can be extended and greater long-
term profitability will result. There are several techniques that can be used to
accomplish this.
INCREASING SALES TO EXISTING CUSTOMERS. During the matu-
rity stage of the product life cycle, the rate of sales growth begins to decrease
and eventually levels off because most of the potential users of the product
have either been converted or left the market. Under normal circumstances,
it becomes very difficult and expensive to identify potential new customers
and convert them into buyers. One way to increase sales and market share
under these circumstances is to sell more to existing customers. There are ba-
sically two alternatives: encourage the customers to purchase more on each
occasion, or encourage the customers to purchase more frequently. Hospital-
ity and tourism firms accomplish this with frequent traveler programs that
reward heavy users with free products and services. Another common method
of increasing sales to existing customers is the use of product bundling. Fast-
food companies such as McDonalds and Taco Bell introduced the concepts
of value meals and supersizing that encourage the consumer to purchase
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stage i stage ii stage iii stage iv

introduction growth maturity decline
characteristics
Sales Low Rapidly rising Peak Declining
Profits Negative Positive and High, starting Declining

increasing to decline
Cash flow Negligible Moderate High Low
Customers Innovators and Remaining early Remaining early Laggards

some early adopters and some majority and
adopters early majority late majority
Competitors Few Increasing in Many Declining in

number and number
strength
strategies
Marketing Create trial Increase sales Increase profits Decrease market

objective and awareness and maximize and maintain expenditures and
market share market share maximize short-
term profits
Product Core product Minor product Add attributes Core product

with some changes and with positive and key
basic peripheral extensions differentiation attributes
services
Distribution Selective Becoming intensive Intensive Selective
Price Set initial price Price to penetrate Lower price to Reduce price to
based on costs market based on increase market maintain volume
and estimated actual demand share
demand
Promotion Create trial Build awareness Use to Reduce expendi-

and awareness and interest and differentiate tures and
through sales reduce sales among major focus on loyal
promotions promotions competitors customers
table 8.1 Characteristics and strategies for stages of the product life cycle.
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 286
larger quantities than normal because of a higher perceived value. Disney has
also bundled its offerings in an attempt to increase consumer spending. Trav-
elers enjoy the convenience of one-stop shopping and the lure of a price in-
centive for purchasing the bundle rather than each component separately. Dis-
ney has expanded beyond the product-service offerings of theme parks and
hotels to include a line of cruise ships. This affords an opportunity to sell travel
packages that include several days at the theme parks while staying in a Dis-
ney hotel, followed by a cruise on one of its Disney cruise ships.
INCREASING THE NUMBER OF USERS. Another strategy used to ex-
tend the product life cycle is to seek new users of the product. The goal is to
increase the size of the overall market by identifying those who have not pre-
viously purchased the products or services. Several fast-food companies have
used this strategy very successfully. As the number of primary locations for
new stores decreased, these companies have sought additional locations where
they might attract new customers. For example, these companies have devel-
oped kiosk locations within stores, shopping malls, and gas stations along the
highways. By expanding the definition of suitable location, they have been
able to increase the number of purchasers, increase sales, and extend the prod-
uct life cycle.
FINDING NEW USES. Within the realm of product marketing, one of the
ways product life cycles can be extended is to find new uses for products. For
example, aspirin is used to prevent heart attacks in addition to its use for head-
aches, and baking soda is used to deodorize refrigerators in addition to its use
in baking. In some cases, new uses for products are discovered and marketed
by the firm. However, in other instances, they are the result of market feed-
back. For example, many restaurants realize that it is relatively easy to run a
catering operation out of the same facility that is used to serve regular cus-
tomers. The catering operation uses the same equipment and adds little to the
fixed costs of operating the restaurant, but it brings in additional revenue that
can enhance the firms overall financial condition. Interestingly, a lot of restau-
rants didnt explore this avenue until they received repeated inquiries re-
garding catering services.
Pros and Cons of the Product Life Cycle

As with most concepts or theories, the product life cycle has its supporters and
its opponents. There has been a good deal of debate over the applicability and
usefulness of the concept in the real world. The following discussion presents
the pros and cons.
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applying the product life cycle 287
PROS. Supporters argue that firms that apply the concept correctly are able
to identify the stage in which the organization or an individual product finds
itself and then use this knowledge to formulate better marketing plans. Once
a products position in the product life cycle is determined, firms are able to
consider the characteristics associated with the respective stage and use the
aforementioned strategies. This would lead to the correct mix of products and
services to improve the performance of the entire organization and allow the
firm to analyze trends in the product-service mix as well as the impact that
this mix will have on short- and long-term financial performance.
In addition, proponents argue that this will encourage firms to be more
proactive in recognizing changes in the environment and taking advantage of
opportunities. It will also help them recognize potential threats and imple-
ment strategies to avoid or minimize any negative impacts. Many products
that are currently in the maturity stage of the product life cycle have been
there for some time and have managed to stay profitable through product
changes and extensions. Successful marketing managers have learned the art
of extending the product life cycle by adapting to changes in the market and
implementing timely growth strategies.
CONS. The opponents of the product life cycle concept state their case with
equal vigor. They contend that few products or services actually conform to
the shape of the curve illustrated in Figure 8.1. Rather, the curve may rise
and fall in any number of patterns, each unique to the product or service it-
self. If managers believe that a product follows the normal life cycle curve,
the products demise may become a self-fulfilling prophecy. As industry sales
begin to decline, a firm may decide to reduce distribution and marketing ex-
penditures in conformance with the recommendations for decline stage strat-
egy. This may lead to the premature decline of the product with substantial
consequences.
Opponents of the concept also claim that it is often difficult to determine
the exact stage in which a product lies. There are clearly no indicators to mark
the transition from one stage to another. It is possible that changes in indus-
try sales or firm sales could be the result of temporary conditions, and it may
be possible to rejuvenate the product and extend the product life cycle. A prod-
uct could remain in the maturity stage indefinitely if management is able to
continually reinvent it. The product life cycle is more of a descriptive tool than
a prescriptive tool. It cannot be used to forecast changes, because of the vari-
ous shapes and time frames associated with different products and industries.
Finally, opponents of the product life cycle concept indicate that some
marketing managers place too much faith in it. These individuals focus too
much attention on the product life cycle and forget about all the other envi-
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 288
ronmental factors that can influence the success of a product or service. This
marketing myopia or narrow-mindedness can cause firms to miss opportuni-
ties and not take risks that could be advantageous in the long run. Finally,
the product life cycle can put too much emphasis on the development of new
products to the detriment of existing products. Managers are painfully aware
that as products reach decline, they will be responsible for finding ways to re-
place the lost revenues.
Whether you agree or disagree with the use of the product life cycle, it is
important to view it solely as a tool. Complete reliance on the product life cy-
cle as the basis for marketing management decisions would be unwise. Equally
unwise would be to totally ignore the sales trends that are the foundation of
the product life cycle. The product life cycle is best characterized as a valu-
able tool for a marketing manager to use in analyzing past market behaviors
and future marketing strategies.
TOURIST AREA LIFE CYCLE

The tourist area life cycle is similar to the product life cycle. Like products,
tourist destinations have a finite life and evolve through four stages of devel-
opment, from inception (introduction) to growth, maturity, and finally de-
cline. However, just as with products, once a destination reaches maturity it
can extend this stage by going through some changes and rejuvenating itself.
This could involve adding more tourist attractions or accommodations, or tar-
geting a new market. For example, many cities along beaches in the southern
United States followed Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and targeted the spring
break crowd from universities and colleges. Each stage of development has
its own set of opportunities and threats for the local area.
Inception Stage
The inception stage of the tourist area life cycle is when the more adventur-
ous travelers find destinations that arent frequented by the masses. These
travelers are normally looking for places that havent become major tourism
destinations. The new destinations dont have the infrastructures or the com-
mercial enterprises that are found in the more established tourism destina-
tions. One of the major appeals of the new destinations is the ability to inter-
act with the resident populations and experience the local environment. These
early tourists are welcomed by the host population, and some of the tourists
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tourist area life cycle 289
decide to become residents. For example, Walt Disney World was started as
a small theme park in a remote area around Orlando, Florida, in 1971. After
visiting the park, tourists began to move to Orlando and the city started to
grow.
Growth Stage
The growth stage of the tourist area life cycle sees an increase in the number
of tourists based on the word of mouth generated by the adventurous travel-
ers. The number of tourism support businesses begins to increase, but most
of the accommodations and restaurants are still owned and operated by local
residents. There is not much planning for the regional development during
this stage, often leading to the creation of a tourism organization to address
the needs of the region. The local residents have more interaction with visi-
tors that may enlighten them about the opportunities that exist for education,
politics, and economic development. During this stage, there is an increase in
the use of technology and improvements are made to the local establishments.
As this stage progresses, the interaction between tourists and local residents
becomes less personal and more businesslike. For example, many support busi-
nesses such as hotels, restaurants, and other retail establishments emerged in
the Orlando area due to the success of Walt Disney World. Also, contractors
moved to the area and a convention and visitors bureau was formed.
Maturity Stage
The maturity stage of the tourist area life cycle is characterized by a shift from
local control of businesses to more outside ownership and larger establish-
ments. This causes the local economy to become more dependent on large cor-
porations with a lack of empathy for the local population. More of the busi-
nesses are franchised and more people migrate to the area because labor is
needed to support the increase in tourism. This results in more conflicts be-
tween the original residents and the new residents. In addition, the area be-
comes more crowded, and there are other negative impacts, like an increase
in crime and pollution. Finally, there is an economic divide between the peo-
ple who prosper as a result of the increased tourism and those who are di-
rectly involved. For example, the Orlando area became saturated with cor-
porate chains and franchises that wanted to cash in on the success of Walt
Disney World. The city became crowded and the original residents no longer
enjoyed the peace and tranquility that attracted them to the area.
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Decline Stage
The decline stage in the tourist area life cycle is characterized by an abun-
dance of tourism facilities and services. The market becomes saturated, and
tourists experience becomes less satisfying. In some cases, the negative im-
pacts of tourism outweigh the benefits associated with the increase in visita-
tion, and the local population loses its enthusiasm for entertaining tourists.
The adventurous travelers who discovered the area are disillusioned by the
commercialization and look for new destinations. Some of the less efficient
firms go out of business, and the area is left with large franchises and chain
operations. A destination can attempt to avoid or postpone the decline stage
by finding a way to rejuvenate the area. This could include the addition of
new attractions or focusing on a niche market. For example, the introduction
of Walt Disney World rejuvenated the area when Cypress Gardens (an orig-
inal attraction outside Orlando) started to show a decline in visitors.
OTHER PRODUCT CONCEPTS

This section presents two other concepts that should be discussed to provide
a thorough understanding of product management. These concepts are all
interrelated in that they are based on the management of the marketing
mix and the positioning of products in the marketplace. Firms change their
product-service mixes over time to reflect changes in consumers tastes and
lifestyles. The two concepts in this section address the question of resource al-
location as it relates to the firms image and its mix of products and services.
Wheel of Retailing
The wheel of retailing is a concept that was originally used to describe the
evolution of department stores and other retail outlets. However, it can be ap-
plied very easily to the hospitality and tourism industry. It is founded on the
notion that there is some type of impetus for retail firms that enter the low
end of the market with basic products and low prices to gravitate toward the
high end of the market (see Figure 8.2). This is accomplished by adding value
through new features and amenities and raising prices. Firms also look to
move to locations with more traffic and higher rents or real estate values.
Eventually, this continual upward movement of firms and their products pro-
vides an opportunity for new competitors to enter the market at the lower
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other product concepts 291
High end
Low end
figure 8.2 The wheel of retailing.
end of the market. This repositioning can backfire and cause a firm to lose
sales and market share.
The retailing world and the hospitality industry are filled with examples
of how the wheel of retailing works. Sears was the original low-end depart-
ment store serving rural areas throughout the United States. Over time, Sears
increased its inventories of popular brand names and moved to shopping malls
and strip malls on major roads. As Searss prices continued to increase, Kmart
decided to start a new low-end operation. Sears lost a good deal of market
share and even attempted to roll back prices to return to its original position,
but it was too late. Surprisingly, Kmart followed in Searss footsteps and added
brand names and moved to more expensive locations. This opened the door
for Wal-Mart to occupy the low-end position, and the firm has attained the
highest market share in the industry, leaving both Sears and Kmart to ques-
tion their strategies. Wal-Mart has not made the mistake of moving up the
wheel of retailing toward the high end and away from its strengths.
The hotel industry has demonstrated a similar pattern. Holiday Inn and
Howard Johnsons were the original economy hotel chains. However, both of
these chains attempted to become more like the Marriott International and
Sheraton chains, which occupied positions in the middle to upper end of the
market with more amenities and higher prices. This vacated the low-end po-
sition, which was eventually filled by other firms such as Red Roof Inns and
Days Inns. The economy segment has become one of the fastest-growing seg-
ments, attracting more and more competitors. Unfortunately, very few firms
are successful at recapturing a market once they abandon it.
One might wonder what compels companies to leave their comfortable
positions for the risk of new markets. One of the reasons for this phenome-
non is the allure of high prices and high profit margins. In the hotel indus-
try the daily cost of servicing a room between guests ranges from around $15
to $50. At the same time, the average daily rate (ADR) paid for most hotel
rooms ranges from around $40 to $300. The additional amenities offered at
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 292
Howard Johnson hotels have expanded beyond the economy hotel line into the middle
market for full-service hotels. Courtesy of Cendant Corp.
higher-priced properties do not substantially increase the variable costs of pro-

viding the service. This potential for increasing the profit margin is difficult
to ignore. However, hotel chains may underestimate the investment necessary
to obtain the expensive real estate and add restaurants and indoor pools. Also,
once a brand is identified in the minds of consumers, it is almost impossible
to change their perceptions.
The other reason that has been used to explain this phenomenon is the
prestige, or lack thereof, associated with a hotel chain. Most managers and
college graduates want to work for prestigious hotels such as the Four Sea-
sons or the Ritz-Carlton. Managers either consciously or subconsciously adapt
the hotel to be more like the chains that they aspire to, rather than exercise
sound marketing strategies and planning. Similarly, most people would rather
work for Bloomingdales or Macys than for Sears or Kmart.
Resource Allocation Models

It is important for firms to view themselves as a portfolio of products that
both provide funds and need funds. Within the portfolio, some brands or
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items are in industries or categories that show strong potential for future
growth, whereas others dont show the same potential. In addition, some of
the brands or items have strong positions in their industries or categories
while others do not. These brands or items can be referred to as strategic
business units (SBUs) because each is viewed as a separate entity with its
own set of market conditions and competitors. All of a firms SBUs will af-
fect a firms cash flow by providing a source of funds through revenues and
using funds in the form of expenses to produce the product and compete in
the marketplace.
A few variations of resource allocation models are similar in their matrix
approaches. The cells within the matrix are classified using the SBUs ability
to act as a source of funds (e.g., relative market share or competitive position)
and its need for funds based on future growth potential (e.g., market growth
rate or industry attractiveness). This process of plotting SBUs and determin-
ing the best sources and uses for funds will aid an organization in allocating
its finite resources. The resource allocation process will be explained using the
Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix because it is the most common,
straightforward resource allocation model in marketing.
The BCG matrix is illustrated in Figure 8.3 with four cells based on two
axes. The horizontal axis is labeled relative market share and can be viewed as
a proxy for competitive position. Relative market share refers to a firms mar-
ket share relative to its largest competitor. The vertical axis is labeled market
growth rate and can be viewed as a proxy for industry attractiveness or future
growth potential. The market growth rate is usually based on average annual
growth rate over the last few years, depending on the age of the industry or
High
Star Question mark
Market
Growth
Rate
Cash cow Dog

Low
High Low
Relative Market Share
figure 8.3 The Boston Consulting Group Matrix. Reprinted from Long Range
Planning, B. Hedley, Strategy and the Business Portfolio, p. 12, February 1977, with
permission from Elsevier Science.
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category. There are two levels, high and low, for each axis, resulting in four
cells.
Two other factors are important in evaluating SBUs: the size of the cir-
cle and the placement within the cell. The size of the circle representing each
SBU gives an indication as to the actual size of the unit measured in sales or
volume. This is important because some SBUs may generate a good deal of
revenue based on sheer volume but not look as attractive in terms of relative
market share and market growth rate. The SBUs placement within the cell
is also important because the axes represent a continuous scale even though
there are only two labels. Two SBUs could be on opposite sides of the same
cell and should be viewed differently. The ensuing discussion will explain
the characteristics and marketing objectives associated with each of the four
cells.
QUESTION MARKS. The SBUs in the question mark category contain
products and services that have low relative market shares in industries or
categories with high market growth rates. This is a critical category for man-
agers because either question marks can improve their market share or the
growth rate in the industry could decline. At this point, these SBUs require
a good deal of cash to increase sales and build market share. However, with
limited available resources, not all question marks can be completely funded,
and choices have to be made. If a question mark does not receive adequate
funding, it is almost certain that its business position will not improve. Most
question marks provide little or no positive cash flow and must be supported
for growth or eliminated from the portfolio. SBUs in this category are often
represented with relatively new products in new markets, creating a risky en-
vironment. When Marriott International introduced its Residence Inns, this
division would have been considered a question mark. The properties were
trying to build a customer base among business travelers with an extended-
stay concept that showed potential for growth. One of Marriotts newest di-
visions is ExecuStays, which focuses on apartments for executive relocation.
The company is allocating a large amount of resources to gain market share
from the market leader, Oakwood Worldwide.
STARS. SBUs that are considered stars contain products with high relative
market shares in industries or categories with high market growth rates. This
is the second best category for producing positive cash flows, and the objec-
tive is to build these products. The SBUs strong business positions and high
market shares provide good returns and become strong sources of funds for
the firm. However, they are in industries or categories that are experiencing
high market growth rates. This will attract many competitors and require a
high level of marketing expenditures in order for an SBU to compete and
maintain its business position. Therefore, these SBUs are normally self-
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sustaining in that they dont require funds from other sources, but they arent
able to supply much in the way of excess funds for other SBUs. Marriotts
Residence Inns and Courtyards divisions are examples of products with at-
tractive growth potentials and high market shares.
CASH COWS. The SBUs in the category of cash cow contain products with
high relative market shares in industries or categories with low market growth
rates. Products or divisions that are cash cows are the best source for positive
cash flows because they have strong sales in established markets. There is not
much growth potential, and the risk of new competitors is low. Cash cows
are used as sources of funds for the SBUs in the other categories, especially
question marks. However, it is important that as much of the cash flow as
necessary to maintain or hold the market shares for cash cows is kept within
the division or SBU. They are the foundation of the firms portfolio, making
it possible to develop new products and take chances with other existing prod-
ucts. Marriotts regular hotel division is its cash cow; the growth rate has
slowed down due to saturation and competition, but the market share has re-
mained strong.
DOGS. SBUs that are considered dogs contain products with low relative
market shares in industries or categories with low market growth rates. Dogs
are the least attractive category in the matrix. They generate low or negative
cash flows because of their poor business positions and the low rate of growth
in their markets. These SBUs are drains on the firms resources and should
be phased out or divested. Marketing expenditures should be decreased un-
less there is some potential for repositioning the product. Most firms will try
to sell these divisions and products to companies that are better equipped to
market them while they are still viable. For example, Marriott entered the
market for assisted living for seniors, but the company eventually sold this di-
vision due to its high costs and government regulations.
Another example of a resource allocation model is the General Electric

(GE) matrix. The GE matrix is similar to the BCG matrix in that it exam-
ines strategic business units based market attractiveness (i.e., market growth
rate) and business strength (i.e., relative market share). However, the axes are
based on a subjective measure composed of several indicators (product life cy-
cle, competitor strategies, new technologies, economic conditions, etc.) rather
than just one objective measure, as in the BCG matrix. Each axis is divided
into three categories, resulting in nine cells (see Figure 8.4). Different base-
line strategies are recommended based on the levels of business strength and
market attractiveness.
Those SBUs in the upper left area of the matrix (white) are the strongest
and should receive large investments of resources in order to continue to grow.
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Business Strength
Strong Medium Weak
High Protect Invest to Build

position build selectively
Market Build Manage for Limited

Medium expansion
Attractiveness selectively earnings
or harvest
Protect and Manage for

Low Divest
refocus earnings
figure 8.4 The General Electric Matrix.
The SBUs along the diagonal from bottom left to top right (tan) exhibit
medium strength and should receive selective investment and be managed for
earnings. Finally, the SBUs in the lower right area of the matrix (gold) are
the weakest and should receive minimal investment. In most cases, the SBUs
will be harvested or divested if they require a relatively large allocation of re-
sources to stay in business.
Resource Allocation Models and the

Product Life Cycle
There is a relationship between resource allocation models such as the BCG
matrix and the product life cycle. The two dimensions in the product life cy-
cle are time and annual sales. The stages are based on the rate of sales growth
over time. The two dimensions in resource allocation models are competitive
position or market share and industry attractiveness or market growth rate.
The underlying premise of the resource allocation models is that products
evolve from question marks into stars and then into cash cows. When the
market stops growing and/or the product loses market share, it will move into
the dog category, where it is eventually divested. This is similar to a products
movement from introduction (question mark) through a growth stage (star)
to maturity (cash cow) and eventually into decline (dog).
In addition to the similarities in evolution or movement through the ma-
trix, the two concepts share similar characteristics and strategies. Question
marks are often new products, like those found in the introduction stage hav-
ing negative cash flows but good growth potential. Stars experience rapid
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managing in the service environment 297
growth and start to realize positive cash flows, like products in the growth
stage. Cash cows have large sales volumes and market shares, resulting in
large cash flows, like the products that survive the maturity stage. Finally,
dogs have low market shares and decreasing cash flows, just like products in
the decline stage.
Marketing strategies are also similar. Marketing expenditures are great-
est for question marks and stars, like products in the introduction and growth
stages. Money is spent selectively to hold market share during the maturity
phase and for cash cows, whereas marketing expenditures are very low for
dogs and products in decline. Finally, both concepts can overemphasize the
importance of new product development to the detriment of existing prod-
ucts. Many companies have survived with cash cows and products in the ma-
turity stage over a long period of time. Many local or regional food chains,
airlines, and large hotel chains such as Sheraton and Holiday Inn have sur-
vived with minor product extensions over their respective life cycles.
MANAGING IN THE
SERVICE ENVIRONMENT
As discussed in Chapter 2, certain characteristics are associated with services
that distinguish them from tangible products. Most of these characteristics
stem from the fact that services are intangible. In other words, services can-
not be held, inspected before purchase, or inventoried. As a result, the con-
sumer is actually part of the production process, making it difficult to main-
tain the consistency and efficiency that a firm can experience in the
manufacture of tangible products.
Conflicts Between Operations

and Marketing
Within any service-based organization there are bound to be conflicts between
those responsible for sales and marketing and those with operational respon-
sibilities. In virtually every hotel, those working in operating departments
could share stories of how sales and marketing personnel have made promises
to clients that were impossible to fulfill to the satisfaction of the client. For
example, hotel salespeople will sometimes price meals for a banquet below
the benchmark set by the catering department in order to book a group into
the hotel. Similarly, sales and marketing personnel could share stories of how
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 298
the operating personnel were inflexible and cost them business. One of the
best ways to keep the conflicts to a minimum is to try to look at things from
the other persons perspective.
Sales and marketing personnel tend to view the world from a revenue
perspective. That is, everything that they attempt to do is targeted toward
increasing revenue. Every new group that is booked into the hotel is seen
as additional revenue. If a promotion is developed to increase the number
of covers served in the dining room, the goal is to increase revenue. From
this perspective, it is best to have many options and flexibility in providing
a service.
Operations personnel, on the other hand, tend to view the world from a
cost containment perspective. All efforts are focused on increasing efficiency
and reducing costs to the lowest level that will keep the operation running
smoothly. The main objective of production and operations is to standardize
as much as possible and lower the cost per unit of providing a service. Both
sales and marketing and operations want to increase profits, but they focus
on different components of the profit equation.
When it comes to offering expanded products and services as a means
of gaining a competitive advantage, the sales and marketing staff will be
eager to offer many alternatives. However, they may not stop to think how
the new products and services will integrate with those that already exist.
Operations personnel will tend to take a very conservative point of view,
trying to keep the operation as simple and straightforward as possible. Some
of the conflict between the two functions stems from the way each is eval-
uated. A salespersons performance is based on generating revenue and
meeting quotas, whereas people in operations are rewarded for lowering
costs and maintaining quality control. There isnt much incentive for the
two departments to work together, even though a joint effort would ben-
efit the company as a whole.
Christopher Lovelock recommends several ways that managers can be
persuaded to build bridges between the functional areas:2
1. Transfer managers across functional areas. In other words, have them

work in different departments so that they gain an understanding of the
nuances of each area.
2. Create cross-functional teams. Top managements goal should be to build
on the energy of managers who have been working in different depart-
ments instead of letting their energies evolve into internal disputes.
3. Cross-train associates to perform a broader variety of tasks. Moving hourly
associates across departmental lines can serve to break down barriers and
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 299
build relationships that can help the departments work together more
effectively.
4. Delegate authority to individual units. Historically, operational managers
in the hospitality industry have focused on cost containment. By trans-
forming cost centers into profit centers and empowering managers and as-
sociates to take greater responsibility for both revenue generation and
spending decisions, managers and associates focus more on the big picture.
5. Institute gain-sharing programs. Allowing managers and associates to
share in the results from improved profits provides an incentive to con-
tinue to seek better ways to operate the business.
Managing Supply and Demand

Managing supply and demand in a service organization such as a hotel or
restaurant is very difficult. Demand for services comes in waves and often is
not as consistent as one would like. The demand may be seasonal, as with a
resort hotel, or it may fluctuate by time of day, as with restaurants. It might
also fluctuate by day of the week, as is the case with business-oriented hotels
that are busy Monday through Thursday but quite slow on Friday through
Sunday. Managing the fluctuations in demand and the corresponding supply
is perhaps one of managements greatest challenges.
Two calculations can be used to evaluate the extent to which the supply
and demand is being successfully managed: asset revenue generating efficiency
(ARGE) and revenue per available room (REVPAR). ARGE evaluates the
relationship between actual revenue and maximum potential revenue. For ex-
ample, within a hotel operation, ARGE takes into account the occupancy per-
centage and the average daily rate to determine the extent to which the rev-
enue potential is being realized. Suppose that a hotel has 400 available rooms
each day with a rack rate of $100. If all of the rooms were sold each day at
this maximum rate, the maximum daily revenue would be $40,000. However,
it is rare that a hotel would be able to do this consistently. Assume that over
a period of time, say, a month, the hotel achieved a 68 percent occupancy rate
and had an average daily rate of $75. This means that on average, 272 rooms
were sold each day at an average daily room rate of $75, resulting in total rev-
enue of $20,400. This figure is then divided by the maximum potential daily
revenue of $40,000, and the ARGE is calculated to be 51 percent (20,400
40,000 100). The ARGE is useful as an evaluation tool for sales and mar-
keting personnel because it measures performance against potential revenue
at full capacity.
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REVPAR, or revenue per available room, is calculated by multiplying the

average daily rate by the occupancy percentage. For example, if a hotel has
an average daily rate of $85 and is running an occupancy percentage of 75
percent, then the REVPAR would be $85 0.75 $63.75. This figure, like
ARGE, accounts for the amount of unused capacity. An alternative calcula-
tion would be to multiply the average daily rate by the number of occupied
rooms to get the total room revenue, and then divide total room revenue by
the total number of rooms in the hotel to get the REVPAR. The main differ-
ence between ARGE and REVPAR is that REVPAR does not compare actual
revenue to maximum potential revenue. However, REVPAR does give a mea-
sure that can be tracked over time to assess the hotels performance. Higher
values of REVPAR would denote more effective use of available resources.
One of the major issues facing service industries such as hospitality and
tourism is the inability to inventory the product. Unused capacity is lost for-
ever when there are empty hotel rooms, tables in restaurants, or seats on air-
planes. The following strategies can be used to manage supply and demand.
MODIFY PRICE. Prices can be used to transfer demand from peak peri-
ods to nonpeak periods. Many restaurants in tourist areas use early bird
prices to encourage price-sensitive consumers, such as families and senior cit-
izens, to eat earlier. Restaurants are able to offer a limited selection of meals
at lower prices, enabling them to purchase and prepare in larger, more effi-
cient volumes. This shifts the demand to a period when there are empty ta-
bles and the customers can be easily accommodated. This results in less wait-
ing and fewer people turned away during the peak period between 7 P.M. and
10 P.M. Firms can also raise prices during peak demand periods in an effort
to shift demand to nonpeak periods. Hotels and fine-dining restaurants use
this practice to maximize the potential revenue from limited capacity.
DEVELOP PROGRAMS TO BOOST NONPEAK DEMAND PERI-

ODS. When the fast-food companies first began operation they were open
only for lunch and dinner. They did not offer breakfast. After many years of
operation, most began to develop breakfast programs that resulted in a very
significant increase in total revenue. This represents an example of how fast-
food restaurants stimulated demand during a nonpeak period. In the case of
fast-food companies that did not have any type of breakfast menu, they were
stimulating business during a zero-volume period. Business-oriented hotels
adopt the same sort of strategy when they offer special weekend rates and
packages to boost occupancy during low-demand weekends.
SHIFT DEMAND THROUGH RESERVATIONS. All of the major hotel

chains maintain toll-free telephone reservation services. If demand for a par-
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 301
ticular location exceeds capacity, rather than losing the business they will sim-
ply offer to make a reservation at a hotel that is close to the desired location.
If a hotel company operates multiple brands and the hotel at which the guest
is seeking a reservation is full, the reservations agent will offer to make a res-
ervation at a nearby hotel that is owned, franchised, or operated by the same
company. For example, if a customer wants to make a reservation at a Qual-
ity Inn and all of the rooms are reserved, the reservations agent would try to
make a reservation at a nearby Comfort Inn or a Sleep Inn because they are
part of the same organization. In this way, the company still realizes the rev-
enue, while providing a valuable service to the guest.
INCREASE PERSONNEL EFFICIENCY. By using part-time employees
and cross-training employees to perform two or more jobs, management can
improve employee productivity. Restaurants can decrease the time required
to take orders and prepare meals, enabling them to serve more customers in
the same time period.
INCREASE CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT IN SELF-SERVICE AS-
PECTS OF THE SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEM. Service firms are able
to decrease labor costs and increase supply by having consumers become more
involved in the service delivery process. A common trend in restaurants is to
offer buffet-style service. In fact, this is one of the methods used by many of
the foodservice operations at Epcot Center in Disney World to increase ca-
pacity, revenues, and profits. The airline industry has also tried to reduce costs
by allowing customers to make their own reservations and seating assignments
via the Internet. In some cases, customers are actually given bonus miles for
their frequent flyer accounts when they use the airlines Web site to make
reservations.
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 302

The product-service mix is an important component of a firms market-
ing program. The other strategies (price, promotion, and distribution) are
used to provide further assistance in positioning the brand in conjunction
with the product-service mix. All of the strategies are based on the cus-
tomers wants and needs and the trade-offs that are necessary to offer a
competitive product. When managing a product or service, it is necessary
to consider all of the product levels: the core product, the facilitating prod-
ucts, the supporting products, and the augmented product.
The product life cycle can be used to develop marketing strategies that
are appropriate for the product or service throughout its useful life. Products
evolve from introduction through growth into maturity and eventually de-
cline. History shows us that certain marketing strategies or actions are more
appropriate in certain stages in the life cycle. The pros and cons of the prod-
Chapter review
uct life cycle were presented, as well as ways to extend the product life cycle
and the use of the life cycle concept for tourist areas. The wheel-of-retailing
concept was introduced to explain why firms change their product-service
mixes over time and make room for new competitors at the low end.
Resource allocation models were introduced, and the Boston Consulting
Group (BCG) matrix was presented in some detail. These types of models are
useful to firms in establishing marketing budgets and developing marketing
strategies in an attempt to achieve the firms overall goals. Each strategic busi-
ness unit has a unique set of conditions and competitors that must be moni-
tored so that the firm can analyze cash flow.
Finally, some issues unique to the managing of services were discussed in
this chapter. Most of the problems stem from the fact that services are intan-
gible and cannot be inventoried. Therefore, it is crucial that firms concentrate
on managing supply and demand so they can maximize potential revenue.
Customers are an integral part of the service delivery process and should be
included in the product-service mix strategy.
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 303
chapter review 303
Chapter review
Asset revenue generating efficiency (ARGE)
Augmented product
Average daily rate (ADR)
Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix
Cash cows
Core product
Decline stage
Dogs
Economies of scale
Facilitating products
General Electric (GE) matrix
Growth stage
Inception stage
Introduction stage
Market growth rate
Marketing strategy
Maturity stage
Peripheral services
Product levels
Product life cycle
Question marks
Relative market share
Resource allocation models
Revenue per available room (REVPAR)
Stars
Strategic business units (SBUs)
Supporting products
Tourist area life cycle
Wheel of retailing
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 304

Discussion
1. What are the four levels of a product? How can periph-
eral services be used to gain a competitive advantage?
2. What are the stages of the product life cycle? What are
the characteristics of each stage?
3. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of

using the product life cycle as a marketing tool?
4. How should a business go about developing a strategy for

various stages in the product life cycle? What techniques
Chapter review
are most appropriate for the various stages?
5. What are some of the ways to extend the product life cy-
cle? Of these techniques, which one do you think is most
useful? Why?
6. Describe the evolution of a tourism destination as it pro-

gresses through the tourist area life cycle.
7. What is the wheel of retailing? Does it apply to the hospi-

tality industry?
8. What are Lovelocks recommendations for reducing the

conflicts between sales and operations?
9. What are the methods for managing supply and demand?

Which methods are capable of increasing capacity for hos-
pitality firms?
10. What are resource allocation models? How are they re-
lated to the product life cycle?
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:01 PM Page 305
chapter review 305
Chapter review
Notes
1 Jeff Higley, The Name Game, Hotel & Motel Management, February 1, 1999, pp. 36.
2 Christopher H. Lovelock, Product Plus: How Product Service Competitive Advantage (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1994), pp. 35152.
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:02 PM Page 306
Case Study
Outback Steakhouse
O utback Steakhouse, Inc., headquartered in Tampa, Florida, was

founded in 1988 and completed its initial public offering in June
1991. Outback Steakhouse, Inc. is a company of restaurants that
owns and operates Outback Steakhouse units throughout the United States
as well as Carrabbas Italian Grills and Lee Roy Selmons restaurants. The
company also operates through joint venture agreements and existing fran-
chise agreements for additional Outback restaurants (including international
locations), Carrabbas Italian Grills, and Flemings Prime Steakhouse & Wine
Bar. Outback Steakhouse, Inc. has a joint venture development relationship
with Roy Yamaguchi, the chef and creator of Roys restaurants, located in the
United States and Japan.
Outback Steakhouse is an Australian steakhouse concept open for dinner
only. Although beef and steak items make up a good portion of the menu,
the concept offers a variety of chicken, ribs, seafood, and pasta dishes. The
companys strategy is to differentiate its restaurant by emphasizing consis-
tently high-quality food and service, generous portions at moderate prices,
and a casual atmosphere suggestive of the Australian outback.
Outback Steakhouse has enjoyed considerable success over the years, as
evidenced by its sales figures in the table below. Since 1994, sales have grown
from $549 million to over $2.4 billion by the year 2002.
case study
Annual Sales ($000,000)

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
company- $516 $716 $892 $1,045 $1,227 $1,492 $1,698 $1,848 $1,978
owned
franchised 33 82 124 181 247 267 318 358 377
international 0 0 1 20 48 60 75 81 88
total $549 $798 $1,017 $1,246 $1,522 $1,819 $2,091 $2,287 $2,443
As you can see, the restaurant chain opened its first international unit
in 1996. All of the international units are either franchises or joint ven-
tures. Initially, the units were company-owned, but over time, the number
of franchises and joint ventures has increased from 21 units in 1994 to 172
units in 2002.
c08.qxd 2/2/05 2:02 PM Page 307
case study 307
case study
Number of Units
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Company- 193 258 318 375 422 478 521 575 612
owned
Franchised 21 39 54 70 95 96 103 114 118
International 0 0 1 14 23 37 40 50 54
Total 214 297 373 459 540 611 664 739 784
The information in the tables pertains to the Outback Steakhouses only,

not the other brands that are part of Outback Steakhouse, Inc. It is interest-
ing to see the evolution of the brand over time. Since the initial public offer-
ing in 1991, the brand has increased its number of franchised operations both
in the United States and abroad. Sales have increased every year regardless of
the economy or events such as the September 11 terrorist attacks.

1. What stage of the product life cycle is the Outback Steakhouse brand in
as of 2002?
2. What strategies would you suggest for the managers of the Outback
Steakhouse brand?
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c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:06 PM Page 309
chapter
9
Marketing Channels
Chapter Objectives
1. Outline the importance of distribution systems in
hospitality and travel marketing.
2. Describe several models of distribution channel organization.
3. List distribution intermediaries in the hospitality and
tourism industry.
4. Describe several options for managing distribution
channels.
5. Explain how channel distribution systems can affect
customer value.
6. Define franchising and list advantages and disadvantages
of franchisee/franchisor arrangements.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Franchising
Introduction Summary of Chapter Objectives
Channel Strategy Key Terms and Concepts
Channel organization
Intermediaries
Channel management
Discussion
Building customer value in channel Case Study: The Wing Shack
systems
309
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:06 PM Page 310
310 chapter 9 marketing channels
Luis Limardo Operations Manager

National Car Rental San Juan, Puerto Rico
I graduated from the University of Massachusetts in May 1996 and re-

turned to Puerto Rico to begin my professional career. In July 1996, I
started my first job as a general manager with Country Kitchen Restau-
rant, a franchised property owned by Empresas Santana. Within five years, I
was in charge of food and beverage operations at Puerto Rico International
Airport. In mid-2002 I decided to take a position as an operations manager
with National Car Rental in Puerto Rico.

industry profile
I am the operations manager of National Car Rental in Puerto Rico, a fran-

chise with a rental fleet of more than 650 cars on an annual basis and a 95
percent leasehold. I am responsible for employees in five different labor
groups, including four categories belonging to the Teamsters Union.

I am most satisfied when my duties result in personnel consistency and the
companys service cycle is achieved. On the other side, my frustration appears
when my employees focus their time, attention, and energies on things hav-
ing no significance or relation to the companys success.

youre facing?
The most challenging aspect of our business has to do with the accomplish-
ment of personnel consistency in rendering the companys services. Our main
purpose is that they devote their time to their assigned duties and responsi-
bilities that are crucial in meeting clients expectations.

industry?
Hospitality and tourism is presently one of the most promising and devel-
oping industries in Puerto Rico. Our segment of the car rental business,
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:06 PM Page 311
industry profile
being inextricably tied to hospitality and tourism, is manifesting clear
growth. Notwithstanding, consumers are more demanding and scrupulous
about the service they wish to receive from all areas of the industry. Thus,
one should always grasp the rule that customers sponsorship and patron-
age are founded on the capacity and capability to satisfy consumers
expectations.

company?
Marketing is a pivotal tool within our company and undoubtedly plays an ex-
tremely useful role in its success. Our company spends a great deal of money
on advertising and sales training.

you suggest?
Individuals preparing for a career in hospitality and tourism must be
aware that success in business within this industry mostly depends upon
efficiency of service rendered. This outcome will be directly influenced by
the essential qualities of the individual in charge of managing the busi-
ness activities. Among the most relevant qualities are being honest and
truthful, industrious, loyal, creative, conciliatory, courteous, courageous,
open-minded, respectful, patient, and temperate. In addition, one must
have leadership wisdom, learning aptitude and capacity, and firmness.
Also, one must show perseverance, constancy and consistency, humanity
and sensitivity, sense of justice, readiness and alertness, humility, sense of
humor, and formality. You should never act capriciously, arbitrarily, im-
petuously, or abusively.
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INTRODUCTION
Distribution is an important element of the marketing mix, but it is often dif-
ficult to understand its role in services marketing. Service channels are usu-
ally not traditional in the sense that there is a manufacturer, a wholesaler, and
a retailer. Often, one firm performs all of the channel functions because there
is no physical transportation of a product, and the production and consump-
tion of the service occur simultaneously. However, service firms in industries
like hospitality and tourism must still make decisions regarding channel or-
ganization and channel management.
One of the decisions that must be made by hotel and tourism firms con-
cerns the use of intermediaries. Intermediaries, like wholesalers and retailers,
may be valuable to service firms because of their expertise and ability to spe-
cialize in certain channel functions. Also, government organizations such as
travel bureaus exist to help promote and distribute travel services to individ-
uals and groups for their constituents.
The fastest-growing distribution alternative involves electronic com-
merce over the Internet. Hospitality and tourism firms use this outlet to pro-
mote their services and offer a direct channel to consumers. This form of
commerce is efficient and provides other advantages that will be discussed
in this chapter.
CHANNEL STRATEGY
A firms channel strategy must be consistent with the other elements of its
marketing mix in order to be successful. The overall position of the firm in
the marketplace is established by many factors, including price levels, product-
service mix characteristics, and distribution. The promotion strategy is used
to convey this positioning strategy to potential users of the firms product or
service. The delivery of products or services is intertwined with these other
decisions. For example, consumers would not associate gourmet-quality food
with an establishment that is part of a food court in a shopping mall. Simi-
larly, consumers would not expect to pay high prices for food purchased
through this type of outlet.
The main objective of the distribution function is to get products and ser-
vices to consumers where, when, and how they prefer them. A good distri-
bution system will result in a smooth flow of products and services to con-
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introduction 313
sumers while at the same time achieving the firms goals concerning market
coverage, sales, and profitability. Firms have limited resources and must de-
termine the most efficient and effective way to distribute their products and
services. Some of the necessary activities associated with distribution include:
Communicating and negotiating

Facilitating transactions
Storing and moving physical goods
Installing products and providing service
Channel Organization
Channel design decisions must be made with regard to channel width (i.e.,
desired market coverage) and channel length (i.e., number of intermediaries).
It is also possible to use a single channel to distribute a firms products and
services or multiple channels of various widths and lengths. Channel decisions
are affected by product-service mix characteristics, market characteristics, and
environmental characteristics. Obviously, the intangible nature of services
tends to minimize the length of the channel of distribution. As discussed ear-
lier, the service delivery process often requires consumers to be present dur-
ing the production process. This eliminates the need for the storage and move-
ment of a physical product. However, distribution is still an important
consideration in the delivery of services. Some firms use a variety of channels
depending upon the desired market coverage, the positioning of different ser-
vices or brands, and the existence of different markets.
CHANNEL WIDTH. The channel width decision is based on the desired
amount of market coverage. In other words, larger widths would be associ-
ated with more market coverage. Basically, three channel-width strategies are
employed by firms: (1) exclusive distribution, (2) selective distribution, and
(3) intensive distribution. The width of the channel ranges from exclusive dis-
tribution (one outlet) to intensive distribution (as many outlets as possible). As
mentioned earlier, this decision must be consistent with the firms other mar-
keting mix strategies.
The narrowest channel width is exclusive distribution, where a firm lim-
its the availability of its products or services to a particular outlet. This is com-
mon among independent operators in the hospitality industry. Le Cirque 2000
restaurant in New York City is a single-unit operation, and it is the only place
consumers can purchase and experience this firms product. This is also true
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 314
of independent hotels such as the Palace Hotel in New York City and resorts
such as The Greenbrier in West Virginia or The Homestead in Virginia.
Many single-unit restaurants and lodging facilities offer a personal touch and
a one-of-a-kind experience. However, this individual attention comes at the
expense of market coverage and the cost economies associated with high-
volume business.
The middle channel width is referred to as selective distribution, where
a firm uses more than one outlet but restricts availability of the product or
service to a limited number of outlets. In the hospitality industry, many firms
limit market coverage based on geographic segmentation. Some multiunit op-
erations are strictly local, but some are regional or national with a limited
number of outlets. Restaurant chains such as Hard Rock Cafe and ESPN Zone
limit themselves to large cities. In contrast, Bertuccis Brick Oven Pizzeria,
based in Somerville, Massachusetts, limits itself to the Northeast and recently
expanded to the mid-Atlantic region. Many other multiunit restaurant oper-
ations are family-owned and stay within a very confined area. Some hotel
chains, such as Omni Hotels and Four Seasons, have a limited number of ho-
tels that are found in large cities, while others operate in limited regions. This
distribution strategy is also popular among many travel agents, noncommer-
cial foodservice firms, and certain airlines, such as Jet Blue.
The Melting Pot uses a selective distribution strategy for its restaurants in the United
States. Courtesy of The Melting Pot.
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introduction 315
The packaging concept appeals to consumers because of the added value of lower costs and
convenience. Courtesy of Guest Services.
Finally, the widest channel strategy is intensive distribution, where firms

attempt to make products and services available through as many outlets as
possible. This is a common approach among franchise operations that use mass
advertising and realize economies of scale. These firms, such as McDonalds
and Marriott International, try to standardize their services so that consumers
can expect a consistent experience at any of the firms outlets. Consumers are
more concerned with familiarity and consistency than with a one-of-a-kind
experience. However, these firms do their best to provide consumers with a
personal touch. Most airlines and car rental agencies use this distribution strat-
egy as well.
CHANNEL LENGTH. The channel length decision is based on the num-
ber of intermediaries between the manufacturer and the final consumer. In
the case of services, the channel is usually very short because of simultaneous
production and consumption. In other words, consumers must be present to
consume a service such as airline transportation, a meal, or an overnight stay
in a hotel. A channel can be either direct, from the manufacturer to the con-
sumer, or indirect, with intermediaries performing some of the necessary
channel functions (see Figure 9.1).
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 316
Manufacturers
Direct channels Indirect channels
Direct Online Reps/ Reps/

sales marketing agents agents
Wholesalers
Retailers
Customers
figure 9.1 Alternative channel systems.
A direct channel is the most popular for hospitality and tourism firms, as
well as for most other service industries. The manufacturer sells directly to
the consumer, and the manufacturer performs all of the channel functions. In
product firms, this choice is made either because there are no qualified inter-
mediaries or because the manufacturer feels it can do a better job. In service
firms, there is often no choice because the service must be performed while
the consumer is present. The direct channel enables the firm to have close
contact with the final consumer and the ability to react quickly to changes in
the market. For example, hotels use central reservation systems (CRS) and call
centers to make the direct channel more accessible and to operate more effi-
ciently. Hotels allow direct assess to booking rooms through the property, call
centers, hotel Web site, or property-to-property. An indirect channel involves
at least one intermediary that is responsible for one or more channel func-
tions. This type of channel can exist in many forms, but it is not very com-
mon in service industries. Service firms are normally both producers and re-
tailers. There are a few indirect channels in the hospitality and tourism
industries, but they seem to be more prevalent in the travel industry or in
business markets that involve large-volume purchases. For example, tour op-
erators (i.e., wholesalers) work directly with travel service firms such as ho-
tels and airlines to combine services to market as a package to travel agents,
who in turn market to the final consumers. Another example of an indirect
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introduction 317
channel is the meetings market. Hotel salespeople market their properties to

meeting planners who purchase the hotel product on behalf of a group of fi-
nal consumers. The various intermediaries will be discussed in more detail in
the next section.
Most hospitality and travel firms use a combination of direct and indirect
channels to reach as many consumers as possible. Global distribution systems
(GDS) are used by airlines and hotels to coordinate their distribution activities
and provide linkages to intermediaries. A GDS provides distribution channels
that give customers the ability to easily search for hospitality and travel services
and to conduct the transaction immediately. The system serves many roles rang-
ing from those that are transaction-based to those that are strategic in nature. In
other words, a GDS is used for inventory control and rate management, storing
data and disseminating information, revenue generation, and strategic position-
ing. Nyheim, McFadden, and Connolly (2005) provide a thorough discussion of
global distribution systems and other hospitality technologies in their book.1
Intermediaries
Many of the distribution channels in service industries tend to be direct in na-
ture, eliminating the need for intermediaries. However, the hospitality and
tourism industries do have their share of valuable intermediaries that are re-
sponsible for volume business for hotels, airlines, and cruise ships. Interme-
diaries specialize in certain functions in the service delivery process, and they
can add value to the service with their knowledge and expertise. This spe-
cialization results in more efficient production and distribution of services, as
well as lower prices for consumers. Table 9.1 contains a list of the most com-
mon intermediaries in hospitality and tourism distribution channels.
Travel agents
Tour wholesalers and operators
Meeting planners
Hotel representatives
Travel bureaus
Concierge
table 9.1 Most common intermediaries.

c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 318
TRAVEL AGENTS. Travel agents are responsible for a large volume of book-
ings for airlines, hotels, car rentals, and cruises. In addition, travel agents sell
admissions to tourist attractions and special events. Although most of this
volume comes from leisure travelers, a sizeable amount is also generated by
corporate travelers. Some firms choose to use travel agents who specialize in
corporate business rather than operate their own corporate travel departments.
The benefit of using a travel agent is that agents specialize in finding and se-
curing good rates for their customers. Another reason that travelers use travel
agents is because of their extensive knowledge regarding travel products. Most
agents have traveled to many popular cities and destinations, and they have
access to informative promotional materials. It is important for travel agents
to provide some additional value or they will cease to exist. Consumers will
make their own travel arrangements via the Internet or through direct con-
tact with the service providers.
The travel agents expertise and access to valuable markets can be useful
to hotels, car rental agencies, airlines, and cruise operators. It is virtually im-
possible for any of these firms to operate their normal business while keep-
ing abreast of the many market segments and having access to all of their
potential customers preferred methods for purchasing travel products. Travel
agents and hospitality and tourism firms seek to form relationships that will
be mutually beneficial. Hospitality and tourism firms are looking for more
volume, but they want consumers who will fit their overall customer mix.
Travel agents send their customers to hospitality and tourism firms expect-
ing them to have a good experience so that they tell their friends and col-
leagues and use the travel agent in the future. As long as this exchange satis-
fies both entities, they will continue the relationship to the benefit of both
parties.
TOUR WHOLESALERS AND OPERATORS. Tour wholesalers and op-

erators contract with hospitality and tourism firms to obtain services that can
be combined in a package and offered to the leisure market. These packages
can contain any combination of lodging, transportation, event or attraction
tickets, and meals. These packages are marketed to travel agents and some-
times to consumers via the Internet or some other direct source. Tour whole-
salers exist because they have access to the various suppliers and they specialize
in packaging travel products, but they rely on travel agents to get the prod-
uct to the mass market. This packaging concept appeals to consumers because
of the convenience and the idea that the package can be purchased for a lower
price than the components purchased individually. Once again, there is some
value added to the services.
The package concept is particularly appealing to people engaged in in-
ternational travel, senior citizens, groups, and novice travelers. There is some
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introduction 319
Hospitality organizations often work with event planners to meet their customers needs.
Courtesy of Harith Productions Ltd.
degree of risk associated with traveling to a new or foreign destination, but

it is reduced by intermediaries such as tour wholesalers and travel agents.
Tour wholesalers are able to sort services from suppliers into like grade and
quality, package them, and offer them to retailers. This is a more efficient
way to sell travel products to large volumes of leisure customers. Each of the
channel members has a specialty that improves the service delivery process as
well as the overall value of the final product.
MEETING PLANNERS. Large organizations such as corporations and
trade associations have individuals or departments that are responsible for the
travel plans of its members. These meeting planners negotiate with hotels,
airlines, and other travel firms on behalf of their members for guest rooms
and meeting space. There are also independent meeting planners and event
planners who will work for organizations on a contract basis. As organiza-
tions seek to reduce overhead, outsourcing services such as meeting planning
will become more common. Meeting planners are similar to travel agents in
that they are familiar with many popular destinations. They have some ex-
pertise in areas such as negotiating, site selection, budgeting, and promotion,
but it varies depending on whether they plan meetings for corporations, as-
sociations, or incentive groups. Each of these markets will be explained in
more detail in Chapter 14, Personal Selling.
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HOTEL REPRESENTATIVES. Large hotels have sales staffs that are re-
sponsible for selling guest rooms and meeting space to groups. These sales-
people negotiate with meeting planners, tour operators, and travel agents in
an effort to fill the hotel. Unfortunately, smaller hotels may not be able to jus-
tify the hiring of full-time salespeople, either because they are very small or
because they cannot afford to hire them. In this case, it may be in the hotels
best interest to hire an independent hotel representative to market the hotel
to chosen market segments. Even large hotels may hire these independent rep-
resentatives to take advantage of their access to certain markets. Much like
travel agents, hotel representatives are able to deal with a wide array of con-
sumers. Hotel representatives may not be as familiar with the hotel product
as an in-house sales staff, but they may have more knowledge regarding the
consumers that the hotel is targeting. Also, the hotel representatives may have
better access to the targeted consumers.
TRAVEL BUREAUS. Each state in the United States has its own office for
travel and tourism. These agencies, or bureaus, are responsible for promoting
the state as a travel destination and securing major events. They are funded
by the government and work in cooperation with the states hospitality and
tourism firms. Each major city or region within a state will have a conven-
tion and visitors bureau (CVB) that is responsible for promoting that city or
region. Convention and visitors bureaus work with local hospitality and travel
firms to secure conventions, meetings, and special events for the region. Con-
vention and visitors bureaus can receive funding from various sources such as
the government, membership fees, hotel taxes, and fees for services. CVBs also
promote leisure travel to tour operators and travel agents, as well as the mass
market of potential travelers. One of the services that CVBs will provide is to
contact hotels with requests for proposals (RFPs) on behalf of interested
groups. In essence, the CVB acts as a clearinghouse for information regard-
ing large meetings, conferences, and conventions.
The existence of CVBs is based on the notion that convention and visitor
business can better be attracted to an area through coordinated group action
than through the actions of individual firms. The tourism segment of the in-
dustry is composed of various market segments, including the group tour mar-
ket (e.g., motorcoach tours), the individual traveling for leisure or business,
and the vacation market, consisting of families and other groups of people
traveling together. CVBs work to target segments that offer good potential
for travel to the region. A CVB serves as a cooperative, representing hotels,
motels, restaurants, convention facilities, tour operators, tourist attractions,
transportation carriers, and other retail establishments that support tourists
(see Figure 9.2).
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introduction 321
Tour
operators
Transportation Restaurants
CVB
Lodging Tourist
facilities attractions
Convention
facilities
figure 9.2 Convention and visitors bureau constituencies.
Finally, most developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia

(and some developing countries in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia)
have tourism bureaus that are responsible for promoting international travel.
Australia and Hong Kong have two of the best systems for tracking tourism
flows and the economic impact of tourism on the economy. These tourism
bureaus also act as clearinghouses for information regarding tourism and
group business. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) keeps aggregate
statistics on tourism throughout the world and provides some reports free of
charge and some for a fee, depending on the detail required.
CONCIERGE. Many full-service hotels employ an individual to help guests
with local arrangements for restaurants and visitor attractions. In this sense,
the concierge is an intermediary for the restaurants and local attractions. She
will send business to retail operators with whom she has a good working re-
lationship. As a result, it is in the best interest of the local restaurants and vis-
itor attractions to introduce themselves to the hotel concierge and give her a
tour of the facility. The quality of the guests experience with the recom-
mended restaurant or visitor attraction will reflect directly on the concierge
and the hotel. Therefore, the retail establishments must assure the concierge
that the consumer will be satisfied.
Channel Management
Once a channel is developed, it becomes an ongoing task to manage it over
time. Many conflicts and problems can occur that will require the coopera-
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 322
tion of the members of the channel. It is also important to note that the same
company can be a part of more than one channel and occupy a different po-
sition in each channel. For example, a restaurant would be a consumer in the
channel for bulk food items and napkins, but a producer in the market for
meals and dining. Similarly, hotels purchase many products and services,
ranging from pens and soap to linens and pool chemicals. Therefore, a prob-
lem in one channel will affect the performance of the other channels in which
the firm is a member. The Ritz-Carlton chain, a past recipient of the Mal-
colm Baldrige National Quality Award, recognizes the critical nature of these
relationships and makes a special effort to recruit suppliers who understand
and agree with its philosophy of customer service and quality.
There will always be conflicts between parties engaged in some form of
negotiation over issues such as price, quantity, quality, and availability. Rather
than attempt to eliminate these conflicts, it is better to find ways to manage
them. In competitive markets, it is necessary to create fair exchanges so that
both parties are satisfied. This mutual satisfaction can be the cornerstone of
a loyal relationship that will benefit both parties in the future. Otherwise, it
is in a firms best interest to find a more equitable arrangement with other
suppliers or retailers. Approaches to managing channel conflict can be be-
havioral (channel power and channel leadership) or contractual (vertical mar-
keting systems).
CHANNEL POWER. This can be defined as the ability of one channel mem-
ber to influence the behavior of other channel members in such a way as to
get them to do things that they normally would not do. The most common
forms of channel power are reward, coercive, expert, legitimate, and refer-
ent.2 The balance of power depends on which channel member uses the bases
of power most effectively. Any one of the channel members could conceiv-
ably have access to any of the forms of power.
Reward power is the ability of one channel member to influence the be-
havior of another member through the use of incentives. These incentives can
be in the form of discounts, trade promotions, or some other form of promo-
tional support. Airlines often reward travel agents by offering special com-
missions on certain flights. A related form of power is coercive power, or the
ability to influence a channel members behavior through the use of threats.
These threats could be in the form of restricted availability of products, or
other unfavorable terms such as price or discounts. In this case, a travel agency
may limit its association with an airline because the commission is too low.
Expert power is the result of the superior knowledge of one channel mem-
ber relative to another. Some hotels agree to pay commissions and employ in-
dependent hotel representatives because of their expertise in dealing with cer-
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introduction 323
tain market segments. Legitimate power is obtained through contractual

arrangements that specify the parties expected behaviors. The most common
form of legitimate power in the hospitality industry is franchising, which will
be discussed in detail in the section on franchising. Finally, referent power oc-
curs when a channel member has a certain prestige or image that would ben-
efit another member as a result of their association.
CHANNEL LEADERSHIP. At some point, one of the channel members
should take a leadership role. The leader can then organize the other chan-
nel members and strive toward common goals and objectives. The channel
leader can be a manufacturer, an intermediary, or a retailer. However, the
leader will normally be large and have a sustainable, competitive advantage
in its industry because of financial resources, marketing skills, or some other
factor. These competitive advantages will enable firms to obtain channel
power and leadership. It is often beneficial for other channel members to as-
sociate themselves with successful companies.
Manufacturers can obtain a power base and take on a leadership role if
they maintain ample resources or control a product that is in short supply and
in great demand among consumers. For example, a popular resort such as
Walt Disney World can exercise power and leadership over travel agents, car
rental companies, and airlines. Intermediaries such as wholesalers and retail-
ers can gain control over a channel if they have the ability to group compo-
nents from various manufacturers and create an attractive product or if they
have access to important markets. Tour wholesalers combine travel products
into packages that are marketed to travel agents, who are retailers that have
access to important markets and specialize in dealing with the various mar-
ket segments.
VERTICAL MARKETING SYSTEMS. One approach to reducing channel
conflict and uncertainty is the vertical marketing system. In a vertical mar-
keting system, channel members work together as if they were one organi-
zation. Channel members work together to achieve a higher degree of effi-
ciency, thereby reducing the overall costs of providing products and services.
Vertical marketing systems offer a unified approach to channel management
and can be corporate, administered, or contractual.
In a corporate vertical marketing system, all of the participants are actu-
ally members of the same organization. In this case, the original firm either
develops or purchases other firms at the various levels in the channel. Mc-
Donalds operates its own food distributors in an effort to control price fluc-
tuations and availability of its food supplies. A corporate system can be de-
veloped through backward integration (toward the manufacturer or supplier)
or forward integration (toward the retailer or distributor). An example of for-
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 324
ward integration would be a food distributor that decides to start a catering

operation.
An administered vertical marketing system is one in which a manufac-
turer or supplier attempts to control the flow of goods or services through the
channel. This is usually associated with expert power in that distributors and
retailers are willing to relinquish some of their control in order to benefit from
the producers knowledge and background. Event management companies
may have this type of arrangement with ticket agents who market and sell
their events. This arrangement is similar to a conventional channel, but a
greater degree of cooperation and sharing of information is necessary for a
successful operation.
A contractual vertical marketing system unifies the channel members by
means of a legal and binding contract. The firms agree to abide by the terms
of the contract, the goal of which is to realize cost economies that would not be
possible if the firms operated independently. This approach is similar to a cor-
porate system, but it may be preferable when firms do not have the resources
or expertise to develop operations at all channel levels. The firms benefit from
pooling resources for functions such as advertising and research. Franchising is
one example of a contractual distribution system.
CHANNEL MEMBER SELECTION AND RETENTION. It is impor-

tant that firms exercise good judgment when choosing channel members. In-
termediaries must demonstrate the ability and willingness to perform the de-
sired tasks. In addition, prospective channel members must buy in to the
philosophy of the service provider. The service provider should determine the
characteristics that it feels are critical in a channel member and then evaluate
potential members on the basis of these characteristics. Once a firm is selected,
it is necessary to retain the firm through the use of financial and nonfinan-
cial motivators.
Financial motivators are aimed at improving the channel members profit.
A service provider can improve a channel members profit by offering more
discounts or promotions related to desired outcomes, reducing prices, or in-
creasing promotional support. While financial motivators are effective, non-
financial motivators should also be considered. Some nonfinancial motivators
that could be used are training or improving products and services. For ex-
ample, tour operators and tourism bureaus often invite travel agents on trips
to the destination in order to familiarize the agents with the product. These
trips are free of charge and allow travel agents to get a firsthand look at the
destination so that they can relay the information to their customers. Hotels
use a similar practice with meeting planners considering properties for their
groups.
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introduction 325
Building Customer Value in

Channel Systems
When choosing a channel system to reach target customers, it is important for
a firm to enhance customer value by increasing customer benefits (i.e., im-
prove quality) and/or decreasing the customers cost of purchase (i.e., lower
the price).3
INCREASING CUSTOMER BENEFITS. Customer benefits can be in-

creased by choosing a channel system that can deliver more product or ser-
vice benefits, build brand image, or build company benefits.
Delivering product benefits. Product benefits can come in the form of

product quality, product assortment, and product form. In hospitality and
tourism, it is critical to meet customer quality expectations and provide
consistent service. Direct channels provide the firm with the best oppor-
tunity to control quality, while indirect channels require a firm to place
its trust in an intermediary. For example, tour operators rely on travel
agents to sell their products to the final consumer. The channel system
must also provide the range of products necessary to achieve a desired
level of customer appeal. Travel bureaus need the full support of all busi-
nesses in the region to promote their tourism products to travelers.
Delivering service benefits. Service benefits can come in the form of
after-sale service, availability and delivery, and transaction services. After-
sale service can be crucial in achieving customer satisfaction in the event
of a service failure. For example, there are many stories of students going
through tour operators or travel agents to purchase spring break package
vacations only to arrive in foreign cities and not have a room. Then when
they try to contact the company that sold them the trip, it is often impos-
sible to get through to someone. This reflects on all of the brands involved
in the package, as well as the destination. Intermediaries are also used in
indirect channels to make products more readily available. Internet travel
companies such as Priceline and Expedia exist for this purpose. Customers
get the best prices in a short period of time without having to search the
alternatives. These intermediaries also facilitate the transaction and de-
livery of the hospitality or travel product. For example, tour wholesalers
or operators can package the hospitality products and obtain one payment
from the customer.
Building brand image. One of the major issues facing hotels is the image
that using Internet travel firms may convey. These companies tend to be
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 326
viewed as discounters offering great values (i.e., low prices). It is relatively

easy for hotels in the economy and budget categories to choose this chan-
nel, but higher-priced hotels have a much more difficult decision. Upscale
and luxury hotels may diminish their brands by using Internet travel com-
panies. Another problem is that some Internet travel companies sell hotel
rooms at higher prices than the customer could get by going directly
through the hotel. When customers become aware of this, it will reflect
poorly on the hotel. Another common intermediary for hotels is the ho-
tel sales representative who sells to groups and represents the hotel. The
hotel loses some control over the message and the way the property is con-
veyed. Finally, building brand image is also an issue when franchising
the franchisor loses some control over brand image and must rely on the
franchisees to adhere to the business system.
Building company benefits. This form of benefit is related to brand im-
age. The use of intermediaries such as hotel representatives and travel
agents can actually benefit the firm because of the personal attention that
customers get from qualified professionals. These types of intermediaries
have good product knowledge and experience. They are experts in deal-
ing with their respective target markets and provide a valuable asset in
their use of relationship marketing with customers. Franchising is also a
way to benefit from the relationships local owners already have with cus-
tomers in the area, rather than opening a new restaurant without having
any previous ties in the community.
IMPROVING COST EFFICIENCY. One of the other ways to increase

customer value is to lower the cost of purchase, both actual and perceived.
For instance, the cost of planning and purchasing a vacation may be higher
when the customer has to contact hotels, car rental agencies, airlines, and
tourist attractions to purchase each component separately. Meanwhile, tour
operators package these same vacation components and offer them directly,
or through travel agents for one price that is lower, or at least perceived to
be lower, than if purchased separately. Convention and visitors bureaus
serve as clearinghouses for travelers and reduce the number of transactions.
Figures 9.3a and 9.3b illustrate the importance of this function in regard to
meetings and conventions.
Assume there are five different meeting planners looking for a conference
hotel in which to hold a meeting. If there are five conference hotels in a city,
each of the meeting planners would have to contact all five hotels and send
requests for proposal (RFP). With five hotels and five meeting planners, this
would result in a total of 25 contacts or communications (see Figure 9.3a).
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introduction 327
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
figure 9.3a Channel system without an intermediary.
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Convention Meeting

hotel bureau planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
Conference Meeting
hotel planner
figure 9.3b Channel system with an intermediary.
Consider this same situation with a convention bureau to act as an inter-

mediary, or clearinghouse for the two groups. Each of the meeting planners
would send an RFP to the CVB, which would then forward the RFP to the
conference hotels. This would result in a total of 10 contacts or communica-
tions between the meeting planners and the conference hotels (see Figure 9.3b).
This example is simplistic; however, it does demonstrate the value of us-
ing an indirect channel system with an intermediary. The number of contacts
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 328
was reduced from 25 to 10 with just five customers (i.e., meeting planners)
and five service providers (i.e., hotels). As the number of customers and ser-
vice providers increases, the number of contacts or transactions will increase
exponentially. Therefore, it is necessary to weigh the benefits and costs of
adding channel members and make a decision that is best for a particular ser-
vice provider.
FRANCHISING
Franchising is a contractual arrangement whereby one firm (the franchisor)
licenses a number of other firms (each firm is a franchisee) to use the fran-
chisors name and business practices. In other words, franchising is a net-
work of interdependent business relationships that allows a number of op-
erators to share a brand identification and a successful method of doing
business (i.e., a proven marketing and distribution system). As a franchisee,
you own the assets of your company, but you are licensed to operate some-
one elses business system. There are currently over 2,500 franchise systems
in the United States with more than 534,000 franchise units. This represents
3.2 percent of all businesses, controlling over 35 percent of all retail and ser-
vice revenue in the economy.4
As a method of distribution, franchising provides many opportunities for
growth and profitability. However, when considering a franchising relation-
ship, both parties should carefully evaluate the alternative forms of owner-
ship and operation. The individual goals and objectives of each party have to
be weighed against the trade-offs of a franchisor-franchisee relationship. In
essence, franchising is a strategic alliance between groups of people who have
contractual responsibilities and a common goal. By choosing to invest in a
franchise operation, an owner is expressing the belief that he or she will be
more successful using someone elses business system rather than investing his
or her money in an independent operation and developing his or her own
business system. Table 9.2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages as-
sociated with franchising.
Franchisee
ADVANTAGES. There are many advantages to joining an existing operation
rather than starting from the beginning. First, there is an established product or
service with a brand name and an identity in the marketplace. It is normally very
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franchising 329
advantages disadvantages
franchisee Established product/service Additional fees/expenses

Technical/managerial assistance Loss of control
Quality standards Difficult to terminate
Less operating capital Pooled performance
Opportunities for growth
Cooperative advertising
franchisor Rapid expansion Loss of control

Diversified risk Reduced profits
Cost economics Legal issues
Cooperative advertising Recruitment
Employee issues
table 9.2 Franchising advantages and disadvantages.
costly and time-consuming to build a brand image. Trying to start a new pizza
business would be much more cumbersome than opening a Dominos Pizza. Sec-
ond, franchisees receive technical and managerial assistance from the franchisor.
This assistance could be in the form of recruitment and training of employees, or
in the design of the facility. Franchisors transfer the knowledge they have accu-
mulated as they progressed through the learning curve, thereby accelerating the
process for franchisees. Third, the franchisee benefits from the quality standards
that are already in place for the franchise. There is a system of controls that guide
the operations and provide for a certain level of quality and consistency. Fourth,
there is often less of a capital requirement for opening a franchise unit relative to
the start-up costs for an independent operation. Franchises have a track record
that can be used to estimate demand, design the facility, schedule employees, and
order inventory. Fifth, there are opportunities to expand the business within the
operating region. Franchisees are usually given some form of territorial rights to
add units based on demand. Finally, the sixth advantage is that the franchisee ben-
efits from the pooled resources of the many participants in advertising and pro-
moting the product. The use of cooperative advertising results in a more efficient
and effective means of communicating with customers. An independent restau-
rant would not be able to afford to place advertisements in major magazines or
during prime-time television shows.
DISADVANTAGES. There are also some disadvantages to becoming a fran-
chisee. First, there are franchise fees and royalties that must be borne by the
franchisee in return for the benefits just described. These expenses are nor-
mally a percentage of sales and result in a decrease in the profit margin. Sec-
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 330
ond, the franchisee must adhere to the standards and procedures as set forth
in the agreement. This restricts the franchisees ability to control the entire
operation in that certain requirements regarding products, price ranges, and
expansion are imposed by the franchisor. Third, it may be difficult to termi-
nate the agreement if the franchisee would like to change brands or sell the
business. Finally, the brand image is the result of the pooled performance of
all corporate-owned and franchised units. The franchises reputation and im-
age can be negatively affected by the performance of individual units.
Franchisor
ADVANTAGES. Many companies are choosing to expand their operations us-
ing the franchise approach because of its advantages. Companies can experience
more rapid expansion, since franchisees provide additional investment capital
and access to untapped markets. By limiting the investment and adding part-
ners, the franchisor is able to diversify the risk of doing business. A by-product
of this rapid expansion is the realization of cost economies from operating at a
higher level of volume. The organization will get better prices on supplies and
be able to allocate fixed costs over a larger number of units, bringing down the
cost per unit. A related issue is the use of cooperative advertising. As mentioned
before, this is an advantage for both the franchisor and the franchisees. Finally,
certain human resources and management tasks are simplified by franchising.
The franchisees play an important role in the selection and retention of em-
ployees. Plus, owners are very careful to monitor the performance of the fran-
chise because they benefit directly from the profitability of the unit.
DISADVANTAGES. There are also a few disadvantages associated with being
a franchisor. First, there is a reduction in control of the operation. Having many
owners or managers will have an effect on the overall performance of the fran-
chise. Even though operating standards and procedures are written into the
agreement, they are not always followed. Second, there is a trade-off between
risk and return. The sharing of risk and ownership results in the sharing of prof-
its as well. Third, the size and visibility of franchises exposes them to more po-
tential litigation. They are easy targets for legal actions such as antitrust suits and
class action suits. Also, injury claims are prevalent in many service industries.
For example, McDonalds has been sued by an elderly woman who spilled cof-
fee in her lap while driving her car, and by obese people who accused the fast-
food restaurant of causing their weight problems. Finally, it is difficult to find
qualified prospects to be franchisees. While many investors have the necessary
capital, they may lack the necessary knowledge and experience to run a success-
ful franchise unit in the product or service category.
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chapter review 331
Chapter review
This chapter discussed the role of marketing channels in planning the mar-
keting strategy for hospitality and tourism services. Decisions must be made
regarding channel width (how many outlets) and channel length (number
and type of intermediaries). If the decision is made to use an indirect chan-
nel (at least one intermediary), then the firm must examine channel man-
agement issues such as channel leadership and channel power. Finally, the
extent of the relationships with other channel members will need to be con-
sidered. Some type of vertical marketing system can be used to provide
more certainty in the relationships. Franchising is probably the most com-
mon form of vertical marketing system.
Intermediaries exist in channels because they perform certain channel
functions more effectively than the other channel members. One advantage
of using intermediaries is the fact that they often have access to markets that
are desired by a manufacturer or producer. Travel agents and tour operators
specialize in packaging trips and selling them to groups and individuals for
pleasure travel, and meeting planners and travel bureaus work more with
business groups for conferences and conventions.

Administered vertical marketing system
Central reservation system (CSR)
Channel length
Channel power
Channel width
Coercive power
Contractual vertical marketing system
Convention and visitors bureau (CVB)
Corporate vertical marketing system
Direct channel
Electronic commerce
Exclusive distribution
Expert power
Franchisee
Franchising
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 332
Franchisor
Global distribution system (GDS)
Indirect channel
Intensive distribution
Intermediaries
Legitimate power
Referent power
Reward power
Selective distribution
Vertical marketing system

Discussion
Chapter review
1. What factors are considered in determining a firms channel

width and channel length?
2. List and give examples of the intermediaries that exist in the
hospitality and tourism industry.
3. List and describe the five forms of channel power.
4. Explain the three types of vertical marketing systems.
5. What are the ways a firm can enhance customer value
through channel systems?
6. What is franchising? Why would firms or individuals choose
to enter this type of arrangement?
7. If you have 10 tour operators and 100 customers, what is the
difference in the number of transactions with, and without,
a travel agent acting as an intermediary?
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chapter review 333
Chapter review
Notes
1 Peter D. Nyheim, Francis M. McFadden and Daniel J. Connolly, Technology Strategies for the Hospitality Indus-
try (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2005), pp. 153186.
2 Jack J. Kasulis and Robert E. Spekman, A Framework for the Use of Power, European Journal of Marketing
14 (1980): 183.
3 Roger J. Best, Market-Based Management: Strategies for Growing Customer Value and Profitability, 2nd edition
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000), pp. 2047.
4 Robert Gappa, What Is Franchising? (2003), available at www.franchising.com.
c09.qxd 12/21/04 12:07 PM Page 334
Case Study
The Wing Shack
A couple of college students decided to start a business together after

graduating. The two friends traveled the region in search of the ul-
timate buffalo chicken wings. After researching these other opera-
tions, the two returned to their town and started to put the wheels in motion
to find a location and develop a business system. The idea was to open a small
restaurant and focus on delivery within the local area, including the college
campus. As luck would have it, a restaurant recently had gone out of busi-
ness in a high-traffic area. The two young men found themselves meeting
with realtors, bankers, accountants, lawyers, and town officials in an attempt
to achieve their dream of opening a restaurant. After many negotiations, the
two began planning for the opening of their restaurant. They decided to call
it the Wing Shack and cater to the college crowd.
The restaurant had a small bar area, a pool table, a few televisions, a
juke box, and 12 tables for dining. The menu consisted of chicken wings
(including boneless), chicken sandwiches, a few appetizers, and a few sides
(e.g., french fries). The chicken wings were meatier than those of most
restaurants, and there were 20 flavors to choose from. For beverages, the
owners decided to put 20 beers on tap, showcasing the regional microbrews.
Business was slow at first, but word of mouth quickly spread and the restau-
rant started to get more and more customers. One of the early strategies em-
case study
ployed by the owners was to have all-you-can-eat wings on the slower nights
of the week (Sunday to Wednesday). Eventually, the restaurant had people
waiting in line to get a table, and the sit-down business was as good as the
delivery business.
After three years of successfully running the business and seeing increased
profits, the owners considered expanding. The business system was solid and
the restaurant benefited from a good marketing strategy, including being a
sponsor of the colleges athletic programs. Initially, the owners decided to open
another restaurant in a city about one hour away. This required the owners
to commute on a regular basis and put a strain on their partnership and re-
lationships. They felt they were spread too thin, and in hindsight they werent
sure if this was the best idea. This led the young entrepreneurs to investigate
the possibility of franchising. The profit after taxes for the original restaurant
was approximately 28 percent of revenue. Franchise fees for restaurants in
this category usually run around 34 percent.
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case study 335
case study
1. What issues must the owners consider before deciding whether to open
more restaurants on their own or to franchise?
2. Assuming the original restaurant is in the Northeast, what cities or
towns would you suggest for the next five restaurants?
3. How many franchised units would they have to contract to make the
same profit as they do in the original unit (assuming the revenue will
be similar for all units)?
c10.qxd 2/2/05 2:11 PM Page 336
Courtesy of PhotoDisc, Inc.

c10.qxd 2/2/05 2:11 PM Page 337
chapter
10
Electronic Commerce
Chapter Objectives
1. Describe the impact of the Internet on the hospitality and
tourism industry.
2. List traits of a networked economy.
3. Define the attributes and scope of electronic commerce.
4. Identify management issues related to electronic
commerce.
5. Describe electronic commerce business models and
value propositions.
6. List several strategies for using electronic commerce.
7. Outline benefits of electronic commerce to both business
and consumers.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Why use electronic marketing?
The beginning of electronic commerce
Introduction
What is the Internet? Management Issues Related to
Traits of a networked economy Electronic Commerce
Definition and scope of electronic Is electronic commerce for large and
commerce small companies?
(continues)
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Structures of business models Key Terms and Concepts

Electronic commerce business models
Internet strategies Questions for Review and
Electronic commerce implementation Discussion
considerations Case Study: Electronic Commerce
Benefits of electronic commerce for Strategy at Malone Golf Club
business and consumers
Digital Case Study: Priceline.com
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industry profile
Amy McPherson Senior Vice President of Revenue Management
Marriott International Washington, D.C.

I am responsible for leading lodging revenue management efforts worldwide
related to pricing strategy, inventory management, and selling strategies. Ad-
ditionally, I am responsible for developing the leadership talent to enhance
Marriotts competitive advantage in revenue management, ensuring that ex-
isting and new systems enable the total hotel revenue management (transient,
group, and catering segments) vision, and successfully implementing new
products and initiatives that support Marriott International growth strategies
and development plans.

As Marriott is the industry leader and the price leader in most markets, I par-
ticularly enjoy developing and implementing pricing and selling strategies
that impact not only Marriott but the overall industry.
As for whats frustrating, it is sometimes difficult to drive change in a ma-
trix organization with multiple stakeholders with shared responsibilities and
accountabilities.

youre facing?
It is very challenging to forecast lodging demand for the various segments
(business transient, group, large association, etc.) in a volatile environment.
Post-9/11, traditional patterns of bookings have changed, and customers of-
ten book much closer to the date of arrival. These shorter booking windows
coupled with less reliable economic predictors make it very challenging to
make appropriate pricing and inventory management decisions.

industry?
Consolidation of lodging companies to compete with multiple brands at mul-
tiple price points to fit all customer needsfor example, Hilton, through its
acquisition of Promus, has created a significant lodging conglomerate with
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340 chapter 10 electronic commerce
brands and price points to fit multiple customer segments and desires, simi-
lar to Marriott.
Also, the growth in volume and influence of intermediaries through con-
solidationthe two primary intermediaries are travel management compa-
nies (such as American Express and Carlson) and online intermediaries (such
as Expedia and Hotels.com). Managed travel represents approximately $81
billion, or 41 percent of total U.S. travel market sales. In 2003, Travelocity,
Expedia, and Hotels.com will represent $2.6 billion, or 60 percent, of the $4.4
billion in online travel sales.
These trends have significant implications for lodging company pricing,
distribution, and marketing strategies.

company?
Marketings primary role is to build brand equity and loyalty and drive rev-
industry profile
enues through programs, promotions, and initiatives.

you suggest?
The individual should take all opportunities to get hands-on experience in
different departments of a hotel (e.g. housekeeping, front desk, sales) to bet-
ter understand all the customer touch points and all the business processes
that drive revenue and profit for the hotel. With this foundation, you are bet-
ter prepared to take on a broader, more senior role in developing and exe-
cuting strategies that achieve a balanced scorecard (excellent guest satisfac-
tion, superior associate satisfaction, and outstanding financial results).
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introduction 341
INTRODUCTION
Electronic commerce, or e-commerce, refers to the practice of carrying out busi-
ness transactions over computer networks in an effort to improve organiza-
tional performance. Previous forms of electronic business included electronic
data interchange (EDI) by businesses and the use of automated teller machines
(ATMs) by consumers. These applications were limited to one-to-one or one-
to-many, whereas the new form of electronic business application (the Inter-
net) allows many-to-many communications. The number of companies en-
gaging in electronic commerce on the Internets World Wide Web (the Web)
has been growing at a rapid rate since its global introduction in the early 90s.
Organizations can communicate with all of their stakeholders through this
new form of electronic commerce. Investors can obtain information about the
company, consumers can obtain information about products or complain
about customer service, and suppliers can communicate with their business
partners. In addition, firms can gather information about their customers with
online surveys and sales promotions.
One of the major reasons for the popularity of electronic commerce is the
ability of manufacturers and service providers to sell directly to consumers at
retail or near-retail margins without sharing the revenue with other channel
members. Firms are able to increase profitability, gain market share, improve
customer service, and deliver products more quickly as a result of this direct
channel to the consumer. Before discussing the details of electronic commerce,
it is necessary to provide some background on the Internet and the World
Wide Web.
What Is the Internet?

The precursor of the Internet was first introduced by the Rand Corporation
in 1964 as a method for secure contact between the Pentagon and units of the
U.S. armed forces.1 It was a decentralized computer communications network
with no central computer or governing authority. In the event that one or
more computers on the network were destroyed, it would still be possible to
send information between the remaining computers. In other words, the In-
ternet is simply a network of networks. Its use was expanded to university
faculty and other researchers in the early 1970s, and it was improved with the
National Science Foundations creation of a high-speed long-distance telecom-
munications network in the mid-1980s. The government restricted the use of
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the Internet to nonprofit, educational, and government organizations until

1991, at which time commercial sites were allowed to participate.
Since the early 90s, the Internet has become an avenue for sharing in-
formation, obtaining software, selling products and services, retrieving
data, exchanging messages via e-mail, allowing interactive discussion
groups, and displaying video and audio files. The Web was first developed
in 1989 at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in
Geneva, Switzerland, as a means of communication that could be used
while simultaneously working on another project. This was made possible
by the use of hypertext, which is a method of linking related information
without a hierarchy or menu system. An example of this concept is the use
of help screens in software applications. The software that is used to access
the documents stored on servers located throughout the world is called a
browser. The two most popular Web browsers are Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft Explorer. The actual link to the Internet is made through a com-
mercial service such as America Online or some other Internet service
provider (ISP) that specializes in linking individuals and organizations to
the network.
THE CYBERSPACE COMMUNITY. Cyberspace is a term coined by
William Gibson in his novel Neuromancer to describe the electronic commu-
nities that are forming on the Internet. These communities are similar to nor-
mal communities in that members do not like being bothered by salespeople,
and they have formed their own rules of netiquette concerning such actions.
Therefore, most marketing of products and services has been restricted to the
World Wide Web. The Web offers the greatest flexibility regarding the use
of graphics and interactive communication, and it is the easiest area of the In-
ternet to navigate. Also, as mentioned before, the ability to use many-to-many
communication allows firms to mass-market their products and services
within these electronic communities. In addition to mass marketing, the use
of personalized content management allows companies to tailor Web content
based on a users Web behavior and preferences. Amazon.com was among
the first to offer personalized Web content based on past purchase behavior
and online browsing behavior.
SECURITY ISSUES. One of the appealing features of the Internet is the fact
that there is open access without a governing body. This lack of governance
or authority has left many to question the security and safety of the Internet.
Some potential applications have been slow to develop because of the hyste-
ria surrounding Internet security. Online banking, investing, and travel reser-
vations were initially slow to gain volume due to consumers concerns about
security. Initially, firms promoted products and services online but provided
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introduction 343
a toll-free number consumers could call to place orders. More recently, more
consumers are placing their orders online, but companies still provide toll-
free numbers for those who are hesitant to provide confidential information,
such as credit card numbers, online.
Concerns about Internet security have been blown out of proportion. Al-
though online business transactions are not perfectly secure, they are no riskier
than ordering via telephone or fax. Computer hackers are similar to everyday
criminals who try to find ways to circumvent security systems and procedures,
although there are some additional security issues associated with electronic
commerce. First, the Internet is an open network without any physical barri-
ers to prevent theft (e.g., hidden cameras, safes, security guards). Second, the
same technologies that are being used for commerce can be used to breach se-
curity (e.g., computer programs used to search for passwords).
Several methods can be used to restrict access and improve security in elec-
tronic commerce. First, a form of authentication can be required through the
use of some combination of account numbers, passwords, and IP (Internet
protocol) addresses. Second, a firewall can be used to monitor traffic between
an organizations network and the Internet. This barrier can restrict access to
certain IP addresses or applications. A third method is to use coding or en-
cryption techniques to transform data to protect their meaning. These secu-
rity methods can be used individually or together depending on the level of
security desired. For instance, firms that are transmitting payment informa-
tion will be more inclined to use all three levels of defense.
This next section covers four topics: the traits of a networked econ-
omy, the definition and scope of electronic commerce, the use of electronic
marketing, and the beginning of electronic commerce.
Traits of a Networked Economy

Some people view electronic commerce as a boom-and-bust cycle, but that is
really not true. In the mid-1990s, there was a dramatic increase in activity in
the broad field of e-commerce. Companies such as eBay, Amazon, and Ex-
pedia provide tangible evidence of the impact that e-commerce has had on
the business world. These companies, and hundreds like them, created an eco-
nomic boom unlike anything seen before. It began to unravel in 2000, but the
long-term impacts are still being felt. Most traditional companies, including
those in the hospitality and tourism industry, were forced to change their busi-
ness practices and business models. Online reservations for hotels, airlines, and
restaurants, online check-in for airlines and hotels, and other forms of elec-
tronic exchanges are now more common.
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Those who follow the evolution of electronic commerce agree that a net-
worked economy, based on firms that have an Internet presence and conduct
business online (at least in part), has several important traits:2
It creates value largely or exclusively through the gathering, synthesizing,

and distribution of information. Firms that engage in e-commerce activ-
ities can collect significant data about their customers. They can more eas-
ily determine consumers likes, dislikes, and responses to various market-
ing stimuli. This wealth of data, which is readily analyzed, allows
marketing managers to make better-informed decisions.
It formulates strategy in ways that result in a convergence of management
of the business and management of various technologies. The manage-
ment of technology is viewed not as a separate function, but as a core busi-
ness competency. The development of e-commerce applications is viewed
not as a parallel activity, but as part of the core set of activities within the
firm.
It allows firms to compete in real time, not in cycle time or in asyn-
chronous time. Historically businesses made changes on an intermit-
tent basis, as a result of data about, for instance, financial performance
or guest response. With the increasing use of technology, this lag time
can be nearly eliminated. For example, an airline can post price
changes to an e-commerce Web site and then monitor the site to de-
termine within a very short time whether the price change has resulted
in the desired change in buyer behavior.
It operates in business environments in which there are low barriers to
entry and extremely low variable costs. This trait is applicable to pure elec-
tronic commerce companies, but less so to companies in the hospitality
and tourism industry. Hospitality and tourism firms have higher capital
costs for buildings, fixtures, and equipment than do firms that are pure
electronic commerce companies.
It organizes resources around the demand side of the business (i.e., the
level of demand from potential buyers of the products and services).
Demand from potential customers is constantly monitored to deter-
mine changes in demand. These firms then attempt to influence de-
mand by changing marketing variables such as price and availability.
It examines relationships with customers in screen-to-face interfaces in
which technology is used to manage and customize customers experi-
ences. In order to increase relationship-building interactions and reduce
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introduction 345
labor costs at the same time, technology is used to push customized in-
formation to the consumer. This can take many forms, including e-mail
and Web site information that is customized to match the interests and
past behavior of individual consumers.
It uses technology-mediated methods to measure and track customer
behavior and interaction patterns. This data is then used to customize
future interaction with individual customers and customer groups with
similar buyer behavior.
Definition and Scope of

Electronic Commerce
The use of digital technology has dramatically shifted the business paradigm,
both domestically and internationally. Digital technology has created entire
new industries, shifted others, and forced managers and leaders of firms to
look at their customers, markets, and competitors in entirely new ways.
The size and scope of e-commerce has changed dramatically in the past
five to seven years. Numerous industry publications and research organiza-
tions report on these trends. Among the most notable are www.emarketer.
com, www.cnet.com, and www.forester.com. Table 10.1 provides several facts
and figures that characterize the development of the Internet within the hos-
pitality and tourism industry.
Electronic commerce can be characterized by several attributes.3 First and
foremost, e-commerce is about exchanges.
Exchange of digitized information. The foundation of e-commerce in-

cludes exchange of digitized information. These exchanges can involve
information or communications, or they can be related to the purchase of
goods or services in a digital format. The exchanges occur between orga-
nizations or individuals.
Technology-enabled transactions. E-commerce is about technology-
enabled transactions. Use of Web browsers is the most common form of
e-commerce, but there are others. When banks use ATM machines or
companies use phone or personal digital assistant (PDA) interfaces to cre-
ate exchanges, these are part of e-commerce as well. Years ago, compa-
nies managed these exchanges through human interaction, but technol-
ogy is used more frequently today. The result is normally better response
to customer needs and a reduction in the cost of the exchange. Perhaps
the best example of an effective technology-enabled exchange is the use
of online reservations for airlines and hotels.
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internet and electronic commerce trend summary source
TravelCLICK reports reservations made TravelCLICK

through the Internet to central reservation offices (CROs) www.emarketer.com
of 30 major hotel brands in 2003 rose by 34% over 2002. April 2, 2004
According to Nielsen/NetRatings, the top travel Web sites Nielsen/NetRatings

are MapQuest, Expedia, Travelocity, Orbitz, and AOL www.emarketer.com
Travel. They attract between 1,155 and 4,790 unique September 2003
at-home users per week.
The average annual amount spent online by U.S. Internet www.emarketer.com

buyers ages 14 increased from $563.99 in 2000 to $677.76 September 2003
in 2003. This spending level is projected to increase to
$928 by 2005.
According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. U.S. Department of

online retail sales are projected to increase from Commerce
$28.15 billion in 2000 to $88.1 billion in 2005. www.emarketer.com
Online advertising spending is projected to increase from September 2003

$6.0 billion in 2002 to $9.9 billion in 2007. The previous high www.emarketer.com
was $8.1 billion in 2000, the last year of the dot-com boom. December 2003
U.S. online advertising by travel and hotel companies Interactive Advertising

increased by 7% in 2000, 10% in 2001, and 14% in 2002. Bureau (IAB)/
PricewaterhouseCoopers
www.emarketer.com
June 2003
A recent study by Ipsos-Reid determined that 35% of www.emarketer.com

Canadians say their primary source of information for August 2004
upcoming travel is the Internet, whereas only 14% say the
same for travel agents. Only 6% use brochures for
information.
According to Harris Interactive, the percentage of adults HarrisInteractive

with broadband access in December 2003 was 37%, up from www.emarketer.com
27% a year earlier. January 2004
Internet access by the U.S. population increased from Wall Street Journal Online
9% in November 1995 to 69% in October/December 2003. January 14, 2004
HarrisInteractive
www.emarketer.com
January 2004
table 10.1 Electronic commerce trends.
346
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internet and electronic commerce trend summary source
The worlds top online populations (in millions), CyberAtlas Newsletter,

projected in 2004: March 21, 2002, in Joel Reedy
1. United States: 102.0 and Shauna Schullo,
2. Japan: 20.0 Electronic Marketing,
3. Germany: 15.1 2nd edition (Mason,
4. South Korea: 13.1 OH: Thompson South-
5. United Kingdom: 13.0 Western, 2002), p. 26.
6. Canada: 8.8
7. Italy: 8.3
8. Brazil: 6.0
9. Australia: 5.6
10. France: 5.5
11. Taiwan: 5.0
12. The Netherlands: 4.5
The top five products or services purchased online America Online/RoperASW

by U.S. Internet users in 2002 were: www.emarketer.com
1. Airline tickets, hotel reservations, or travel April 2003
1. packages: 71% of users
2. Software for a personal computer: 46% of users
3. Tickets for an entertainment event: 44% of users
4. A personal computer or hardware for a
1. personal computer: 40% of users
5. A book: 39% of users
The top reasons why U.S. business travelers prefer video, MCI/Impulse Research
audio, and Web conferencing to traveling to meetings: Corporation
1. Saves time and is more efficient: 69% www.emarketer.com
2. Reduces corporate travel budgets: 37% October 2003
3. Company policy: 36%
4. Promotes better work-life balance: 29%
5. Increases productivity: 28%
6. Concern about travel safety: 12%
Use of audio, video, and Web conferencing among U.S. MCI/Impulse Research
senior management professionals in the past year: Corporation
1. Audio conferencing: 89% www.emarketer.com
2. Web conferencing: 64% October 2003
3. Video conferencing: 57%
Web conferencing revenues worldwide (in billions): Frost & Sullivan

2001: $0.27 www.emarketer.com
2008: $2.0 (projected) April 2002
table 10.1 (continued)
347
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Technology-mediated transactions. With each passing year, e-commerce

is moving beyond technology-enabled transactions to technology-mediated
transactions. For example, when a customer makes a transaction at a large
discount retail chain and the individual items are scanned, they are sub-
tracted from the store inventory. When a predetermined inventory level
is reached, this will automatically trigger a reorder from the manufac-
turer. Orders from hundreds of stores are automatically combined and
placed as a single daily order with the manufacturer. Similar mediation
is occurring within the hospitality and tourism industry. For example,
when a guest checks out of a room via the interactive video services in the
room, the now vacant room is added to the inventory of those that need
to be serviced by housekeeping. Once the room is cleaned, it is automat-
ically added back into the available room inventory. Similarly, when items
are sold in a fast-food restaurant, this inventory can be tracked and re-
order points established so that managers can spend more time interact-
ing with customers and employees instead of tracking and ordering
inventory.
Intra- and inter-organizational activities. Within hospitality and tourism
organizations, there are many electronically based activities both within
the organizations and between organizations and individuals. All of these
activities are considered part of electronic commerce. Any electronic ac-
tivity that directly or indirectly supports exchanges is part of the world of
e-commerce.
Why Use Electronic Marketing?

The use of electronic commerce is a multifaceted industry. There are pure
e-commerce companies, such as Expedia, as well as established firms like
Marriott International or Hilton Hotels and Resorts that use e-commerce as
an addition to their other forms of marketing. All are correct approaches and
are designed to be an important part of a firms overall marketing strategy.
Any hospitality or tourism firm should carefully consider how the use of
the World Wide Web and electronic commerce fits with the balance of the
marketing strategy before investing significant time, effort, and resources in
an e-commerce strategy. A decision about entering the e-commerce space is
a critical one and should not be taken lightly. Managers should fully consider
broad perspectives before making decisions and moving forward. The fol-
lowing are some of the specific questions that should be addressed before ac-
tion is taken.4
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introduction 349
Its increasingly common for restaurants to market online. Home page for Mary Sue Mil-
liken and Susan Fenigerchefs, restaurateurs, cookbook authors, radio and TV personali-
tiesand for their restaurants, Border Grill and Ciudad. 2004 Milliken & Feniger.
What is the firms purpose for engaging in online communications?

What are the firms goals and specific objectives? What outcome is the
firm seeking to achieve?
Why should the firm want to go online? Is it to introduce new products
and services? Is cost reduction one of the goals? Are enhanced relations
with current customers an objective?
What online expectations does the firm have? Are there different objec-
tives for different divisions of the firm, such as marketing, human re-
sources, or finance?
How will electronic commerce efforts be integrated with other forms
of communication? How will consistency of branding and identity be
maintained?
Who will be in charge of Web site creation, maintenance, and evaluation?
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Who will establish the budget for electronic commerce? How will costs
be allocated among units?
Does the firm have the talent and patience to allow the Web site and elec-
tronic commerce efforts to mature into a productive communications and
distribution channel?
The Beginning of Electronic Commerce

While we may think that electronic commerce is a phenomenon of the
1990s, its roots date back to the 1970s. At that time, the primary commer-
cial application was electronic funds transfer (EFT) between financial in-
stitutions. This evolved into electronic data interchange (EDI), which is
the routine transfer of documents. Among the first types of EDI transfer
were orders from one company to another, typically from a retailer to a
manufacturer.
Electronic commerce is classified in a number of ways.
Business-to-business (B2B). E-commerce that involves one business selling

to or creating an exchange with another business is called business-to-busi-
ness (B2B). For example, if a restaurant electronically buys food or other
supplies from a supplier, this would be classified as B2B. B2B transactions
account for the overwhelming majority of e-commerce sales volume.5
Business-to-consumer (B2C). The electronic form of retailing when a
business sells a product or service to a consumer is called business-to-
consumer (B2C). Amazon.com is among the most well-known B2C com-
panies, but nearly all of the national brands in the hospitality and tourism
industry have a presence in the B2C environment.
Consumer-to-business (C2B). In addition to the situation in which an in-
dividual seeks to sell products or services to a business, when consumers
bid for products and services offered for sale by a firm, this can be classi-
fied as consumer-to-business (C2B). One such example is Priceline.com,
where consumers bid for airline tickets.
Consumer-to-consumer (C2C). While not common in the hospitality
and tourism industry, consumers selling directly to other consumers make
up the consumer-to-consumer (C2C) segment of e-commerce. Individu-
als selling or exchanging time share units is an example of this type of
exchange.
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management issues related to electronic commerce 351
MANAGEMENT ISSUES RELATED TO

ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Is Electronic Commerce for Large and
Small Companies?
The size of the firm is not the driving factor when deciding what role elec-
tronic commerce might play in a firms marketing program. Large firms such
as Marriott International (www.marriott.com) and Hilton (www.hilton.com)
use the Internet in a variety of ways to meet marketing objectives. Small start-
ups and single-unit lodging companies can use the Internet successfully as
well. For example, a bed-and-breakfast might choose to belong to the Select
Registry (www.selectregistry.com) and derive many of the same benefits of
a much larger organization. Decisions about use of the Internet and other
e-commerce strategies are driven by how managers want to integrate the use
of the Web into their overall marketing strategies.
In the case of Marriott International and Hilton, it seems that their ob-
jectives related to the Internet are to:
Create brand awareness

Sell products and services, room reservations, group meeting space, etc.
Create interest in and sales related to promotions
Provide information about the many products and services that the firm
offers
Build loyalty through frequent-guest programs and provide automated
access to these accounts
Promote employment with the firm
Provide positive information about the community service work that the
firm and related foundations accomplish
Structures of Business Models

A variety of business models are used within electronic commerce. These will
vary greatly depending on the industry and the company. This section pro-
vides an overview of the broad framework of e-commerce business models
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and then focuses on the models and examples most common in the hospitality
and tourism industry. There are two critical components for all e-commerce
business models: the revenue model and the value proposition.
REVENUE MODEL. A revenue model simply shows how the firm will
generate revenue or income. Without some income stream that exceeds the
level of expenses, the business model is not going to be successful and the
company will not be able to sustain itself. There are five primary revenue
models.6
Sales. Firms generate revenue from the sales of products or services on

their Web sites. An example is Marriott.com or Hilton.com.
Transaction fees. Firms generate revenue based on commissions or fees
on each transaction. Expedia.com is an example of a hospitality and
tourism firm that uses this model. Expedia generates revenue each time
a reservation is made, and it also collects commissions on some transac-
tions on its Web site.
Subscription fees. Customers pay a fixed fee, either monthly or yearly, to
subscribe to the service. Perhaps the most well known is America Online.
In the hospitality industry, hotels subscribe to convention and visitors bu-
reau sites to obtain requests for proposals (RFPs) electronically.
Advertising fees. Firms charge for placing banner advertisements and
other forms of advertising on their Web sites.
Affiliate fees and other sources of revenue. Firms receive commissions and
other forms of compensation for referring customers to other Web sites.
They may receive a small fee for those who click through to the second
Web site and a larger commission based on the purchases made on the
second site. Amazon.com was among the first companies to offer this type
of financial arrangement. One of its goals was to increase the number of
visitors to its Web site.
VALUE PROPOSITION. Any business plan for a firm engaged in electronic
commerce should include a value proposition for the business model. How will
the firm create value for the buyer? The value proposition defines how the firm
will fulfill the needs of the consumer.
Amit and Zott identified four primary ways that firms create successful
value propositions.7
Search and transaction cost efficiency. This value proposition allows for
faster and more informed decision making by providing a wider selection
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of products and services, as well as economies of scale. Marriott Interna-

tional and Hilton have been leaders in developing Web sites that set the
standard for the hospitality and tourism industry in this regard.
Complementarities. This involves bundling products and services together
to provide more value than if purchased separately. Expedia.com and
Travelocity.com were among the early leaders in bundling the services of
a travel agent together in an e-commerce business model.
Lock-in. The high cost of switching will keep customers from changing
suppliers. Many hospitality and tourism firms, including the airlines and
major hotel chains, use frequent flyer and guest programs to lock in
customers.
Novelty. This approach creates value by using innovative ways to struc-
ture transactions, connect business partners, and open new markets.
Electronic Commerce
Business Models
Numerous researchers have developed and identified many different forms
of business models. Turban, King, Lee, and Viehland summarized these in
several models, which encompass the vast majority of models used by elec-
tronic commerce firms.8
Online direct marketing

Electronic tendering systems
Name your own price. Consumers are able to set a price at which they
will buy the product or service. When that price becomes available, the
transaction is made.
Find the best price. Online services such as Hotels.comTM and Expe-
dia.com allow consumers to compare prices and find the lowest-cost
providers.
Viral marketing. This emulates word-of-mouth advertising by spreading
the word electronically. With the use of message board, instant messag-
ing, and email, news of an excellent deal spreads rapidly.
Online auctions. These provide a venue for buyers and sellers to come to-
gether to exchange products and services. The best known online auction
is ebay.comTM
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Internet Strategies
Not all firms use the Internet for the same purpose. Some firms take orders
through their Web sites, while others simply use the sites to provide information
to consumers and other stakeholders. The following is a list of some of the more
popular uses of Web sites:
Providing customer service

Selling products or services
Educating and informing potential customers
Offering discounts
Promoting products and improving brand image
Obtaining customer information and building a database
It is incumbent upon the firm to determine how its Web site will fit into
the overall marketing plan. Strategies can then be formulated to attain the
firms goals and objectives.
Customer service has played an important role in the quest for product or
service quality. Ritz-Carlton introduced the concept of total quality manage-
ment to the hotel industry, and a main component of the quality formula was
customer service. As the number of Internet users continues to grow, Web
sites become more attractive as outlets for customer service. This approach has
proven to be more efficient than the telephone. Firms can list answers to com-
monly asked questions and guide inquiries or complaints through the proper
channels. Customers can go directly to the needed information rather than
wait for a voice at each stage in the telephone answering system. Customers
concerns can be expressed via e-mail, and they can check later for a response.
Another reason for having a Web site would be to sell products and ser-
vices. Most hotel and resort sites have a link to reservations so that consumers
can easily purchase the product after browsing the site. Airlines and rental car
agencies provide similar services as well. The easier it is for consumers to find
your product and complete a transaction, the more successful you will be in
selling your product. Many Internet users value the convenience associated
with electronic commerce. For example, consumers have 24-hour, 7-day-a-
week (24/7) access to the Web site. They are not bound by the normal hours
of operation that a firm chooses, and can shop whenever they wish.
Web sites can be used to educate and inform consumers about a firms
products or services. Information search is the step after problem recognition
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Most companies use their Web sites for many purposes, including providing product
information, customer service, and promoting brand recognition. Courtesy of Hobart
Corporation.
in the consumer decision-making process. In the past, this information was

obtained through word of mouth, past experience, an on-site visit, speaking
with salespeople over the telephone, or reviewing printed brochures. Now it
is possible to provide basic information regarding a hotel or restaurant over
the Internet. Consumers can get prices, availability, hours of operation, di-
rections, and menus. Hotels can provide materials for meeting planners at a
fraction of the cost of producing and mailing brochures, planning guides, and
videos. Travel agents also find Web sites to be valuable resources that can be
accessed easily and are more convenient than maintaining large inventories
of brochures and pamphlets that become outdated.
The Internet has become a useful outlet for reaching price-sensitive con-
sumers. Firms offer reduced prices to attract bargain hunters who are famil-
iar with normal price ranges for products and services. These consumers are
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aware that many firms offer discount prices through their Internet sites, and
they take the time and effort to search for deals. For example, airlines use the
Internet to sell unused capacity to consumers who are willing to make their
arrangements on short notice. The participating airports and routes are an-
nounced midweek for travel originating Friday or Saturday and returning on
Monday or Tuesday. International flights are even included in this service, as
well as hotel rooms and rental cars from the airlines partners. The discounts
are normally for periods of slow demand or packages of services and are of-
ten accompanied by certain restrictions involving time or quantity.
Some firms categorize their use of the Internet as a component of the pro-
motional mix. In some ways, it is a form of advertising, but it can also be used
for sales promotions. Therefore, the firms Web site should be integrated with
the other components of the promotion mix in an effort to position the firm
in the marketplace and improve its brand image. It is imperative that a hos-
pitality and tourism company develop a Web strategy that is consistent with
and integrated with all other elements of the promotional strategy. Marriott
InternationalTM has developed their Web strategy to drive traffic to the Web
site. Marriott customers can make reservations at the guaranteed lowest rate,
check frequent-guest program points, redeem points, and fully manage their
relationship with Marriott branded hotels. When customers visit the Web site,
Marriott is able to draw upon vast quantities of personal purchase behavior
to personalize the purchase experience for guests. Their approach integrates
Web browsing behavior with prior purchase behavior to target the specific
needs of the individual.
As a part of the strategy development, sales promotions such as contests
and sweepstakes can be used to attract customers and create an awareness of
and interest in the brand. These promotions should be creative and enter-
taining so that consumers become involved with the brand while trying to
win free services and merchandise. Hotels and resorts give away free vaca-
tions, and many hospitality firms give away free T-shirts and hats with cor-
porate logos.
Finally, most of the aforementioned Internet uses have the added advan-
tage of gaining access to customer information. Firms can build databases
filled with customers names, addresses (including e-mail addresses), tele-
phone numbers, and purchase histories. These databases can be used for
future mailings and promotions. One popular use of these databases is to sur-
vey customers and prospects about their behaviors, perceptions, and back-
grounds. This information can be used to design products and services,
promotions, and competitive strategies. In fact, surveys can be placed on the
Web site, resulting in an efficient data collection process.
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SITE DESIGN AND LAYOUT. A firms Web site needs to be creative and
to catch the attention of visitors to the site. However, it is important to avoid
overly complex layouts with hard-to-find links that slow movement between
areas of the site. There should be a balance regarding the use of graphics and
the speed of movement. The following are some useful tips regarding page
layout:
Include the corporate logo at the top of every page as if it were a letterhead.
Use graphic links for effect, but make sure there are also text links.
Code pages so that the text is displayed before graphics are downloaded.
Use a common style on every page and provide a link to the home page
(and other pages if possible) through the use of frames or tables, which
can keep important links constantly available throughout a Web site.
The Hilton Web site is an example of a clear site layout and design with consistent use of
the corporate brand. Courtesy of Hilton Hospitality, Inc.
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The rest of the content included on the site depends on the type of prod-
uct or service that is being marketed. There are not many graphics that would
need to accompany an airlines product information. However, hotels can give
visitors a tour of the facility using snapshots or a video file. To conserve
space, the hotel could use a thumbnail gallery with small pictures visitors can
click on if they want to see a larger version. It is important to remember that
consumers will access Web sites using a wide array of Internet connections,
some of which are quite fast, while others will be quite slow. At present, the
fastest Internet connection is 15 to 20 times faster than the slowest connection
commonly used today. It is important to design the content of the Web site
in such a way that an individual with a slower connection will not become
discouraged and disconnect due to long download times.
Tourism bureaus and convention and visitors bureaus provide users with
many useful links to related sites. Travelers can go to a states Web site and find
general information regarding that state. From there, they can narrow their
search to a city or region, where they can find more detailed information. Fi-
nally, they can follow links to hospitality and tourism firms such as hotels, restau-
rants, and tourist attractions and obtain very detailed information on a specific
firm. Similarly, most of the search engines have links to travel reservations sys-
tems and tourism destinations. Therefore, it is crucial that hospitality and
tourism firms register their sites with these important directories so that their
sites are easily accessed through a basic search. Also, firms should provide links
to related pages that may benefit consumers. For example, restaurants and ho-
tels can provide a link to a city map or the tourism bureaus list of events.
TAKING ORDERS AND ACCEPTING PAYMENT. After a Web site is

developed, it is necessary to determine the methods and procedures that will
be used for completing transactions. One of the most important considera-
tions is to make sure the process is fast, simple, and secure. The more com-
plicated the process or the longer it takes to complete a purchase, the less likely
it is that consumers will use the service. Firms should make it easy for cus-
tomers to tell them what they want, and make it secure and convenient to
pay. A button found on most pages of commercial Web sites is the purchase
button. Other common labels for this button are place order or submit.
Placing this button on every page makes it convenient for consumers to make
a purchase when they are ready. If consumers have to search for the purchase
button within the Web site, they may give up and move on.
The order section of the Web site will depend on the complexity of the
shopping task. A checklist approach can be used for less complicated purchase
situations involving fewer decisions. However, a shopping cart approach
may be necessary when consumers are likely to purchase multiple items. This
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allows consumers to browse through the various product offerings and add
items to their shopping carts as they decide to purchase them. When they have
finished shopping, they can place one order for all of the items in the cart. Re-
gardless of the approach, all commercial Web sites should:
Itemize costs, provide totals for each line item (quantities purchased mul-
tiplied by price), and give the overall total for the order
Explain the delivery process, including alternative methods and prices,
and let customers know when to expect delivery
Offer a special discount for Internet purchases and use reference prices so
that consumers are aware of the savings
Sometimes consumers become confused while shopping. They may not

know how to proceed, or they may have questions about a product or service.
This can be addressed either by providing a link to an online customer ser-
vice representative via e-mail or real-time online customer service, or by pro-
viding a toll-free number to call. As mentioned earlier, a toll-free number
may also be necessary for consumers who are not comfortable with the secu-
rity of the Internet for placing orders and giving confidential information.
The next step is to determine the method of payment. A firms first line
of defense in ensuring a secure transaction is to avoid having its internal records
connected to the Web server while the server is connected to the Internet. The
firm can store the electronic transactions in temporary files and transfer the
data to the internal records later. Once again, there really is not any more risk
of fraud with Internet transactions than there would be with telephone or fax
transactions. The following are the basic options for accepting payment:
Having customers apply for credit accounts before they make any pur-
chases. Personal information such as name, address, phone number, and
credit card number is provided online, by telephone, by mail, or by fax.
Customers are assigned an account name or number and a password or
personal identification number (PIN). Orders can be billed to the credit
card and delivered to the address in the preexisting account. The major
drawback of this option is that consumers must take the time to establish
accounts before they can make a purchase.
Using encryption techniques with electronic transactions. The confiden-
tial information provided by customers is encrypted before it is sent, and
then decrypted by the firm. Browsers such as Internet Explorer and
Netscape Navigator provide this service for Internet users. It would take
a great deal of effort on the part of a hacker to break the code, and con-
sumers can make purchases without any delay.
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Using a digital cash intermediary. Individuals open accounts with a third

party that operates like a bank and are provided with a PIN (similar to a
debit card account). The intermediary completes the transactions with the
merchant offline, but it is necessary for both the individual and the ven-
dor to be affiliated with the intermediary.
None of the methods discussed is without its drawbacks. However, the

popularity of the Internet has attracted many firms that specialize in com-
puter security, and the environment for electronic commerce is constantly
improving.
Electronic Commerce Implementation

Considerations
The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to electronic
commerce. It is not the intent to provide a detailed examination of all the el-
ements that are critical to developing a successful electronic commerce pro-
gram within an overall marketing plan. For those readers who become more
involved in electronic commerce, it is important to engage in further study of
this dynamic discipline.
The Internet is a complex collection of wires, protocols, and hardware that
allows for the transmission of data using transmission control protocol and
Internet protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP ensures that information sent from one
computer to another arrives in the format in which it was sent, despite being
broken up during the transmission. IP software sets the rules for data trans-
fer over a network, and TCP software ensures the safe and reliable transfer
of the data.
Another important element developed in the 1980s is the domain name sys-
tem (DNS). Each computer connected to the Internet has a unique name and
number. The number is the IP address, and the name is the DNS. For exam-
ple, rather than having to remember the multiple-digit IP address for a Web
site, the DNS gives each computer on the Internet a unique and easily recog-
nizable name that is used instead of the IP address. In addition to the name as-
sociated with each computer, the last portion of the domain address refers to
the type of organization. For example, .com or .biz represents businesses, .edu
represents colleges and universities, .gov represents the federal government, and
.mil represents the U.S. military.
Web content normally consists of five types of items: text, links, forms,
images, and multimedia. The text is the copy that has been developed for the
Web site. The links are the hypertext links that connect one Web page to
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other Web pages. Forms are the pages that contain fields, which when com-
pleted are then submitted. Using forms, customers can complete inquiries and
purchases. Images are photos that bring Web pages to life. Two photo for-
mats commonly used in Web page design are graphics image format (GIF)
and joint picture encoding group (JPEG). Finally, multimedia content in the
form of audio or video clips is often placed on Web sites.
Benefits of Electronic Commerce for

Business and Consumers
The advent of electronic commerce has brought many benefits to businesses.
These far outweigh the limitations.
International reach. Even small firms are able to create a worldwide mar-
keting presence, allowing them to expand their customer base. In addi-
tion, firms are able to seek out higher-quality and lower-cost suppliers on
a worldwide basis.
Cost reduction and supply chain improvements. Electronic commerce al-
lows firms to reduce the cost of paper-based marketing and business pro-
cess systems. Inventories can be reduced and the firms assets used more
efficiently.
Improved customer communication and relations. The use of electronic
means of communication allows firms to be in more frequent and more
personal communication with customers. The use of customer relationship
management (CRM) software allows firms to know more about all their
customers, but especially the best customers. For example, Ritz-Carlton
has successfully used CRM to enhance the guest experience. This, along
with many other innovations, resulted in Ritz-Carlton being the first ho-
tel company selected as a recipient of the Malcolm Baldrige National Qual-
ity Award.
Availability of updated materials. When hospitality and tourism firms re-
lied on printed brochures and collateral materials, it was a constant bat-
tle to have up-to-date material. Now information, rates, and other data
can be changed in real time on corporate Web sites.
Ubiquity. Consumers can use e-commerce 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Instant delivery and confirmation. When consumers purchase airline tick-
ets, they receive nearly instant confirmation and have access to tickets and
other travel documents immediately.
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This chapter discusses the dynamic marketing specialty of electronic com-
merce. A relatively recent phenomenon, e-commerce has had a dramatic and
fundamental impact on the methods used by hospitality and tourism firms to
market products and services. Electronic commerce is the logical extension of
bringing commercial transactions and business processes to the Internet.
The chapter explored key traits of a networked economy and the scope
of electronic commerce. Numerous trends were presented that illustrated the
worldwide impact of electronic commerce and the growth of the entire sub-
discipline of marketing. Electronic commerce is characterized by four pri-
mary attributes: exchange of digital information, technology-enabled trans-
actions, technology-mediated transactions, and intra- and inter-organizational
activities.
The historical roots of electronic commerce were discussed and the four
Chapter review
classifications of electronic commerce were presented. These include business-

to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C), consumer-to-business (C2B),
and consumer-to-consumer (C2C).
Several management issues related to electronic commerce were pre-
sented, including the structure of business models. The foundation for these
models includes the revenue model and the value proposition.
Finally, design and implementation issues related to electronic commerce
were discussed and the benefits of electronic commerce were explored.

Authentication
Browser
Business-to-business (B2B)
Business-to-consumer (B2C)
Consumer-to-business (C2B)
Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)
Domain name system (DNS)
Electronic commerce
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
Electronic funds transfer (EFT)
Encryption
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chapter review 363
Chapter review
Exchange of digitized information
Firewall
Graphics image format (GIF)
Hypertext
Joint picture encoding group (JPEG)
Networked economy
Pure e-commerce companies
Revenue models
Technology-enabled
Technology-mediated
Transmission control protocol and Internet protocol (TCP/IP)
Value proposition

Discussion
1. What are the pros and cons of the openness and intercon-
nectedness of the Internet?
2. Why are security issues of such importance in developing an
Internet strategy and business plan?
3. What are the traits of a networked economy? Which trait do
you believe is the most significant? Why?
4. Which of the electronic commerce trends discussed in the
chapter will have the most impact on the hospitality and
tourism industry? Why? What specific actions must a hospi-
tality and tourism marketing manager make in order to take
advantage of this trend?
5. Review two or three well-known hospitality and tourism
company Web sites. Based on your review, prepare the re-
sponses to the following questions for class discussion:
a. What is the firms purpose for engaging in
online communications?
c10.qxd 2/2/05 2:12 PM Page 364
b. What is the firms web strategy? What are the goals and
specific objectives? What outcomes do you believe the
firm is seeking to achieve?
c. How are the electronic commerce efforts being inte-
grated with other forms of communication? How will
consistency of branding and identity be maintained?
6. What are the four primary classifications of electronic com-
merce? Which is the most common in the hospitality and
tourism industry?
7. What revenue models are most common in electronic com-
merce? Which one(s) are most applicable to the hospitality
and tourism industry? Why?
Chapter review
Notes
1 Herschell Gordon Lewis and Robert D. Lewis, Selling on the Net: The Complete Guide (Lincolnwood, IL: NTC
Business Books, 1997).
2 Jeffrey F. Rayport and Bernard J. Jaworski, Introduction to E-Commerce, 2nd edition (Boston: McGraw-Hill Ir-
win marketspaceU, 2004), p. 2.
3 Ibid., p. 3.
4 Joel Reedy and Shauna Schullo, Electronic Marketing, 2nd edition (Mason, OH: Thompson Southwestern, 2004),
p. 30.
5
Efrain Turban, David King, Jae Lee, and Dennis Viehland, Electronic Commerce 2004 (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004), p. 7.
6
Ibid., p. 12.
7
Ibid., p. 13.
8
Ibid., pp. 1416.
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case study 365
case study
Case Study
Electronic Commerce Strategy at Malone
Golf Club
D erek Sprague, general manager of the Malone Golf Club, pondered

changes in the marketing and distribution strategy for his club for
the upcoming season. The Malone Golf Club had made significant
progress in the past three years. The club completed the construction of a new
clubhouse, made minor design changes to several of the 36 holes that make
up the two golf courses, and upgraded the food and beverage offerings of the
club.
The Malone Golf Club operates as a semiprivate club, offering both an-
nual memberships and daily greens fee access. Many of the daily fee players
come to the club, located in Malone, New York, from CanadaMontreal is
only a 90-minute drive from the club. The club has used a Web site for sev-
eral years to promote the golf, golf packages, food and beverage service, and
other amenities. The clubs approach to the Web site (www.malonegolf-
club.com) has been primarily brochure-ware, that is, it is used as an addi-
tion to the printed brochures. Derek is thinking of taking a more aggressive
approach to electronic commerce. He is considering a number of options, in-
cluding accepting reservations online; developing a chat room where mem-
bers and players could discuss the course, trade stories, and stay in touch with
each other; and developing an online push e-mail and promotional strategy
for frequent daily fee players and members of the club.
You have been retained as a consultant to the club. Derek has asked
you to research the following questions and then meet with him next week.
He wants to review your early research before proceeding further or re-
taining additional consulting assistance.

1. What are the pros and cons of accepting tee time reservations online?
2. Will online reservations impact the staffing of the pro shop?
3. What electronic commerce business model should Malone Golf Club
adopt? Should it auction off tee times at low-demand periods or keep
the traditional pricing model in place? What are the financial
implications of these options?
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4. Should the club consider developing its own online reservation system
or outsource this to another company that provides the service for other
golf clubs?
5. What increase in greens fee and membership revenue will be required
to offset the costs of an online reservation system?
6. How will potential online systems integrate with the current tee time
system?
7. How might the members and frequent players react to online
reservations? Will it be viewed positively or negatively?
Digital Case Study:

Priceline.com
In addition to the case study above, visit digitalenterprise.org/cases/priceline.
html to explore a second case study.
case study
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part 5
PROMOTIONAL STRATEGY
Courtesy of Artex International.

c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:00 PM Page 368
Courtesy of ImageState.
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chapter
11
Promotion and
Advertising
Chapter Objectives
1. List the elements of the promotional mix.
2. Explain the difference between advertising and sales
promotion.
3. Describe the roles of advertising and promotion within a
larger marketing program.
4. Outline effective promoting over the four stages of the
product life cycle.
5. Describe methods for establishing promotional budgets.
6. Explain the key points of advertising positioning and
strategy.
7. Plan an advertising campaign.
8. Evaluate an advertising campaign.
9. Manage relationships with advertising agencies.
10. Identify the social and ethical criticisms of advertising.
11. Outline the economic effects of advertising.
369
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Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Evaluating an advertising campaign
Relations with an advertising agency
Introduction
The promotional mix Effects of Advertising
The functions of promotion and Social and ethical criticisms of advertising
advertising Economic effects of advertising
Managing the Promotional Mix Summary of Chapter Objectives

Promoting over the product life cycle Key Terms and Concepts
Establishing the promotional budget
Advertising Management Discussion
Forms of advertising
Advertising positioning and strategy Case Study: The Glen Pub
Planning and Evaluating
Advertising Campaigns
Types of advertising campaigns
An advertising planning model
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industry profile
David Melton Franchisee
Dominos Pizza New York, New York

Im a Dominos Pizza franchisee. My job is to find exceptional people who
will join me on my mission to be the best pizza delivery company in my mar-
ket. I recruit, hire, train, and manage store managers, who then do the same
for the assistant managers and delivery teams at their stores. As a small-
business person, Im also an administrator, marketer, manager, repairman,
mentor, mediator, banker, financial analyst, negotiator, motivator, innovator,
and medium- and long-range planner.

I love helping people develop, gain experience, and succeed. Ive watched peo-
ple come into our door scared of their own shadow and practically unable to
speak to other people. Several months later they are buzzing around handling
everything like the expert theyve become. Ive sponsored five of my managers
who came into Dominos that way and have gone on to become Dominos
franchisees themselves, and they own over 20 stores among them. I love get-
ting great performance results in sales, profits, and operations. I love finish-
ing a 400-order day with 10 insiders and 20 delivery people and averaging 12
minutes out the door and 20-minute delivery times. That feels great when
you know your team is trained enough, motivated enough, and performs well
enough to do that with no mistakes and have 100 percent completely delighted
customers.
Keeping up with the administration required by government bureaucracy
causes frustration. Im also frustrated by people who dont think they have to
work to get something

youre facing?
Staying motivated and sharp for years. Its a goal to get all of the functions of
a business into a routine so they are all properly handled, but routine also runs
against the instincts of someone with an entrepreneurial spirit.
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372 chapter 11 promotion and advertising

industry?
A move to more convenience and less tolerance for bad service and mistakes.
More competitors will do anything for market share, and more competition
gives the customer more choices. Customers are less loyal to a brand than ever.
They will switch for a price just a few pennies lower.

your company?
As a Dominos franchisee, were required to pay a percentage of sales into a
national TV advertising fund. We consider TV a vehicle to generate calls
from new customers and lapsed customers for an attractive low-price-point
offer. TV is important to create and maintain top-of-mind awareness. As a
industry profile
delivery company, we know exactly where our customers live! So a major

part of our marketing is database marketing to our existing customers with
bulk mailings. We can tailor offers to these customers based on their order
history, frequency, and average ticket. We expect our order takers to answer
the phone with a higher-ticket offer combo and work their way down in price
points.

you suggest?
Be prepared to live with a the customer is always right attitude. Rule num-
ber one, the customer is always right. Rule number two, if the customer is
ever wrong, reread rule number one. Its the customers money that youre
after, and if customers leave, so does their money. Marketing to customers is
expensive. Each customer costs a lot of money to just get him or her to try
your product. Taking care of an existing customer is inexpensive compared
to generating a new one. And a customer that has a problem that you take
care of will be more loyal to you than a customer who never had a problem.
Even if the customer is wrong, if you win an argument with a wrong cus-
tomer, theyll still leave. Did you win?
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introduction 373
INTRODUCTION
Hospitality and tourism firms engage in a good deal of advertising and pro-
motion. In fact, these firms are often at the forefront in terms of creativity
and spending. For example, national restaurants are at the top of the list in
terms of dollars spent in all forms of television advertising, based on figures
from Competitive Media Reporting.1 As the marketing environment in
which hospitality and tourism organizations operate becomes more com-
petitive, the importance of advertising and other forms of promotion in-
creases. This chapter focuses on advertising management and lays the foun-
dation for the next chapter, which focuses on advertising media. Emphasis
here is on defining commonly used advertising terms, relations with an ad-
vertising agency, advertising budgets, positioning and strategy, and plan-
ning and evaluating advertising campaigns.
The Promotional Mix

The more visible forms of advertising are often used to help increase sales and
profits. However, all of the elements of the promotional mix are equally im-
portant. The promotional mix elements include advertising, personal selling,
sales promotion, and public relations. This chapter focuses on the last two but
will define all four.
Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation of ideas and

promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.
Personal selling is an oral presentation in a conversation with prospective
consumers for the purpose of making a sale.
Sales promotion includes marketing activities other than advertising, per-
sonal selling, and public relations that attempt to stimulate consumer de-
mand and increase sales. Commonly, sales promotion is a direct induce-
ment offering an extra incentive to take action, be it to buy the product
or service or to obtain further information.
Public relations is a nonpersonal stimulation of demand for a product or
service by providing commercially significant news about the product or
service in a published medium or obtaining favorable presentation in a
medium that is not paid for by the sponsor.
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Noise
Sender Message Channel Receiver

Source of the Promotion, idea, Vehicle, medium, Target market,
message, which concept, or or individual individual, or
is then encoded proposal group
and conveyed
Feedback
figure 11.1 Communications model.
In all forms of the promotional mix, it remains critical that the intended
message be delivered to the potential target markets. A model of communi-
cation is shown in Figure 11.1 to illustrate how this process takes place.
Remember that both the sender and the receiver are humans and are sub-
ject to the failings common to everyone. No one communicates as well as he
or she would like. We simply do not speak as clearly and understandably as
we would prefer to do. In addition, we do not listen as well as we should.
With this in mind, all communication attempts with target markets should
be as clear and concise as possible. In addition to the human failings, poten-
tial difficulties arise with the message, the channels that are used, and the
noise level in the environment, so efforts must be made to overcome these dif-
ficulties. When management designs a new form of promotion, it is some-
times expected that the entire target market can be reached with a limited
number of contacts. This is simply not possible, because the target market is
being bombarded with other messages; as a result, sometimes the intended
message is not received and retained above the noise in the environment. It
is important to keep this communications model in mind when designing any
type of communications with target markets. It serves as a reminder of how
great the challenge really is. It is also critical to review the feedback received,
study it carefully, and look for ways to improve the identified weakness.
The Functions of Promotion

and Advertising
The terms promotion and advertising evoke many different responses from
hospitality managers. Some smile, remembering a successful advertising cam-
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introduction 375
paign from the past. Others view advertising as a waste of time, claiming that
advertising and promotion are things that should be used to sell automobiles
or computers but not hospitality operations. Those individuals usually cham-
pion word of mouth, claiming that good food and service will produce satis-
fied consumers, who in turn will recommend the operation to more consumers,
but this is not advertising; rather, it is a form of public relations.
Advertising is not something limited to chain operations, such as Mc-
Donalds and Wendys. Many independent operations, especially those in the
foodservice segment, are being squeezed by larger national and regional chain
advertising, and managers sometimes mistakenly withdraw from all adver-
tising, rationalizing that they cannot compete with the big chains. This often
leads to decline and the eventual demise of the operation. Nor is advertising
something a manager does only when business weakens and needs improve-
ment. Managers who fail to engage in a significant advertising program may
miss a unique opportunity to increase both customer counts and total sales.
Advertising and promotion are marketing functions that need to be man-
aged along with other functions. They demand managements time and at-
tention if they are to be successful, for advertising must be planned, imple-
mented, and evaluated with care if it is to achieve increased sales. What can
advertising and promotion do? First, advertising and promotion present in-
formation to the consumer about new products, new services, new dcor, and
other items of interest. Second, they reinforce consumer behavior by com-
municating with individuals who have patronized a particular hotel or restau-
rant in the past. Exposing these consumers to a continuous flow of advertis-
ing is likely to induce repeat patronage by reinforcing their positive
experiences. Brand loyalty is very difficult to establish, but advertising is one
method to use in this effort. Third, advertising induces first-time patronage.
When consumers are exposed to a continual flow of advertising, their curiosity
is aroused, and this often results in patronage. If a first-time guest is rewarded
with a pleasant experience, the foundation for repeat patronage has been suc-
cessfully established. Fourth, advertising enhances the image of hospitality
and tourism operations. Advertising does not always seek to promote a spe-
cific product or service; it can instead seek to create and reinforce an image
for the consuming public. Words and phrases often contribute to this image
building. For example, the slogan for Westin Hotels and Resorts, Caring,
comfortable, civilized, seeks to establish and maintain a specific image in the
mind of the consumer.
Advertising and promotion are necessarily a vital part of the market-
ing program of all types of hospitality and tourism operations. Just what
should advertising do? What should it accomplish? Generally speaking,
advertising should set out to accomplish three goals: (1) to establish aware-
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:00 PM Page 376
ness in the minds of consumers, (2) to establish positive value in the minds
of consumers, and (3) to promote repeat patronage and brand loyalty among
consumers.
Awareness must be created among consumers who have not heard of
a particular hotel or restaurant establishment. This awareness should cre-
ate sufficient interest so that patronage results. Next, to induce both first-
time and repeat patronage, a positive perceived value must be established
and reinforced in the minds of consumers. All consumers have limited re-
sources for chasing after unlimited wants; hence, only products and services
that offer a high level of perceived value will be rewarded with patronage.
A hospitality operation might have the very finest to offer in rooms, food,
and service in a given market segment, but if it has a low perceived value,
the number of consumers served is likely to be small. Finally, advertising
should strive to promote brand loyalty and repeat patronage among the
highest possible percentage of consumers. Very few hospitality and tourism
operations can survive only on one-time patronage. Repeat business must
be encouraged and promoted. Even better than repeat patronage is brand
loyalty, wherein consumers begin to prefer one brand of hotel or restau-
rant over and above the direct competition. However, the current compet-
itiveness in the marketplace makes it very difficult to create brand loyalty.
MANAGING THE
PROMOTIONAL MIX
It is important for firms to create promotional mixes that will lead to a strong
position in the marketplace. Each firm must choose its own mix of advertis-
ing, publicity, personal selling, and sales promotions, depending on the firms
positioning and image. However, one marketing tool that is helpful in deter-
mining baseline strategies for promotion is the product life cycle.
Promoting over the Product

Life Cycle
As discussed in Chapter 7, all hospitality and tourism organizations progress
through a distinct life cycle (see Figure 11.2). As an organization moves
through the stages of the life cycle, different marketing strategies are recom-
mended. Promotion is one component of the marketing mix that changes over
the life cycle of a product.
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managing the promotional mix 377
Sales and
Profits ($)
Profits Sales
Time
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
figure 11.2 The product life cycle.
INTRODUCTION STAGE. Rarely does a new hotel or restaurant open with-

out creating some interest in the local community. The goal of all hospitality
managers should be to capitalize on this natural curiosity and make it work
to the advantage of the business. The main focus of the promotional cam-
paign in the introduction stage is to inform consumers in an effort to create
awareness. The principal objective during this phase is to build volume within
the operation by reaching individuals who are innovators and are most likely
to patronize a new operation. This approach is very critical to an indepen-
dently owned operation. Every effort must be made to reach potential con-
sumers and encourage first-time patronage. All targeted segments should be
identified and strategies developed to reach each of these markets.
All elements of the promotional mix are used at this point. Advertising
and publicity are used to create awareness and interest in the new operation.
Depending on the size of the operation, local, regional, and/or national me-
dia are contacted to cover the story surrounding the opening. Personal sell-
ing is used to generate awareness and interest among intermediaries. Restau-
rants will contact hotels, retail businesses, and tourist information sources that
are likely to make referrals. In addition, hotels will contact tour operators and
travel agents. Finally, sales promotions are used to induce trial. For example,
hotels will offer familiarization trips to intermediaries, and many hospitality
and tourism firms will offer discounted rates to reduce the perceived risk of
consuming the service.
It is very desirable to bring all management personnel with marketing re-
sponsibilities together to generate ideas for possible promotion. These idea-
generating sessions should produce a wealth of potential promotions, leading
to a schedule of what is to be done and when it is to be accomplished. The
list of possible promotional ideas is endless; a few examples follow.
Signs can announce coming soon for a new hospitality operation and
perhaps indicate the number of weeks until the grand opening.
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Press releases can indicate the who, where, what, when, and why of the
new operation.
Mailing lists can be developed from a guest book signed by first-time pa-
trons. This list becomes the foundation for direct-mail campaigns.
Numerous media can, of course, be used. One rather novel approach in-
volved advertising in the classified section of the newspaper and on radio
for high-quality personnel for a new restaurant. The results were not only
surprising, but also very successful. Hundreds of individuals applied for
jobs, making this particular independently owned restaurant the place to
work. In addition, the advertisements described in some detail the atmo-
sphere, menu, and image of the restaurant, thereby informing the general
public of the existence of the restaurant. The result was high-quality per-
sonnel, high guest counts, and very satisfied owners and managers.
Community opinion leaders, such as doctors, lawyers, and restaurant re-
viewers, can be invited to preopening events designed to enhance the im-
age of the hospitality operation. The goal, of course, is to present a posi-
tive image and influence those who can in turn influence others.
Numerous door prizes, contests, and raffles can be used to encourage pa-
tronage. The American consumer seems infinitely willing to take a chance
on getting something for little or nothing. Consider the success of Las Ve-
gas, Atlantic City, and other locations that offer legal gambling. This ap-
proach is simply an application of psychologist B. F. Skinners variable-
interval reinforcement schedule. Individuals will continue to take chances,
even though the probability of winning is very small.
Handbills or flyers represent an inexpensive yet effective method for in-
troductory promotion. These are often used as direct-mail pieces, or they
may be distributed by other means. One new restaurant located near a
large shopping mall and several office complexes distributed handbills of-
fering a variety of discounts and freebies at these locations. In addition,
the restaurant invited the administrative assistants of high-ranking man-
agement personnel to a complimentary lunch and formed a club that pro-
vided incentives and rewards to individuals who provided the restaurant
with the largest number of reservations. The results were predictable: very
high volume and the satisfaction of all parties involved.
The list of potential introductory advertising and promotional ideas is end-

less. Each management group must determine a sound strategy for the in-
troductory stage of advertising and promotion.
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GROWTH STAGE. During the growth stage, promotion and advertising fo-
cus on building name recognition and persuading consumers to purchase the
brand. If the introductory stage has been successful, a solid core of consumers
has been established. With this core, the promotional objective must be
twofold: (1) to reinforce and remind those consumers who have patronized
the hospitality establishment, to induce repeat patronage, and (2) to reach those
consumers who have not patronized the operation, thereby expanding vol-
ume with a significant number of first-time buyers.
During the growth stage, the mention of the name of the hospitality es-
tablishment brings a distinct image to the consumers mind. Therefore, pro-
motion and advertising should seek to reinforce the most positive aspects of
this image. The strategies used during this stage include comparative adver-
tising and stressing the special advantages offered by the product-service mix
of the operation. In addition, personal selling is still used to build awareness,
interest, and desire among intermediaries. However, less emphasis is placed
on publicity and sales promotions to build image and persuade consumers to
purchase.
MATURITY STAGE. Only the largest and most successful hospitality and
tourism organizations progress to this stage of the life cycle. The firms that
achieve this level are very well established and have the tremendous advan-
tage of nearly universal name recognition and reinforcement. Food service
firms that have achieved this level include McDonalds, Wendys, Chilis, and
Taco Bell. Well-known hotel firms include Hilton and Marriott. For exam-
ple, a McDonalds advertisement need not even mention the product or ser-
vice to be successful. Simply by using the word McDonalds or showing the
restaurant and the people who patronize it, the advertisement reinforces the
image in the minds of consumers. The primary goal of a firm at this stage is
to use the organizations size and brand recognition to remind consumers of
the products benefits and continue to differentiate it from the competition.
When a company is in the maturity stage, sales growth is usually obtained by
taking market share away from competitors, rather than through growth in
the overall market. An example of this is the fast-food segment, as each of the
largest competitors (McDonalds, Burger King, and Wendys) attempts to dif-
ferentiate itself from the others.
In addition to reminder advertising, sales promotions in the form of
coupons and discounts are popular. Coupons are normally distributed through
a variety of print media or by direct mail. Coupon promotions are generally
most effective in increasing consumer counts. Coupons are merely short-term
inducements to purchase a brand and are not a means to build long-term loy-
alty among customers. Rather, the consumer uses coupons as the method to
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shop for the best deal at any given moment. If a large number of hospitality
and tourism operations in a given geographic area offer coupon discounts,
consumers can become conditioned to coupons as a way of life, with the re-
sult that they will patronize only those operations that offer such discounts.
Finally, limited attention is given to personal selling and publicity during this
stage.
DECLINE STAGE. The goal of any firm that reaches this stage of its life
cycle is to use its competitive advantage to launch new products and services
that will further strengthen the organization. By adding to its product-service
mix, the firm can attract new consumers and extend its product life cycle. For
example, McDonalds has repeatedly used its number-one position in the fast-
food segment to launch new products and services, most notably a variety of
breakfast items, specialty sandwiches, and salads. These products contribute
to the sales mix of the organization and serve to broaden the market appeal.
All have, of course, been test-marketed prior to being introduced into the sys-
tem. They are examples of ways an organization can market new products
and services from a position of strength and, as a result, become stronger still.
If a firm cannot find ways to extend its product life cycle, then the ap-
propriate strategy is to maximize short-term profit and eventually divest. This
strategy calls for the firm to reduce marketing expenditures to the minimum
effective level, including a reduction in the promotional budget. At this stage,
there is virtually no effort in the areas of personal selling and publicity. In ad-
dition, advertising is kept to a minimum and sales promotions are used spar-
ingly. It is assumed that these expenditures will have little effect on consumer
purchasing, serving only to decrease the firms profitability. An example of a
firm that went through this phase is Boston Market. Later it emerged from
reorganization and continued in operation.
Establishing the Promotional Budget

Promotional expenses should be carefully planned, monitored, and controlled.
Compared with major expense items, promotion and advertising may not
seem like a large percentage. However, promotional budgets must be set to
maximize the use of the sales force and other promotional elements such as
advertising, publicity, and sales promotions. Management must carefully es-
tablish the promotion budget to maximize the productivity of the dollars spent.
Return on investment (ROI) is the key. What has been the return for the dol-
lars invested in promotion?
Some managers promote more when business volume is slow, thereby
hoping to increase volume. Others attempt to reduce expenses by cutting back
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on promotion when a decline in sales volume occurs. Both approaches are

subject to error because they are based on intuition rather than on a rational
decision-making and budgeting process. Promotional budgets serve several
useful and important functions: (1) to provide a detailed projection of future
expenditures, (2) to provide both short- and long-range planning guides for
management, and (3) to provide a method for monitoring and controlling pro-
motional expenses by comparing actual expenses against projections.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ADVERTISING BUDGETS.
Numerous executives debate the pros and cons of budgeting promotional ex-
penses. These are the major advantages associated with budgeting:
Developing budgets forces management to look into the future. Although

both past and current conditions certainly need to be considered, the fu-
ture is key. All management personnel must develop the ability to project
future trends, revenues, and expenses. Failure to do so can easily lead to
management by crisis.
Budgets serve as reference points. Budget projections need not be finan-
cial projections cast in stone. Budgeted figures and media plans are, of
course, subject to modification if the marketing situation changes dra-
matically. The budget, however, is important as a point of reference, a
goal, and a standard against which actual performance can be compared.
When promotional budgets are established, all management personnel
with marketing responsibilities should be involved in their preparation.
This involvement fosters improved communication among individuals. In
addition, when all managers have input into the development of the plan,
support for the plan increases, as each manager owns a piece of the plan.
Once individuals identify with the budget as it is developed, this will in-
crease their personal motivation to see that it is implemented successfully.
In addition to the aforementioned advantages, there are also some disadvan-

tages associated with preparing promotional budgets:
Time is money. To prepare a budget properly, managers must invest a

considerable amount of time. See Figure 11.3 for a sample of budget items.
Because the highest-paid management personnel plan the budget, the cost
to the organization can be considerable. Some would argue that this rep-
resents time that could be spent more profitably performing other func-
tions. The question to ask is How much is it worth to the organization
to have well-developed budgets and plans?
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Advertising
Print advertising $250,000
Television advertising $350,000
Outdoor advertising $125,000
Internet advertising $ 35,000
Subtotal $760,000
Brochures $ 75,000
Direct mail $150,000
Total $985,000
figure 11.3 Sample hotel promotional budget.
What events will shape the future? The future is always going to be some-
what uncertain, but astute managers should be able to foresee trends and
adapt to take full competitive advantage of them. Businesses often fail be-
cause management does not foresee changes and, as a result, the firm is
unable to adapt in a timely manner. Successful management must develop
a proactive rather than reactive posture; it must foresee change before it
occurs and compensate (adapt) to allow the organization to benefit from
the change.
BUDGETING METHODS. Promotional budgets are normally either fixed
or contingent. Fixed budgets are based on predictions of sales volume and ex-
pected levels of advertising. Projected expenditures are normally held firm,
even if the assumptions on which the budget was based prove to be incorrect.
Conversely, contingent budgets are developed based on several sets of as-
sumptions. This development means that if situation A happens, then imple-
ment plan A; if situation B occurs, then implement plan B; and so on. This
type of budget draws its name from being based on a number of contingen-
cies, or plans developed to be appropriate for several possible outcomes.
Various methods can be used to develop a promotional budget. Each of
these methods falls into one of the four following categories: (1) the percent-
age of sales method, (2) the desired objective method, (3) the competitive par-
ity method, and (4) the all-you-can-afford method.
The percentage of sales method has found very wide use in the hospital-
ity industry. The method offers relative simplicity: a sales forecast is obtained,
and a given percentage of this forecast is allocated to advertising. Within the
hospitality industry, the amount of money spent for advertising is typically
between 2 and 8 percent of gross sales. This method offers the following
advantages:
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:00 PM Page 383
It is very simple and straightforward.

Some managers prefer to view all expenses as a percentage of sales, in-
cluding advertising.
It works well if sales can be forecasted accurately and market conditions
are stable.
However, the percentage of sales method also has the following disadvantages:
If sales decline, so too will advertising expenditures. This is not a valid

argument; instead, in this situation it would be wise to increase advertis-
ing expenditures.
Increased advertising should result in increased sales, yet with this method
an increase in sales results in an increase in the advertising budget.
The desired objective method involves developing a budget based on well-

defined objectives. Management must plan precisely what it wishes to ac-
complish through promotion and advertising. Based on these objectives, man-
agement must then decide what type and what amount of promotion and
advertising will be necessary to achieve the objectives. Many factors are con-
sidered, including projected sales, previous promotion and advertising, fi-
nancial position of the firm, and competition within the marketplace. This
method has several advantages:
Rather than simply allocating a fixed percentage of sales for each budget
period, management must critically evaluate promotion and advertising
expenditures in accordance with objectives.
Advertising efforts are tied to specific measurable objectives, thereby mak-
ing evaluation easier.
Several variable factors, such as competition within the marketplace, are
considered.
However, two major disadvantages must also be considered:
It is difficult to determine the precise mix of promotion and advertising

that will accomplish the objectives satisfactorily.
Engaging in this type of budget preparation is very time-consuming, es-
pecially when one considers that advertising and promotion represent only
one area on an income statement and only one aspect of the marketing mix.
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The competitive parity method for establishing a budget involves direct

comparison with the promotion and advertising efforts of major competitors.
Based on the type and amount of promotion done by the competition, man-
agement then establishes a budget that will roughly match the activities of the
major competition. The following advantages are associated with the com-
petitive parity method:
A relative level of equilibrium is established with regard to the competition.

The method is simple and straightforward, especially if an industry av-
erage is used.
The disadvantages of the competitive parity method include the following:
Relative promotion and advertising budgets and media decisions made by

one firm usually are not applicable to other firms. For example, how can
management be assured that the competitions advertising is appropriate
for its hotel or restaurant?
Basing future plans on the past performance of others is reactive rather
than proactive.
The all-you-can-afford method is usually a last resort practiced by small

firms that do not have the luxury of setting resources aside for promotion and
advertising. For example, independent restaurants and lodging companies
that operate on very tight cash flows must meet their expenses such as pay-
roll and inventory before they can consider the allocation of resources to pro-
motion and advertising. If a small restaurant has $1,000 that it can spare at
the end of a month, then the manager or owner must determine the most ef-
ficient and effective use of that money.
The all-you-can-afford method is often a reality for small firms, but it is
not a sound method to use in determining the promotional budget. Once
again, as sales decrease and profits are down, the firm will allocate less money
for promotion and advertising at a time when it would be most beneficial.
Conversely, when business is good, the firm will have more money to spend
on promotion. This is counter to what would make sense from a logical per-
spective. The main advantage associated with this method is its simplicity; it
does not require managers to perform any formal budgeting for promotion,
and spending is not related to goals and objectives.
A BUDGETING PROCESS. Those exposed to the budget preparation pro-

cess for the first time can be overwhelmed. The process is often associated
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with internal corporate processes that can seem bureaucratic. Figure 11.4 il-
lustrates the budget process in a manner that encapsulates the process in an
easily understood format. Initially, senior management must determine fu-
ture objectives. At the same time, the desired future performance for adver-
tising is projected by taking into consideration trends, future influential fac-
tors, past performance, and input from subordinates. A preliminary budget
is prepared and then compared with the short- and long-range objectives of
senior management. If the budget appears to have a high probability of satis-
fying the objectives, it is adopted, and controls are established. If the budget
fails to meet the objectives, then the objectives and/or the budget must be re-
vised to bring the two into harmony.
Determine Forecast
Evaluate trends and Analyze
future future
environmental scanning the past
objectives performance
Determine future Involve
influential factors subordinates
Prepare
budget Reforecast
Compare
Review budget to Review
objectives objectives budget
No Are objectives achieved? No
Yes
Adopt budget
and establish
controls
Alter Alter
objectives Compare actual performance to budget budget
Are performance variations

No acceptable and assumptions No
as predicted?
No Yes
Take corrective Continue

action regarding to monitor
performance performance
figure 11.4 The budgeting process.

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Once management implements the budget, it uses a simple control pro-

cess. If the promotional mix performs as planned, the monitoring process
continues. If, however, evaluation shows that the promotional mix is not
successful, several avenues exist:
The promotional mix can be changed to increase the probability of satis-

fying evaluation standards.
The budget can be modified based on changing market conditions.
The short- and long-range objectives can be changed based on new avail-
able information.
ADVERTISING MANAGEMENT
The American Marketing Association defines advertising as any paid form
of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an
identified sponsor. This definition is accepted throughout the business com-
munity. It can be broken down into four components:
1. Paid form. Advertising is paid for and controlled by the individual or

group that is the sponsor. Because someone is paying for the space (news-
paper, outdoor) or time (radio, television), this individual or group has
complete control over what is said, printed, or shown. Any promotion that
is not paid for is called publicity. Because the individual or group is not
paying for the time or space, those involved do not have complete control
and are at the mercy of the writer or producer. A common form of pub-
licity is a review of a restaurant in a dining or food section of a local news-
paper. Publicity can obviously be either favorable or unfavorable.
2. Nonpersonal. Advertising is done through the mass media without personal
contact or interaction between the seller and the potential buyer. Adver-
tising relies strictly on nonpersonal promotion of goods, services, or ideas.
3. Promotion related to ideas, goods, or services. Advertising need not be
restricted to the promotion of a tangible physical product or good. It
may try to influence individuals to change their way of thinking or their
behavior.
4. Identified sponsor. All advertising has an identified sponsor. Promotion
is a broader-based term denoting efforts undertaken to induce patronage.
It includes personal selling that involves face-to-face communication be-
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advertising management 387
tween the seller and the prospective buyer as well as other efforts designed
to increase sales. Simply stated, advertising is a form of promotion, but all
forms of promotion are not necessarily advertising.
Forms of Advertising
Advertising can be divided into two broad categories, national and local. Na-
tional advertising is aimed at a national audience by using network television
and radio or national print media such as magazines or newspapers. This form
of advertising normally promotes the general name of the chain, not individ-
ual locations or stores.
Local advertising is used not only by the major hospitality and tourism
chains but also by second-tier chains, regional chains, and independent oper-
ations. Local advertising, including television, radio, print, and other media,
is used extensively in the hospitality and tourism industry. This is where the
action is, and to coin a phrase, the battle of market share is won or lost in the
trenches of local advertising.
A simple fact of business life for many managers is that specific advertis-
ing media are too expensive for the organization to use. For many managers,
cooperative advertising is an excellent alternative. Cooperative advertising, as
the name implies, involves two or more firms working together to sponsor an
advertisement that provides benefit to all parties involved. For example, a
group of restaurants located in a given geographic area may join together and
promote dining in the area without promoting any one operation specifically.
By joining together and sharing the expenses, managers are able to advertise
in more expensive media and reach new audiences. Cooperative advertising
is an area of tremendous promise because it allows a manager to expand the
advertising media selection.
Advertising Positioning and Strategy

Advertising terms and jargon often sound like the language of war
campaigns are launched and advertisements are aimed at target markets. Ad-
vertising need not be anything like war, but successful advertising is the re-
sult of carefully planned strategy.
A manager must first decide how to position the product-service mix. Po-
sitioning is the manner in which the consumer views the product-service mix,
and each hospitality and tourism operation is positioned differently. Before
owners or managers make any advertising decisions or plot strategy, they must
determine the proper market position.
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Companies often work together to promote and advertise their products and services.
Zachys Wine Auctions, Inc., is a registered trademark with the U.S. Patent and Trade-
mark Office.
A successful advertising campaign does not result from haphazard plan-

ning and execution. A single advertisement may be very good, but prosper-
ous companies produce consistently superior advertising. Advertising succeeds
when good strategy is developed. Strategy is not a magic, secret formula. Ac-
cording to advertising experts Kenneth Roman and Jane Maas, strategy de-
velopment revolves around five key points:2
1. Objectives. What should the advertising do? What goals does manage-
ment want to achieve? For example, a new hospitality operation may set
recognition among local residents as an objective, while another hospital-
ity operation might seek to increase sales on slow nights. For the latter
operation, most of the money would concentrate on promotions designed
to increase volume on these nights.
2. Targeted audience. Who is the customer or potential customer? Adver-
tising is not a success when used in a hit-or-miss manner. Successful ad-
vertising addresses a specifically targeted market and talks directly to that
market. Many advertising programs fail because they attempt to appeal
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to too broad a targeted market. The Breakers ad below, introducing a new

resort service, was targeted toward corporate meeting planners.
3. Key consumer benefit. Consumers can be skeptical and often need a ben-
efit or a reason to buy before they are persuaded. This is a pitch to the
consumer to come to this operation instead of another. True differences
between hospitality and tourism operations are rare, but a list of products
and services the operation offers should stress those different from or su-
perior to those offered by other hospitality and tourism facilities.
4. Support. To have a successful advertising campaign, the key benefit must
be supported. Consumers are skeptical of advertising claims, and who can
blame them? Included in any advertisement should be a reason for the
consumer to believe in the benefit. Consumer testimonials or test results
showing superiority are often used for this purpose.
5. Tone and manner. The advertising strategy must have a personality. This
personality should blend with the image and positioning of the hospital-
ity and tourism operation. McDonalds has successfully used the Ronald
McDonald character when advertising to children. This character makes
McDonalds seem like a fun place to be, and children respond to the ad-
Advertising should be aimed at a particular target market. Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm
Beach, Florida.
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vertising. For many years, Wendys advertising campaigns featured the

chains founder, the late Dave Thomas, in ads that conveyed his offbeat
personality. Finally, Southwest Airlines used the unique character of
founding CEO Herb Kelleher to create a distinctive image for the airline.
These firms leveraged the unique personalities of their founders to gain
a competitive advantage. The tone and manner selected should blend with
the overall theme that management is trying to create and should show
the potential customer the nature of the operation.
DEVELOPING A CENTRAL APPEAL. Developing a central advertising

appeal is not an easy process. Considerable time and thought must be devoted
to the creative process before a viable appeal is developed. Several rules of
thumb exist for the development of this appeal:
A central appeal must offer some value to the consumer. If the central ap-
peal does not speak directly to the needs of the primary target market, the
chances for success are greatly reduced. A well-developed marketing in-
formation system should provide specific data about the marketplace, en-
abling management to be in tune with the values of consumers.
The appeal must be distinctive. All advertising must compete not only
with all other hospitality and tourism organizations but with advertising
for everything from automobiles to washing machines. For the advertis-
ing to be effective, the appeal must offer something that separates it from
everything else. Distinctive and unusual appeals are needed.
The appeal must be believable. Claims made for the product-service mix
must be backed up if the appeal is to have credibility. Because some con-
sumers are more skeptical than others, the appeal should be believable to
those who might at first have doubts.
The appeal should be simple. Consumers are confronted each day with
hundreds of advertising stimuli, and if one is to be recalled, it must be
simple and straightforward. Effective and simple appeals that have been
used successfully include We do it all for you, You, youre the one,
Its a good time for the great taste (McDonalds), Have it your way,
Broiling beats frying (Burger King), and Americas business address
(Hilton).
KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISING. To be successful, advertising

needs to be approached in a systematic manner. The following are several
suggestions on how to improve advertising efficiency.3
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This advertisement explains the appeal of the product and provides the customer with spe-
cific information. Courtesy of Hobart Corporation.
Time. Advertising should not be considered a necessary evil. Sales and

operations are equally important and require time for an advertising pro-
gram to generate satisfactory results. In order to be effective, advertising
must normally be repeated. Frequent exposure to targeted markets will
increase the impact of advertising.
Budgets. Budgets should be developed for the needs of each operation. It
makes little sense to base an advertising budget on figures and percent-
ages that represent the national average. Generally, a manager must have
the courage to spend enough to produce successful results.
Study. A manager needs to analyze the operation and determine the opera-
tions advantages as compared with those of the competition. Disadvantages
also need to be identified so that they can be minimized or eliminated com-
pletely. The evaluation must be done constantly so that any changes in the
competitive situation are noted and adjustments are made quickly.
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Analysis of market segments. Each year, many people change jobs and
move, and as they do their lifestyles change too. No market segment is
constant; they are always changing. For this reason, management must
know the patrons of the hospitality operation. By doing this, management
can modify the operation to meet changing consumer demands.
Media. Media must be selected very carefully to be effective. Media used
must match the intended targeted markets. Each type of medium offers
advantages and drawbacks, which are discussed in Chapter 12.
Formation of a plan. Advertising cannot be successful if it is approached
in a haphazard manner. It is important that continuity be established
among all forms of advertising so that it gains momentum. Continuity
can be established through the consistent use of logos, distinctive type
styles, music, or creative touches to make the advertising stand out from
other advertisements. Managers should not be afraid of advertising and
should draw up plans designed to produce results. Nothing is worse than
spending too little money on advertising, so advertising expenditures
should not be cut. To be successful, advertising must be used regularly,
not intermittently. Successful advertising is based on repetition.
PLANNING AND EVALUATING

ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS
Single advertisements may be creative or humorous and may convey a mes-
sage, but by themselves they are not able to achieve the necessary degree of
advertising effectiveness. Many independent hospitality advertisers purchase
print advertising or a few radio spots during certain times of the year, par-
ticularly when business is slow. This type of advertising is not likely to be as
effective as it could be, because continuity between the advertisements is lost.
Such advertisements are not packaged as a campaign but are instead a hit-or-
miss approach. An advertising campaign includes all forms of advertising held
together by a single message or overall theme. A campaign is the overall plan
or strategy that guides the development of all forms of advertising.
Campaign planning is initiated by considering the competitive situation,
currently targeted markets, potentially targeted markets, and market posi-
tioning. An astute manager should always be aware of the advertising activ-
ities of major competitors. This, of course, is not to say that the competition
should dictate advertising activities, but awareness of competitors activities
may indicate trends. For example, what product-service attributes is the com-
petition stressing? Is it food quality, service quality, physical facilities, extra
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planning and evaluating advertising campaigns 393
amenities, room atmosphere, or something else? Awareness of the efforts of

direct competition may allow a manager to counter the competitions bene-
fits and gain a competitive advantage.
Both the current target markets and the potential new markets must be
evaluated. How can management best reinforce current markets to promote
repeat patronage? What type of message will reach these markets most ef-
fectively? In addition, what new markets should be explored? What is the
best type of message to use to overcome uncertainty and resistance and to pro-
mote first-time patronage? Can these two messages be combined, or are they
best kept separate? Market positioning must also be considered. How is the
operation perceived by repeat consumers and by potential consumers? Is this
the same perception that management wishes to project?
Developing effective advertising campaigns is partially an art and partially
a science. For example, at one time, Burger King had a series of effective cam-
paigns. More recently, under a series of corporate leaders, the campaigns have
not been particularly effective. One of the best ways to generate ideas that lead
to successful campaigns is to review award-winning campaigns. Below are
several resources for award-winning advertising.
1. ADDY: American Advertising Awards. Washington, DC: American Adver-

tising Federation, 1999. www.aaf.org/awards/addy.htm. In addition to
giving the ADDY Award, the American Advertising Federation gives
other awards and honors in the field of advertising.
2. C.A.S.I.E. (Coalition for Advertising Supported Information and Enter-
tainment) Awards. New York: Association of National Advertisers,
www.casie.org/.
3. Clio Awards, www.clioawards.com. These are the best-known advertising
awards in the United States. The television-related awards are shown in
some broadcast markets. The site now has a searchable database of Clio
Award winners from 1960 in all five categories: television, radio, print/
poster, design, and interactive.
Types of Advertising Campaigns

Advertising campaigns come in all patterns and sizes, depending on the re-
sources and needs of the individual hospitality and tourism organization. Gen-
erally, campaigns are organized geographically on a national, regional, or lo-
cal level. Each level will differ in sophistication and media selection. Local
campaign planners often feel that they are at a distinct disadvantage because
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People recognize ads for Absolut vodka because the company has used the same format to
market the product for years. Under permission by V&S Vin & Spirit AB (publ). Absolut
Country of Sweden Vodka & logo, Absolut, Absolut bottle design and Absolut calligraphy
are trademarks owned by V&S Vin & Spirit AB (publ). 2004 V&S Vin & Spirit AB
(publ).
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 395
they have smaller advertising budgets and less marketing expertise. This need
not be a disadvantage; instead, it is often just the opposite. The use of local
radio spots and local print and/or television advertising allows the advertiser
to speak directly with the local clientele. Often the local advertiser has a much
clearer understanding of the target market and is able to achieve a competi-
tive advantage over regional and national advertisers.
CAMPAIGN CHECKPOINTS. When developing the theme for a cam-
paign, Roman and Maas suggest that the advertiser consider four checkpoints:4
1. Maintain visual similarity. This similarity applies to the visual media. The
most common approach is to use a well-defined logo or the same layout
and type style in all advertisements. Are advertisements easily recognized
without looking at the organizations name? If not, perhaps the visual
similarity needs further attention.
2. Maintain verbal similarity. Phrases and statements are repeated in all ad-
vertisements, reinforcing the advertisers image and message.
3. Maintain similarity of sound. With the increased use of television and ra-
dio advertising, maintaining similarity of sound is also important. The use
of the same announcer and/or the same musical logo can aid in main-
taining this similarity.
4. Similarity of attitude. Projecting consistent attitude and positioning is crit-
ical to the success of an advertising campaign. All media advertisements
should project a consistency of attitude in order to establish continuity.
An Advertising Planning Model

For many managers, one of the most difficult aspects of managing the ad-
vertising and promotional function is the detail of planning, implementing,
and evaluating an advertising campaign. Figure 11.5 illustrates an advertis-
ing planning model. This visual format makes it easier to conceptualize all
aspects of the process and should provide a novice planner with a structured
framework from which to work. The model contains five components: (1) in-
put from the marketing information system, (2) organizational objectives, (3)
planning and strategy formulation, (4) implementation, and (5) evaluation of
advertising effectiveness.
The first component, input from the marketing information system, includes
information from three separate areas. First, relevant information concerning
consumer behavior should be reviewed and analyzed. What are the trends in
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Input from Organizational Planning and Implementation

the marketing objectives strategy
information formulation
system
Consumer Marketing Target market Advertising and

behavior objectives definition promotional
information vehicles
Advertising Promotional and
Product-service objectives advertising mix Advertising units
mix information
Media Evaluation of Resource
Marketing and objectives advertising allocation
competitive media and Ordering/
information specific vehicles scheduling of
advertisements
Evaluation of advertising
effectiveness
figure 11.5 An advertising planning model.
consumer behavior? How are dining habits changing? How are the travel pat-
terns of the key market segments changing? What hospitality concepts are hot,
and which ones are not so hot? Input concerning the product-service mix is also
important. What are the sales trends for the various products and services of-
fered? Information concerning the activities of direct and indirect competition
is also of value in planning the advertising campaign. The process of gathering
information for marketing decisions was covered in detail in Chapter 6.
The second component, organizational objectives, should be established
in three separate areas: marketing, advertising, and media. Marketing objec-
tives focus on such things as market share and producing a specified per-
centage of increase in sales volume or a specified percentage of increase in re-
peat patronage. Advertising objectives focus on such topics as increasing
consumer awareness and drawing consumers away from the competition with
advertisements demonstrating the superiority of the organizations product-
service mix. Media objectives focus on the selection of individual media to
achieve the marketing and advertising objectives. For example, an objective
might be To plan media selections so that 90 percent of the target market
segments are exposed to at least two of the advertisements.
The third component, planning and strategy formulation, involves the
formal definition of the specific target markets. Given the limited resources
available, it is virtually impossible to reach the saturation point with all tar-
get market segments. Therefore, what specific target market segments are
most important? Weights should be established for all of the desired adver-
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tising and promotional activities. For example, what proportion of the total
resources available should be allocated for radio, print, direct mail, and all
other activities? Finally, each advertising medium and its individual vehicles
are evaluated based on effectiveness and cost efficiency in reaching the target
market segments.
Fourth, the advertising plan is implemented. This component includes
working with each of the selected advertising vehicles, determining the ad-
vertising units (e.g., half-page print advertisements or 30-second radio spots),
allocating resources to pay for the advertising time and space, and ordering
and scheduling the time and space with each individual vehicle.
The fifth and final component is evaluation of advertising effective-
ness. Without engaging in some form of evaluation process, how will man-
agement know to what degree the advertising efforts have met with suc-
cess? There are three important explanations of why some form of
evaluation procedure should be undertaken:
To gain an understanding of the consumer. This involves learning what

consumers want, why they want it, and how best to serve their needs.
To avoid costly mistakes. When advertising effectiveness is tested, errors
that might have gone undetected are noted, and adjustments can be made.
In this way, both the effectiveness and cost efficiency of advertising are
increased.
To add structure. Rather than viewing advertising as a business expense
whose impact is impossible to measure, management can measure the im-
pact of advertising. If sales increase by 10 percent, what is the reason for
this increase? What types of advertising and promotion have had the
greatest impact on sales?5
Evaluating an Advertising Campaign

Several years ago, the president of a large retail chain discussed the firms ad-
vertising efforts with a group of businesspeople. When one person posed a
question about evaluating advertising, the president responded, I suspect that
half our advertising is wasted. The only problem is that I dont know which
half. This story may bring a smile to ones face, but it is often an accurate
assessment of the situation. Large hospitality organizations engaged in na-
tional and regional campaigns normally have the resources to evaluate ad-
vertising effectively. Smaller advertisers and local advertisers often are not
able to evaluate advertising effectiveness.
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Advertising effectiveness can be measured for both short- and long-term

impact. Short-term measurements are usually given most attention because
they directly reflect the income statement and the financial position of the or-
ganization. In addition, managers tenure and bonuses are normally based on
short-term performance. The long-term effects of advertising, however,
should not be overlooked. Repeat patronage, brand loyalty, and an asset called
goodwill reflect long-term effects. Nevertheless, it is difficult to measure the
long-term residual effects of advertising within a reasonable margin for er-
ror, though in the last several years, econometric techniques have advanced
to the point where measuring advertising effectiveness is more precise.
The management of a hospitality operation can evaluate advertising sub-
jectively, either alone or in conjunction with an advertising agency. Experi-
enced management plays a key role in this type of evaluation. If management
has successfully directed advertising campaigns, subjective evaluation may in-
deed be adequate. This is especially true of agency executives, as they often
have a wealth of experience that allows them to gauge the overall effective-
ness of advertising efforts.
It is also wise to maintain a file of all advertisements. These can then be
available for easy reference and reviewed periodically for winners and losers.
Subjectivity does have a place in the overall evaluation of advertising effec-
tiveness. The experience and expertise of agency personnel and hospitality
managers should not be discounted. These resources are best used in combi-
nation with objective methods.
It is almost impossible to measure advertising effectiveness objectively
unless well-defined objectives have been formulated prior to initiating a cam-
paign. How would management know whether advertising has been suc-
cessful if they were not able to compare actual performance with specific ob-
jectives? As stressed in Chapter 5, clearly defined, quantifiable objectives are
very important. Variances between actual performance and objectives are
noted and corrective action taken. In the event that the advertising proves
more successful than expected, this too should be evaluated so that the suc-
cess might be repeated.
Objective testing of advertising is time-consuming and expensive. Not all
operations can afford or will want this type of testing. Testing is invaluable
if undertaken with care and is cost-effective if used occasionally. Following
is a brief review of commonly used techniques, although they are not all suit-
able for all types of operations:
Copy testing. The process of copy testing involves pretesting the copy of
an advertisement prior to running it in the media. Several advertisements
are normally shown to a group of consumers, and questions are asked of
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the group, typically Which advertisement would interest you most?

Which advertisement is most convincing? and Which advertisement
is most likely to cause you to patronize the hospitality establishment?
These questions can be asked of an entire group assembled for review of
a series of advertisements, or personal interviews can be conducted.
Inquiry and sales. Direct-mail advertising lends itself to the inquiry and
sales method. This involves keeping a tally of each inquiry and sale. For
example, if a series of advertisements was run to promote banquet busi-
ness, how many people phoned or contacted the operation? How many of
these inquiries were converted into sales? From these tallies, it is easy to
compute a cost per inquiry and a cost per sale for this type of advertising.
Coupons and split runs. Coupons can be tallied to evaluate the effective-
ness of one promotion against others. For example, did the sundae special
sell more than the french fries promotion? Coupons are used extensively
by the hospitality and tourism industry because they allow for easy evalu-
ation. Coupons can be carried one step further and used to compare one
medium against another. For example, suppose that management had a
choice among three print media in which to place advertisements. Which
one will reach the target market most effectively? The same advertise-
ments and coupons could be run in the three media, with each coupon
coded so that a tally could be made of the number of coupons from me-
dia A, B, and C. In this way, a relative ranking of effectiveness is possible.
Sales tests. The level of gross sales or sales of specific items can be moni-
tored following a specific period of advertising aimed at increasing one or
the other. It is often difficult to take into account all the variables that af-
fect sales both positively and negatively and thereby establish a cause-and-
effect relationship.
Consumer testing of awareness, recall, and attitude. Through assembled
groups, telephone surveys, direct mail surveys, and personal interviews,
consumers can be tested to determine their relative awareness concerning
a specific hospitality operation. Have they heard of the operation? Do they
patronize it? If so, how frequently do they visit? Do they recall seeing any
advertisements? Which ones do they recall? When shown certain adver-
tisements, do they recall seeing these? This is known as aided recall.
Relations with an Advertising Agency

Should a hospitality organization hire an advertising agency? With the ex-
ception of small motels or restaurants that do not have large budgets, all larger
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operations should consider the use of an agency. The final decision is certainly
for each organization to make, but agencies offer several advantages. First, an
agency can increase the effectiveness of advertising; its work is more profes-
sional, and its use of media is better. Second, agencies can be especially help-
ful in dealing with the special production requirements of radio and televi-
sion advertising. Third, using an advertising agency is like maintaining a staff
of part-time specialistscopywriters, artists, and layout professionals. Fourth,
agencies are able to maintain closer contacts with media representatives ver-
sus a single advertiser. Finally, some advertising agencies are able to offer con-
sultative services related to such advertising and marketing projects as test
marketing.
Management must, however, consider the disadvantages of using an
agency. First is, of course, the question of money. There is no such thing as a
free lunch, and top-quality professional assistance will cost money. Further-
more, if the hospitality organization has access to adequate freelance talent
and assistance, the services of an agency may not be required.
Managers have to make decisions about how advertising will be handled.
These decisions should be based on the following factors:
The amount of available time to devote to advertising

The sizes of the target market segments
The specific media that are being considered or have been selected
Managements knowledge of and experience in advertising
The amount of money to be spent on advertising
THE ROLE OF AN AGENCY. An advertising agency is an independent

business that works for the client who is purchasing the advertising. Agen-
cies come in all shapes and sizes, from one-person operations to large agen-
cies employing hundreds of individuals. Generally, a small advertiser should
avoid the very large agencies because these often are not able to give the per-
sonal attention that the small advertiser needs and wants. Agencies that push
out advertising in huge quantities may lack creativity and may resort to a
production-line approach.
Both creative and business professionals who are specialists in various ar-
eas staff the agency. First, they apply both art and science to advertising. An
agency develops and implements an advertising plan tailored to the needs of
the individual client. Second, they coordinate the various functions that must
take place if an advertising campaign is to be successful. They do this by co-
ordinating the creative staff, which develops the advertisements, and the busi-
ness staff, which secures the advertising time and space in the various media.
An agency can actually save the client money because the fees earned by the
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agency are paid as commissions by the medium in which the advertisements

are placed.
TYPES OF ADVERTISING AGENCIES. There are several types of adver-
tising agencies. They are classified based on two criteria: the type of business
they handle and the range of services they offer. Agencies may serve a broad
range of consumer products, or they may specialize in one field such as con-
sumer goods, industrial products, financial services, retail sales, or real estate.
It is wise to select an agency with a proven track record in working with ser-
vice or hospitality industry clients. An advertising agency may offer specific
functions such as media buying services or creative services, or it may be a
full-service agency. Full-service agencies will handle not only the advertising
that the client elects to purchase, but also nonadvertising activities such as sales
promotional materials, trade show exhibits, publicity, and public relations.
Advertising agencies provide a wide variety of professional services, in-
cluding campaign planning, market research, media selection and production,
public relations, and campaign evaluations. The following list represents most
of the services that an agency should be able to provide.
Studying the clients product-service mix to determine strengths and

weaknesses and the clients relation to the competition
Conducting an analysis of the current and potential market segments to
determine future potential
Providing direction and leadership with regard to selecting available me-
dia and the best method to advertise and promote the product-service mix
Formulating a detailed plan to reach the stated advertising and promo-
tional objectives
Executing the plan by coordinating the creative process (writing and de-
signing the advertisements) and the business process (securing the desired
advertising time and space)
Verifying that the desired advertisements have been run in the media se-
lected
Evaluating the effectiveness of the advertising campaign and submitting
a report to the client
SELECTING AN ADVERTISING AGENCY. The agency-client relation-

ship is very important, so the agency should be selected with great care. How
should a hospitality or tourism firm go about selecting an agency? Entering
into an agency-client relationship is not a move to be taken lightly, but it can
be based on a rational process. A few recommendations follow.
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First, make a list of the needs that an agency must satisfy. It is also wise
to make a list of the major problems or symptoms unique to the character of
the specific hospitality or tourism client. Begin a list of questions to ask in se-
lecting an agency, such as What is the reputation of the agency? What ex-
perience does the agency have with hospitality or tourism accounts? and
How much depth of talent does the agency have? Other needs and criteria
should be listed, but these will depend on the needs of an individual hospi-
tality or tourism organization.
Second, make a list of prospective agencies. This will involve checking the
track records of several agencies as well as informing them of the organiza-
tions interest. Some managers prefer to use an agency questionnaire to gather
preliminary data from prospective agencies. Using this type of questionnaire
offers both pros and cons. It allows management to gather information from
a variety of agencies and then use that information during initial screening.
It does, however, occasionally turn off an agency, making the agency feel that
the prospective client is asking for too much information before the agency-
client relationship has been established.
Third, after a list of prospective agencies has been developed, it must be
narrowed to a few viable agencies. At this point management should be pre-
pared to meet with agency representatives, review samples of their work, lis-
ten to ideas, and evaluate the agency against the organizations needs and
criteria.
Finally, it is always wise to check references. Ask the agency for a list of
prior clients and talk with them about such issues as building a working re-
lationship with the agency, timeliness of work completion, accuracy of work,
positives and negatives of working with the agency and/or account executive,
or other attributes that are of importance.
AGENCY COMPENSATION. How are advertising agencies compensated?

Typically, agencies receive payment in several ways: (1) commissions from
media, (2) fees or retainers paid by the client, (3) service charges for creative
and production work, (4) markups on outside purchases, and (5) trade-outs.
Commissions of 15 percent are normally paid to the agency by the media. For
example, if an advertisement costs $1,000, the agency would collect $1,000
from the client but would pay the medium $1,000 minus $150 (15 percent),
or a total of $850. Agencies often do not generate sufficient revenue from small
advertisers to cover production and creative costs, and therefore they charge
other fees, such as monthly retainers or hourly charges for creative work.
Charges are also levied for such production work as photography and
graphics. These are usually billed at cost plus 17.65 percent. If services are per-
formed for the agency by a third party, the agency may add a markup to the
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effects of advertising 403
amount billed by the third party. This markup would cover the costs of se-
curing the services and coordinating the services of several third-party
providers. Charges are made for advertising on which commissions are not
paid, such as direct mail and local newspaper advertising.
Agencies may also accept trade-outs as a form of compensation. Trade-
outs consist of trading services for services. The agency performs services for
the hotel or restaurant in exchange for services in the form of food and bev-
erages or guest rooms that are provided on a complimentary basis up to the
retail value of the services provided by the advertising agency. This method
is widely used by hotels and restaurants, for it increases the purchasing power
of each dollar spent.
Establishing a positive agency-client relationship is of critical importance.
Management should be willing to work closely with the agency and be hon-
est and open in communication. A manager should be critical of the agencys
work without being overly critical of every advertisement, focusing instead
on the broader overall strategy. Taking an active interest in the relationship
is a very positive step in making the relationship a good one.
EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING
Advertising has become a common practice by firms selling products and ser-
vices in our society. Consumers marvel at the advertisements during prime-
time television and special events such as the Super Bowl, Daytona 500, or
Olympics. Every year, the nation is astonished at the cost of advertising for
30 seconds during these types of major events. In addition, advertisers are
given awards for their creativity and special effects, and celebrities receive
large sums of money to participate in advertisements. Therefore, it is no won-
der that economists and consumer advocates debate the overall impact of ad-
vertising on our society.
Social and Ethical Criticisms

of Advertising
Many critics of advertising raise questions about the social and ethical issues
surrounding the use of advertising and other forms of promotion. The fol-
lowing is a list of the most common criticisms regarding advertising.6
ADVERTISING AS MISLEADING OR DECEPTIVE. Originally, adver-
tising was a practice used to inform consumers about products and product
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uses. It was a way for firms to convey their messages to consumers so that
consumers could make informed purchase decisions. Over the years, as the
country prospered and firms sold more products to more consumers with more
discretionary income, advertising has become a major strategic tool used to
differentiate products and services. Unfortunately, in the heat of competition,
some firms choose to stretch the truth in an attempt to gain a competitive
advantage.
Advertising is indeed a powerful force in the marketplace, and occasion-
ally, it may be used to deceive consumers. The government has gone to great
lengths to protect the consumer. Many other groups, including the Better Busi-
ness Bureau and the National Advertising Review Council, strive to limit the
amount of false and misleading advertising. Also, it simply is not in the long-
term interests of any hospitality or tourism operation to deceive its consumers.
Advertising seeks to induce first-time and repeat patronage by making
promises to consumers about specific products and services. Failure to deliver
as promised hurts the advertisers credibility and sales.
ADVERTISING AS OFFENSIVE OR IN POOR TASTE. As mentioned
before, the increase in competition has resulted in some firms engaging in
questionable advertising practices in an attempt to gain market share. In ad-
dition to being misleading or deceptive, some critics have also argued, some
advertising is offensive or in poor taste. For example, insurance firms may use
fear appeal to sell their products, automobile manufacturers may use sex to
sell cars, and marketers of childrens products target children directly. Firms
may argue their First Amendment rights to free speech, but many critics feel
that advertisers have crossed the line. Advertising has also been accused of
creating and perpetuating stereotypes based on its depiction of certain groups
of people. Proponents might argue that art imitates life.
ADVERTISING ENCOURAGES MATERIALISM. Rather than merely
informing and educating consumers about product benefits, much advertis-
ing focuses on creating needs and promoting materialism. Products and ser-
vices are being promoted as symbols of status and accomplishment, to the
detriment of basic values. Celebrities are used in ads in an attempt to influ-
ence consumers and act as a point of reference. Another common practice in
advertising is to seek product placement in popular movies, many of which
target impressionable youths. For example, the boy in Home Alone 2 spent
some time alone at the Plaza Hotel in New York, indulging himself with the
many amenities that the hotel offers. Also, cruises are advertised to people as
a reward for working hard and a symbol of accomplishment, as are many
tourist destinations and resorts.
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ADVERTISING ENCOURAGES PEOPLE TO BUY THINGS THEY DO

NOT NEED. Advertising seeks to persuade consumers to purchase specific
products and services from the advertiser. It is the term persuade that bothers
critics. As previously mentioned, advertising could be limited to informing
and educating consumers so they can make informed decisions. Some would
argue that an expensive dining experience or a night in a luxury hotel is un-
necessary when a less expensive substitute would adequately satisfy their
needs. Dining out and travel are usually acquired tastes, and once acquired,
those tastes need to be satisfied just as other needs are. However, proponents
argue that consumers still choose the products and services that they want to
purchase. Consumers are the ones who make the final decision concerning
how their limited resources will be allocated. Advertising simply makes them
aware of choices and attempts to encourage patronage.
Economic Effects of Advertising

Advertising has become a very important strategic tool used by companies,
not only to provide information to consumers but to position themselves and
gain some form of competitive advantage. There is no doubt that there are
advantages to advertising at the brand level. However, some critics question
the effects of advertising at the industry level or on the economy as a whole.
The following is a brief discussion of the economic effects of advertising.
EFFECTS ON CONSUMER CHOICE. Most firms use advertising to dif-

ferentiate their products and services from those of their competitors. Al-
though consumers still have the option of purchasing from several different
brands, in most product categories, there are advantages realized by larger
firms that can afford to spend more on advertising. Therefore, some critics
would argue that large firms have the ability to dominate the market and
charge higher prices than their smaller counterparts. Most consumers can eas-
ily recall two or three popular brands in any product or service category, and
they tend to be the brands offered by the largest competitors. As a result, larger
firms may have the potential to reduce the competition based on price or prod-
uct and services attributes and make it difficult for smaller firms to create
brand loyalty among consumers.
The proponents of advertising would argue that firms of all sizes benefit
from the ability to promote new products. Advertising is a means by which
firms create awareness and interest in their products. In addition, advertising
can be used to inform and educate consumers about new products and ser-
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 406
vices, as well as changes in existing products. As mentioned earlier, consumers

normally have several brands to choose from, so advertising has not led to
monopolies or restrictions in the number of choices available to consumers.
EFFECTS ON COMPETITION. One of the major criticisms of advertising
is its ability to create barriers of entry to firms wishing to enter a market.
When large firms spend large amounts of money on advertising, it makes it
increasingly difficult for new brands to enter the market with any reasonable
level of success. Instead, new brands are relegated to pursuing niche strate-
gies in an attempt to profit and survive. Large firms also enjoy economies of
scale in advertising, much the way they do in other areas such as ordering
supplies, recruiting and training, and financing. This is especially true in the
area of media buying, where firms that purchase more volume get more fa-
vorable rates. This results in large firms controlling the major media that have
the most impact on consumers. Based on these assertions, some critics would
argue that advertising could have an anticompetitive effect on the market.
Once again, proponents of advertising would argue that firms should be
able to use advertising to provide consumers with information about their
products and services, thereby differentiating their brands from the competi-
tion. Firms grow by offering good products and services at reasonable prices
through convenient locations. It is naive to believe that advertising alone cre-
ates the barriers to entry and the economies of scale that large firms enjoy in
the marketplace. These benefits are merely the result of fair competition in a
free-market society. Also, not all successful firms spend large amounts of
money on advertising. Years ago, people believed that McDonalds was be-
ginning to establish a virtual monopoly in the fast-food segment of the in-
dustry. Those people held that McDonalds would drive the independent
operations out of business and would then absorb many of the smaller re-
gional chains. This has not been the case. McDonalds does hold a very com-
manding lead in annual sales, but McDonalds has experienced its own set
of challenges in responding to competitive threats and changes in consumer
behavior. Large chains do enjoy certain advertising advantages, but these ad-
vantages hardly create a monopolistic marketplace.
EFFECTS ON PRODUCT COSTS AND PRICES. Probably the most com-
mon criticism of advertising is that it results in higher costs that lead to higher
prices charged to consumers for products and services. There is no question
that advertising is a cost of doing business, similar to a firms payroll, supply,
building leases, insurance, and financing. It appears as a line item on the state-
ment of income and expense as an expense, and it must be covered if a firm
expects to be profitable. The concept of fixed expenses being covered by the
contribution margin for products and services is presented in the pricing chap-
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 407
ter that follows. Basically, any increase in expenses must be offset by an in-
crease in price or a decrease in other expenses if a firm is to maintain its cur-
rent level of profitability. Therefore, it is easy to see how critics could argue
that advertising leads to higher prices. A quick review of financial statements
would most likely show that firms that spend more on advertising tend to
charge higher prices than their competitors.
The proponents of advertising would argue that the increased prices are
the result of offering higher-quality products and that advertising is neces-
sary to inform consumers of these quality differences. Since consumers are
better-informed, firms can provide higher-quality products at lower prices.
Consumers can readily compare competitive products and services, thereby
putting downward pressure on industry prices.
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 408

This chapter reviews promotion as applied to hospitality marketing, provid-
ing a broad-based overview of the four elements of the promotional mix: ad-
vertising, personal selling, public relations, and sales promotion. The man-
agement of the promotional mix over the product life cycle is discussed, and
methods for setting the promotional budget are examined. They include the
percentage of sales, desired objective, competitive parity, and all-you-can-
afford methods. A budgeting system provides an easily understood presenta-
tion of budget development.
Advertising can be national, local, or cooperative, depending on the size
and scope of the firm. To reach the highest level of success, management must
engage in various advertising efforts. Generally, advertising seeks to satisfy
three goals: (l) to establish awareness in the minds of consumers, (2) to estab-
lish a positive perceived value in the minds of consumers, and (3) to promote
Chapter review
repeat patronage and brand loyalty among consumers. Advertising position-

ing and strategy include forming an objective, identifying a target audience,
highlighting key consumer benefits, establishing support for the benefits, and
employing an appropriate tone or manner. The development of an advertis-
ing appeal includes six keys to successful advertising.
In some cases, firms choose to enter a relationship with an advertising
agency. The chapter provides an overview of the advantages and disadvan-
tages of working with an agency, the role of the agency, the types of agen-
cies, the methods that can be used to select an agency, and the methods for
compensation.
Planning and evaluating advertising involve noting campaign check-
points. A five-component advertising planning model includes input from the
marketing information system, organizational objectives, planning and strat-
egy formulation, implementation, and evaluating advertising effectiveness.
Finally, the chapter discusses the effects of advertising on society. There
are critics who feel advertising has many negative social consequences and
economic effects on competition. In general, critics argue that advertising lim-
its consumer choices and leads to unfair competition as larger firms create
barriers to entry and enjoy economies of scale that are not available to smaller
firms.
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 409
chapter review 409
Chapter review
Advertising
Advertising agency
Advertising campaign
All-you-can-afford method
Competitive parity method
Copy testing
Desired objective method
Local advertising
National advertising
Percentage of sales method
Personal selling
Promotional budgets
Promotional mix
Public relations
Publicity
Sales promotions

Discussion
1. What are the four elements of the promotional mix?
2. How is the promotional mix used throughout the stages of
the product life cycle?
3. Select restaurants in your local area, placing each in one
of the stages of the product life cycle. Explain why you
placed each restaurant in that particular stage.
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 410
4. List and discuss the various methods used to establish pro-

motional budgets. Which is the most common? Which one
is the best from a theoretical standpoint? If you were a
manager of an independent restaurant with $800,000 in
annual sales, which method would you use? Why?
5. What are the three forms of advertising? Give examples of
each form.
6. How would you describe the process of positioning? Cite
two examples of hospitality or tourism firms that you
believe have done an excellent job of positioning the
product-service mix. Why do you believe they have done an
excellent job?
7. Select four advertisements featuring hotel chains from
Chapter review
print media. Which one do you think does the best job of
positioning and conveying the message to the target mar-
kets? Why? How could the others be improved?
8. What are the three major goals of advertising?
9. What are the pros and cons of using an advertising
agency? Would you use the services of an agency?
10. How are agencies compensated for their work?
11. How would you select an agency?
12. Critique the six keys to successful advertising.
13. What is an advertising campaign? What factors should be
considered when planning a campaign?
14. Cite and discuss the major campaign checkpoints.
15. What techniques are used to evaluate advertising
effectiveness?
16. What are some of the social and ethical consequences as-
sociated with advertising?
17. What economic effects are associated with advertising?
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 411
chapter review 411
Chapter review
Notes
1 Advertising Age, May 10, 1999, p. 4.
2 Kenneth Roman and Jane Maas, How to Advertise (New York: St. Martins Press, 1976), pp. 13.
3 H. Victor Grohmann, Ten Keys to Successful Advertising, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quar-
terly 17, No. 2.
4 Roman and Maas, How to Advertise, pp. 13.
5 C. H. Sandge, V. Fryburger, and K. Rotzoll, Advertising Theory and Practice (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin,
1979), pp. 53336.
6 George E. Belch and Michael A. Belch, Introduction to Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Com-
munications Perspective, 2nd edition (Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1993), pp. 81134.
c11.qxd 12/21/04 12:01 PM Page 412
Case Study
The Glen Pub
M ike Clark recently became the manager of a full-service restaurant.

The restaurant is in a Midwest resort town of 10,000 people. The
town is located along the coastline of one of the Great Lakes and
is approximately 10 miles from an industrial town of 150,000 people and
35 miles from a progressive city of almost 200,000 residents. The summers
are mild and seldom hot, while the winters are often bitter and snowy. The
restaurant is part of a small well-known upper Midwest chain. The resort
town, although only about 2 miles from a substantial four-lane, limited-
access road that connects coastal communities, is 10 miles from the nearest in-
terstate highway.
The restaurant is upscale and attractive to summer vacationers. The
restaurant has an English pub look and feel to it, with yards of ale and arti-
facts from England and Scotland. The food prices are considered to be mod-
erately expensive for this midwestern resort town. There is no restaurant of
comparable quality within a 20-mile radius. The restaurant dining area can
accommodate 250 guests at one sitting and can comfortably seat another 40
to 50 people in the bar area for cocktails. The bar sales consist primarily of
guests waiting to be seated or who drink after dinner. On Friday and Satur-
day nights the bar has a folk singer or musician to entertain. The restaurant
is open seven days a week during the summer months, and Monday through
case study
Saturday after Labor Day. Lunch is served from 11 A.M. to 5 P.M. Monday
through Saturday, with dinner from 5 to 11 P.M.
A typical lunch count in the summer is 100 to 120 meals, while a week-
end dinner in the summer serves as many as 550 guests. During the off-
season, Labor Day to Memorial Day, lunches shrink to 50 to 70 covers and
dinner during the week ranges from 10 to 50 guests, while Friday and Sat-
urday nights range from 80 to 150 guests depending on weather, holidays, and
other local events. To accommodate the wide fluctuation in guests, the restau-
rant relies on college students in the summer. There are approximately 10
long-term employees and 3 managers who work year-round: a restaurant
manager, a back-of-the-house manager, and a front-of-the-house manager.
The Problem
Every year during the resort season the restaurant is extremely busy. After
Labor Day, business drops substantially and meeting operating costs becomes
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case study 413
case study
difficult. How do you get more local residents to frequent the restaurant in
the off-season? With almost 150,000 residents living approximately 10 miles
away, and another populated area of 200,000 people approximately 35 miles
away, how do you get them to be part of your off-season market? There are
no comparable restaurants within a 20-mile radius. The city 35 miles away
has a couple of full-service restaurants with quality food and atmosphere, but
they do not have the regional reputation that the resort restaurant has.
The restaurant is active in the local community. The Rotary and Lions
Clubs hold their weekly luncheon meetings at the restaurant. The restaurant
occasionally does outside catering, but demand is minimal. Special functions
at the restaurant can be accommodated in the off-season, but the dining rooms
are contiguous and relatively intimate, making it difficult to rearrange and
close one off from the rest of the restaurant.
The restaurant benefits from billboard advertising and the positive repu-
tation of the chains five other restaurants. The closest of the other five chain
restaurants are 80 miles and 120 miles away. The restaurant has just hired a
part-time person as public relations director to help pump up community in-
volvement and increase the restaurants profile.

1. How can Mike and his new public relations employee generate more
local customer business in the off-season?
2. What can they do to entice residents of neighboring communities to
drive 10 to 35 miles for an upscale dinner?
3. What type of advertising and promotions might increase local
community traffic?
4. What other information is necessary to make advertising and
promotion decisions?
c12.qxd 12/21/04 12:23 PM Page 414
Courtesy of Allied Domecq QSR.

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chapter
12
Advertising and
Media Planning
Chapter Objectives
1. Outline the media planning process.
2. Compare and contrast various forms of mediaincluding
print, broadcast, direct mail, and other support media.
3. List the benefits and limitations of print, broadcast,
direct mail, and other support media.
4. Define common advertising terms specific to each
media type.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Support Media
Introduction Outdoor advertising
Media selection Brochures and collateral materials
Developing media plans Specialty advertising
Scheduling the media Summary of Chapter Objectives
Print Media Key Terms and Concepts
Techniques for successful print advertising
Developing copy for print advertising Questions for Review and
Print advertising terms Discussion
Broadcast Media Case Study: Advertising Decisions
Radio advertising for the Alexandria Inn
Television advertising
Direct Mail
Techniques for successful direct-mail
advertising
Mailing lists
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416 chapter 12 advertising and media planning
Nick DeMeglio Vice President

Guest Services Fairfax, Virginia

Operations of resorts and hotels, marketing for these properties, contract com-
pliance (franchise, etc.), asset management, renovations and capital improve-
ments, and training.

Satisfaction: optimizing the properties position in the market by creating and
implementing a marketing plan, training staff and having them develop into
industry profile
new and larger roles, market research (where are our guests coming from?),
and planning/completion of capital projects.
Frustration: poor economic times that cause layoffs or reduced hours for
staff, untrained staff, and wasted marketing efforts.

youre facing?
Staffing, global security problems, the downturn in the economy, weather de-
pendency, and Internet marketing.
4. What major trends do you see in your segment

of the hospitality and tourism industry?
Group business is starting to come back after three years of losses. The In-
ternet reservation systems are developing in a way to help build business in a
positive way versus eroding profits, but there is still a lot of work to do in this
area. Staffing for the properties has always been a challenge. Foreign students
have filled the need through the J1 and H2B visa programs. This trend will
continue. Marketing plans need to be developed in order to attract staff.
Some REITs (real estate investment trusts) are having trouble with the
maintenance of their properties due to the need to produce a return for the
investors. Many properties in these portfolios are being flipped. This trend
will offer some buyers great opportunities. The flipped properties will need
to be repositioned and new marketing plans developed in order to make them
successful.
c12.qxd 12/21/04 12:23 PM Page 417
industry profile
company?
Many functions have been centralized (graphic design for ads, writing of mar-
keting plans, purchasing media, etc.). However, every staff member at the
property level is responsible for selling the product. Referral business through
exceptional service carries the day.

you suggest?
Market research is the key to writing and implementing an effective mar-
keting plan. You never have enough information. Study the market as much
as you can.
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INTRODUCTION
No one questions that advertising remains an extremely powerful force in the
hospitality and tourism industry. Advertising programs must be managed
with care and used to the maximum advantage of the organization. External
advertising and promotion constitute a major area of marketing effort for
most hospitality and tourism organizations since numerous media are em-
ployed in an effort to communicate with selected target markets. The success
of these advertising efforts rests to a large degree on the media and the man-
ner in which they are used. Many times, advertisers spend large amounts of
money without achieving the desired results. In other cases, advertisers spend
only a relatively small amount, yet the results are dramatic. It is useful to re-
member that it is not how much is invested but how it is invested. Dollars al-
located to advertising are expected to increase sales.
Media Selection
Advertising is important because it can make the difference between success
and failure. Management must ask three questions when planning and se-
lecting initial advertising:
1. To whom should the advertising be directed? Specifically, what target

markets have been identified as primary and secondary markets? Which
individuals represent opinion leaders and reference group leaders?
Opinion leaders are those individuals to which others look for infor-
mation and confirmation of purchase choices. Reference group leaders
are similar, except that they serve as opinion leaders for a group of in-
dividuals who have similar interests or backgrounds. Recall that this
topic was covered in depth in Chapter 3. Firms should collect market
segmentation data and analyze it to determine the heavy users of the
product or service.
2. Where do these people live? Once firms have identified the large mar-
kets, they should find out where these individuals live and work. What
are the best methods to reach them through advertising? In many cases,
this will be as easy as determining the leaders of the business community
in a small town. In other instances, determining where these individuals
live and work will prove quite difficult. For example, suppose that an up-
scale restaurant serving dinner operates in the suburbs of a major city.
Where should the restaurant advertise? How should the target markets
be reached? Where do these people live and work? These questions may
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introduction 419
not have self-evident answers, and a considerable amount of research and

discussion may be necessary.
3. What media should be used? Would it be best to use print advertising?
Perhaps radio or television should play a major role? What about outdoor
advertising, direct mail, or supplemental advertising? Should directories,
such as the yellow pages, be considered?
Developing Media Plans

The stages in the media planning process are similar to the marketing plan-
ning process. First, the firm must perform a market analysis to determine the
current situation. Second, the firm needs to establish its media objectives. That
is, what does the firm want to accomplish with its media program? For ex-
ample, is the firm focusing on creating awareness or increasing sales? Third,
the firm must develop media strategies to use in attaining the objectives. Me-
dia strategies would entail developing a media mix, determining the desired
coverage in regard to target markets and geographic area(s), and scheduling
the specific media. Fourth, the firm must evaluate the media program on a
continual basis and adapt it to fit changing conditions. A complete discussion
of the four stages in the media planning process follows.
PERFORMING A MARKET ANALYSIS. This stage of the process in-
volves a thorough analysis of the market to identify the target markets that be-
come the focus of the media program. This decision is based on the history of
the firm, its competitors, and trends in the general population. Advertising is
a key element in the positioning of firms and their products or services. There-
fore, it is important to select target markets that offer potential for long-term
growth and survival. These market segments then become the focus of the me-
dia program in an attempt to communicate the firms products in a favorable
light that is consistent with the overall image of the firm. For example, all ad-
vertising might be aimed at men and women between the ages of 25 and 35
with annual incomes above $45,000. Or advertising might be slanted toward
women such that a 60-to-40 ratio of female-to-male exposure is achieved.
ESTABLISHING MEDIA OBJECTIVES. Media objectives should be tied
to the overall marketing objectives of the firm, as well as the promotion or
communications objectives. The media objectives should be focused on the
goals associated with the media program and be attainable using media strate-
gies. After determining the target market(s) in the market analysis stage, a
firm should establish media objectives for these markets considering the dis-
tribution of exposures, the media environment, and budget limitations.1 Some
of the more common objectives for media programs are:
c12.qxd 12/21/04 12:23 PM Page 420
To increase awareness among consumers in the target markets

To increase coverage in target markets
To maintain a positive impact on consumer attitudes and perceptions in
regard to the firms image
Good objectives will (1) be stated in clear and concise language, (2) in-
clude a specific time frame in which to accomplish the objective, and (3) in-
clude quantifiable terms that can be used as a standard by which to evaluate
performance. For example, a local restaurant may want to reach at least 70
percent of its target audience with a direct-mail piece within the next 60 days.
DEVELOPING MEDIA STRATEGIES. Once media objectives are established,
it is necessary to develop media strategies that will lead to the attainment of
the firms goals. Selecting the proper media mix, determining the target mar-
ket and geographic coverage, and scheduling the media achieve this.
SELECTING THE MEDIA MIX. When selecting the media mix, it is
important to examine the general nature of the target market segments. Table
12.1 contains a list of possible media vehicles and their unique characteristics.
A medium should be selected based on its ability to reach the maximum num-
ber of potential consumers at the lowest cost. However, it is also necessary to
minimize wasted coverage while trying to maximize reach. Wasted coverage
refers to advertising exposures that do not involve members of the target mar-
ket. For example, if low-income households are exposed to ads for an expen-
sive restaurant, the restaurant is wasting money because it is paying to reach
consumers who are not in its target market and would be unlikely to dine at
the restaurant. If one million people subscribe to a newspaper, advertisers are
charged based on a readership of one million, whether the readers are in the
target market or not.
Also, the objectives of the overall campaign must be considered. Is the ad-
vertiser seeking maximum impact, or is continuity with previous and future
advertising more important? For example, if a well-established restaurant had
used a refined and sophisticated approach in newspaper and magazine ad-
vertising, it would not make sense for it to advertise using a high-volume,
high-energy advertisement, for this would break up the continuity among ad-
vertisements in different media.
In addition to these general factors, Howard Heinsius, president of Need-
ham and Grohmann, Inc., suggests several essentials in media selection:2
Market focus. Carefully examine your market by product-service mix cat-

egory or brand and by target market segment. How does your hotel or
restaurant fit in? What specific attributes do you want to advance?
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introduction 421
media type advantages disadvantages
Newspapers Short lead time for placing ads Short life span
Low cost Wasted coverage
Good coveage Clutter
Can be used for coupons Poor reproduction quality
Magazines Quality reproduction Long lead time for ad place-

Long life span ment
Audience selectivity High production costs
High information content Lack of flexibility
Pass-along value
Radio Personal Lack of visual appeal

Low cost Fleeting message
Flexibility Clutter
Low production costs
Audience selectivity
Television Large audience High absolute cost

High impact of message High production cost
Low cost per exposure Fleeting message
High credibility Clutter
Low selectivity
Direct Mail High selectiviy/low wasted Poor image

coverage Clutter
Easily evaluated High cost per contact
High information content
Short lead time
Outdoor Low cost per exposure Wasted coverage

and Transit High repetition Legislation/local restrictions
Target location Long lead time
Lack of flexibility
table 12.1 Media characteristics.
Media focus. Keep an open mind and listen to all media sales representa-
tives in your area. Make note of changes, events, new programs, and the
opportunities they might offer. Media time and space are perishable; keep
an alert eye for special purchase opportunities.
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Its important that ads meet the objective determined by the media strategy. Courtesy of
Artex International.
Periodic media update. Make sure that information about rates and other
important factors such as cost per thousand and circulation is current. The
situation can change rapidly. Be sure to stay on top of it.
Establish media effectiveness guidelines. Keep tangible guidelines in mind
as you examine each of the media options. This will help you to make bet-
ter media selections.
Advertising by objective. If specific advertising objectives have been es-
tablished, such as sales targets or consumer awareness levels, this will aid
in determining the best media combination.
Coordinate advertising with marketing campaigns. Advertising is but one
part of the total marketing mix. Be sure that it is coordinated with the other
efforts in the areas of personal selling, promotion, and public relations.
Develop a sound advertising budget. Start with an amount that is within
your means and then allocate it by target markets. It is important to de-
velop specific action plans to achieve each advertising objective.
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introduction 423
Plan around media pollution. All forms of media are oversaturated at

times. Try to select the best times to get your message across while rising
above the pollution of other advertisements.
Coordinate local efforts to match the national advertising efforts.
When a national campaign is being run by the parent chain, try to take
advantage of this by running a local campaign that will supplement
the national campaign.
Use a variety of media. Within the limits of budgets, try to use different
combinations and levels of different media to determine which is most ef-
fective.
Keep accurate files. It is important to be able to review the results of each
advertising campaign. Maintaining accurate records of budget, media sched-
ules, and sales results is critical.
The media selection process involves matching available media with the
firms objectives. There may be multiple objectives and many media alternatives
from which to choose. Therefore, the process is one of making choices at vari-
ous levels. For example, once a decision is made to use some form of print me-
dia, the decision between newspaper and magazine follows. Then a decision must
be made regarding the particular magazines or newspapers that will be used.
DETERMINING TARGET MARKET AND GEOGRAPHIC COVER-

AGE. Consideration must be given to the amount of coverage desired. The
relative costs of the various media must be weighed when decisions are made.
The sizes and frequency of advertisements must be carefully analyzed. Hos-
pitality and tourism firms have the option to advertise on an international,
national, regional, or local level. Then, at each level, a firm must decide how
long or how often to run an ad in a given geographic market.
Scheduling the Media

Each hospitality or tourism organization must tailor the scheduling of media
to fit its individual needs. Figure 12.1 illustrates the three most common ap-
proaches to media scheduling. Continuous advertising refers to the practice
of keeping the amount of advertising relatively constant over time. This type
is appropriate for hospitality operations with very stable volumes. Flighting
media scheduling involves a schedule set up in spurts and stops. Periods of
blitz advertising are used, with no advertising between blitzes. Pulsing ad-
vertising balances the previous two approaches in that it provides a constant
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Continuous
Flighting
Pulsing
figure 12.1 Approaches to media scheduling.
low-level flow of advertising with intermittent periods of blitz advertising.

Normally, high levels of continuous advertising are thought to be superior,
but economic considerations may necessitate the adoption of either flighting
or pulsing media scheduling.
PRINT MEDIA
The two most common forms of print media are newspapers and magazines.
Another form of print media is the yellow pages offered by local telephone
companies or similar products offered by competing companies. Advertising
in the yellow pages can result in immediate action, but it is difficult to dif-
ferentiate a firms product and there is little flexibility because the advertise-
ment runs for a 12-month period. However, all of the print media vehicles
are popular among hospitality and tourism firms because of their ability to
provide detailed information and target specific markets. For example, news-
papers offer the following advantages:
Short lead time for placing ads. If a manager decides to run an adver-
tisement on one days notice, it can normally be scheduled in the next days
newspaper. Also, copy can easily be changed, allowing advertisements to
be tailored to fit ever-changing market conditions.
Low cost. An advertisement in a local newspaper is usually lower in
both absolute cost and cost per thousand in comparison to other types of
media.
Good coverage. Newspapers reach all demographic segments in a geo-
graphic area.
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print media 425
Can be used for coupons. Newspapers allow for the use of coupons, which
can increase volume and provide the information necessary for evaluat-
ing advertising effectiveness.
In general, newspapers are a valuable form of media for local hospitality and
tourism firms. Advertisements will reach a broad audience at a relatively low
cost. However, newspapers also have the following disadvantages:
Short life span of the advertisement. Newspapers generally have a one-day

life span because they are published on a daily basis.
Wasted coverage. Advertisers pay to reach the total number of newspa-
per subscribers, many of which are not in the target market based on de-
mographics or lifestyles.
Clutter. There is a lot of competition for the readers attention within the
newspaper. It is easy to have an advertisement buried amid other adver-
tisements, decreasing readership and effectiveness.
Poor reproduction quality. Newspapers do not reproduce photographs
with great clarity. Drawings are usually a better choice.
Magazines offer these advertising advantages:
Quality reproduction. Color photographs reproduce particularly well.

Long life span. Through pass-along readership, magazine advertisements
are seen by more people and have a longer life span than that of newspa-
pers and other media.
Audience selectivity. Some magazines are aimed at the general popula-
tion, but through the use of regional and metropolitan editions as well as
selective market magazines, advertisers can pinpoint specific target mar-
kets. This is especially true of city magazines.
High information content. Magazines provide ample space to cover de-
tailed topics and supply a good deal of information.
In general, magazines offer better reproduction than newspapers and al-

low marketers to segment on a regional basis. However, magazines have the
following disadvantages as an advertising medium:
Long lead time for ad placement. Magazine publishers require advertis-

ers to adhere to closing dates far in advance of the distribution date. This
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does not allow for immediate changes of layout and copy if market con-
ditions change rapidly.
High production costs. Costs associated with magazine advertising are
generally substantially higher than those for newspapers, including both
absolute costs and the cost per thousand.
Lack of flexibility. Magazines are not as well suited for local markets as
newspapers, direct mail, or radio. Magazines are generally either regional
or national in scope and are often of limited value to localized markets
for hospitality and travel firms. Therefore, regional and national chains
will normally find more benefit from advertising in magazines. However,
city magazines, such as those placed in hotel rooms, do overcome this
drawback.
Techniques for Successful

Print Advertising
As with all types of advertising, no hard and fast rules exist for print media,
but guidelines can aid in management decisions. The following guidelines,
developed over time, are generally accepted within the advertising community.
First, every effort should be made to attract the consumers attention with
the headline. Many print advertisements are ineffective because a large per-
centage of consumers skim through the pages and never read the entire ad-
vertisement. The headline must therefore get the attention of the reader and
deliver the message.
Second, print advertising is more effective if visual components, such as
artwork and photographs, are used. Although photographs do not generally
reproduce well in newspapers, simple drawings can be used very effectively to
increase readership. Photographs and artwork are both effective in magazines.
Third, every effort should be made to keep the layout and copy simple
and straightforward. Print readers are less likely to read an advertisement that
looks crowded and contains many ideas. Instead, the advertisement should
have one or perhaps two points and no more. Print advertising is an example
of where less is more, and this means more effectiveness.
Fourth, print advertising lends itself to the use of coupons. Coupons serve
to increase volume and can add value in assessing the effectiveness of print
advertising media. Coupons should be designed as mini advertisements with
all necessary information so that the consumer does not need to save the rest
of the ad. Placement of coupons is important both within the advertisement
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print media 427
and on the page on which the advertisement appears. They should be placed
at the edge of the advertisement, and the advertisement itself should be at the
edge of the page to make it easier to clip the coupon. Simple things such as
coupon placement can dramatically increase advertising effectiveness.
Finally, when a given print advertisement has been effective, management
should not hesitate to repeat it. The advertisement may seem old hat to the
management of the hospitality or tourism firm, but many potential consumers
have not seen the advertisement or do not recall it. Therefore, what has proven
successful in the past should be repeated.
Developing Copy for

Print Advertising
For some individuals, developing advertising copy is simple and easy; for oth-
ers it is painful and frustrating. This section offers suggestions that make the
task easier. Copywriting does not require the brains of a genius or the writ-
ing skills of a Pulitzer Prize winner. It simply requires looking closely at the
consumer and the product-service mix.
The first step is to examine the product-service mix. What does the or-
ganizations product-service mix offer that is appealing to the potential con-
sumer? It is important to avoid generalizations such as good food or lux-
urious guest rooms. These phrases may be true, but how will consumers
perceive them? Consumers will generally discount the adjectives, and they
will not have the desired effect. Items that could distinguish the operation
from others and give it a real competitive advantage should be listed. Em-
It is important for print advertising to attract the attention of the consumer and remain
clear. Courtesy of Allied Domecq QSR.
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type of headline example
Direct-promise headline Youll love our 42-item salad bar

Your room will be perfect or you wont pay for it
News headline Grand opening July 1
Curiosity headline Who says you cant get something for nothing
Selective headline To all single women . . .
Emotional headline Mothers DayWhat have you done for your

Mom lately?
table 12.2 Examples of print headlines.
phasis should be placed on the tangible aspects of the product-service mix,

such as the dcor or service personnel. It is very important to try to make the
intangibles seem more tangible. This will help the consumer remember the
advertisement.
Second, it is important to talk directly with the potential consumer and
discuss the benefits of purchasing from the hospitality or tourism company.
What is the company going to do for the consumer? What specific benefits
are offered? What specific needs are being satisfied? For example, an upscale
restaurant appealing to the business community might advertise a lightning
lunch or express lunch featuring a selection of menu items that could be
served immediately. It is important to back this claim with a guarantee such
as If your lunch isnt served within 15 minutes, its free.
Third, the consumer benefits should be listed in priority order. Perhaps
it is best to develop two or three advertisements around the top three bene-
fits and translate them into headlines. Headlines can take many forms, as
shown in Table 12.2.
Once the headline is developed, the copy for the remainder of the adver-
tisement is written. It should reflect and support the headline and should be
brief. This is not to say that long copy can never be successful. Instead, each
word, each sentence, and each paragraph must say exactly what the copywriter
wants it to say. All the words must count, driving home and supporting the
benefits to the consumer. Writing, rewriting, and further editing are the key
elements in developing copy that sells. Copy should be clear; nothing is worse
than vague advertising copy. A vague phrase such as fine food is meaning-
less to the consumer. Copy should instead explain what this food will do for
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print media 429
the consumer and how it will make the consumer feel. It is important to make
the intangibles more tangible and to talk to the consumer in terms of how the
product-service mix will provide benefits that are important to the potential
buyer.
Print Advertising Terms

The following terms are commonly used in print media, although some ap-
ply to other media as well:
Agate line is a measurement by which newspaper and some magazine ad-

vertising space is sold, regardless of the actual type size used. There are
14 agate lines to the inch. Therefore, if a manager wanted advertising
space two columns wide and three inches deep, the firm would be charged
for 84 agate lines (i.e., 3 inches deep 14 agate lines 42 for first col-
umn 42 for second column).
The base rate is the lowest rate for advertising in print media. This rate
is for run of paper (ROP) and means that the medium, at its discretion,
puts advertisements wherever there is space.
A bleed advertisement is an advertisement that extends into all or part of
the margin of a page. Rates for bleeds vary with the medium used. Most
media charge extra for bleeds.
The number of copies distributed is the circulation. Primary circulation in-
cludes those who subscribe, while secondary circulation includes those who
read pass-along copies; secondary circulation is very difficult to measure.
Some business publications are provided, often at little or no cost, to those
individuals who qualify by engaging in a specific line of business (quali-
fied circulation). For example, meeting planners typically receive publica-
tions targeted toward individuals who plan meetings. These publications
are not available to the general public.
The cost per thousand (CPM) formula is the oldest means for compar-
ing media rates. For print, the cost per 1,000 units of circulation is calcu-
lated on the basis of the one-time rate for one black-and-white page.
The number of times the same audiencelisteners, readers, or viewers
is reached is the frequency. It is expressed as an average, since some peo-
ple may see or hear an advertisement only once, while others see it a dozen
times. Placing more advertising in the media currently being used, adding
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more vehicles in a medium currently being used, and/or expanding into

other media, such as radio as well as newspapers, can increase frequency.
The milline formula is used to determine the cost per line per million cir-
culation and is used to compare the costs of advertising in different news-
papers. The formula is (line rate 1,000,000) / circulation milline rate.
The reason for multiplying by 1,000,000 is that larger figures are easier to
compare. If the rates compared are quoted in column inches, this rate can
be used in the formula instead of the line rate. The same ratebaseline
or column inchmust be used for all newspapers compared.
The number or percentage of people exposed to a specific publication is
the reach and is usually measured throughout publication of a number of
issues. It is the net unduplicated audience.
The volume rate, or bulk rate, may be for total space, time used, or total
dollars expended during a contract period, usually twelve months. As
more advertising is done, unit costs decrease. Newspapers generally quote
their rates in agate lines or column inches. Rates get progressively lower
as the number of lines increases.
BROADCAST MEDIA
Broadcast mediaradio and televisionare distributed over the airwaves.
The level of involvement is lower than with print media and other advertis-
ing mediums, as listeners or viewers can be very passive if they choose.
Radio Advertising
Radio advertising finds extensive use in the foodservice segment of the in-
dustry, and in most cases, it is extremely effective. Radio is able to develop a
distinct personality for a hospitality or tourism operation, and it can reach
consumers 24 hours a day. Radio advertising offers these advantages:
Personal. Radio spots can be written so that they speak directly to the
consumer.
Low relative cost. The cost of radio is usually quite low for local adver-
tising, especially when a package involving several spots is purchased.
Flexibility. Radio copy can be changed quickly in response to rapid
changes in market conditions.
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broadcast media 431
Low production costs. It is relatively inexpensive to create and produce

radio advertising, since there is no visual element.
Audience selectivity. Radio stations have specific formats that appeal to
certain target markets. The demographics and psychographics of these
markets can be matched with the profile of consumers that purchase the
firms product or service.
Radio advertising also offers some disadvantages:
Lack of visual appeal. It is said that people eat with their eyes, but this
is not possible on radio. Extra effort must be made when developing the
copy and sound effects for a radio commercial to stretch the listeners
imagination. The commercial must sell the sizzle.
Fleeting message. Once the commercial has aired, it is gone. The listener
cannot refer to the advertisement to check the price, phone number, or
hours of operation.
Clutter. The airwaves are filled with advertisements for other hospitality
or tourism operations and for every consumer product and service imag-
inable. Given this noise, it is often necessary to maintain higher levels of
advertising to achieve the desired effectiveness.
TECHNIQUES FOR SUCCESSFUL RADIO ADVERTISING. It is im-

portant to recognize that those listening to the radio are also engaged in other
activities. They may be cleaning house, driving cars, working in the office, or
playing at the beach, but they are doing something besides listening to the ra-
dio. Because listeners are not devoting 100 percent of their attention to the ra-
dio, commercials should be kept simple, focusing on one or two major ideas.
It is not effective to bombard listeners with several ideas in each commercial;
they simply will not remember these points. It is also important to mention the
name of the hospitality or tourism operation and the benefit early in the com-
mercial. Many consumers have a tendency to tune out commercials, but adver-
tisers must work hard to make sure they hear at least part of the commercial.
Second, music should be kept simple, and complex lyrics should be avoided.
Ideally, a jingle or short composition should trigger name recognition in the
consumers mind. Short and simple music aids in developing this recognition,
especially if it is repeated as a musical logo in all radio commercials.
Third, the advertisement should suggest immediate action. Every effort
should be made to get the consumer to act. Consumers will quickly forget the
radio commercial, and unless the advertiser can encourage almost immediate
action, the effectiveness of the advertising will be decreased.
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Fourth, the advertisement should talk directly to consumers in a language

and a tone that they will understand. The approach should be personal, much
as if it were a conversation, albeit a one-way conversation. Many hospitality
and tourism establishments, especially on the local level, have had success us-
ing live radio remotes. Live remotes are broadcasts from the hospitality or
tourism operation. They often include live comments from radio personali-
ties and are a good way to gain attention for the business. Commercials are
often part of the live broadcast. These can be particularly effective if a dom-
inant radio personality does the live remote and commercials. These individ-
uals often have loyal listeners and can have a significant influence on them.
Finally, the copy for radio commercials should be written so that it makes
the listener visualize the products and services. The use of jingles and sound
effects helps give consumers a mental picture of the intended message.
TYPES OF RADIO STATIONS. The variety of choices in radio stations is

very broad. Stations are typically classified as progressive; contemporary; mid-
dle of the road (MOR); news, information, and sports; talk; light music; clas-
sical; and country and western.
Progressive stations, sometimes called album-oriented rock (AOR), appeal
to a young audience with contemporary musical tastes. Those who listen to
this type of station tend to think young and listen to the less conservative
music that this type of station offers its listeners. Contemporary stations offer
a milder selection of rock music featuring current hits and sometimes spe-
cializing in specific types of rock such as light and classic rock. Middle of the
road (MOR) offers as close to a mass appeal format as is offered by radio. This
segment was at one time dominant, but its popularity has declined. It appeals
to the middle demographic segments.
News, information, and sports radio stations have proven to be very pop-
ular in the morning hours since they attract those commuting to work. Talk-
oriented stations appeal to an older audience and find their listeners in their
homes during the day.
Light music stations offer a type of music that is sometimes called back-
ground music. The sound is very relaxing and unobtrusive. This format
has grown in popularity with the increase in the average age, which is the
result of the aging of the baby boomers. Classical-oriented stations are not
numerous, but they do attract a very upscale audience, one that many hos-
pitality industry advertisers would find attractive. Even within major mar-
kets, there is usually only one classical station, as the format does not enjoy
wide popularity. The country and western format is widely popular in cer-
tain geographic sections of the country, but it tends to be less popular in ma-
jor cities.
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It is not possible to provide a detailed demographic profile of the type of

listener that each radio format attracts. Rather, it is best for the individual
hospitality manager to compare the listener demographics of the available sta-
tions with those the hotel or restaurant is seeking to attract. In this way, the
best fit between the radio stations listeners and the potential advertisers tar-
get market segments can be achieved.3
SELECTING RADIO SPOTS. Radio spots can be purchased in a wide va-

riety of lengths, ranging from 10 seconds to 1 minute. Special attention should
be paid to (1) the number of spots, (2) the days the spots are broadcast, and
(3) the times of day the spots are broadcast.
The number of spots purchased is important in achieving effectiveness in
radio advertising. Consumers often require several exposures to the message
before they begin to retain it. Repetition is critical to success in radio, as it is
in all advertising. The days of the week selected are also important, for they
suggest when the hospitality advertiser is seeking to promote business. For
example, for an upscale restaurant, is early-week advertising more important,
or should the focus be on traditional weekend dining?
The time of day must also be considered. Radio should reach the con-
sumer at a time when a decision is being made or when the advertiser is seek-
ing to stimulate demand. Table 12.3 shows the time classifications used by ra-
dio stations. The most expensive times are morning and afternoon commuting
times. A hospitality advertiser should seriously consider these times, despite
the increased cost, because they are likely to prove the most effective, espe-
cially for restaurants.
classifications time relative cost
Class AAmorning 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. high

drive time
Class BBdaytime 10 A.M. to 3 P.M. moderate
Class Aafternoon 3 P.M. to 7 P.M. moderate to high

drive time
Class Cevening 7 P.M. to 12 A.M. low to moderate
Class Dnight time 12 A.M. to 6 A.M. low
table 12.3 Radio time classifications.

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Introduction Commercial copy Recap of pertinent Musical logo

5 to 10 seconds 30 to 40 seconds points 5 to 10 seconds
5 to 10 seconds
figure 12.2 Production guide for a 60-second radio commercial.
PRODUCING RADIO COMMERCIALS. Figure 12.2 illustrates a time

guide for producing a radio commercial. This guide can, of course, be mod-
ified, but generally a commercial should consist of introduction, commercial
copy, recap of pertinent points, and musical logo. The introduction usually
consists of music and copy written to get the listeners attention. It serves the
same function as the headline in a print advertisement.
The copy of the commercial is the real heart of the selling proposition.
The copy should explain the benefits of purchasing the product to the con-
sumer. The recap of pertinent points should repeat points that the consumer
should remember, such as a special price or new hours of operation. Finally,
a musical logo is often used to fade out the commercial. Many advertisements
allow five to ten seconds at the end for the announcer to read a live segment
of the commercial. This segment often calls for immediate action by the lis-
tener. Both of these approaches can be very effective.
RADIO ADVERTISING TERMS. As with other forms of media, radio has its
own unique terms that are used within the industry. The following are terms
commonly used in radio advertising:
An advertising spot is a short advertising message on a participating pro-

gram or between other radio programs that an advertiser does not spon-
sor. This is what most people call a commercial. Advertising spots may be
(1) fixed, broadcast at a time guaranteed by contract; (2) preemptible,
broadcast at a certain time unless bumped by an advertiser willing to pay
a higher rate; or (3) floating, broadcast when the station decides (run of
station, or ROS).
Drive time is the early morning and late afternoon/early evening hours when
radio has its largest audiences and highest rates.
Another way of comparing media vehicles and programs is by referring
to gross rating points. This rating can be calculated by multiplying the
rating points (percentage of households, according to surveys, listening to
a program or station at a particular time) by the number of times that pro-
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broadcast media 435
gram or station is heard or viewed during a given period (usually four

weeks). Twenty percent of a potential audience equals 20 rating points.
Preemptible rates are charges for broadcast advertising spots that may be
bumped to different time periods by advertisers paying higher rates. They
vary in cost by the amount of notice the station must give the advertiser
before moving an advertisement; the longer the notice, the higher the rate.
Television Advertising
Each year, more and more hospitality and tourism organizations use tele-
vision as an advertising medium. For some, the move into television brings
increased sales; for others, it is not such a bright picture. Television is a
very demanding medium, one that delivers large audiences but requires
great skill in advertising. Before a hospitality or tourism organization de-
cides to commit resources for television, very careful thought must be given
to its impact on the remainder of the organizations advertising efforts.
Advantages of television advertising include the following:
Large audiences. Television, even at the local level, is able to deliver large
numbers of viewers. It does not allow selectivity of target markets, but
market saturation is high.
High impact of message. The combination of sight, sound, and mo-
tion holds the potential for tremendous impact on viewers. This com-
bination helps viewers to perceive the hospitality or tourism operation
accurately and allows the advertiser to demonstrate the product-
service mix.
Low cost per exposure. Even though the absolute cost of television ad-
vertising is high, when it is divided by the total audience the cost per ex-
posure is actually very low. In this respect, television is an efficient ad-
vertising medium.
Credibility. Consumers perceive claims made in television commercials as
credible. Television has had a major impact on society, and consumers as-
sume only successful companies can afford to advertise on television. Also,
many of these campaigns include celebrities that enhance the credibility
of the commercial.
The disadvantages associated with television advertising include:

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High absolute cost. For the vast majority of hospitality and tourism or-
ganizations, particularly small independent restaurants, the absolute cost
of purchasing television time for commercials is simply too high. Ven-
turing into television advertising necessitates such a drastic reduction in
other advertising efforts that the final result is often a reduction in over-
all advertising effectiveness. This single disadvantage should be weighed
with great care before television advertising is initiated.
High production costs. To maintain credibility and attract the attention
of viewers, firms spend significant money producing television advertise-
ments. Some of the costs involved include celebrities, location and sets,
and special effects.
Fleeting message. Much like radio, once a television advertisement is

broadcast, it is gone, and a potential consumer cannot refer back to it.
Clutter. Television commercials tend to be grouped together at certain

times each hour. This creates a certain amount of competition for the
viewers attention and interest. During prime time less time per hour
is devoted to commercials than at other times, but commercial time is
more expensive.
Low selectivity. It may be difficult to segment the target audience as nar-

rowly as preferred, leading to some amount of wasted coverage.
TECHNIQUES FOR SUCCESSFUL TELEVISION ADVERTISING. First,

the visual aspect of the commercial must convey the message to the consumer.
The sound should enhance the message, but the message should be able to
stand on its visual impact alone. Television is a visual medium; the visual as-
pect is the key to successful television advertising. Messages that hospitality
advertisers try to convey include the luxury and high living of upscale hotels
or the fun people have at a restaurant. Showing people in the actual setting,
not just showing the facilities or the food and beverages, does this.
Second, television advertising must capture the viewers attention imme-
diately, or it is doomed to failure. Facing facts, a manager must remember that
consumers use commercial time to do other things, such as get snacks in the
kitchen. If a commercial does not spark interest, people will not even watch.
Third, the advertisement should stay with one idea and repeat it within
the time allocated. Television viewers see many advertisements throughout
the day, and they cannot possibly remember all that they see and hear. There-
fore, advertisements should focus on one key point. For example, Wendys,
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broadcast media 437
Burger King, and Taco Bell achieved success with campaigns centered on
themes that were simple, direct, and memorable. Every effort should be made
to trim commercials that talk too much. The adage A picture is worth a thou-
sand words should be used as a guide when evaluating television storyboards.
Fourth, television advertisements should accurately project the image of
the hotel or restaurant to consumers. Much time, effort, and money have
been invested in staffing and in the physical facilities in order to create an
image; advertising should not muddy that image with poor television com-
mercials. For example, one upscale restaurant operating in a major metro-
politan area enjoyed a fine reputation and steady clientele. In an effort to in-
crease sales during slow periods, management ventured into television
advertising. After work with the creative staff, a storyboard and script were
created, and production began. The result was a commercial that featured
several still photographs of the restaurant depicting dining situations. These
were well done, but the announcer was talking in a hard-sell tone and at a
very fast pace. This commercial cheapened the image of the restaurant and,
in fact, hurt sales figures.
TYPES OF TELEVISION COMMERCIALS. Advertisements can be cre-

ative and may use several different approaches. Television commercials can
be categorized into six types:
Demonstration. Showing an actual part of the operation can be very ef-

fective. For example, preparing a certain menu item or banquet service in
action within a hotel can help create an image.
Straight announcer. This involves the use of only one announcer offering
the benefit and support.
Testimonial. This is a form of word-of-mouth promotion in which satis-
fied consumers talk about elements of the product-service mix.
Problem solving. This type of commercial offers a problem or series of
problems and shows how a given hospitality or tourism operation can be
the proper solution. For example, How can you best celebrate your for-
tieth birthday? Why of course, come to the famous XYZ restaurant!
Story line. Some commercials tell a story in 30 to 60 seconds. For exam-
ple, imagine a young boy sitting in a classroom at school daydreaming
about a hamburger and french fries. The visual pieces and the sound dis-
cuss the benefits of the products, and when the commercial concludes,
school is out, and the young boy is eating his favorite fast-food meal.
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classification time relative cost
Class AA Daily, 8 P.M. to 11 P.M. High
Class A Daily, 7 A.M. to 8 A.M. High to moderate

Sunday, 6 P.M. to 8 P.M.
Class B Daily, 4 P.M. to 6 P.M. High

Sunday, 2 P.M. to 5:30 P.M.
Class C Daily, 12 P.M. to 4 P.M. Low to moderate

Saturday, 6 P.M. to 4 P.M.
Class D Daily, 12 A.M. to 6 A.M. Low
table 12.4 Television time classifications.
Musical. Several successful television commercials have used the appeal-

ing visual effect of food products backed with appropriate music. If done
well, this can be a very effective soft sell.
Just as radio stations divide the day into different time classifications, so
does television. The television time classifications are shown in Table 12.4.
TELEVISION ADVERTISING TERMS. Many technical terms are used by
television stations and advertisers in business negotiations. The following are
terms commonly used in television advertising:
In a dissolve one scene fades into the next, with the two showing simul-
taneously for a moment.
Dubbing refers to recording the sound portion of the commercial sepa-
rately and then synchronizing it with the visual components.
With a fade in/fade out the screen goes from black to the visual material,
or the final visual shot is faded into black.
The term fringe time refers to the periods immediately before and after
TV prime time, 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and after 11 P.M. in all time zones except
the Central time zone, where periods run an hour earlier.
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direct mail 439
A network is a link of many stations by cable or microwave for simulta-

neous broadcast from a single originating point. The stations may be
owned by or affiliated with the network. Major networks are ABC, CBS,
NBC, and Fox. However, with the increase in specialized stations because
of the growth of cable and satellite television, the importance of the three
major networks has declined. Other networks such as CNN, ESPN, Food
Network, and more targeted networks have increased their impact on the
television market.
Prime time is the time period when television has the largest audiences
and highest advertising rates. In the Eastern, Mountain, and Pacific time
zones it is from 8 P.M. to 11 P.M. In the Central time zone, it is from 7 P.M.
to 10 P.M.
DIRECT MAIL
There are those who refer to direct-mail advertising as junk mail. These
individuals believe that direct-mail advertising is of little value and is not ap-
propriate for the hospitality and tourism industry. These beliefs simply are
not true. Direct mail can and does work for many hospitality and tourism ad-
vertisers. It is used to solicit group and banquet business. Most hotels rou-
tinely send direct-mail pieces describing guest room and meeting facilities to
potential meeting planners and then follow up with inquiries and personal
calls to generate leads from the mailing. Direct mail is also used to promote
special events, such as holidays or special packages, and often to offer pro-
motional discounts.
The advantages of direct mail can be summarized as follows:
Highly selective, low-waste coverage. With direct mail, an advertiser can
be very selective with the target market segment and can include only the
very best potential consumers on the mailing list. Direct mail need not be
junk mail addressed to occupant or homeowner. The widespread use
of personal computers has allowed even small hotels and restaurants to
manage large databases and address lists that can then be merged with
personalized letters.
Easily evaluated. It is easy to monitor the effectiveness of direct-mail pieces
by looking at inquiries and sales. Many firms include a postage-paid post-
card for the prospect to use to inquire about additional information, which
can be used to measure exposures and interest.
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Short lead time. It is relatively easy to produce and copy direct-mail pieces.
Therefore, firms can keep pace with rapid changes in market conditions.
High information content. There are no time or space limits, as is the case
with other media. There are the limits of size or shape. Therefore, one
can be very creative. The manager who develops the direct-mail piece has
a great deal of control over the design, production, and distribution of the
direct-mail efforts. Direct-mail pieces can contain detailed explanations
and presentations.
The following disadvantages are associated with direct-mail advertising:
Poor image. Direct mail suffers from a poor image in the minds of
many consumers. Unless the piece is able to attract immediate atten-
tion, most consumers will not read it.
Clutter. In recent years, there has been tremendous growth in the use of
direct mail, especially in the area of direct-mail marketing of retail items.
As a result, the number of direct-mail pieces that the typical consumer re-
ceives each day is increasing, and it is becoming more difficult to get the
desired message to the consumer.
High cost per contact. When all the costs associated with direct mail
are added up, the total is often surprising to the advertiser. Included in
these costs are mailing lists, printing, production of letters, envelope
stuffing, and postage.
Techniques for Successful

Direct-Mail Advertising
First, any direct-mail piece that achieves success must capture the potential
consumers attention. Many consumers throw out direct-mail advertising
without opening it; others open it but do not read it. This is obviously a
waste of a firms money. A tried-and-true approach to direct-mail adver-
tising is based on the AIDA principle (attention, interest, desire, action). If
the advertising fails to motivate the consumer to act immediately, chances
are that the advertising will be set aside and eventually forgotten. Consumer
action is the goal of direct-mail advertising; action leads to inquiries, in-
quires lead to prospects, and prospects lead to sales. Examples of copy writ-
ten to spur action include Act within 10 days and receive a free gift or
Call today for reservations; only a limited number will be accepted for this
special evening.
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direct mail 441
Artex International direct-mail pieces are successful at capturing the attention of potential
customers. Courtesy of Artex International.
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Special attention needs to be given to the layout and copy writing of

direct-mail pieces. Generally, long paragraphs of copy should be avoided be-
cause most people simply will not read them. Research has shown that the
more personal the appearance of the direct-mail piece, the greater likelihood
that the recipient will read it. Many firms doing small, selective mailings will
personalize them with a regular stamp and/or envelopes that are addressed
by hand. Both techniques usually prove to be more effective than using bulk-
rate postage and peel-off address labels.
If specific direct-mail pieces prove successful, an advertiser should run
them again. The piece may seem old to the management of the hospitality or
tourism operation, but to consumers, it will be new and different. If some-
thing works, there is no reason to change merely for the sake of change.
Finally, direct-mail efforts are often successful because of the creativity on
the part of the advertiser. Taking a familiar object and putting it to new use
can create dramatic results. For example, one restaurant used brown lunch
bags instead of standard envelopes. The phrase Are you still brown-bagging
it? was printed on the outside of the bag. Another restaurant used pieces that
resembled parking tickets and put them on the cars parked in certain areas.
Printed on the top of the pseudo-ticket was Heres your ticket to a great
lunch. Although, strictly speaking, this last promotion is not direct mail, it
was very successful and used a direct-mail approach.
The Direct Marketing Association (DMA) offers a wealth of information
that will be useful to any hospitality and tourism organization that is devel-
oping direct marketing materials. Additional information can be found at
www.the-dma.org.
Mailing Lists
Maintaining mailing lists is critical to the cost effectiveness and success of any
direct-mail advertising program. Only names of potential consumers should
be included, and names that are duplicated because several lists are used should
be avoided. Both of these problems sound simple, but solving them is often
easier said than done.
Mailing lists fall into two categories: in-house lists and external lists. The
management generates in-house lists internally. These lists should include those
who have patronized the hotel, restaurant, or tourist attraction or who have the
potential to generate a significant amount of business. Many restaurants use the
guest book concept very successfully. They place a guest book at the entrance
and ask each individual to sign it. Another approach is to keep a large bowl at
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direct mail 443
the hosts stand into which guests may place business cards. The names and ad-
dresses provided by the guests become an excellent foundation on which to build
a mailing list. Within hotels, it is relatively easy to build a mailing list based on
registration information, as well as the contacts that are made by the sales and
marketing staff.
External lists are obtained from companies that sell mailing lists based
on demographics, socioeconomic levels, geographic areas, and numerous
other variables. Costs of these lists vary depending on selectivity and size.
Lists purchased externally should be guaranteed to be current. Reputable
companies will guarantee lists to be 90 to 95 percent accurate and current.
Mailing lists can also be purchased from clubs, associations, and other
businesses.
One final word on direct-mail advertising: results may seem discourag-
ing based on the total number of pieces mailed. Typically, the response rate
on mail promotions is less than 1 percent. Anything more than 1 percent is
very good, and more than 5 percent is outstanding. Consider a restaurant that
sent a mailing to 20,000 potential consumers advertising a promotional item.
A response rate of 1 percent would be 200, 2 percent would be 400, and 5 per-
cent would be 1,000. As few as 200 extra covers can have a substantial impact
on sales.
Outdoor advertising is common at large special events such as the 2003 Phoenix Open.
Photo by Carolyn S. Baragona.
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SUPPORT MEDIA
In addition to the major types of media discussed earlier, other forms of me-
dia are used by firms to support, or supplement, the media effort. This sec-
tion covers three forms of support media: outdoor advertising, brochures and
collateral materials, and specialty advertising.
Outdoor Advertising
Outdoor advertising has widespread use among those hospitality operations
located near interstate highways, but it can be effective in other locations as
well. One hospitality organization in a large northern city allocated a substan-
tial portion of its advertising budget to outdoor advertising. The outdoor dis-
plays were both creative and somewhat risky, and the results were very suc-
cessful. The advantages of outdoor advertising include these characteristics:
Low cost per exposure. When the cost of producing and placing an out-
door advertisement is divided by the total number of exposures, the cost
per thousand is extremely low.
High repetition. Consumers who frequent a given route will see the out-
door advertising again and again. This repetition aids in recall and re-
tention.
Ability to target location. Outdoor advertising is particularly useful for
hospitality and tourism firms in targeting customers looking for lodging,
a restaurant, or some other type of travel service (e.g., car rental, tourist
information, etc.) in the immediate area.
The following disadvantages are also associated with outdoor advertising:
Poor audience selectivity/high wasted coverage. While the cost per thou-
sand is low, outdoor advertising does not lend itself to reaching small tar-
get market segments. It is a mass-market method.
Legislation/local restrictions. Beginning with the Highway Beautification
Act in 1965, all levels of government have discussed and often have en-
acted legislation to limit and tightly control the construction of outdoor
billboards and signs. The impact of legislation varies greatly among states
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support media 445
and localities. Despite legislative efforts, on average, new billboards are

twice as big as they were in 1965, and there are 50 percent more of them
than 30 years ago. Today there are an estimated 450,000 billboards on
federal-aid highways, compared to the 330,000 billboards that first in-
spired the act.4
Long lead time. It requires considerable planning to use outdoor adver-
tising. It takes time to create and display an outdoor advertisement.
Lack of flexibility. Once outdoor advertising is in place, it is not subject
to change without considerable effort and cost.
TECHNIQUES FOR SUCCESSFUL OUTDOOR ADVERTISING. Three

simple strategies should govern all outdoor advertising. First, the copy should
be kept brief and the print large. Those viewing outdoor advertising will be
riding in buses, cabs, and cars or walking down the street. They focus their
attention on the advertisement for only a few seconds, so the message must
be brief. The message should be a maximum of five to seven wordsthe fewer
the better. Information such as the telephone number or hours of operation
is not likely to be remembered and should not be included.
Second, a picture or illustration is often very helpful in gaining attention.
The picture or illustration should convey the message and be used to provide
clear name recognition. The best example is the McDonalds golden arches.
The arches are used on most outdoor advertising for McDonalds. The visual
image is easily recognized.
TYPES OF OUTDOOR ADVERTISING. Standard outdoor advertising con-
sists of posters and painted bulletins. Posters are blank boards on which the
printed advertising is mounted. Painted bulletins are more permanent signs
on which the message is painted. Both posters and painted bulletins are avail-
able in a wide variety of sizes. Painted bulletins are sold individually, and
posters are sold by showings. A showing refers to the coverage of a market
within a 30-day period, not the number of posters. A 100 showing is complete
coverage of a market, a 50 showing is half of it, and so on. In some commu-
nities, 10 posters might be a 100 showing, but in much smaller places, 2 posters
could be a 100 showing. An outdoor advertising plant is a company that buys
or leases real estate (where it erects standard-size boards) or rents walls of
buildings. It then sells use of space at these locations to advertisers.
When renting posters, circulation, or the number of people who will see
the board, should be considered. The length of time a passerby can see the
poster clearly should be considered. Not all locations are good ones. The phys-
ical condition of the posters and painted bulletins should also be considered.
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Nothing will reflect more negatively on an advertiser than a poorly main-

tained board or one with its lights burned out.
Another type of outdoor advertising is referred to as transit advertising.
This refers to advertising placed on vehicles used in transporting people or
in public places that people encounter in their daily travel routines. For
example, most cities sell advertising space on buses, taxis, and subways,
as well as on walls in the stations where people wait for these forms of
transportation.
Brochures and Collateral Materials

Brochures are developed and used to supplement other forms of advertis-
ing, as well as personal selling efforts. Normally, brochures are used in
direct-mail campaigns in addition to being placed in hotels, restaurants,
tourist attractions, and tourist information centers. Other forms of collat-
eral materials include meeting planner guides and video brochures. Hotels,
cruises, and resorts use video brochures that provide a quick four-to-
six-minute tour of the property. However, written brochures are still the
most common item for creating awareness and interest among potential
consumers.
CREATING EFFECTIVE BROCHURES. Brochures play a vital role in the
advertising and promotional efforts of hotels, and they can be beneficial to
restaurants and travel firms as well. They can be used in a wide variety of sit-
uations. It will not be possible to tell the entire story within a brochure, as
there are space restrictions. The most important point to remember is to com-
municate your facilitys positioning. It is imperative that you create and main-
tain an image in the consumers mind. Once you have determined the type of
positioning statement you want to communicate, you can move on to the key
benefits and support that the brochure will communicate. The following
guidelines will lead to more successful brochures:
Brochure cover. First, the cover design is very critical. It should commu-
nicate where your property is located and your positioning statement. The
cover is valuable space, and it should be used to convey your primary sell-
ing message and the key consumer benefit. The photograph used on the
front cover should grab the attention of potential guests, capturing their
interest.
Photographs. All photographs should help to stretch potential guests
imagination. They should be able to see themselves in the setting. Pho-
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support media 447
tographs of activities are more useful than photographs of just the facili-
ties. If you plan to use food in the photographs, use close-up photos of fin-
ished products, not just the ingredients. Avoid the use of standard types
of photographs that are all too common in hotel brochures. These include
the smiling chef standing beside the buffet table and service personnel
serving food in a restaurant. Strive for a fresh approach.
Information. Potential guests need information that will help them to bet-
ter understand things about your product-service mix. The use of maps
and/or graphics on the brochure helps the reader gain a better under-
standing of where you are located, as well as some specifics about the types
of products and services offered. Basic information such as street address,
Web site address, telephone number(s), and chain affiliation should also
be included.
Copy. Just as with any type of advertising, the copy used in a brochure
must talk to the consumer in his or her own language and must speak di-
rectly in terms of important benefits. Here a professional copywriter may
be useful. It is important to avoid clichs, as these will actually turn off
potential guests.
Specialty Advertising
In addition to the basic media used by hospitality and tourism firms, specialty
advertising materials bearing the firms name and logo can be given or sold
to a targeted consumer. There are literally thousands of specialty items, in-
cluding pens, pencils, calendars, rulers, paperweights, jewelry, matches, pro-
grams, candy jars, travel bags, and T-shirts.
Some of the advantages of specialty advertising are:
Retention. If the item is of value or usefulness to the recipient, it is likely

to be retained, and the advertising message is seen repeatedly.
Selectivity. Most specialty items are distributed directly to consumers in
the firms target market. For example, hotel pens and childrens cups in
restaurants are kept by customers, and hotels, restaurants, and airlines all
sell shirts and hats bearing the firms name and logo.
Low cost. When purchased in large quantities, many specialty advertis-
ing items can be fairly inexpensive per unit.
Some of the disadvantages associated with specialty advertising include:

c12.qxd 12/21/04 12:24 PM Page 448
Image. It is important to use items that are consistent in quality with the
overall quality perceptions that consumers have of the firm. If the items
are cheap, they will have a negative impact on the image of the firm.
Clutter. Many firms distribute items such as pens and key chains. Firms
must develop unique items that will be of some value to consumers.
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chapter review 449
Chapter review
This chapter covers the vast area of external advertising and promotional me-
dia. These media constitute an invaluable resource that, if managed properly,
can generate increased sales and substantial profits. Managed poorly, these
media will drain away advertising resources and leave little or nothing to show
in return. As with all investments, management must evaluate advertising for
its return on investment. The relationships between a hospitality client and
an advertising agency involve both positive and negative aspects. Management
should consider several factors when selecting an agency and should consider
compensation practices within the |industry.
Media selection involves several factors. These include the nature of the
target market, the campaign objectives, the desired amount of coverage, and
the activities of direct competition. Media plans must be developed to achieve
maximum effectiveness. These plans must closely consider the target markets
to blend the media to achieve the desired results. Media scheduling includes
the following approaches: continuous, flighting, and pulsing advertising.
External advertising media include newspapers, magazines, radio, tele-
vision, direct mail, outdoor, and supplemental advertising. Each of these me-
dia has its appropriate use, advantages, drawbacks, and techniques that are
generally successful. An understanding of advertising terms allows a man-
ager to communicate more intelligently with media and advertising agency
personnel.

Advertising spot
Agate line
Base rate
Bleed advertisement
Brochures
Circulation
Collateral materials
Continuous advertising
Cost per thousand (CPM)
Dissolve
Drive time
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Dubbing
Fade in/fade out
Flighting media scheduling
Frequency
Fringe time
Gross rating points
Media planning process
Milline formula
Outdoor advertising plant
Preemptible rates
Pulsing advertising
Reach
Showing
Specialty advertising
Chapter review
Volume rate

Discussion
1. What factors affect the selection of advertising
media?
2. Discuss the media planning process. What are the steps

involved?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of the

major media types?
4. Cite and discuss techniques for successful print advertising

and for developing copy for print advertising.
5. What are the methods of media scheduling? Which one do
you consider the best? Why?
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chapter review 451
Chapter review
6. Compare and contrast the various types of media based on
their respective characteristics.
7. Assignment for class discussion: Every city or town has its share
of media that can be used for advertising.
a. Discuss some of the media vehicles used by hospitality
and tourism firms in your area.
b. What similarities and differences exist among the differ-
ent types of firms?
c. How do the characteristics of these vehicles affect the
firms decisions?
d. Contact some of the local media and ask them how they
charge for advertising.
e. In each medium, how much does it cost to produce a
typical advertisement (i.e., the cost range), and what is
the lead time to place the ad?
Notes
1 David W. Nylen, Marketing Decision-Making Handbook (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990), p. G-150.
2 Howard A. Heinsius, How to Select Advertising Media More Effectively, in Strategic Marketing Planning in
the Hospitality Industry, edited by Robert L. Blomstrom (East Lansing, MI: Educational Institute of the Ameri-
can Hotel and Motel Association, 1983), pp. 25658.
3 Harry A. Egbert, Advertising for Hotels, edited by Robert L. Blomstrom (East Lansing, MI: Educational In-
stitute of the American Hotel and Motel Association, 1983), pp. 28084.
4 The Environmental Working Group, http://www.ewg.org/reports/billboards/billboards.html, 2003.
c12.qxd 12/21/04 12:24 PM Page 452
Case Study
Advertising Decisions for
the Alexandria Inn
B ill Walker is a co-owner of the Alexandria Inn, an independently

owned casual restaurant located in an urban area in the southeastern
United States. The city in which the Alexandria Inn is located has a
year-round population of 200,000 that increases to nearly 350,000 during the
tourist season, which lasts for six months each year, with the peak being in
the summer months. The restaurant has seating for 200, divided between three
separate dining areas. An additional 45 seats are in the lounge area. There is
currently no outside seating, although Bill has considered adding an outside
dining area. During the most recent fiscal year, the restaurant had annual sales
totaling $2.1 million, of which 70 percent was food, with the remaining 30
percent representing alcoholic beverages. There is a modest amount of off-
site catering, which accounts for $125,000 annually.
The Alexandria Inn, which Bill and his co-owners developed as a mid-
priced restaurant, competes with several national chains located within a two-
mile radius. These chains include Macaroni Grill, Chilis, and TGI Fridays,
all of which are quite successful. During the last year, Bill noticed that each
of these national chains has been much more aggressive in advertising and
promotions. These and other regional and national chains are running ad-
vertisements on a continuous basis both on radio and in print, as well as pul-
case study
sating advertising on television. Most of this television advertising is during

the period of high tourist demand. In addition to their use of advertising, these
chains offer nearly constant promotions of one or more items on their menus,
and are again more aggressive during the height of the tourist season.
Bill asserts that the target market for the Alexandria Inn consists of more
than 125,000 people who live within an eight-mile radius of the restaurant.
About 40 percent of the restaurants business comes during the lunch period,
and the largest demand during lunch is from individuals who work within
two miles of the restaurant. Bill has cultivated a strong demand from several
corporate office parks located near the restaurant. His strategy asserts that this
demand is more consistent than catering to tourists. His goal is to keep a more
even demand throughout the entire year, something that focusing on tourists
as his primary target market would not allow.
Bills dilemma is quite clear. Should he start to more aggressively adver-
tise and promote the restaurant? If yes, where and how? The restaurant has
an ongoing relationship with a marketing and public relations firm that Bill
has worked with for the past three years. This firm creates and produces all
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case study 453
case study
of the posters, banners, and similar work used inside the restaurant. In addi-
tion, this same firm does all the menu design and production. Bill has been
very pleased with their work, and the prices have been quite reasonable.
In recent weeks, Bill has been approached by both another marketing firm
and a radio station soliciting his business. The marketing firm has promised
a 10 percent discount on all design and production costs. The radio station is
offering a commercial package that offers 20 percent more advertising time
than regular advertising rates. In order to secure his business, the radio sta-
tion is willing to tie future advertising rates to documented increases in busi-
ness at the Alexandria Inn.
Last evening, Bill told his general manager, Chris Williams, that he felt
overwhelmed and confused. At times like this he wished that his restaurant
were part of a chain so that he could get some help with advertising and pro-
motion. The two of them talked for a while about what to do. They devel-
oped the following questions, agreed to think about them, and will meet again
in a week to consider options. What should Bill do?

1. As an independent restaurateur, should he start advertising?
2. How should he achieve his goal of increasing dinner volume by 1015
percent?
3. How should he increase his goal of increasing lunchtime off-site
catering by 10 percent?
4. He is being given the hard sell by the radio station sales representative;
should he consider advertising in other media, such as print or
television? Is direct mail an option he should consider?
5. His clientele is quite loyal, with approximately 60 percent of his
customers being repeat customers. How can he best attract more
business from this group while bringing in first-time guests?
6. Only about 10 percent of his business comes from tourists visiting the
area. Should he advertise to attract this market? If so, how?
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Courtesy Digital Vision.

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chapter
13
Sales Promotions,
Merchandising, and
Public Relations
Chapter Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should understand:
1. The concept of sales promotion and its role in marketing
strategy.
2. The various types of sales promotions and the advantages
and disadvantages associated with their use.
3. How to manage sales promotions.
4. The concept of merchandising.
5. The concept of public relations and its role in marketing
strategy.
6. The various public relations techniques.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Managing successful promotions
Evaluating the impact of sales promotions
Introduction
Merchandising
Sales Promotions Missed selling opportunities
Historical perspective on promotions Training guest-contact personnel
Role of sales promotions Entertainment
Types of sales promotions Other merchandising techniques
Commonly used techniques
(continues)
455
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Public Relations Key Terms and Concepts

Public relations techniques
Guidelines for public relations
Evaluating public relations
Discussion
Case Study: Princess Suites
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industry profile
Brian Comes Senior Director of Catering/Convention Services
Hyatt Hotels and Resorts San Diego, California

I manage the Catering/Convention Services Department of a 1,625-room con-
vention hotel with over 125,000 square feet of meeting space. There are 12
catering/convention managers, 8 full-time assistants, and 3 meeting concierges.
My primary responsibility is to ensure that each convention or local social
event is a success by supporting and directing my staff. I handle several of the
very large conventions, but for the most part, I mentor, help solve client issues,
and monitor the catering financials. As a senior director of catering/convention
services, I also support eight other Hyatt properties on the West Coast.

Exceeding our clients expectations is by far the most rewarding aspect of my
position, though it is also important to reach the financial goals of the de-
partment. I enjoy coaching the staff and watching them develop their skills
as they grow with the company.
I do regret that since the hotel has expanded I have less time for direct
guest interaction and that I spend considerably more time in meetings.
3. What are the most challenging aspects that you

are facing?
The expansion of the hotel from 875 guest rooms to 1,625 rooms and from
45,000 square feet of meeting space to over 125,000 square feet has made it a
challenge to maintain the high level of service and personal attention that we
had previously. We are thrilled by the quality of the new property and are
working hard to ensure that each guest receives the special attention they de-
serve. The new Manchester Grand Hyatt San Diego is the premier water-
front convention hotel in California and possibly in the United States, and we
plan on delivering the service to support that claim for many years to come.

industry?
San Diego has been fortunate to have weathered the recession remarkably
well, and we have positioned ourselves well for the future. Americas finest
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458 chapter 13 sales promotions, merchandising, and public relations
city has a newly expanded convention center, a new ballpark for the Padres,
and the best year-round weather in the country. We believe the hotel indus-
try is beginning the upward cycle again after three long years of decline.
Though we have much work yet to do, the anticipation of brighter days ahead
makes our individual job satisfaction much greater. The continued use of the
Internet as a hotel booking source for groups will be a key focus in the next
few years.

your company?
We have both national and local marketing efforts, and Hyatt has for the most
part directed marketing dollars to the individual hotels to focus on their pri-
mary sources of leads. We recently completed an extensive marketing cam-
paign on our expansion and have joined forces with several large Hyatt
hotels to market the big boxes, or, as the campaign states, the gorillas!
industry profile

you suggest?
Start early by working in restaurants or hotels, or with caterers, and if you
find the industry to your liking, be aggressive in your goals, since there is so
much opportunity for promotion and even more opportunity for satisfaction!
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sales promotions 459
INTRODUCTION
The hospitality and tourism industry is a people-oriented business. Hospital-
ity operations promote hospitality, yet hospitality cannot be purchased, can-
not be traded, and does not appear on the menu. Hospitality is intangible, yet
it is absolutely necessary for success. When service personnel project the spirit
of hospitality, the results can be dramatic: increased sales, increased profits,
increased consumer satisfaction, and, yes, increased employee satisfaction and
motivation. Hospitality and tourism companies also sell atmosphere, conve-
nience, entertainment, escape, and social contact. All of these are related to
the spirit of hospitality and are equally intangible. All deserve consideration
as promotable items.
Sales Promotions
Historical Perspective
on Promotions
Retail stores first started offering trading stamps to consumers with purchases
in the late 1800s. Thomas Sperry and Shelley Hutchinson offered their S&H
Green Stamps to various retailers with the idea that they could be redeemed
for merchandise at a central distribution point. This concept continued until
the use of trading stamps peaked in the 1960s, with many grocery stores, gas
stations, and other retail establishments participating. Then, in response to
high inflation and the energy crisis in the 1970s, the popularity of trading
stamps began to wane. Consumers were more interested in actual cost sav-
ings than in sales promotions or premiums such as trading stamps. Trading
stamps all but disappeared by the 1980s, until a similar concept was adopted
by the airline industry: frequent flyer programs.
Much like trading stamps, the objective of frequent flyer programs is to
reward consumers in relation to the amount of products or services that they
purchase. Trading stamps were distributed based on the amount of money a
customer spent, and frequent flyer miles are currently distributed based on
the number of miles a customer travels. This type of nonprice promotion, or
premium, has been adopted by other sectors of the hospitality and tourism in-
dustry. Hotels offer frequent guest programs, and restaurants offer frequent
diner programs. In addition, many hospitality and tourism firms have formed
relationships around the trading-stamp concept. For example, if you stay at a
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Frequent-customer programs are effective for building repeat business. Courtesy of Cen-
dant Corp.
Marriott hotel or rent a car at Avis, you can earn frequent flyer miles for
United Airlines. Credit card companies, such as American Express, have de-
veloped broad-based mileage and merchandise credits in cooperation with air-
lines, hotels, and retailers. Nearly all credit card providers have adopted some
type of mileage program, with American Express Membership Rewards be-
ing the most popular.
Frequent-customer programs have become very popular as a means for
firms to build repeat business and brand loyalty. However, these programs do
have some drawbacks. For instance, frequent-diner programs can be inexpen-
sive to maintain, but the start-up costs can be high.1 Also, a great deal of time
and effort is required to plan the programs structure and benefits. Customers
find ways to cheat the program, and restaurants risk alienating customers
when changes are made to the programs. Finally, customers may get bored
with the program, and it could become difficult to track customer visits and
points over time. And, in the case of airlines or hotels, customers redeeming
points could displace paying customers during periods of high demand.
Role of Sales Promotions

In recent years, most companies have devoted an ever-increasing percentage
of their budgets to sales promotions and have reduced the percentage devoted
solely to advertising. Sales promotions seek to accomplish several broad ob-
jectives and can be used for several purposes:
To increase consumer awareness. This is the first step in attracting new

guests or customers. To attract a guest, one must first stimulate interest
and a desire to act. Advertising seeks to increase awareness as well, but
sometimes it takes a targeted promotion to turn that awareness into con-
sumer purchasing action.
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To introduce new products and services. Every hotel and restaurant

launches new products and services. The best way to ensure that the tar-
get markets are aware of these products and services is to initiate a spe-
cial promotion to draw attention to them. When McDonalds or Taco Bell
launches a new product, it supports the introduction with extra advertis-
ing and special promotions designed to promote trial of the new product.
Merely introducing the new product or service to the target markets is not
enough; you need to create interest, encourage trial purchases, and stim-
ulate future demand for the new products and services.
To increase guest occupancy and customer counts. With increasing com-
petition in many markets, one of the few avenues for market share growth
is to take business away from the direct competition. To accomplish this,
it is necessary to feature promotions that offer consumers a better deal or
greater value than they can receive elsewhere. Promotions are used to
spread the word to potential guests.
To combat competitors actions. If the direct competition is gaining mar-
ket share at the expense of your hotel or restaurant, you may be forced
to match their promotion or to add one of your own with a new twist.
For example, Marriott International was among the first hotel compa-
nies to offer a frequent guest program. This program proved to be so
successful that competing hotel chains were forced to offer frequent trav-
eler programs to compete with Marriott. Each company offered a slightly
different program, seeking to gain a competitive advantage and there-
fore promote brand loyalty.
To encourage present guests to purchase more. Total sales can be increased
by packaging (bundling) different products and services at a total price
that is less than the cost of purchasing the components separately. Pro-
motions can also be used to encourage guests to trade up to more expen-
sive products and services by offering a discounted price on the more ex-
pensive product or service. The primary purpose is to increase sales by
encouraging present guests to purchase more.
To stimulate demand in nonpeak periods. All hospitality and tourism op-
erations have periods when demand is weak. Promotions can be used to
increase weekend business for a business-oriented hotel or stimulate off-
season and shoulder-season business at a resort. Within the foodservice
segment, promotions can be used to increase sales during periods of the
day or days of the week when demand is slow. For example, some restau-
rants stimulate early evening business by offering a discount to senior cit-
izens who dine between 5:00 and 7:00 P.M., when business is often slow.
They take advantage of the fact that seniors usually try to dine earlier and
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are often more conscious of the price-value relationship. Early dining

promotions directed at this target market are often quite successful.
The ultimate goal of all forms of promotion is to stimulate attention, inter-

est, desire, and action (AIDA). Sales promotions are most effective as short-
term inducements to purchase a particular brand. As such, they can lead to
desire and action, but sales promotions are normally not as effective as long-
term strategies.
Types of Sales Promotions

Firms use two common strategies within the broad sphere of sales promotion:
push promotion and pull promotion. A marketing manager uses the push pro-
motional strategy when he or she wants to push the product-service mix
through the service delivery system or channels of distribution. This approach
encourages increased purchases and increased consumption by consumers. A
pull promotional strategy, on the other hand, is aimed at stimulating con-
sumers interest and having them pull the product through the channels of
distribution. This in turn puts additional pressure on the retail outlets or hos-
pitality facilities to supply the products and services most in demand by con-
sumers. Descriptions of some of the more commonly used push and pull tech-
niques follow.
TECHNIQUES FOR PUSH PROMOTIONS

Point-of-sale (POS) displays. The displays usually seen at the counter of
fast-food restaurants or as table tents in other types of restaurants, called
point-of-sale (POS) displays, are designed to stimulate increased sales.
Similarly, signs, banners, and table tents are often displayed by hotels in
their lobbies, restaurants, and guest rooms.
Cooperative advertising. A national chain normally provides advertising
at the national, regional, and local levels to support its outlets. Also, fran-
chisees will often receive financial assistance with local advertising, in ad-
dition to the chains national advertising, as part of the franchise agree-
ment. This practice is called cooperative advertising.
Advertising materials. To encourage the local property to run advertis-
ing, the national chain will supply camera-ready advertising materials as
well as prepared radio commercials.
Traditional and electronic collateral material. Many firms supplement
their other promotional efforts with materials such as brochures, flyers,
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or directories of other outlets within the chain. Beyond the traditional

print collateral materials, firms use Web-based promotions to communi-
cate with current and prospective customers.
Convention and owners/managers meetings. National chains use these
meetings as a method to introduce new products and services to those who
will be working in the individual units. These meetings are used for sales
and service training.
TECHNIQUES FOR PULL PROMOTIONS

Sampling. This technique can be used very effectively by foodservice man-
agers. For example, samples of menu items can be distributed in the lobby
area of a fast-food restaurant, thereby encouraging customers to try the
new product. The goal is to convert this trial into regular use and repeat
purchase. Within the lodging field, this technique is common as well.
Meeting planners usually visit the potential hotel meeting site to sample
the product and service before they make a final decision about the host
hotel for an upcoming meeting.
Price reduction promotions. Price reductions for a limited time can en-
courage trial and increase sales. Many business-oriented hotels that are
normally busiest Monday through Thursday have used weekend price re-
ductions to increase volume during otherwise slow periods. By promot-
ing getaway weekends at discounted prices, these hotels built weekend
business. Chains such as Marriott International, Hyatt Hotels and Resorts,
and Hilton have used this approach very successfully. As with all pro-
motions of this type, restrictions should apply and a definite time period
should be stated.
Coupons. These are certificates that entitle the consumer to receive a dis-
count when presented at the retail outlet. They can be distributed in news-
papers or magazines, face-to-face, or via direct mail.
Combination offers or bundling. This involves combining two or more
products or services and offering them for less than what they would cost
if purchased separately.
Premiums. Extra merchandise or gifts that the hotel or restaurant gives
away or sells at a very favorable price to guests are premiums. Exam-
ples include items such as hats, tote bags, glassware, and T-shirts with
the logo printed on them. If the hotel or restaurant is able to cover the
direct costs of the item, the premium is called self-liquidating. Some op-
erations, such as Cheers in Boston or Emeril Lagasses restaurants, sell
a considerable volume of logo merchandise.
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Contests and sweepstakes. The attraction of contests and sweepstakes is

the highly desirable prizes that consumers can win. There is one minor
difference between a contest and a sweepstakes. Contests require some
skill on the part of the participant, while sweepstakes are based solely on
chance. In all states, non-state-run lotteries are illegal. Lotteries consist of
three elements: (1) the element of chance; (2) consideration, or giving
something in returnfor example, having to make a purchase in order
to enter the sweepstakes; and (3) a valuable prize. To avoid illegal activ-
ities in most localities, it is necessary to eliminate one of these elements.
If a purchase is not required to enter the sweepstakes, it is not classified
as a lottery and is therefore legal in most localities. Contests, because they
require some skill on the part of the participant, are not considered to be
lotteries because there is no element of chance involved.
Commonly Used Techniques

The most common sales promotion techniques in the hospitality and tourism
industry are coupons, sampling, premiums, and contests or sweepstakes. The
following sections provide a complete discussion of these techniques.
COUPONS. The primary objectives for coupons are to stimulate trial of
your products and services by reducing the price, encourage multiple pur-
chases, and generate temporary sales increases.
Coupons offer several advantages:
The coupon represents a tangible inducement, offering a savings or

benefit.
The price reduction is for a limited time and will not affect profit mar-
gins in the long term.
Coupons can be used to accomplish specific objectives, such as boosting
business during nonpeak periods.
The maximum cost of the promotion can be calculated in advance. For
example, past experience will allow you to estimate the percentage of the
coupons likely to be redeemed.
Coupons have disadvantages as well:
Some employees will be tempted to defraud the business. It is possible for

them to take cash and substitute coupons. The higher the value of the
coupon, the more supervision is necessary.
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Redemption rates are not easily predicted. Among the environmental fac-
tors that can affect the redemption rate are the value of the coupon, tim-
ing, and the activities of direct competitors. This is most common with
new promotions because there is no prior history on which to predict fu-
ture coupon redemption rates.
SAMPLING. Encouraging trial of new products is the primary objec-
tive of sampling. If consumers will at least try the product, they are more
likely to purchase it in the future. Sampling is also an excellent way to
persuade consumers to trade up to more expensive products and services.
Sampling can be tied in with other types of promotions. For example, air-
lines routinely offer upgrades to first class for frequent travelers as a re-
ward for their use of the airline. Not only is this a reward, but after fly-
ing in first class, travelers may decide to purchase first-class tickets for
subsequent flights, thereby increasing sales and profits. Airlines help the
traveler to rationalize this additional cost by awarding additional mileage
points when the traveler flies in first class.
Sampling offers these advantages:
Getting consumers to try the product is superior to getting them to look

at an advertisement. It provides the consumer with instant feedback.
It represents value to the consumer. Many consumers like to think that
they can get something free. For example, including small portions of en-
tree and appetizer items in the free offerings during happy hours is an
excellent way to stimulate dining room business.
Some disadvantages of sampling include:
Giving away products can become a major expense if it is done for an ex-
tended period of time.
Samples of food products must be served when they are freshly prepared.
If the products are to be held for any period of time, care must be taken
to ensure that the quality can be maintained.
PREMIUMS. Premiumsitems that are given awayare used to bring
in new guests, to encourage more frequent visits by current guests, and to
build positive word of mouth about the operation. Advantages include the
following:
Most consumers like to get something for nothing or for a good price. It
helps to build goodwill for your business, especially if the premium is
highly valued by the consumer.
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If the premium is clever or unique, it will build positive word of mouth

as consumers tell others where they found it. When your logo is included
on the premium, the message is always in front of the consumer.
Disadvantages of premiums include:
Storing and handling the premium items can be a challenge if they are
large or bulky.
Employees and others may take the premiums for their own use or for
their families and friends.
The quality of the premium must be equal or superior to the image of the
hospitality facility. If the premium does not work properly or breaks, it
will diminish the image the consumer has of the facility or organization.
Anticipating demand for premiums is difficult. If they are to be adver-
tised as being available, it is imperative that a sufficient inventory be main-
tained so that consumers are not disappointed. Raising expectations and
then not delivering will result in negative consumer perceptions.
CONTESTS AND SWEEPSTAKES. These are being used with increasing

frequency, especially within the more competitive segments of the industry
such as fast food. They are designed to increase the number of customers and
build market share, often at the expense of the competition. Advantages of
contests include the following:
Consumers are more involved in the process because there is some ele-
ment of skill and thinking required, thereby presenting an opportunity to
create and support a more lasting positive image in the consumers mind.
Those who enter have already shown an interest in your products and ser-
vices and are more likely to purchase them. This eliminates the potential
for chance winners who do not usually purchase the product.
Disadvantages of contests include these:
There can be some difficulty in judging entries because the criteria are of-
ten subjective. Those selected to judge must take the responsibility seri-
ously, because the contestants will be serious about the outcome.
Often the rules and guidelines for the contest are lengthy and may turn
off potential participants.
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The advantages of sweepstakes include the following:
Entry is very easy; no purchase is necessary. The names and addresses of

those who enter can be stored in a database and used in future direct-mail
advertising efforts.
Because the rules are usually quite simple, attention can be focused on the
prizes in advertising.
Sweepstakes will attract more participants than contests because it is eas-
ier to enter. No skill is involved, and it takes little time or effort to com-
plete the entry.
Selection of the winner is easy and judging is not required.
Disadvantages of sweepstakes include these:
The entry box may be stuffed. It is possible for a consumer to reproduce

the entry blank and enter thousands of times. For this reason, the rules
should prohibit mechanical reproduction of the entry forms.
An individuals chances of winning the large prizes are very small, so peo-
ple may get discouraged and not enter.
Managing Successful Promotions

When developing a sales promotion campaign, the marketer must consider
several major aspects. First, it is necessary to determine the size of the incen-
tive that has to be offered to get consumers to participate. The larger the in-
centive, the more likely it is to attract attention. Second, the firm must estab-
lish the conditions for participation. Hospitality and tourism firms often limit
offers to certain times of day or days of the week. In addition, offers may re-
quire reservations in advance and depend on availability. Third, the marketer
must determine the timing of the promotion, including its duration. Will it
be combined with other promotions, such as advertising? Will it be offered
during peak or nonpeak periods? How long will the sales promotion be avail-
able? Finally, it is necessary to determine how consumers will be informed of
the promotion, and to estimate the total budget for the promotion. Coupons
are normally distributed by mail, and other promotions are advertised at the
point of purchase or via some other media vehicle. Coupons can also be dis-
tributed via the Internet.
The hospitality industry trade journals are filled with terrific ideas for
promotions. There is never a need to reinvent the wheel. Rather, simply
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modify the ideas that others have used successfully before. Like anything
else managers do, developing a promotion calls for careful planning, exe-
cution of the plan, and evaluation.
1. Select the target market for the promotion. Analyze sales records to de-
termine the most likely target markets for a special promotion, as these
segments offer the greatest potential for increased sales.
2. Establish specific objectives for the promotion. Objectives should be
very specific, detailing exactly what the promotion should accomplish.
Desired results should be quantified.
3. Select the promotional technique. Based on the situation and the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of each of the techniques, select the one best
suited to the situation.
4. Brainstorm about the potential offer. There are hundreds of excellent
ideas. Make a list of those being considered and seek input from oth-
ers. All potential offers should be examined carefully from two per-
spectives: the potential appeal to the target market and the potential
sales increase in light of the projected costs and expenses.
5. Create the promotional theme. This is the area where you can be very
creative. What will the promotional copy or tag line be? Does it cap-
ture the interest of potential guests? Can it be used both internally and
externally in the promotion? For a promotion to achieve the maximum
potential, it needs to be carried forward both outside and inside the op-
eration. Externally, it should build business. Internally, it should create
excitement among the staff and build morale.
6. Develop the promotional budget. A projection of the total anticipated
costs should be prepared to include all internal and external costs. To
be able to evaluate the promotion, all costs, both direct and indirect,
must be measured. It is wise to project the impact on costs and revenues
at several different levels of consumer participation.
7. Select the advertising media and vehicles to support the promotion.
Based on your knowledge of the media, those that will best support the
total promotional campaign should be contacted. Advertising space and
time should be secured.
8. Develop an implementation timetable. Promotions require attention to
detail so that all phases are integrated and implemented properly. To
accomplish this, a timetable is required. Specific dates should be estab-
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lished for each task. Assigning responsibility to a specific individual or

team for the completion of these tasks will increase accountability.
9. Conduct internal training for the entire staff. Just prior to the imple-
mentation of the program, the entire staff should be briefed so that they
are familiar with the details of the promotion. Items of interest are how
long the promotion will last and how the details will be handled by the
different members of the staff.
10.Work the plan. Put the promotional plan into action and follow the
timetable.
11.Monitor results. Feedback should be followed very carefully and should
be compared with the timetable. Are things progressing as planned? Is
the level of consumer participation within the projected range? Are the
staff members working as planned? Attention to detail is very impor-
tant. All information collected should be retained for future use in other
promotions.
Evaluating the Impact of

Sales Promotions
There are several elements of a sales promotion that must be evaluated in or-
der to determine the actual impact of the final promotion. The following is a
brief description of the major elements.
ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH CONDUCTING A
SALES PROMOTION. Some costs are directly related to conducting a sales
promotion, such as printing, mailing, and advertising. The firm should esti-
mate these fixed costs prior to launching a sales promotion.
COST OF DISPLACED SALES. A certain number of customers would have
consumed the service at the regular price. When these customers participate
in a promotion, such as a coupon or some other form of price discount, the
firm loses revenue equal to the difference in price multiplied by the number
of consumers. For example, some consumers order pizza delivery from the
same provider time after time. If the firm offers a $1-off coupon that is re-
deemed by 200 regular customers, the firm loses $200 in revenue.
ADDITIONAL REVENUE FROM NEW CUSTOMERS. One of the main
objectives of sales promotions is to induce trial among new customers, with
the eventual goal of having them become repeat customers. Any revenue re-
ceived from new customers is positive and will offset the administrative costs
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and losses from displaced sales. For example, the pizza delivery restaurant
may have had 200 new customers pay an average of $10 per order, resulting
in additional revenue in the amount of $2,000. In that example, after ac-
counting for displaced sales, this would leave $1,800 to cover the administra-
tive costs of offering the promotion.
It is important for firms to consider all of these costs to determine the
necessary budget, as well as the viability of a particular sales promotion. The
elements listed earlier are short-term in nature and should be evaluated in
conjunction with the potential long-term effects of having additional cus-
tomers. The increase in revenues may be accompanied by a decrease in unit
costs as the overall volume increases. In some cases, a hospitality or tourism
firm may be content to break even or actually lose some money on a sales pro-
motion in the short run in order to achieve its long-term objectives.
MERCHANDISING
When the consumer comes through the front door of a hospitality operation,
management and the service employees should focus on satisfying that cus-
tomer. Satisfied consumers tell their friends about positive experiences, en-
gage in repeat purchase, and in doing so increase sales and profits. J.W. Mar-
riott, the founder of the corporation which bears his name, believed that his
top objective was to take care of his employees, who in turn would take care
of the customers, resulting in increased sales and profits.
Hospitality is a form of retail business, and adequate effort should be made
to merchandise hospitality services to consumers once they enter the establish-
ment. All too often, the service employees show about as much enthusiasm
for selling as for changing a flat tire. Instead of performing as professional
salespeople, they often serve as little more than order takers. They saunter up
to the table with a guest check in hand and ask unsmilingly, Ya ready to or-
der? When asked a simple question such as how an item is prepared, the an-
swer might be, I dont know; Ill ask the chef. When they bring items to
the table, they often ask, Who had the roast beef? while the plate is passed
from one guest to the next. Sound familiar?
Missed Selling Opportunities

Lack of professional selling on the part of a service organizations employees
results in lower sales and less satisfied consumers. All of this is simply a mat-
ter of missed opportunities. For example, consider the following situation in
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merchandising 471
which four friends were planning to have dinner at a restaurant. They were
seated by the host following this greeting: Do you have a reservation? Af-
ter they had waited about five minutes for a server to approach the table, Sally
appeared, presented each guest with a closed menu, and asked, Would any-
one like anything from the bar? Each responded no, and Sally said that she
would be back in a few minutes to take their dinner orders. She returned in
a few minutes, asking You ready to order? When a guest inquired about
any special items or recommendations, Sally responded, There isnt a special
today; I guess the chef just wasnt in the mood. Everything on the menu is
good. Can I take your order? The guests then placed their orders, which
Sally took without speaking except to ask about the type of vegetable and
salad dressing that each guest would like. What was wrong with this situa-
tion, and who is at fault?
Clearly, Sally failed to sell; she merely took the orders. She failed to use
suggestive-selling techniques. a round of drinks, a bottle of wine, an appe-
tizer, or a specialty of the house. Simply stated, Sally failed to do her job, but
the fault is managements, not Sallys. Management has the responsibility to
recruit, train, supervise, coach, counsel, and motivate the service personnel. If
they fail to do their jobs, management must accept the responsibility. Figure
13.1 summarizes the loss of potential revenue from the table that Sally ser-
viced. The total potential lost revenue is $80 for the party of four. Although
they might not have spent the entire $80, they might easily have spent an ad-
ditional $10, $20, or $30. The point is that service people are salespeople. They
must be taught to suggestive-sell, to increase the check averages, to deliver
additional profits, and to ensure guests satisfaction. If employees suggestive-
sell, they have a 50/50 chance of being successful. However, if they do not
suggestive-sell, the chances of success are nil. Suggestions for ways to effec-
tively suggestive-sell are shown in Figure 13.2.
This example focused on a foodservice operation, but similar examples
can be seen in other segments of the hospitality and tourism business. For in-
stance, cruise lines could encourage passengers to book higher-priced cabins,
purchase trip insurance, or buy excursion packages for ports of call. Similarly,
car rental agencies could offer promotions that encourage customers to up-
grade their vehicles, extend their rental periods, or purchase additional rental
services such as GPS navigation systems.
Training Guest-Contact Personnel

Management has the responsibility to recruit, orient, train, supervise, coach,
counsel, and motivate service personnel. This is no small task, and it does not
happen by accident.
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Drink sales 4 @ $6.00 $24.00

Wine sale 1 bottle @ $28 $28.00
Trading up/suggestive-selling
a more expensive entre or
accompanying item 4 @ 2.00 $ 8.00
Dessert 4 @ 5.00 $20.00
Potential lost revenue $80.00

Potential lost gratuity @ 15% $12.00
figure 13.1 Potential impact of missed selling opportunities.
1. Develop a positive mental attitude. Not everyone will accept the

suggestions, but all guests will appreciate the desire to serve and attend
to their needs.
2. Do not try to manipulate the guest; simply make positive and upbeat
suggestions.
3. Suggest favorite items or aspects of the product-service mix with
which the employee is most familiar. This makes the suggestion more
person and sincere, increasing the chances of success.
4. Use props to support suggestive selling. For example, it is relatively
easy to turn down an offer for dessert, but if a dessert tray is brought
to the table and the server offers the right suggestion, sales of desserts
will increase. Offering samples of wine will increase the sale of wine
by the glass. Some restaurants offer flights of wine in which several
small samples are provided at about the same cost as a glass of wine.
Some guests will merely try the samples, but others will purchase
additional wine after trying the samples.
5. Always make positive suggestions; always focus on the positive aspects
of the product-service mix. If a guest makes a negative comment,
acknowledge the comment, but try to turn the negative into a positive.
6. Always be attentive to guests needs. Some will be very receptive to
suggestive selling, but others will want speedy treatment with a
minimum of extra conversation and suggestive selling. Do not use a
canned presentation to suggestive-sell. Stay tuned to the guests
needs and vary the suggestive-selling presentations.
7. Never make excuses for why suggestive selling will not work or has
not worked in the past.
figure 13.2 Suggestions for effective suggestive selling.

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merchandising 473
When recruiting, it is imperative that management view potential guest-

contact employees as the lifeblood of the organization, for they can make or
break the hotel or restaurant. Managers should seek to hire individuals who
come alive in front of the guest. Recruiters and interviewers should look
for enthusiasm, a high level of empathy, good organizational skills, obvious
ambition, high persuasiveness, experience, verbal and communication skills,
and a can do and will do attitude. An example of a hospitality service firm
that does an excellent job of recruiting frontline service staff is Southwest Air-
lines. In an industry plagued by blandness and sameness, Southwest Airlines
has managed to create a unique product-service mix that has made it one of
the most profitable airlines. This focus on customer service stems from their
mission statement: The mission of Southwest Airlines is dedication to the
highest quality of Customer Service delivered with a sense of warmth, friend-
liness, individual pride, and Company Spirit.3
A wide variety of training methods can be used with guest-contact and
service personnel, but the overall focus should be on the following four ba-
sics: product-service knowledge (cognitive aspect), physical skills (psychomo-
tor aspect), attitude (affective aspect), and reassurance (affective aspect). Each
of these is discussed in the following paragraphs.
PRODUCT-SERVICE KNOWLEDGE (COGNITIVE ASPECT). This

refers to learned or memorized job knowledge, such as how specific menu
items are prepared or presented, specific attributes related to guest rooms, or
other ingredients of the product-service mix.
PHYSICAL SKILLS (PSYCHOMOTOR ASPECT). These are learned

physical skills, such as how to prepare a salad tableside or how to present,
open, and pour a bottle of wine.
ATTITUDE (AFFECTIVE ASPECT). This is more difficult to teach because

it is related to an individuals perceptions and beliefs, which are not easily
changed. Attitudes affect the individuals behavior and motivation to provide
service to the guest. Even if training in the first two areas results in excep-
tional employee performance, poor attitudes can and do result in unsatisfied
guests. All employees must be trained, coached, counseled, and led by exam-
ple in displaying the spirit of hospitality in serving guests. Bear in mind that
in todays service economy, poor employee attitude is the number-one com-
plaint of consumers. Consumers will tolerate minor problems, but they will
not and should not be expected to deal with poor employee attitudes. The fo-
cus of training employees should be that the firm is able to tolerate any em-
ployee mistake except rudeness to a guest.
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REASSURANCE (AFFECTIVE ASPECT). The service person should be

trained in how to reassure guests. This can take many forms. For example, if
a guest in a dining room orders an item, the server might respond, Thats
our most popular item, youll enjoy it or All of our desserts are freshly baked,
but that one is my favorite. Service personnel also need to be trained in how
to effectively handle guest complaints. Some guests will complain no matter
what you do to please them, but this group represents a very small minority.
The vast majority of guests who complain have good reason, and every effort
should be made to correct the error and make sure they are satisfied. It is wise
to think of a guests complaint as the tip of the iceberg, because for every com-
plaint you hear, there are likely to be others that you do not hear. It is im-
perative that employees receive specific training on how to handle guest com-
plaints. Part of the training should also provide guidance on how an employee
can get the manager involved in resolving the complaint so that the guest is
satisfied.
Training service personnel is of critical importance if internal promotion
is to be successful. An employee must be aided in developing product-service
knowledge, physical skills, a positive attitude, and the ability to reassure and
effectively handle all guest situations.
Entertainment
Entertainment can generate increased sales and more satisfied guests. Enter-
tainment in recent years has taken on new forms, including in-room movies
and video games, large-screen television and multiscreen sports bars, various
forms of disk jockey and music video entertainment, comedy clubs, and other
types of media entertainment. Many forms of entertainment are suitable, but
live entertainment has long been regarded as the most powerful form.
Live entertainment is not the right choice for all hospitality and tourism
operations, but it can be considered for some, based on the following factors:
What impact will the entertainment have on volume, both in sales and in
the number of guests?
Is the physical layout of the facility suitable for live entertainment?
How will the costs associated with live entertainment, such as payment to
performers and increased advertising, be covered?
First, the impact that entertainment will have on sales volume should be
analyzed closely. The break-even point should be calculated. Different meth-
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merchandising 475
ods to cover the costs of entertainment are feasible; these include charging
higher prices for food and beverage to offset the increased cost, instituting a
cover charge or a cover charge and a minimum purchase, and covering costs
through increased sales.
Second, the physical layout of the facility must be examined closely. Is
the configuration of the facility suitable for live entertainment and perhaps
for dancing? Many operators have learned that their facilities were simply
too small for live entertainmentbut not until after they had made the
commitment.
When entertainment of any type is selected, the marketing concept should
be the paramount concern. Management should focus on the needs and wants
of the guests, not their own likes and dislikes.
Other Merchandising Techniques

Many other techniques should be considered. These include brochures and
meeting planner guides, directories, flyers and in-house signs, and tent cards.
All of these techniques offer a great deal of potential when they are used prop-
erly and directed toward the appropriate target audience.
Brochures are not as easy to design as one might think. When brochures
are placed in a rack with others, it becomes clear how difficult it is to design
a brochure that will stand out from the others, capture the potential con-
sumers interest, and spark further inquiry or action. If a brochure is able to
accomplish this, it truly is successful. Nykiel offers several suggestions for de-
signing an effective brochure:4
Identification of the facility, including logo. It is important to emphasize

the chain affiliation if one exists. The consistent use of logos is very im-
portant in developing an image.
Descriptive facts on the facility. Too many brochures use pretty faces and
flowery copy and do not provide enough description of the facts related
to the facility.
Map and directions for how to get to the facility. This is particularly
necessary if the facility is more difficult to find than those of direct
competitors. A map showing mileage and travel times from major
cities or other attractions is also useful.
Basic information. Be sure to include address, telephone number, Web
site address (URL), and other pertinent information, such as hours of
operation.
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It is important for brochures to include information, not just pretty pictures and a logo.
Courtesy of Brennans Restaurant. The Brennans logo is a registered trademark.
Person to contact for further information. This might be the director of

marketing, catering, or another department, depending on the purpose
and intended target audience for the brochure.
Products, services, and amenities offered by the facility. It is important to
emphasize those aspects of the facility that will help to differentiate it from
the competition.
Attractions and interesting things for guests to do while they are in the
area. Attract guests to your establishment by listing some of the main
tourist attractions and activities in the region.
Transportation information. This would include limousine service, car
rental companies, airlines, and other forms of transportation that could be
used.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
The term public relations is widely misunderstood and is often misused within
business, and the hospitality and tourism business is no exception. Every busi-
c13.qxd 2/2/05 2:16 PM Page 477
public relations 477
ness interacts with a variety of publics: consumers, the general public, the fi-
nancial community, the organizations employees, government, the media,
suppliers, and many others. Public relations is the process by which the rela-
tionships with each of these publics is managed. All businesses must realize
that the general public is affected by everything that companies say and do.
Public relations are most obvious in the event of a disaster, such as a hotel
fire, but public relations encompass many other facets, and can and should
take a positive tone. The following section will discuss aspects of public rela-
tions, offering guidelines for effective public relations, techniques that can be
used effectively to manage public relations, and finally a specific application
of public relations: the opening of a hotel.
It requires great skill to effectively manage public relations, which is why
many firms use external consultants and agencies to assist them with this ef-
fort. Public relations should be an integrated part of the overall marketing
plan. Just as objectives, strategies, tactics, action plans, target audiences, im-
plementation schedules, and methods for evaluation are a part of the devel-
opment of a marketing plan, the same approach should be applied to public
relations. Positive and beneficial public relations do not just happen by chance;
they must be the result of individuals making it happen according to a plan.
One of the basic needs of public relations is for the organization to pro-
vide accurate information. The development of a press kit can help to ac-
complish this goal. The essential components of a press kit follow.4
Fact sheet. This should contain basic information about the facility and
the company that owns and operates it. The type of information neces-
sary would include such things as property name, address, telephone num-
ber, names of contact personnel, a list of hotel facilities and amenities, and
detailed specifications for meeting facilities.
Description of the local trading area. Where is the facility located, and
what is the surrounding area like?
Special features of the product-service mix. Are there special aspects of
the facility that should be mentioned, such as architecture, type of suites,
type of food and beverages, or special services?
Specific details about the product-service mix of the facility. This should
provide information about each of the retail outlets.
Photographs. Stock photographs should be maintained of both the exte-
rior and interior of the facility, showing the facilities being used by guests.
Biographical sketch of the general manager. Briefly describe the general
manager and his or her background.
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print media broadcast media
City editor Station manager
Food editor News director
Travel editor News announcer
Finance editor Station personalities
Style section editor
Travel editor
Business editor
Feature columnists
table 13.1 Public relations media contacts.
The press kit is useful when interacting with members of the media, as
well as the other publics. Table 13.1 provides a list of members of the media
with whom the public relations personnel should be familiar.
Public Relations Techniques

Public relations can be applied in several ways. Some of the more common
techniques include the following:
News releases. These should be routinely sent to the media, providing in-
formation about people and events of potential interest. Certainly, not all
of the releases will result in positive coverage, but some will.
Photographs. These will be particularly effective if they feature a famous
personality or create a human-interest angle.
Letters, inserts, and enclosures. Letters might be sent to government of-
ficials urging them to take some type of action. Inserts can be used as en-
velope stuffers in employee paychecks, or they can be sent as follow-up
correspondence to guests or clients.
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House newsletters. These can be both internal and external but should be
focused on a specific target audience. The purpose is to communicate pos-
itive images, increase sales, and influence public opinion.
Speeches and public appearances. Members of the management staff
should speak before groups with either professional or civic applications.
Special care should be taken to ensure that the speech is well prepared
and delivered.
Posters, bulletin boards, and exhibits. These help draw attention to your
organization.
Audiovisual materials. Videotapes, CDs, or DVDs can be distributed to
the media and travel professionals.
Open houses and tours. Inviting the media and travel professionals to your
property can increase awareness and create interest.
Guidelines for Public Relations

It is difficult to provide a complete list of possible public relations techniques.
However, the following guidelines, developed by the editors of Hardware Re-
tailing magazine, offer several good ideas for increasing the effectiveness of
public relations activities.
Always identify individual photographs when submitted so that the re-

cipient does not play editors bingo in guessing whos who. Send pho-
tos only of people involved, not the person making the announcement. In
group shots, identify individuals from left to right, standing, etc.
Do not fold, staple, crease, or otherwise mutilate photos, or write on the
front or back with a heavy hand, thereby damaging the photo.
Know the publications that you send material to so that you do not waste
your companys money or the editors time. Do not develop a reputation
for sending out worthless material, or your important releases may one
day be overlooked or discarded.
Always provide pertinent information such as the companys name and
address (not just the public relations or ad agencys name and address),
retail price or cost of the product so that the reader can evaluate its ap-
peal and marketability, and so on. Stick to the factsno puffery.
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Do not send too many releases at one time and then complain that the
publication did not select the most important one. If one is more im-
portant from a marketing standpoint, send it separately or properly iden-
tify it. It is really best to space out releases. Few publications maintain files
of releases, since they receive hundreds each week.
Be brief and provide a summary of the release so that it can be judged
quickly (and properly) by someone who is not an expert in your field.
Complete information can be briefly stated without reams of company
history!
Do not threaten editors with loss of advertising if they do not run your
items or bait them with promises of advertising if they do.
Public relations requires careful planning and attention to detail. Unlike

advertising, in which the sponsor controls the content and the timing of
the message, public relations requires coordination with many other par-
ties. These parties do not have the interests of the hotel or restaurant as
their primary objective. Table 13.2 provides an example of a timetable de-
veloped to plan the public relations for the opening of a new hotel. It should
be noted that the plans provide a framework around which more specific
action plans and responsibilities can be developed. This schedule begins
six months before the hotel opens, at which time the announcement of
construction plans and the groundbreaking ceremony will have been
completed.
Evaluating Public Relations

As with the other promotional program elements previously discussed, it is
important to evaluate the effectiveness of the public relations effort. In gen-
eral, public relations programs are effective because they cost little (in both
relative and absolute terms), are not subject to the same clutter as advertising
and sales promotions, and have the ability to generate interest in a firms prod-
uct or service. Also, when the source is credible, well-managed public rela-
tions programs can improve the image of the firm. However, the firm does
not determine the message that is sent to consumers because there is no ex-
change of money, and the publicity can be negative.
The public relations efforts of firms need to be evaluated to ensure an ef-
fective long-term program. The following is a list of possible methods that
can be used to evaluate these programs.
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150180 days before opening 6090 days before opening
1. Hold meeting to define objectives and to 1. Launch campaign to local media and other
1. coordinate public relations effort with 1. media with a short lead time emphasizing
1. advertising; establish timetable in 1. hotels contribution to the community,
1. accordance with scheduled completion 1. announcement of donations and
1. data. 1. beneficiaries, etc.
2. Prepare media kit. 2. Send third and final progress bulletin with
3. Order photographs and renderings. 1. finished brochure.
4. Begin preparation of mailings and 3. Commence behind-the-scenes public tours.
1. develop media lists. 4. Hold hard-hat luncheons for travel
5. Contact all prospective beneficiaries 1. writers.
1. of opening events. 5. Set up model units for tours.
6. Reserve dates for press conferences at
1. off-site facilities.
120150 days before opening 3060 days before opening
1. Send announcement with photograph or 1. Send preopening newsletter (to be

1. rendering to all media. 1. continued on a quarterly basis).
2. Send first progress bulletin to agents and 2. Hold soft opening and ribbon-cutting
1. media (as well as corporate clients, 1. ceremony.
1. if desired). 3. Hold press opening.
3. Begin production of permanent brochure. 4. Establish final plans for opening gala.
4. Make final plans for opening events,
1. including commitment to beneficiaries.
90120 days before opening the month of opening
1. Launch publicity campaign to national 1. Begin broadside mailing to agents.

1. media. 2. Hold opening festivities.
2. Send mailings to media. 3. Conduct orientation press trips.
3. Send second progress bulletin.
4. Arrange exclusive trade interviews and
1. features in conjunction with ongoing
1. trade campaign.
5. Begin trade announcement.
table 13.2 Public relations timetable for a hotel opening. Source: Jessica Dee Zive, Public Relations
for the Hotel Opening, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 22,
No. 1, p. 21.
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Personal observation. All members of a firm should take an active inter-

est in the image that is being portrayed by the media. Both positive and
negative publicity should be conveyed to proper authorities within the or-
ganization. Some companies hire public relations firms or designate em-
ployees to be responsible for this task.
Public opinion surveys. Firms can conduct their own studies of public
opinion, or purchase the results of syndicated research performed by in-
dependent agencies. These studies enable firms to track their progress over
time.
Use objective measures. Firms or their representatives can simply count
the number of impressions over a certain time period. More specifically,
these impressions can be separated into positive and negative categories.
Percentages can be calculated for each category as a percent of the total,
and the ratio of positive to negative impressions can be examined as well.
Firms should use a combination of all these types of evaluation techniques.

As more companies hire public relations firms and organize public relations
departments, more emphasis will be placed on this activity. Public relations
is no longer considered a passive practice that cannot be controlled by firms.
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chapter review 483
Chapter review
This chapter focused on the important aspect of promotions and public rela-
tions. The elements of the promotional mix were presented and a communi-
cations model was illustrated. The role of sales promotion was discussed, in-
cluding increasing consumer awareness, introducing new products and
services, increasing guest occupancy and customer counts, combating compe-
tition, encouraging present guests to purchase more, and stimulating demand
in nonpeak periods.
The two basic types of sales promotion strategies are push and pull. Push
strategies attempt to push the product-service mix through the service delivery
system, while the pull strategy encourages increased purchases and consump-
tion by consumers. Several common techniques were discussed, including
coupons, sampling, premiums, and contests and sweepstakes. Recommen-
dations for managing and budgeting for successful promotions were also
discussed.
Merchandising techniques were also reviewed. A discussion of the lost
revenue potential from missed selling opportunities was presented, as well as
suggestions and recommendations for how these missed opportunities could
be avoided. Specific material presented included suggestions for training
guest-contact employees: product-service knowledge (cognitive aspect), phys-
ical skills (psychomotor aspect), attitude (affective aspect), and reassurance
(affective aspect). Methods by which guest-contact employees could be trained
were presented.
The broad field of public relations was introduced. Public relations in-
volve the management of relationships with the publics with which the firm
comes in contact. Specific material presented included the development of a
public relations press kit as well as the most commonly used public relations
techniques.

Contests
Coupons
Point-of-sale displays
Premiums
c13.qxd 2/2/05 2:16 PM Page 484
Public relations
Pull promotional strategy
Push promotional strategy
Sales promotions
Sampling
Suggestive selling techniques
Sweepstakes

Discussion
1. What is the role of sales promotion?
Chapter review
2. What is AIDA? How is it used as part of the promotion mix?

3. What are several of the objectives of sales promotion?
Which of these elements do you believe is the most impor-
tant for an independent restaurateur? For a midpriced ho-
tel? Why?
4. What is the difference between push and pull promotional
strategies? Use an example to illustrate the difference.
5. When and under what conditions would you recommend
push and pull techniques? Why?
6. Cite and discuss the pros and cons of each of the major
sales promotional techniques discussed in the chapter.
7. If you were given the job of designing and managing a
sales promotion, how might you use the guidelines pre-
sented in the chapter? What would you do differently?
Why?
8. What are the four skill areas in which guest-contact
employees should be trained? Which of these, in your
opinion, is the most important? Why?
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chapter review 485
Chapter review
9. Select a table-service restaurant in your area to visit as a
customer. Using the merchandising techniques discussed in
the chapter, assess how well the restaurant staff per-
formed. What were their strengths and weaknesses? What
could they have done differently?
10. What is public relations? What do public relations person-
nel do?
Notes
1 Melanie A. Crosby, Rewarding Regulars: Frequent-Diner Programs Keep Customers Coming Back for More,
Restaurants USA, September 1998, pp. 1217.
2 Southwest Airlines Web site, http://www.iflyswa.com/about_swa/customer_service_commitment/customer_
service_commitment.html, December 2003.
3 Ronald A. Nykiel, Marketing in the Hospitality Industry (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983), p.130.
4 Jacques C. Cosse, Ink and Air Time: A Public Relations Primer, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
tion Quarterly 21, 1, 1980: 37-40.
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Case Study
Princess Suites
R eginald Jones, director of sales and marketing of the 128-room Indi-

anapolis Princess Suites, strongly subscribes to the 80-20 rule when
it comes to marketing. He feels that if 80 percent of his business comes
from 20 percent of his customers, then he should know as much as possible
about his best customers. He thinks about his pricing strategy, which gives
discounted pricing to his better customers, and wonders if the rates charged
can be justified.
The first Princess Suites was built in 1994 outside of Cleveland, Ohio,
and the chain has expanded to its current size of 64 hotels. These limited-
service hotels offer a queen-size bed or two double beds, a 25-inch televi-
sion with remote control and cable, and a fully equipped kitchen with a
two-burner cooking surface, full-size refrigerator, microwave, coffeemaker,
and cooking utensils. Also standard for each room is a sofa sleeper, dining
table and chairs, and a free local paper. Princess Suites offers free local phone
calls, voice mail, access to a fax machine, a 24-hour coin-operated guest laun-
dry facility, an outdoor swimming pool, and a fitness room.
The Indianapolis Princess Suites, located on the south side of Indianapo-
lis, ran a 54.2 percent occupancy last year with an average daily rate of $62.21.
They generally sell out on Tuesday and Wednesday nights and occasionally
on Monday and Thursday, but they turn away a lot of walk-ins on sold-out
case study
nights; these potential customers do not have a negotiated rate and would pay
the higher corporate rate. There is little all-suite competition except for a
Mickey Suites located across the Interstate.
Chris Wood, the GM of Princess Suites, feels that Princess Suites must
offer the same amenities as Mickey Suites in order to directly compete with
them. Princess Suites offers a complimentary breakfast as well as a compli-
mentary beer and wine happy hour to all of its guests. Two full-service ho-
tels, the Pacerd Inn and the Macron Hotel, are close, but Chris does not view
them as direct competition. The Pacerd and Macron both have bell service,
restaurants serving three meals a day, room service, and meeting facilities that
are not available at the Princess Suites. Their rates are significantly higher
than the Princess Suites rates, as evidenced by the latest shopping survey: the
Pacerd charges a corporate rate of $99 and the Macron charges a $94 corpo-
rate rate.
Reginald takes advantage of co-op advertising dollars offered by Princess
Suites by advertising in USA Today and Business Week. There is a listing in
the AAA book, and he takes out a half-page ad in the Indianapolis yellow
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case study 487
case study
pages. The local cable channel has been courting him lately, but he feels that
television and the local paper are not effective uses of his money. Reginald
has been exploring billboard advertising, but he is not familiar with this
medium and its effectiveness.
Princess Suites has created a Secretarys Club to reward secretaries when
they book the hotel. Every 15 room nights booked at a net rate results in a
$15 gift certificate to a local restaurant of their choice. Reginald allows local
restaurants to put fliers in the guest rooms in exchange for $45 worth of gift
certificates per month. He also purchases additional certificates from the
restaurants as needed. Last year alone, he distributed over $1,200 worth of
certificates to the Secretarys Club, which he sees as 1,200 room nights he
would not have sold without the club.
Princess has negotiated rates with Fortune 500 companies over the years
using its KAR (key account rate) strategy. The biggest accounts (over 750
room nights per year) receive the lowest negotiated rate, the KAR1 rate. The
next largest accounts (450749 rooms per year) receive the KAR2 rate. This
tiered system continues up to the KAR6 rate, which is charged to the smaller
local accounts. All KAR rates are commissionable, so many companies want
their KAR rates quoted as a net rate (KAR rate minus 10 percent commis-
sion). Anyone who does not qualify for the KAR rate is quoted the corporate
rate. A sample rate scheme from the Indianapolis Princess Suites is shown
below:
kar1 kar2 kar3 kar4 kar5 kar6 cor

annual room 750 450749 250449 150249 100149 5099
nights
commissionable $54 $59 $64 $69 $74 $79 $84
net $45 $49 $54 $58 $62 $67
Reginald frequently looks through his customer contact list. Some clients
have dropped off in production, but they are still receiving the discounts given
to higher-volume customers. Therefore, he has decided to look at volume and
find out which clients truly produce 80 percent of his business. By looking at
guest history, he wants to determine if the number of room nights increases
as the price decreases, or if the rate structure should be simplified. He also
wonders if some companies are showing lower production because their em-
ployees are not receiving the negotiated rate and thus are not being tracked.
He wonders if some companies would pay more to receive additional ben-
efits (such as direct billing, on-demand movies, etc.) or if they are price sen-
sitive. He also wants to see if he can cut costs by having the KAR rates avail-
able only if booked directly through a special 800 number at the hotel, thus
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eliminating commissions and other fees paid when using Princess Suites na-
tional reservation system, Prinatron. Reginald has a problem with the Prina-
tron system because the system cannot handle negotiated rates effectively. A
guest can book a room online, but only at a rack, corporate, or AAA rate. The
guest then arrives at the hotel and has to change the rate to the negotiated
one.
Chris and Reginald have quite a few areas that they can look at in their
attempt to increase revenue and decrease advertising costs. There is an over-
whelming amount of data at their disposal, so they decided to create a spread-
sheet based upon last years production. They will use this data to do some
rate analysis in determining if each customers production justifies the rate
that customer is charged. Reginald also wants to use this data to make sure
that he knows who his top customers were last year and to see if there is a
way he can generate more business from them.

1. Reginald is faced with a huge dilemma. He could have a public
relations nightmare if some of his customers wind up badmouthing
Princess Suites and going elsewhere because their rates were raised. Do
you think he will lose business or do you think that most of the
customers will stay and pay the higher rate?
2. Last year the Indianapolis Princess Suites sold only 25,322 room nights
case study
for a 54.2 percent occupancy rate. How much business do you think the
Princess Suites might lose as a result of raising their negotiated rates?
3. Even though the Princess Suites may lose some negotiated-rate
customers and may tarnish its reputation due to the rate increase, they
will now have rooms available MondayThursday for customers paying
higher rates. Do you think it is worth taking the chance that they can
replace existing negotiated-rate customers with corporate rates and
other higher-rate business?
4. Are there any customers that you would allow to pay a lower
negotiated rate than their production suggests they should pay?
current room
company first last address address zip room rate revenue
name title name name line 1 line 2 city state code country phone ngts plan (in usd)
Allens Rentals Mr. Michael Hill 1515 Broadway New York NY 10036 US 212-258-6000 568 KAR3 32698
c13.qxd 2/2/05 2:16 PM Page 489
AVP Mr. Carter Kiraly 3333 Matthew Blvd Santa Monica CA 38948 US 333-444-5555 46 KAR6 3894
Barbers Pole Mr. Walter Melon 9203 Harvest Dr. Springfield OH 34825 US 617-254-3719 30 KAR5 2098
Cuts
Beans Breads Ms. Constance Noring 20607 Sleepy Atlanta GA 36914 US 512-634-8857 405 KAR4 24777
Hollow Court
Beverages for You Ms. Enid Adrink 122 Temperature Phoenix AZ 54263 US 940-879-1285 42 KAR6 3198
Lane
Big Shoe Ms. Shelly Wood 1 Shoe Lane Virginia Beach VA 23464 US 234-234-2345 567 KAR3 33012
Bleachers Cleaners Mr. Joshua Franchis 583 Texas Ln Houston TX 49345 US 225-453-9865 82 KAR3 5752
Blinders Mrs. Laura Grayson 1 Oldmill Dr San Diego CA 25878 US 789-563-9851 570 KAR2 31044
Bluegrass Estates Mr. David Quackenbush 948 Washington St Lexington VA 24450 US 540-234-6543 31 KAR5 2238
Book Nook Mrs. Paula Richardson 1060 Lost Lane Palm Springs CA 12578 US 123-456-7890 432 KAR3 25560
Boomers Mr. Mike Rufone 30546 Pettit Rd. Mappsville VA 23456 US 757-824-6352 1158 KAR1 52706
Bruise Bros Ms. Sheila Tack 1713 Seminole Trail Kill Devil Hills NC 27948 US 252-441-3016 17 KAR6 1262
Camp Staunton Mr. Taylor Blanks 800 S. Main St. Harrisonburg VA 22807 US 540-612-5931 57 KAR4 4501
Meadows
Capital Incomes Mr. John Corey 32 Berry Square Milford CT 10025 US 879-852-1245 903 KAR1 42823
Carpets R Us Mr. Matt Beck 17410 Jericho Dr Beaverdam VA 23015 US 540-698-9633 299 KAR3 18494
Cats Meow Mr. Robert Jennings 1786 Tulford Ave South Orange NJ 75891 US 459-820-6011 85 KAR4 5895
Charleston Paper Ms. Sarah Bader 9 Bull Street Apt A Charleston SC 29402 US 843-722-1828 833 KAR1 39790
Cheapes Mr. Andrew Smith 168 E Holly Avenue Encino CA 91316 US 818-245-9824 683 KAR1 34874
Christian Books Mr. Drew Berry 2212 Findley Park Memphis TN 10132 US 456-123-7893 683 KAR1 36117
Clear Glass Mr. Latrell John 1111 Wizards Drive New York NY 10036 US 212-789-5641 78 KAR3 5801
Company
College of Ms. Lauren Apel 107 Founders Dr Conway SC 29617 US 757-369-4561 293 KAR3 18527
case study
Charleston
Container Mr. Tim Donunats 369 Anto Dr San Antonio TX 49345 US 456-789-1234 103 KAR2 6959
Company
489
case study
case study
c13.qxd 2/2/05 2:16 PM Page 490
Corner Caf Mr. Martin Jordan 484 Brooklyn St Washington DC 22999 US 111-222-3333 432 KAR3 25706
490
Crystal Shine Mr. Justin Time 530 Robert Rd Harrisonburg VA 22801 US 540-234-7523 71 KAR3 5250
Digem Graves Mrs. Courtney Cox 777 5th Avenue Apt. C New York NY 37340 US 777-888-9999 68 KAR4 5137
Ekim Mr. Karl Meyers 584 Water St Los Angeles CA 90210 US 201-987-6543 58 KAR6 4367
Fans Cooling Mr. Elton Sprewell 222 Grand Piano Way London England 222-333-4444 293 KAR4 18316
Filzer Dr. Imin Love 1010 Love Lane Virginia Beach VA 23451 US 757-234-7542 821 KAR1 39677
First Year Mr. Jacob Beber 880 S. Main St. Harrisonburg VA 22807 US 540-612-5865 40 KAR5 3177
Involvement
Frontend Mr. Paul Stovall 493 King St Cleveland OH 58203 US 458-987-1234 32 KAR6 2506
General Eating Ms. Megan Rielly 78 Sunset Blvd Miami FL 85426 US 521-630-0256 267 KAR2 17091
Glad Tags Mr. Matt Tromeny 19347 Dove Court Chincoteague VA 23336 US 757-336-6381 71 KAR6 5279
Gyms Retreat Mr. Justin Case 43110 Nine Mile Rd Richmond SC 89182 US 804-338-7820 108 KAR2 7276
Hoopers Inc Ms. Doris Slias 3591 Travelers Way Houston TX 98748 US 104-206-5812 223 KAR2 14329
J Chalks Mr. Patrick Myers 383 Central Perk New York NY 10036 US 212-565-5632 91 KAR4 6310
Jelly Roll Ms. Courtney Peretz 19 Edward Street Agawam MA 01001 US 413-789-1580 405 KAR3 24529
Company
Johns Shoes Mr. Jeremy King 2264 Brickstone Lane Scott AFB IL 62225 US 618-948-3312 447 KAR3 26462
Jolly Tree Mrs. Julia Gordon 147 Lee Ave Kingwood TX 20139 US 326-920-1002 708 KAR1 34796
Joshua Tree Mr. Tony Springstone 392 Texas Rd Houston TX 44290 US 789-103-4567 96 KAR5 6487
LA Cheers Mr. Gary Wood 394 Hollywood Blvd Los Angeles CA 90210 US 201-568-1234 43 KAR5 3356
Lilos Beach Mr. Bruce Ming 44 Boss Street Philadelphia PA 83035 US 444-555-6666 95 KAR4 6505
Boards
Log Cabin Ms. Dana Potts 3594 Wingate Way Blacksburg VA 24060 US 540-345-2345 221 KAR4 14542
Shelters
Mack and Mick Mr. Jonathon Heaton 7146 Madison Avenue Yorktown VA 23693 US 757-841-9631 43 KAR6 3329
Matties Ms. Amber Allen 214 Cranbrook Dr Leesburg VA 20176 US 703-737-3945 708 KAR1 35951
Matts Clues Mrs. Sharon Meyers 44050 Woodridge Lansdowne VA 20174 US 703-729-4018 96 KAR5 6480
Parkway
Nemoid Capt William Croell 1234 Virginia Rd Virginia Beach VA 23464 US 123-456-4567 46 KAR5 3505
Enterprises
Old Dominion Lt. Andrew Wade 383 Army Rd Fort Story VA 23459 US 757-481-3456 54 KAR5 4093
Pizza
Orange Truck Mr. John Landy 3982 Jackson Drive Lexington VA 24450 US 540-234-3567 32 KAR6 2407
chapter 13 sales promotions, merchandising, and public relations
Oxfords Lane Mr. Stuart Bayer 98 Ware Road Hertford England 011-44-1992- 31 KAR5 2281
Tools 582611
Pedex Mr. Tom Jones 46538 Ginghamsburg Ln Fredericksburg VA 22401 US 540-752-4984 58 KAR6 4432
Pillow Talk Mrs. Nancy Jones 7584 Scarlet Letter Newark NJ 25874 US 478-987-5268 57 KAR4 4398
Pilots Pens Mr. Jacob Silverman 1258 President St New York NY 28573 US 516-985-9876 421 KAR3 25052
Plates For You Mrs. Joanie Frazier 28 N Beech Dr Williamsburg VA 23186 US 540-421-7561 208 KAR4 13892
Raitors Mr. Colin OBrien 5555 Funny Road New York NY 57204 US 555-666-7777 82 KAR3 5833
c13.qxd 2/2/05 2:16 PM Page 491
Rock On Ms. Maria Brown 6754 Middle Lane Wyoming RI 45896 US 452-895-9658 54 KAR4 3894
Rocking Rolls Ms. Nichole Beaubien 2199 Jeffrey Dr. Norfolk VA 23518 US 757-587-0082 568 KAR2 32250
Shelly Ms. Angela Johnson 5564 Disney Trail Orlando FL 51947 US 908-905-1050 79 KAR3 5701
Sin City Bottle Mr. Gene Poole PO Box 1345 Las Vegas NV 78246 US 968-784-3354 16 KAR6 1216
Tops
Skitch Mrs. Sherry Sheets 231 Shenandoah Drive Newport News VA 23601 US 757-844-5532 54 KAR6 4068
Smococa Ms. Emerald Baker 20 N Roestler Street #318 Monroe MI 48161 US 703-956-7589 817 KAR1 40139
SnowCones Mr. Howard Smith 888 Slugger Street Bronx NY 12549 US 357-751-6530 668 KAR2 36380
Sofa Coverlets Mr. Sammy Esposa 1234 Numbers St. Chicago IL 59285 US 888-999-0000 57 KAR6 4476
Sonnys Days Ms. Barbara Thomas 67 NE 147th St Key West FL 45123 US 238-850-8945 57 KAR6 4331
Sports Corner Mr. Bill Knowles 45878 Cabin Branch Dr Sterling VA 20164 US 703-430-1516 71 KAR6 5314
Stitchery Shop Mr. Cody Pendant 283 Union Drive Newport KY 51981 US 452-982-1268 96 KAR4 6494
Sweet Home Mr. Michael Williams 9990 Money Lane Huntsville AL 36985 US 430-470-0345 52 KAR6 4254
Electronics
Sweet Treats 4 U Mrs. Michelle Quinn 2931 Baltimore National Ellicott City MD 21043 US 410-461-1234 115 KAR4 7736
Pike
Systems, Inc. Ms. Ellie Kopter 67 Pleasurehouse Rd. Virginia Beach VA 23346 US 757-801-0486 68 KAR4 5128
Teachers Nook Mr. Lebron Johns 599 Main St Cleveland OH 58203 US 547-894-4563 56 KAR4 4394
Ten or Less Mr. Jawanna Taylor 9876 Learning Circle Kalamazoo MI 35894 US 876-931-8537 40 KAR5 2933
The Focused Mr. Bill Trotman 346 Smith Lane Blacksburg VA 24060 US 540-543-3465 207 KAR2 13884
Camera
Three Weeks Ms. Brittany Spores 9999 Trampy Drive New Orleans LA 93582 US 999-000-1111 40 KAR5 2833
Notice
Toys Galore Ms. Ivy Benjamin 1109 Orchard Lakes Dr St. Louis MO 63416 US 526-658-5648 295 KAR3 18307
Track Games Mrs. Melissa Mann 2383 Tuesday Trail Harrisonburg VA 22801 US 540-342-6413 291 KAR4 18602
Unlimited Ms. Janet Johnson 6666 Singers Place Reno NV 37305 US 666-777-8888 1236 KAR1 56047
case study
Resources
Upper State Mr. Allen Dallas 459 Park Ave New York NY 10036 US 789-654-4652 103 KAR2 6957
Resorts
491
Window Mrs. Debra Watkins 8793 Ravens Win St. Baltimore MD 32156 US 789-369-2580 57 KAR4 4408
Treatments
Yajs Mrs. Sharon Williams 54 Aslop Ct Baltimore MD 22034 US 201-356-9852 80 KAR3 5696
case study
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:19 PM Page 492
Courtesy PhotoDisc, Inc.

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chapter
14
Personal Selling
Chapter Objectives
1. List sales roles in the hospitality industry.
2. Describe the characteristics of a successful salesperson.
3. Outline the FAB selling technique and its application in
the hospitality industry.
4. Identify the basic markets for hospitality group sales and
discuss their decision factors.
5. Describe in detail the meetings market segments.
6. Outline the personal selling process, and identify
common personal selling tools.
7. Discuss ethical issues related to personal selling.
Chapter Outline
industry profile Problem questions
Implication questions
Introduction Need-payoff questions
Sales roles
Profile of a successful salesperson Personal Selling Tools
Key account management
Selling to Group Markets Negotiating skills
FAB selling technique Suggestive selling
Meetings market segments Information technology
the Personal Selling Process Ethical Issues in Personal Selling
Prospecting and qualifying
Planning and delivering sales summary of chapter objectives
presentations key terms and concepts
Overcoming objections
Closing the sale questions for review and discussion
Asking Probing Questions case study: contract foodservice
Situation questions firm scenario
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494 chapter 14 personal selling
Carol Foo Sales Manager

Grand Hyatt Singapore

I develop and assist with training activities focusing on improving skills and
knowledge; generate revenue and maximize the hotels market share and yield
for the Rooms Division through acquisition of new accounts, development of po-
tential accounts, and retention of current volume accounts; source new business
opportunities through attending exhibitions, trade shows, and industry-related
corporate events; monitor and provide monthly reports on sales activities, ac-
counts production, market trends, and intelligence; conduct daily sales calls on
existing and potential clients; entertain clients to build and develop business al-
industry profile
liances; and develop an annual business strategy for account growth as well as
acquisition of new accounts.

bring you the most satisfaction? what causes
you the most frustration?
Satisfaction comes from acquisition of new accounts, particularly those paying
high-yielding rates; the ability to convert guests to use Hyatt, especially those
who used to stay in other hotels such as Ritz-Carlton and Shangri-La; ap-
preciative guests who bother to send a note to thank you for the hospitality.
Frustration comes from the internal challenges posed by other depart-
mentsfor example, lack of support and understanding.

you face?
Unreasonable requests from clients and management, inconsistencies in man-
agements directions, and high turnover in operating departments that can be
detrimental to the hotels overall image.

industry?
Multinationals with volume travel will have higher bargaining power, hence
placing the hotel in a less favorable position. There will be an evolution of
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:19 PM Page 495
industry profile
Meetings, Incentives, Conventions, and Exhibitions (MICE) travel, which gen-
erates high-yield revenue. Another factor is the intensity of competition for
destinations, hotels, and meeting venues.

company?
The recognition of brand, and multiple product offerings to cater to differ-
ent market segments.

you suggest?
This is a very people- and service-oriented industry. Be prepared to work long
hours with the constant pressure of exceeding clients expectations.
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INTRODUCTION
In the competitive world of hospitality sales and marketing, the ability to
effectively identify potential business, qualify the prospects, engage in per-
sonal selling activities, and eventually book the business is critical to the
success of the property. The term selling is often used synonymously with
the term marketing. Marketing encompasses all of the activities that are nec-
essary in creating an exchange between a buyer and a seller. These activi-
ties include promotion, pricing, product design, and distribution. Personal
selling is merely one component of the promotion mix, which refers to the
personal communication of information to persuade a prospective customer
to buy something (e.g., a product or service) that satisfies that individuals
needs.1 The range of activities that are under the umbrella of personal sell-
ing is quite broad. Sales managers communicate with clients and prospects
by means of the telephone, personal sales calls resulting from appointments,
cold sales calls without appointments, and contacts with clients at trade
shows, professional meetings, and conventions.
Sales Roles
Sales jobs can vary widely in their nature and requirements, even within
the same company or industry. This chapter focuses mainly on hotel sales,
but the fundamentals and techniques can apply to any type of hospitality
or tourism sales. One of the main factors that can be used to classify sales
positions is the extent to which the salesperson is responsible for creating
sales and developing new accounts. Order takers are salespeople who ask
customers what they want or respond to purchasing requests. This type of
salesperson is most common in organizations that have high demand for
their products and services, or organizations that engage in a great deal of
mass advertising and use the pull strategy for promotion. In other words,
customers seek them out. Order getters are salespeople who are responsi-
ble for creating sales and developing new accounts. They still service their
existing accounts, but they are also expected to use sales strategies to ob-
tain new accounts.
Many resort hotels and luxury properties enjoy good demand and have
many repeat customers. The salespeople in these establishments are able to
spend more time in the office responding to inquiries and following up with
repeat customers. The goal is to create a good mix of customers who will max-
imize the firms potential revenue over the long run. Conversely, hotels that
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introduction 497
do not have high demand because of various components of their product-

service mixes find it more challenging to obtain group business. When there
is excess room capacity, lodging facilities require salespeople to be good order
getters and create sales. It is important to note that some hotels do not target
group markets, and even with excess capacity, they might choose to have only
one salesperson, who acts as an order taker.
Some firms employ both order takers and order getters to obtain a cus-
tomer mix. For example, telemarketing systems use the hotels telecommuni-
cation technology, and trained personnel conduct marketing campaigns aimed
at certain target markets. Hotels advertise a toll-free number that can be used
by customers to contact the hotel. When calls are received, they are sent
through the proper channels. Transient customers can be handled by reser-
vations, and group business can be directed to the sales department. Once the
call is in the sales department, it can be determined whether to use an order
taker or an order getter. Hotels that focus on group business tend to have sep-
arate toll-free numbers for the sales department.
A sales blitz is another type of personal selling activity that targets spe-
cific groups within a condensed time frame. A sales blitz can be done in per-
son or over the telephone, and hotels will often use staff members from dif-
ferent departments within the hotel. The goal of most sales blitzes is to make
a large number of sales calls in a short period of time with the objective of
generating as large a number of qualified potential buyers as possible. Blitzes
are often used to requalify prior clients who have not booked any business for
a year or more.
The importance of sales has increased as the competitiveness of the group
meetings business has intensified. Today, through the efforts of the major ho-
tel corporations and professional associations such as the Hospitality Sales and
Marketing Association International (HSMAI), sales and marketing profes-
sionals employed within the hospitality and tourism industry are better trained
than ever before. They have to be to remain successful.
Profile of a Successful Salesperson

What makes a salesperson successful? A profile of a successful salesperson
would reveal several factors that contribute to the individuals success. Cour-
tesy pays a big part in making an individual successful. It is imperative that
the sales manager always strives to make certain that the client is satisfied.
This means having to expend some extra effort or occasionally doing some-
thing that is not routine. It might even mean bending the rules or standard
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operating procedures to ensure client satisfaction. Courtesy also means being

able to smile and handle a difficult situation even when those around you are
angry or in a panic.
A second aspect in the profile of a successful salesperson is complete
knowledge of the product-service mix that is being sold. The salesperson
should understand every aspect of the operation and should be able to answer
any questions that the prospect might raise. For example, hotel salespeople
should be knowledgeable about all facets of the hotel, including items such as
meeting-room setup, booking policies and procedures, weight capacity of
freight elevators, audiovisual capabilities of the hotel, and food and beverage
skills and talents of the hotels staff. However, if the salesperson is not able to
provide the information requested by a customer or prospect, the salesperson
should know where to get the information, or refer the customer to the right
person.
A third part of the profile is professional appearance and behavior. This
does not mean that the individual needs to be a pretty face. Rather, this re-
quires professional clothing, such as business suits, and good personal groom-
ing. First impressions are critical in selling, and professional appearance can
be a real asset in establishing rapport with a prospective client.
The desire and willingness to work is a fourth characteristic in the pro-
file of a successful salesperson. Only a small percentage of sales calls and con-
tacts will result in sales or signed contracts. A successful salesperson must have
the perseverance to keep going and to keep asking for the business, even when
many others have said no. Keep in mind that if one call out of ten results in
a signed contract, a sales manager has been told no nine times before making
a sale. For this reason, when a prospect says no, the sales manager should say
thank you, knowing that the next prospect might say yes. A conversation
with one of the leading salespeople for a major manufacturing company re-
vealed an interesting philosophy when he stated, Im not in sales, Im in re-
jections. I get rejected a lot more than I make sales.
Another quality that is a real asset in sales is organizational ability. Keeping
in constant communication with dozens of clients and keeping all of the many
separate details straight requires superior organization. The use of contact man-
agement software such as Act, Maximizer, or Microsoft Outlook is a tremen-
dous asset in helping sales managers maintain profiles of each client. In addition,
contact management capability is often part of the sales and catering software
used in hotels and other meeting facilities. The ability to recall names and faces
is also important. When a salesperson meets clients it is imperative to remember
their names, whom they work for, and other pertinent details. Following up with
trace dates and the details of each clients contract calls for superior organiza-
tional skills.
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introduction 499
A final quality that is an asset to the successful salesperson is a strong per-

sonality. This does not mean that to be successful in sales, you must be ex-
troverted and the life of the party. Rather, it means that you need to have
some warmth, some empathy, and the ability to make others believe in and
trust you. If prospects do not feel comfortable with the salesperson, it is very
unlikely that they will make a purchase.
Several studies have been conducted with the purpose of identifying the
characteristics or traits of successful salespeople. The results of one such study
are shown in Figure 14.1.2 Hotel sales and marketing is a dynamic environ-
ment in which to work. It is demanding and full of challenges, but the rewards
are commensurate with the efforts required. In the hotel industry, salespeo-
Impression Criteria
Appearanceneat and clean-cut
Dressconservative and in good taste
Demeanorconfident and with a sense of humor
Attitudefriendly and sincere, possessing a consumer is number
one orientation
Voice and speechtalks to express and not to impress; has well
developed listening skills
Can do Criteria
Gradesupper 25 percent of graduating class
Curriculumtendency to take advanced and more
difficult courses
Extracurricular activiteshas contributed to
organizations, held offices, and volunteered
Related work experiencepart-time and summer jobs;
internships
Career goalsinterest in marketing and well developed reasons
for this interest
Will do Criteria
Characterintegrity, self-reliance, loyalty, idealism, principles
Motivationdrive, perseverance, sense of responsibility
Ability to get along with otherslikes people, cooperative, has
constructive attitude and maturity
figure 14.1 Characteristics of successful sales personnel.

c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:19 PM Page 500
ple are normally referred to as sales managers, and the person responsible for
the sales function is referred to as the director of sales. In larger hotels,
the director of sales reports to the director of marketing, and in some smaller
hotels the two positions are combined into a director of sales and marketing.
The remainder of the chapter will explore aspects of hotel sales and personal
selling.
SELLING TO GROUP MARKETS

Before a single telephone call or personal sales call is made, the sales manager
must begin to develop a clear understanding of the nature of the buyer: the
meeting planner. Meeting planners plan meetings that will be attended by all
sorts of individuals who are part of a vast array of groups, from large national
associations to small local civic groups. Many meeting planners, especially
those representing large associations and companies, are very knowledgeable
professionals. They usually know as much or more about the operation of a
hotel than an entry-level sales manager. At the other extreme are those indi-
viduals who only occasionally plan meetings and whom the sales manager
must educate as well as sell. Such is the challenge faced by the sales and mar-
keting teamselling to many different individuals, each holding the title of
meeting planner. Chapter 3 covers some of the complexities of organizational
buying behavior when dealing with large-volume sales and buying units com-
prised of more than one individual.
If sales managers are to effectively sell to the meeting planner, several
things are necessary. First, sales managers must thoroughly understand the
product-service mix that they are representing. They must know everything
or be able to find the answers quickly to questions raised by the meeting
planner. Second, they must know how to sell. Selling is a skill that is first
learned and then refined. Few individuals are born to be in sales; for nearly
everyone, selling is a learned skill. Selling in the hospitality industry is just
like selling in other industries, especially service industries. One must learn
to sell effectively.
FAB Selling Technique

One of the most common approaches to selling is to focus on the benefits that
a product or service offers consumers. In selling benefits, the salesperson re-
lates a products benefits to the consumers needs by stressing its features and
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selling to group markets 501
type of impact on
characteristic definition large sales
Features Describe facts, data, and Neutral or slightly negative

product characteristics
Advantages Show product strengths in Slightly positive

relation to competitors
products
Benefits Show how product meets Very positive

the customers needs
table 14.1 Summary of FAB selling.
advantages. This technique can be referred to as the FAB selling technique.

The F refers to product features, or the physical characteristics of the prod-
uct. The A refers to the advantages, or performance characteristics, that will
be of benefit to the buyer. And finally, the B refers to the benefit, or favor-
able outcome, that the buyer experiences. In other words, salespeople take the
products features and demonstrate how they can be advantageous to the
buyer, resulting in the end benefit that is being sought. Table 14.1 summa-
rizes the components of the FAB selling technique. This technique will be
described using a hotel as an example.
FEATURES. All products have physical characteristics such as price, shape,
color, and size. Hotel services are no exception. In the past, many firms at-
tempted to sell products and services based on features, until they realized
that it was more effective to focus on the benefits provided by the product or
service. Many hotels have front desks, guest rooms, restaurants, pools, meet-
ing facilities, and parking lots. Consumers can fill their basic needs at any of
these establishments, but those that are superior in terms of performance have
a competitive advantage when it comes to benefiting consumers. Figure 14.2
provides a property analysis checklist that can be used to evaluate a hotels ba-
sic features.
ADVANTAGES. Once the basic features are determined, it is necessary
to compare these features with the features of competitors offerings to as-
sess a firms strengths and weaknesses. This analysis provides salespeople
with the information that they need to persuade buyers. The salespeople
should focus on the firms strengths or the advantages associated with the
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:19 PM Page 502
Location
Rural or urban; location within city or town
Type of area: industrial, agricultural, political
Accessibility by highway and major carrier; by membership
Facilities for sharing and overflow; attractions for free time
Guest Room Accommodations

Total number and amount that can be committed; when they can
be committed
Types of rooms: singles, doubles, suites, etc.; special rooms:
nonsmoking, handicapped-accessible
Rate schemes: rack rates, discounted rates (volume, time of
purchase, etc.), upgrades
General Facilities and Services

Public dining and lounge facilities
Entertainment, recreation, and fitness facilities
Business or corporate services: faxing, copying, shipping, etc.
Other services: room service, valet parking, laundry, etc.
Meeting Facilities
Total number and dimensions of meeting rooms; possible
setups
Location and dimensions of exhibit areas
Equipment: tables, podiums, audiovisual, etc.
Banquet rooms and reception areas
Outside Facilities and Services

Restaurants and tourist attractions
Sports and recreation facilities (e.g., golf, tennis, etc.)
Additional business services
Transportation
Mass transit and taxis
Rental cars, charters, and sightseeing vehicles
figure 14.2 Property analysis checklist.

c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:19 PM Page 503
product and stress its benefits to the consumer. However, it is important

to determine consumers needs and the benefits that they are seeking.
Hotel chains train salespeople to know the propertys physical character-
istics, but it is also necessary to train them to know the propertys performance
characteristics. For example, the following product advantages could exist:
The hotel has the best location in town
The hotels restaurant has been rated the best in town
The hotel has free or less expensive parking
The hotels banquet facilities are the largest
The hotels guest rooms have been recently renovated
The hotel has been given an award for service quality
As you can see, there are many ways to gain a competitive advantage over the
competition. However, it is critical to match a hotels advantages and bene-
fits with markets that value those particular attributes highly.
BENEFITS. To sell products and services to consumers, salespeople must be

able to tell consumers how their needs will be fulfilled. Benefit selling can ad-
dress a consumers personal motives by answering the question Whats in it
for me? In discussing benefits, salespeople should stress the favorable out-
comes that will result if the consumer purchases the product or service. To
sell effectively, the sales manager must possess a thorough understanding of
the needs of the prospective client. The sales manager should be a professional
in identifying client needs and then showing how the hotels product-service
mix will help to meet those needs. It is much easier to sell when you are
demonstrating how your product-service mix will solve the clients problems
than when you are merely trying to push your product-service mix.
Knowledge of the meeting planners needs begins with background in-
formation about the group that the meeting planner represents, as well as the
more specific needs directly related to the meeting. For example, the needs of
most meeting planners will fall into the following categories: costs, location,
image and status, professional service, adaptability and flexibility, and pro-
fessional operations and management.
If a sales manager is to be successful, he or she must help the meeting
planner solve the problems faced in planning the meeting. This includes find-
ing answers to all of the critical decisions that confront the meeting planner.
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 504
Hospitality sales professionals focus on the advantages of their establishment to persuade

buyers. Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach, Florida.
The role of the salesperson begins with preplanning, which can be very im-
portant if the meeting planner is not experienced. The sales manager can as-
sist the meeting planner with the following:
Defining the purpose of the meeting and identifying who will attend and
the total number of attendees
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 505
Identifying and managing the expectations of those who will attend the
meeting
Developing a central theme for the meeting, or themes for specific events
within the larger meeting
Developing a schedule for the events that are planned
Developing a budget for all meeting expenses such as rooms, food and
beverage, and other items
Developing criteria by which to select a geographic location and hotel site
Deciding on first, second, and third most preferred meeting dates
In most cases, the meeting planner will have already done much of this pre-
planning before visiting with the hotel sales manager, but even so, the dis-
cussion related to some of these issues will serve to qualify the prospective
client and establish the meeting planners expectations.
Once the preplanning is completed, the role of the sales manager be-
comes more critical. The meeting planner needs to make decisions about
the type of guest room accommodations needed. This will include several
particulars:
Determining the total number of rooms that should be blocked, as well as the
arrival and departure patterns of the attendees
Assessing the need for hospitality suites and suites for VIPs and speakers
Making decisions about the billing procedures, such as each guest being
responsible for individual charges, all of the charges being billed to a mas-
ter account, or some combination of the two methods
Finalizing a meeting schedule to include the necessary meeting-room con-
figurations, meeting lengths, food and beverage functions, coffee breaks,
and the proper audiovisual requirements
Once these issues have been addressed, further discussion with the meeting
planner is necessary to work out the details of the meeting-room setups and
meeting logistics.
Meetings Market Segments

Selling to any group begins with understanding the needs of the prospective
client and then showing the client how your firms product-service mix can
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 506
satisfy those needs. To do this well, the sales manager must have a great deal
of background information about the clients group, the groups needs, past
meeting behavior and patterns, and objectives and plans for future meetings.
The second step is to link the features offered by the firms product-service
mix with benefits that the client will find attractive and that will satisfy the
clients stated needs and objectives.
Each group is different, and it may be incorrect to stereotype specific types
of groups. However, some broad generalizations about each group market seg-
ment can be made. According to the Convention Industry Council, the revenue
from meetings and conventions grew from $82.8 billion in 1995 to $102.3 billion
in 2001, and approximately 27 percent of lodging guests were attending meet-
ings or conferences in 2002.3 It is interesting to note that although corporations
account for the largest number of meetings and attendees, associations and con-
ventions account for more in total expenditures. The reason for this will be made
clear in the following sections.
ASSOCIATION MARKET SEGMENT. The association market segment
is very broad, ranging from large national and international conventions at-
tended by thousands of individuals to very small but expensive board of di-
rectors meetings. When we think of the association market, we tend to think
of the large conventions, but this is only a small segment of the total associa-
tions meeting market. Associations hold several different types of meetings
each year, including the following:
Conventions and association meetings provide huge opportunities for hotels and restau-
rants. Courtesy Mobile Bay CVB.
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 507
Annual convention for the entire membership. This meeting is usually

the largest that the association will hold. It will often include exhibits, es-
pecially within the trade association market.
Board of directors meetings. These are typically held three or four times
a year and are often quite elaborate. The expenditures per attendee are
higher than for other association meetings.
Seminars and workshops. Associations provide continuing education for
the members, and these meetings are held throughout the year.
Committee meetings. Associations operate by means of a volunteer com-
mittee approach, and each of the committees may need to meet several
times a year.
The decision-making process and long lead time for the association market
can be quite frustrating for the hotel sales manager. This market segment is
often assigned to the most experienced sales manager or the director of sales
because that individuals additional experience will prove beneficial in work-
ing with this market segment. The meeting planners working with the larger
associations are normally quite experienced and professional, so the hotels
representative must be equally knowledgeable and experienced. The decision
making is scattered among several people within an association. For example,
the meeting planner may decide where to hold small meetings and work-
shops, but decisions about larger meetings such as annual conventions nor-
mally involve the executive committee and/or the board of directors. For this
reason, the sales manager must be prepared for a lengthy decision-making
process. The initial contact may be with the association meeting planner, but
it may take several weeks or months before the board of directors makes a fi-
nal decision concerning the location for a large meeting.
The lead time for planning meetings can also be quite long. For the largest
of the national associations, it is common for the site of the annual conven-
tion to be selected five to ten years in advance. Even smaller associations typ-
ically plan their annual conventions one to three years in advance. This lead
time creates some real challenges for the sales and marketing staff. Even if a
large annual meeting is booked now, the revenue will not be realized for quite
some time in the future.
An association often uses its annual convention as a revenue-producing
event; the revenue is then used to fund some of the associations annual op-
erating expenses. For this reason, associations are sensitive about such nego-
tiable items as meeting-room rental, complimentary room policies, food and
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 508
beverage prices, and in some cases room rates. Keep in mind that association
attendees will be paying their own expenses to attend meetings and may be
very sensitive about prices for guest rooms, suites, and food and beverages.
Another popular component of the association market is the SMERF
group. SMERF stands for a combination of several market segments: social,
military, educational, religious, and fraternal. SMERF groups tend to be non-
profit groups that have limited budgets and volunteer meeting planners (i.e.,
not professionals). Therefore, these groups tend to be very price-sensitive and
do not spend as much on rooms or food and beverage as other associations
and corporate groups. Some of the SMERF meetings are small, but the total
number of meetings that the SMERF market segment generates makes the
overall contribution significant. Also, the SMERF segment is important to ho-
tels because these groups are willing to book rooms during non-peak periods
in order to get a lower price. This allows hotels to maintain a decent occu-
pancy rate and keep more full-time employees.
CORPORATE MARKET SEGMENT. The corporate market segment is

very broad and is widely solicited by hotels. The corporate market is quite
different from the association market segment. The differences include needs
and objectives, the type and number of individuals in attendance, and the lead
time required. Corporations hold many more meetings than associations do.
The meetings tend to be smaller, have a much shorter lead time, are less price-
sensitive, are subject to quicker site decisions, and involve fewer individuals
in the decision-making process.
Corporate meetings are attractive to hotels for several reasons: they are
held throughout the year rather than being concentrated in certain periods
or months, and they do not require as extensive a use of meeting rooms as
the association market segment. The typical corporation meeting involves
fewer than 50 attendees. Types of corporate meetings vary widely, including
the following:
Training meetings. With the advent of new technology, corporations fre-

quently hold meetings to train new staff and provide up-to-date training
for current staff. This type of meeting is perhaps the most common. Many
hotels located near the offices of major corporations will solicit this type
of meeting on a continual basis.
Sales meetings. Most corporations maintain a sales staff who meet on a
frequent basis. These meetings serve both to provide information to the
sales staff and to motivate them. This is an excellent type of meeting to
solicit because the group is normally less concerned about price than other
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 509
types of organization. The corporation is concerned about providing at-

tendees with convenience and comfort.
New product introduction meetings. When a corporation introduces a
new product, it is often done with great fanfare. The meeting is likely to
be attended by dealers, corporate sales staff, and the media. This type of
meeting can be very extensive and very price-insensitive.
Management meetings. Management staff often need to get away from the
place of business to meet and discuss issues in a quiet environment, where
they will not be interrupted by telephones and other office distractions.
Technical meetings. Technical specialists need to meet to discuss items of
mutual concern. This type of meeting is less elaborate than the other types
of corporate meetings.
Annual stockholders meeting. All publicly held corporations are required
to have annual stockholders meetings that may be attended by a large
number of individuals. Some food and beverage events associated with
this type of meeting can be very extensive.
Board of directors meetings. These are perhaps the most elaborate and
expensive, and they often feature extensive food and beverage presenta-
tions. They also require more expensive and specialized meeting rooms
within the hotel.
Meeting planning within corporations is typically spread among several de-

partments. Larger corporations tend to have many meetings and may have
established meeting planning departments. However, in most corporations,
meetings are planned by people with other areas of responsibility, such as mar-
keting or human resources; sometimes independent planners are used. The
decision making is usually rapid and does not involve as many individuals as
the association market does. If the meeting planner is not the final decision
maker, he or she is usually highly influential.
In addition to business meetings, incentive trips are often planned for
corporations employees as a reward for outstanding performance. Incen-
tive meetings tend to be held at resort properties in exotic locations and
aboard cruise lines. In many ways, incentive meetings are similar to asso-
ciation meetings. For instance, location and climate are very important, and
there is an emphasis on recreation and relaxation. Also, attendance is vol-
untary, spouses often attend, and the trips must be heavily promoted to en-
courage employees to perform well in hopes of winning a place on the
trip. The lead time for planning incentive trips is a year or more, they last
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 510
four to five days on average, and they can be attended by anywhere from
10 to 1,000 people (the average is around 100). Business-related meetings
are normally scheduled during these incentive trips for tax purposes (par-
ticipants do not have to report business trips as taxable income), but those
meetings are often canceled or ignored by the meeting attendees. However,
incentive trips do resemble corporate meetings in that the decision making
is centralized, a master account is used for billing, service is important,
planners are not price-sensitive, and there are established guarantees for
rooms and meals.
DECISION FACTORS. The association and corporate markets are nat-

ural segments for the group business market in hotels because of their clear
distinctions in meeting characteristics. In addition, sales managers need to
understand the factors that are important to each meeting planner in se-
lecting a facility. Table 14.2 contains a comparison of the factors consid-
corporate convention association
Quality of food service 80% 78% 71%
Negotiable food, beverage, and room rates 77% 83% 76%
Number, size, and quality of meeting rooms 74% 93% 72%
Cost of hotel or meeting facility 72% 76% 73%
Efficiency of billing procedures 64% 62% 56%
Meeting support services and equipment 63% 61% 47%
Efficiency of check-in and check-out

procedures 61% 60% 50%
Number, size, and quality of sleeping

rooms 60% 83% 55%
Assignment of one staff person to handle

53% 55% 45%
table 14.2 Factors considered very important in selection of a facility/hotel. Source: Sarah J. F. Bar-
ley, editor, The Big Picture, Meetings & Conventions, October 1988.
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ered important by meeting planners for the two types of meetings. Al-
though it is important to deal with each meeting planner on an individual
basis, these responses for the average planner provide a place to start. As
you can see, there are differences in the factors that are most important for
the various types of meetings. Corporate planners are most concerned about
the quality of food, followed by the ability to negotiate rates and the num-
ber, size, and quality of meeting rooms. Convention planners are most con-
cerned about the number, size, and quality of the meeting rooms and sleep-
ing rooms and the ability to negotiate rates. Finally, association planners
tend to be in less agreement as to the most important factors, but the abil-
ity to negotiate rates is among them. These planners are also worried about
the meeting rooms, the quality of the food, and the cost of the facilities.
The top four in rank are the same for the three types of meetings, but the
factors differ somewhat in importance. It should also be noted that con-
vention planners place some importance on exhibit space, but it was not
included due to its lack of importance among association and corporate
planners.
This information can be useful in applying the FAB technique. Hotel sales
managers can determine what features are important to a particular meeting
planner and then discuss the hotels advantages in terms of these features. By
focusing on these performance characteristics, the sales manager can demon-
strate to the meeting planner how having a meeting at the hotel will be of
benefit. The next section provides a detailed explanation of the entire per-
sonal selling process.
OTHER MEETINGS MARKET SEGMENTS. In addition to association

and corporate meetings, lodging and foodservice facilities have other
leisure groups that can generate revenue. Banquet and catering facilities
(e.g., hotels, restaurants, and country clubs) focus on weddings, reunions,
anniversary parties, and other events that are mainly centered on the food
component. However, these events can also generate room revenue when
held at a lodging facility. The sports market is another leisure segment
with the potential for generating revenue. Professional, college, and other
amateur teams travel to competitor sites and might have a need for
overnight accommodations. Sports events occur throughout the year, but
this market segment has some special needs such as late arrival and early
checkout.
Another market segment that can be very profitable for lodging and food-
service facilities is the tour group market. Tour groups can be from the local
region, other states or provinces, or from other countries. One of the preferred
modes of travel for many tour groups is the chartered bus, or motorcoach.
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These tours can travel to more than one destination and provide lodging and
foodservice revenues for multiple properties. This market segment is similar
to the SMERF segment in that the members tend to be price-sensitive. The
tour groups will often stay at limited-service hotels or motels and travel
throughout the year.
THE PERSONAL SELLING PROCESS

As mentioned earlier, personal selling is an interpersonal process whereby the
seller ascertains, activates, and satisfies the needs and wants of the buyer so
that both the seller and the buyer benefit. Selling need not be one-sided; it can
satisfy both parties. Prospective clients can derive benefits in that the burden
Hotels are popular locations for weddings and banquets. Courtesy Hyatt Hotels
Corporation.
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the personal selling process 513
of planning, organizing, and directing the various aspects of a group meeting

function is shared by the hospitality firm. For most clients, this is a tremen-
dous relief, as they no longer are directly responsible for the event. Of course,
the hospitality firm also benefits through increased sales and profits.
Why should a hospitality firm engage in personal selling? First, it allows
the firm to be presented in an interpersonal manner to a prospective client.
The sales presentation need not be supported by expensive visual aids. Sales
calls and presentations can be as simple as having a sales manager engage in
telephone and personal solicitation. These sales calls give the hospitality firm
exposure and provide prospective clients with another choice when arrang-
ing group meetings and banquet functions. Second, sales calls allow for two-
way communication between the hotel sales manager and prospective clients.
Prospects are able to ask questions, and the representative has the opportu-
nity to present the hospitality firm more thoroughly than is possible through
advertising. The representative can personally demonstrate how the opera-
tion will be able to satisfy the specific needs of the prospect.
Sales calls should be made on prospective clients as well as previous clients.
Previous clients should receive follow-up calls to cultivate an ongoing busi-
ness relationship. If the previous experiences did not satisfy the client, there
is all the more reason to follow up with a sales call. Perhaps the situation can
be corrected and negative word of mouth prevented. Often mere attention to
the clients needs and a sincere effort to improve will be enough to convince
the client that the hospitality firm should be given some additional business.
The goal is to continually meet or exceed customers expectations, thereby en-
suring their satisfaction.
Three basic types of sales calls are follow-up calls, initiating calls, and blitz
calls. Follow-up calls are arranged with representatives of groups and orga-
nizations that have previously been clients of the hospitality firm. Their main
purpose is to remind the client of the firms willingness to be of service in the
future. Initiating calls are made to people who have not been clients in the
past but represent solid prospects for future business. The purpose of these
calls is to create awareness of the products and services and to encourage a
site visit so that the prospective client may see firsthand what the facility has
to offer. Few bookings are made at the time of initiating calls, but it is the
first step in cultivating a better relationship. And, as mentioned earlier, a sales
blitz saturates an area by making many times the normal number of sales calls
and distributing literature describing the product-service mix. A successful
blitz reaches as many potential clients as possible. Sales blitzes often use a var-
ied approach involving not only personal sales calls but also telephone selling,
as well as other forms of advertising using the mass media.
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Prospecting and
qualifying
Planning and
delivering sales
Overcoming
objections
Closing
the sale
figure 14.3 The personal selling process.
Successful salespeople generally focus on four components of successful

selling: (1) prospecting and qualifying, (2) planning and delivering sales pre-
sentations, (3) overcoming objections, and (4) closing the sale (see Figure 14.3).
Prospecting and Qualifying

Identifying prospective clients is a critical activity if the sales managers ef-
forts are to be successful. Generally, 20 to 30 percent of all telephone sales calls
are scheduled with prospective clientsthose who have not previously booked
a banquet or a meeting function with the hospitality firm. No firm can rely
entirely on repeat business, so the organization must commit itself to seeking
and cultivating new business and expanding its market.
In the process of prospecting and qualifying, sales managers should de-
termine whether prospective clients represent good prospects before they in-
vest a large amount of time. The following questions are helpful in deter-
mining whether a prospect is a good one:
Does the prospect have needs and wants that can be satisfied by the prod-
ucts and services of the hospitality firm? If the needs and wants of the
prospect differ substantially from the product-service mix of the firm and
personal selling is undertaken anyway, sales managers are likely to be
wasting both their own time and that of the meeting planner. In addition,
it can create a poor image for the firm, because the sales manager has not
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 515
done enough background checking and homework to determine if the fa-

cility fits the prospects needs.
Does the prospect have the ability to pay? It is important to determine
whether the prospect has income or credit reserves to pay for a meeting
or banquet function. This is a particularly important question to consider
when dealing with small associations, corporations, and SMERF groups,
as well as the leisure groups.
Does the prospect have the willingness to pay? In some cases, the meet-
ing planner may have the ability to pay for the nicest facilities but not the
willingness. For example, some corporations have policies against using
luxury hotels because they feel it is too extravagant, even though they have
deep pockets. Or a corporation may have contracts set up with various ho-
tel chains, limiting the list of potential sites.
Does the prospect have the authority to sign a contract and commit the
organization for the meeting function? It is terribly frustrating for a sales
manager to cultivate prospective sales only to find that the individuals
with whom the manager has been dealing do not have the authority to
sign a contract and commit the organization for a function. It is impor-
tant to know what the decision-making process is, who is involved, and
when a decision will be made. If this information is not available from
the hospitality firms records, the best way to find out is to ask the meet-
ing planner.
Is the prospect readily accessible? It is important that the sales manager

be able to contact the meeting planner by telephone and schedule an ap-
pointment with the prospect. Part of prospecting involves determining the
best time and method to contact the prospect. It may be difficult to sched-
ule a sales presentation with company presidents, so they may prove to be
poor prospects.
Locating suitable prospects is a task confronting all sales representatives. What

methods can be used to obtain leads that will result in good prospects? The
following list represents a few potential sources.
Inquiries. Often individuals visit or call the hospitality firm directly and
request information concerning banquets and/or meeting facilities. These
individuals and the groups they represent are ready-made prospects.
Names given by existing clients. This approach is sometimes called the

endless chain or networking. Simply ask each of the existing clients to
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supply the names of additional individuals, groups, or companies that

might be prospective clients. The resulting list is then qualified to de-
termine the most attractive prospects, and personal selling begins. It is
important to follow up with a thank-you letter to the individual who
supplied the name of the prospect, especially when the lead results in
booked business. The mutual contact also serves as a means of intro-
duction with the new prospect.
Centers of influence. Every community has its own leaders and influen-
tial people. These individuals make excellent prospects because they tend
to be active in the community; they are joiners. Additionally, it is an ex-
cellent idea for the sales manager and other members of the management
staff to belong to community and civic organizations. In this way, they
can establish personal relationships with these community leaders.
Developed lists. Often, lists of prospects are simply developed from
sources such as the telephone directory, chamber of commerce, and lo-
cal clubs and organizations. These lists should then be qualified to
identify the most likely prospects.
Direct-mail prospecting. Lists can also be used to initiate direct-mail
prospecting. Promotional material is mailed to a list of prospects, and the
sales manager can either follow up with a telephone call seeking an ap-
pointment or wait for an inquiry.
Corporate sales offices. All of the major hotel chains maintain national
and regional sales offices. One of the responsibilities of these offices is
to direct prospective leads to the chains hotels that are in the best posi-
tion to service the prospective clients. In addition, hotels within a chain
may refer potential business to other hotels within the chain. For ex-
ample, if a sales manager has made a contact with a meeting planner
and learns that the group is planning to meet in another city, the sales
manager should refer the client to the sales department of the chains
hotel in that city.
Cold calls. Finally, personal sales calls can be made without prior
arrangements or appointments. These are called cold calls. The sales
manager simply contacts the prospect by telephone or may make a per-
sonal call to the prospects office and ask to see the prospect. Rarely
does this type of call result in a signed contract, but it does open some
doors for future contact with the prospect. When made as personal sales
calls, however, cold calls are quite time-consuming and, as a result, are
very expensive.
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Planning and Delivering

Sales Presentations
Soon after qualifying a prospect as a good candidate for the product-service
mix of the hospitality firm, a sales manager should make contact. This is usu-
ally done by telephone. Subsequent contact may also be by telephone, or the
sales manager may make a personal visit to the prospects place of business,
or the prospect may visit the property to inspect the facilities. Sales managers
should be assertive and honest. They should introduce themselves to the
prospect, identify the property they represent, and state the reason for the call.
Mentioning a mutual acquaintance or a common interest may help to break
the ice, but sales managers should be honest and up-front. They should not
attempt to schedule the appointment under false pretenses, as this will only
hurt in the long run.
The overall goal of any personal selling activity is, of course, to promote
purchase on the part of the prospect. Rarely, however, does this occur with-
out a well-planned sales presentation. The AIDA model (awareness, interest,
desire, and action) is one that has long been used in training sales personnel.
To sell the prospect successfully, the sales manager must help move the
prospect through each of the four steps of the AIDA model. Supplemental
materials such as magazine advertising and direct mail can help create aware-
ness and to some extent interest, but it is the responsibility of sales managers
to create desire and action.
Before making the sales call, a sales manager should develop an outline
of the presentation. What are the prospects needs and objectives for the meet-
ing or function? How can the firms products and services help the organi-
zation meet its needs and objectives? It is important to make the products and
services offered by the firm as tangible as possible and to link them directly
with the stated needs and objectives of the prospect. What points should be
stressed? How should they be presented so that the firm is perceived posi-
tively? What should the sales call accomplish?
It is not advisable to prepare a canned sales pitch that is merely replayed
for each new prospect. Instead, a sales manager should be natural and straight-
forward, not waste words, and get right to the point. The sales presentation
should begin with a formal introduction followed with questions probing the
prospect about his or her needs and objectives. These needs and objectives can
then be used as the basis for the remainder of the sales presentation, focusing
on how the propertys features and performance characteristics match the
buyers needs. It is important to let the prospect know that the firm values,
wants, and deserves the prospects business. It may be best to use a checklist
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of points to be covered, for it is better to refer to a list than to appear disor-

ganized during the presentation.
It is also important to be aware of the nature of the prospect. Some indi-
viduals have come to sit and talk; others are too busy. A sales manager should
be able to vary the presentation to suit the needs of the prospect. Every effort
should be made to make the prospect comfortable by establishing rapport.
Every effort should also be made to emphasize the strong selling points of the
hotel operations product-service mix, while linking these strengths to the
stated needs and objectives of the prospect.
Finally, one of the most important skills that can be acquired by sales man-
agers is the art of listening. Often, sales managers feel they must do all the
talking if a sale is to be made. Nothing could be further from the truth. Sell-
ing also requires concentrating on what the prospect is saying and on non-
verbal behavior. A good sales manager allows the prospect to ask questions
uninterrupted and does not try to anticipate questions and jump in with a
canned response before the prospect has finished asking the question. Active
listening is a learned skill, and one that is critical to successful selling. Selling
means focusing attention on prospects and learning to hear what they are re-
ally saying.
Active listening requires a salesperson to hear and understand what the
buyer is trying to say, from the buyers point of view. The key is that the sales-
person actually needs to understand the buyer, not merely hear what the buyer
is saying. It is important to let the buyer know that you are listening and that
you know what he or she means. There are four techniques that can be used
in active listening:4
Encourage talking. Let prospects know that you are listening and that you
want them to continue talking. This can be done with verbal and non-
verbal signals. You can say things such as I see and Go on, or you can
nod and use facial expressions.
Take notes. Note taking gives prospects the message that you are inter-
ested in what they are saying and that you are concerned about getting
the details correct. It is important to maintain eye contact while you are
taking notes and not overdo it.
Paraphrase the customers meaning with a confirmation question. State

in your own words what you think the prospect meant. This will help to
clarify any misunderstandings and give the prospect a feeling of assurance
that you are concerned about accuracy.
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Express an understanding of the customers feelings and perceptions. In ad-

dition to rephrasing the content of the prospects message, it is helpful to ex-
press similar opinions or feelings. This is especially helpful when the prospect
has feelings of doubt or frustration. Let the prospect know that such feelings
are understandable, and allow him or her to elaborate.
All of these techniques will go a long way toward building the prospects
level of confidence with you and your organization. In addition, listening
and obtaining feedback will provide valuable information to use in the sales
presentation.
Overcoming Objections
No matter how good a sales manager may be, sooner or later (and probably
sooner) a prospect will object during the sales call. Before you proceed, you
need to determine if the prospects response is a request for more informa-
tion, a condition of the sale, or an actual objection. In most cases, objections
can be anticipated based on past experiences with other prospects and a thor-
ough knowledge of the property and the competition. Most objections fall into
one of the following categories:
Price. The perceived value of the products and services being offered may
not be high enough. This calls for the sales manager to reassure the
prospect and to continue to negotiate.
Products and services offered. The prospect may not feel comfortable with
the assurances that the sales manager has made about the quality or con-
sistency of the products and services provided by the hospitality firms staff.
It may be easy to show the prospect firsthand how the firm performs.
Facility or Brand. The prospect may hold a negative image of the indi-
vidual property or the entire brand. If this is the case, efforts must be made
to change the perceptions and to ask the prospect for a second chance, es-
pecially if the prospect represents a sizeable piece of business.
Pressure to decide. Sometimes the prospect simply does not like being put
under pressure to make a decision immediately. This can occur when an-
other group is thinking of booking the same space on the same days, or
when sales managers are pressuring the prospect to decide in order to
make a quota.
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Individual sales manager. Once in a while there can be a personality con-

flict between the sales manager and the prospect. Sales managers need to
be flexible and able to work effectively with a wide variety of individuals.
For the sales call to be successful, of course, these objections must be over-
come. A simple yet effective approach directs the sales manager to use these
steps:
1. Listen; allow the prospect to explain the objections fully.

2. Reflect or rephrase the prospects feelings to assure the prospect that you
fully understand the objection.
3. Handle the objection. Several methods are used to effectively handle the
objections that prospects will raise:
Agree and counter. Acknowledge the prospects objection but then offer
support for why the objection really is not important or is not an objec-
tion. It is important to offer support or a reasoned argument for your re-
sponse. If the prospect has incorrect facts, that is easily remedied. If the
prospect has an incorrect perception, this is much more difficult to change.
A perception represents an individuals view of reality, and this is not eas-
ily changed.
Turn the objection into a reason for buying. For example, if the prospect
objects to the price, it might be useful to talk about a hotels employee-to-
guest ratio and how this allows the hotel to provide a higher level of ser-
vice than the competition and therefore is justification for the higher price.
Seek more information. Often the stated objection is not the full reason
why the prospect is not ready to make a commitment. The sales manager
must probe further to determine if the meeting planners facts are incor-
rect or incomplete, or if the objection is based on a bad experience in the
past. Sometimes, prospects appear to be objecting when they are actually
trying to obtain more information.
Postpone the objection. If the prospect raises an objection early in the
sales presentation and it would be best dealt with later, ask to defer it for
a few minutes, indicating that it will be discussed at length shortly. For
example, if the prospect objects to a hotels price, it is unwise to discuss
price until the hotels product-service quality is well established in the
prospects mind. It is imperative that objections be dealt with. Do not
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just ignore them in the hope that prospects will forget about themthey
will not.
4. Get a commitment from the prospect that the objective has been met. If
this is the case, it is advisable to ask for the business and attempt a trial
close. The following types of questions can be used to determine if the ob-
jections have been properly handled:
Is that the answer you are looking for?
Do you agree that we have covered your question and given you a way
to handle it?
Does that solve your problem?
After attempting the trial close, if you cannot overcome an objection or close
the sale because of an objection, you will need to either return to your pre-
sentation or consider walking away if the objection seems insurmountable. If
your trial close suggests that you have overcome the prospects objection(s),
then it is time to close the sale. The next section covers some common clos-
ing techniques.
Closing the Sale

Despite otherwise successful sales efforts, many sales managers fail to get a firm
commitment from the prospect. They simply fail to close the sale. Closure can
be as simple as saying, Can we confirm your meeting for October 15? Closure
involves summarizing the major selling points and striving for agreement on the
part of the prospect. Simply stated, closure involves asking for business. A num-
ber of methods can be used to close a sale. Among the most common are:
Continued affirmation. If the sales manager can ask questions to which

the prospect will answer yes, this can set up prospects for closing the sale.
The prospect has already responded positively to a series of questions, and
the sales manager has led the prospect to a point where he or she can then
ask for the business.
Prestige or status close. This is often used by upscale or exclusive proper-
ties. The sales manager discusses the other groups that have met in the
facility and, by affiliating the prospects group with the other, more pres-
tigious groups, encourages the prospect to decide to hold the meeting or
function at the facility as well.
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Assumptive close. This is a bold approach in which the sales manager sim-
ply assumes that the sale is closed and asks the prospect questions that relate
to details of the contract or hands the prospect the pen and asks him or her
to sign the contract.
Closing on a minor point. This is useful when the prospect has raised an
objection that the sales manager has successfully dealt with. If there is agree-
ment on a minor point, the sales manager can then ask for the business.
This approach involves offering the prospect choices and asking which
questions rather than if questions. In this way, the prospect will not re-
spond with a no, but rather will agree and offer an explanation.
Standing room only. If another group is looking at the same dates and
space in a hotel or restaurant, it may be useful to tell the prospect that he
or she will need to make a decision quickly in order to reserve the meet-
ing space and/or a block of guest rooms.
ASKING PROBING QUESTIONS

There is an alternative approach to the traditional personal selling process that
focuses more on using probing questions and avoiding objections. Neil Rack-
ham developed the SPIN selling approach based on research performed with
companies that sell in large volume.5 SPIN is an acronym for situation, prob-
lem, implication, and need-payoff questions. The idea is to prepare for the
sale, investigate the prospects needs, demonstrate your companys capabilities
to meet those needs, and obtain a commitment. The commitment can be in
the form of an advance in the sales process (e.g., a hotel site visit or a meet-
ing with more members of the committee) or an actual sale (i.e., close). The
following questions are used to progress through this alternative personal sell-
ing process.
Situation Questions
Situation questions are aimed at gathering background information and facts
about the prospect, his or her needs, and the organization he or she repre-
sents. Much of this information can be gathered before the actual sales call to
show the prospect that you are really interested in obtaining his or her busi-
ness. The salesperson should not ask simple questions such as What does
your company do? or bore the prospect with a series of basic questions.
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asking probing questions 523
Problem Questions
Problem questions are meant to uncover any problems or dissatisfaction the
prospect has with the current supplier (e.g., hotel for meetings, foodservice
contractor for college dining, or corporate travel agent). In some cases, these
questions could uncover problems that the prospect does not even know ex-
ist. The questions could be as simple as Do you have any problems with your
current supplier? or Are you satisfied with your current supplier? in an
attempt to get the prospect thinking.
Implication Questions
The goal of implication questions is to get the prospect to realize how any
problem or dissatisfaction with the current supplier is negatively affecting his
or her business. This could be a financial issue or something more subjective,
such as attendee satisfaction at a meeting or convention. The salesperson for
a contract foodservice firm could ask a college administrator, Does the stu-
dents dissatisfaction with the current suppliers food quality result in fewer
dining contracts? to bring up a possible implication.
Need-Payoff Questions
Need-payoff questions are focused on helping the prospect determine the pos-
itive outcome of purchasing your product. A hotel salesperson could ask a
meeting planner, If my hotel were to provide your attendees with better food
and closer proximity to tourist attractions, do you think you would get better
attendance and more registration fees? suggesting an increase in meeting rev-
enue. Similarly, more dining contracts would increase revenues, or a better
travel agent could provide better travel packages in terms of price, conve-
nience, or level of quality.
Once again, the use of these probing questions should lead to fewer ob-
jections and a higher probability of a positive outcome or commitment, espe-
cially for large sales. It is important to note that these questions do not have
to be used in this order. An experienced salesperson will go back and forth
between the different types of questions as the need arises. In general, you
will start out and move through the questions in this order for each topic, but
you should adapt based on the comments of the prospect. Finally, you can
prepare a list of SPIN questions before you make a sales call. In particular,
you should develop a list of possible problems the prospect might have with
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his or her current supplier and construct some implication and need-payoff
questions for each problem.
PERSONAL SELLING TOOLS

A number of tools can be developed and used by salespeople to improve their
performance. These tools increase the efficiency and effectiveness of sales pre-
sentations. We have chosen to discuss two such tools: key account manage-
ment and negotiating skills.
Key Account Management

A rule that has been applied to sales for some time is the 80/20 rule. This
proposition holds that 80 percent of the profitable business will be generated
by 20 percent of the customers. Not all prospects, guests, or meeting planners
should be treated equally. Rather, special attention should be given to those
who are producing the largest share of the revenue and profits or who have
the potential to do so. The groups that make up this 20 percent are termed
key accounts. They deserve key account managementspecial attention and
extra-personalized selling efforts.
Each sales and marketing department should keep a very close watch on
the level of business provided by each account. Trends should be studied to
determine which accounts are growing and which are declining. An analysis
of each account should be conducted periodically to determine the total rev-
enue and contribution margin for each account. Based on this analysis, ac-
counts can be classified as shown in Figure 14.4.
Present Profit Margins

Low High
Undeveloped Desirable
High
accounts accounts
Potential for
Increased
Business
Low Undesirable Developed
accounts accounts
figure 14.4 Account profile.

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personal selling tools 525
Based on this analysis, key accounts can be identified and strategies and
action plans developed to foster the development of exceptional accounts. Ac-
counts with the most current business and greatest potential must be given
extra attention, while those that are marginal should not consume too much
of a sales managers time and effort. Keep in mind that resources are lim-
ited, and they should be directed toward the accounts with the most profit
potential.
Negotiating Skills
In todays environment, salespeople need excellent negotiation skills to deal
with buyers. There is a proliferation of information available to consumers,
including tips and suggestions for getting the best deals from manufacturers
and retailers. Advances in technology make this information easy to access,
thereby allowing consumers to compare alternatives easily. The negotiation
process is particularly critical in industrial markets because of the high vol-
ume. For example, if a hotel sales manager is negotiating the room rate for
500 rooms over 4 nights (2,000 room nights), a reduction of $5 in price results
in a decrease in revenue of $10,000. This transaction could take place in a mat-
ter of seconds.
The goal of any negotiation is to achieve a win-win situation. It is im-
portant not to view the negotiation process as a competition because someone
will end up losing. Dissatisfied customers do not return, and they provide neg-
ative word of mouth to their colleagues. Rather, it is important to create an
exchange that results in the mutual satisfaction of the involved parties. A good
sales manager will plan for the sales presentation and the inevitable negotia-
tion process. A complete knowledge of the competitive environment will pro-
vide useful parameters for steering the negotiations. In addition, the sales man-
ager should develop acceptable ranges and options for negotiating to ensure
profitability. Finally, the following tips will improve the sales managers po-
tential for success in negotiating.6
When you give something up, try to gain something in return. Once you
show a tendency to negotiate, prospects will try to negotiate on every item.
Therefore, make it clear that you expect something in return for making
concessions. For example, a hotel sales manager could say, Ill lower the
room rate by $5 per night if you guarantee 100 rooms for 4 nights.
Look for items other than price to negotiate. As mentioned earlier, a
small reduction in price could result in a large decrease in revenue when
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dealing with volume business. Hotel sales managers can focus on items
other than room rates. For example, planners could be given free meet-
ing space, room upgrades, reduced meal prices, or free audiovisual
equipment. All of these items would have a much smaller impact on the
hotels bottom line, and they provide meeting planners with a sense of
accomplishment.
Do not attack your prospects demand; look for the motive behind it. Try
not to tell a prospect that his or her demand is ridiculous or unreasonable.
This will only anger the prospect and have a negative impact on the ne-
gotiations. Instead, remain calm and ask for an explanation. For example,
if a meeting planner asks for a very low room rate, it may be because of
a small or restricted budget.
Do not defend your position; ask for feedback and advice from the
prospect. If you meet resistance to your offer, do not get defensive. Sim-
ply ask the prospect why he or she thinks it is unreasonable. Asking
What would you do if you were in my position? is often beneficial in
this situation.
Suggestive Selling
Another common sales technique in the hospitality industry is suggestive sell-
ing. This is the process whereby a salesperson (e.g., sales manager, reserva-
tion clerk, or waiter) provides suggestions for the consumer that result in more
revenue or profit for the firm, better service to the consumer, and more money
for the salesperson. For example, a waiter might suggest a certain appetizer
or wine for his guests before taking their order. This might result in the sale
of additional items that wouldnt have been ordered because the guests didnt
think about it. Similarly, a catering salesperson might suggest some additional
services for a couple planning their wedding. It could be a certain food item
or something to do with the decorations.
Suggestive selling can result in the sale of additional items or increase rev-
enues and profits by up-selling, or getting consumers to buy items that are
more expensive or provide a greater profit margin. For example, a waiter
could suggest a more expensive bottle of wine, a better cut of steak, or a meal
with a low food cost (i.e., larger profit margin) such as pasta. Similarly, a cater-
ing salesperson could get a couple to upgrade to a more expensive menu or
rent a more expensive room for the reception. Finally, travel agents could get
consumers to upgrade to a more expensive room on a cruise or a more ex-
pensive package for overseas travel (e.g., one at a more expensive hotel).
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ethical issues in personal selling 527
Information Technology
Salespeople have access to information technology that automates many as-
pects of their jobs, from creating a database for customers and prospects to
evaluating the profitability of accounts. In the hospitality and tourism indus-
try, there are products that focus primarily on catering (e.g., Caterease) and
products that are directed at hotel sales departments (e.g., Delphi). These soft-
ware products are normally Microsoft Windowsbased and able to be inte-
grated with the operations other software systems (point-of-sale systems, res-
ervation systems, etc.). For example, Delphi is a sales and catering software
product developed by Newmarket International for larger hotels, chains, and
convention and visitors bureaus. All editions of Delphi provide features for:
Complete account and contact management

Internet integration and e-mail functionality
Scheduling of daily tasks in a report-driven format
Comprehensive function diary views of daily, weekly, or monthly activities
Guest room control log for instant room, rate, and availability information
Banquet event orders (BEOs) to track the details of every function
In addition, Profit Pack provides information on bookings, trends, and his-

tory, and helps you to determine the most lucrative pricing over a period
of dates. Delphi is currently the leader in market share for hotel sales de-
partments. However, some hotel chains use Siebel systems or other soft-
ware products. In any event, salespeople in any industry using any com-
puter software designed for sales will benefit from the automation of
specific tasks and details.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN
PERSONAL SELLING
As with most other areas of business, there is the potential for unethical be-
havior by salespeople. A firms policies and practices should provide sales-
people with a good understanding of acceptable behavior or conduct. When
these policies are written and used in training, salespeople are more likely to
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 528
uphold the firms ethical standards. The following is a brief description of the
most common types of unethical behavior among salespeople.
Sharing confidential information. Salespeople and customers build close

relationships over time that lead to the disclosure of confidential infor-
mation based on trust. There is a potential for salespeople to share this in-
formation with a customers competitors, either deliberately or acciden-
tally, and so salespeople need to be cognizant of this possible breach. This
behavior speaks to the character of the salesperson.
Reciprocity. This refers to the mutual exchange of benefits between buy-
ers and sellers. If a firm has a policy of reciprocity, it can be viewed as an
exclusive tying arrangement, which is illegal. For example, if a hotel pur-
chases supplies only from firms that agree to use its services for corporate
travel.
Bribery. Bribes in the form of monetary payoffs or kickbacks are uneth-
ical, if not illegal. Many U.S. firms find themselves at a disadvantage in
international markets because their corporate policies and U.S. laws for-
bid them from offering bribes in countries where it is accepted as a nor-
mal business practice. Some meeting planners have coaxed hotels into giv-
ing them kickbacks from the room revenues for their meetings.
Gift giving and entertainment. There is a fine line between gift giving,
entertainment, and bribery. If the gift is being used to obtain the cus-
tomers business, then it amounts to a bribe. Gifts should be given only
after contracts are signed, as a symbol of the firms gratitude. Meeting
planners are inundated with gifts in the form of hotel coupons and fre-
quent guest points or even frequent flyer miles. Wining and dining clients
is another popular sales technique. Fam (familiarization) trips provide
meeting planners with free hotel rooms, airline travel, and entrance to
tourist attractions or special events. In response, some firms have policies
regarding the acceptance of gifts and entertainment by meeting planners
and travel agents.
Making misleading sales claims. In their pursuit of sales and quotas, sales-
people may decide to provide customers or prospects with misleading in-
formation. It is not uncommon in hotel sales for a sales manager to promise
meeting planners things that the food and beverage department cannot
deliver. This results in some difficult negotiations at the time of the meet-
ing. Another practice that is found in hotel sales departments is blind cut-
ting. This refers to the practice of promising a certain quantity of rooms
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ethical issues in personal selling 529
in a contract but then setting the actual room block at a lower amount to
account for slippage or artificially high estimates from meeting planners.
Business defamation. Salespeople sometimes make disparaging comments
about their competitors when dealing with customers. Not only does this
reflect poorly on the salesperson and the hotel, but in some instances it is
actually illegal (e.g., slander or libel). It is very tempting to take a cheap
shot at a competitor when making comparisons between properties or
firms. However, salespeople should constrain themselves to answering
specific questions with factual information.
The extent to which a firm is successful in deterring unethical behavior on

the part of its employees will depend on how it treats employees who vio-
late its policies and the level of support for the policies throughout the
organization.
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This chapter has focused on a vital link in hotel sales and marketing: the sales
and solicitation of group business. The initial section of the chapter examined
the selling function and the attributes that make a salesperson successful.
These attributes include courtesy, knowledge of the products and services,
professional appearance, a strong desire for and willingness to work, and fi-
nally a strong personality.
The role of the meeting planner was reviewed. Each meeting planner is
different, and the needs and objectives of each group will be different, pre-
senting a real challenge for the sales manager. However, common needs of
meeting planners include costs, location, image and status, professional ser-
vice, adaptability and flexibility, and professional operations and management.
In working with a meeting planner, the sales manager should strive to build
a solid working relationship based on trust and the hotels ability to meet the
Chapter review
meeting planners needs and objectives. The sales manager should become a
problem solver.
Selling effectively to group markets was discussed at length, especially as
it relates to the needs and objectives of the association and corporate market
segments. Characteristics of each of these markets were discussed and gener-
alizations made. The FAB selling technique was introduced as a means of ty-
ing product features to advantages and benefits that can be marketed to
prospective customers.
The personal selling process was presented, including four important
steps: prospecting and qualifying, planning and delivering the sales presenta-
tion, handling objections, and closing the sale. Each step was explained and
techniques provided for achieving the efficiency and effectiveness necessary
to succeed. The importance of listening was discussed, and several options
were presented for handling objections and closing the sale. An alternative to
the traditional personal selling process, SPIN selling, was presented as well,
along with some additional personal selling tools. Key account management
helps salespeople expend their effort where the potential payback is greatest,
and some tips were provided for improving negotiating skills. The use of in-
formation technology in sales was discussed.
Finally, the chapter discussed the ethical issues surrounding the personal
selling process. There are many areas for potential abuse, including the shar-
ing of confidential information, reciprocity, bribery, gift giving and enter-
tainment, and business defamation. It is important for hotels and travel firms
to establish a written code of ethical behavior that is conveyed to their em-
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chapter review 531
Chapter review
ployees during orientation and job training. There must be penalties for vio-
lating the firms ethical standards, and the entire firm should support them.

Active listening
AIDA model
Association market segment
Cold calls
Corporate market segment
FAB selling technique
Implication questions
Incentive trips
Information technology
Key account management
Meeting planners
Need-payoff questions
Negotiating skills
Order getters
Order takers
Personal selling
Problem questions
Property analysis checklist
Prospecting and qualifying
Sales blitz
Situation questions
SMERF group
SPIN selling
Standard operating procedures
Suggestive selling
Telemarketing
Up-selling
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 532

Discussion
1. Cite and discuss the attributes of a successful sales man-
ager. Which one do you consider to be the most impor-
tant? Why?
2. What do you see as the pros and cons of a career in sales?

3. What is the role of the meeting planner? How does this
individual interact with the hotel sales and marketing
staff?
4. Cite and discuss the nature of the association and corpo-

Chapter review
rate market segments, including decision making, lead

time, types of meetings, and site selection criteria.
5. What are the steps in the personal selling process? Provide

a brief description of the activities at each step.
6. Discuss some of the procedures that can be used to qualify

a prospect.
7. When a sales manager encounters objections, how might

these be handled?
8. What does it mean to close a sale? What methods can be

used to accomplish this?
9. How does gaining a commitment differ from closing a

sale?
10. What is the proposed benefit of using the SPIN selling
approach instead of the traditional personal selling
approach?
11. What is account management? How can it be done?
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 533
chapter review 533
Chapter review
12. What are some common negotiating skills?
13. List and discuss the ethical issues in personal selling.
Notes
1 Charles M. Futrell, Fundamentals of Selling: Customers for Life (Chicago: McGraw-Hill, 1996).
2 Nancy L. Scanlon, Marketing by Menu (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985), pp. 7275.
3 Convention Industry Council (www.conventionindustry.org).
4 Gerald L. Manning and Barry L. Reece, Selling Today, 6th edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1995), pp. 25658.
5 Neil Rackham, Spin Selling (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988).
6 Futrell, Fundamentals of Selling, p. 243.
c14.qxd 12/21/04 12:20 PM Page 534
case study
Contract Foodservice Firm Scenario
A ssume you graduated from a college hospitality program and

accepted a position with a contract foodservice firm such as ARA-
MARK. After working in a variety of university and college ac-
counts as an assistant manager and then as the director, you decided to take
a position in the sales office. In your present position, you are responsible for
finding new accounts. To do this, you have to either take an account away
from a competitor or sell your service to a college or university that is con-
tracting for the first time (e.g., it used to be a self-operator and handled its
own food service). In the case of a self-operator, develop a list of SPIN ques-
tions you might ask to persuade the institution to use a contract foodservice
provider such as your firm.

1. Put together a list of problem questions.
2. For each problem, develop a list of implication and need-payoff
questions.
3. Do a role-play with a fellow student acting as the university
administrator.
case study
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part 6
PRICING STRATEGY AND MENU DESIGN
Courtesy The Melting Pot.

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Courtesy Hyatt Hotels Corporation.

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chapter
15
Pricing Strategy
Chapter Objectives
1. Outline the traditional role of price in the
marketing mix.
2. Describe the impact of pricing objectives, consumer price
sensitivity, and environmental factors on pricing decisions.
3. Outline common pricing strategies and techniques.
4. Explain the use of price to segment consumer markets.
5. Outline the role of price in revenue management.
6. Discuss legal and ethical issues surrounding
pricing practices.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Pricing Techniques and Procedures
Cost-oriented pricing
Introduction Demand-oriented pricing
Factors That Affect Pricing Competitive pricing
Decisions Segmented Pricing
Pricing objectives
Segmenting by buyer identification
Consumer price sensitivity
Segmenting by purchase location
Environmental factors
Segmenting by time of purchase
Broad Pricing Strategies Segmenting by purchase volume
Skim pricing Segmenting by product design
Penetration pricing Segmenting by product bundling
Neutral pricing
(continues)
537
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 538
Revenue Management Summary of Chapter Objectives

Establishing a pricing structure
Yield management
Selective discounting Questions for Review and
Historical booking analysis Discussion
Yield management equation
Case Study: The Pasta Shack
Pricing Law and Ethics
Legal issues in pricing
Ethical issues in pricing
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 539
industry profile
Dan Wheeler Vice President of Marketing
Uno Chicago Grills

As vice president of marketing, Im responsible for overseeing all marketing-
related functions for our system of more than 200 Uno Chicago Grills. Among
other things, this includes advertising, promotion, media, research, and local
store marketing. In addition, Im involved in menu and product development,
and a member of the strategic planning team.

I am most satisfied at my job when a marketing program that we conceived
and executed against a specific objective meets its goal. In addition to driving
the business forward, there is a tremendous amount of pride built among the
team when we achieve such success together.
Although it doesnt happen often, one particularly frustrating aspect of
the job is when another competitor beats you to market with a great idea.
Youve got to be nimble and quick to win in this game.

you face?
Growing market share and top-of-mind awareness in the face of proliferat-
ing competition and increasingly fickle yet savvy consumers.

industry?
In todays society, where time is as precious a commodity as anything and
dual-income households are the norm, casual dining has truly become the re-
placement to the traditional family dinner table. Because of this we need to
stay aware of and be sure to deliver on the needs and wants of our target cus-
tomers. Technology is becoming more and more useful for this, although we
must be careful not to lose the human touch, which is so important in our
business.
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540 chapter 15 pricing strategy

company?
At Uno Chicago Grill, marketing is the chief steward of our brand. To that
end, we are focused like a laser beam on making sure all our message centers
are aligned appropriately. Whether its our commercials you hear on the ra-
dio or the way our hosts answer the telephone, we strive to speak with one
voice from a brand perspective.
In addition to being brand stewards, the marketing group is also primar-
ily responsible for driving sales and customer counts at our restaurants. We
take this responsibility very seriously and make sure to gear all our efforts
accordingly.

industry profile

you suggest?
Dont feel like you need to find your niche immediately upon coming out of
school. I started out as a waiter, fell in love with the business, and went from
there. As you allow yourself to be exposed to different areas of the business,
not only will you be able to find where you best fit, but you also become a
more well-rounded and valuable contributor to your employer.
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factors that affect pricing decisions 541
INTRODUCTION
Price is a component of the marketing mix and the vehicle used in free enter-
prise to allocate limited resources. The other three components of the market-
ing mixpromotion, product, and distributioncreate value and appear on
the firms income statement as expenses. Conversely, price is the firms tool
for capturing value, and it affects the revenue section of the income statement.
Price is the easiest of the marketing mix components to change and it directly
affects revenue. Therefore, firms should put a great deal of effort into for-
mulating their pricing strategies. Price can be defined as the value given to a
product or service by consumers.
Various names are associated with price, such as fee, tuition, and premium.
The important thing to remember is the concept of exchange. In other words,
the buyer and the seller have to be mutually satisfied for an exchange to take
place, and this exchange does not have to include a monetary unit. The early
system of exchange was referred to as bartering, where individuals or orga-
nizations exchanged goods and services with one another. Even nonprofit or-
ganizations are in the business of selling a sense of goodwill or charity in ex-
change for donors contributions.
Pricing strategy integrates marketing and finance in an attempt to create
an atmosphere of mutual satisfaction. The product or service attributes are
combined with price to provide enough value to satisfy customers while en-
abling the firm to cover costs and make an adequate profit. The rest of this
chapter covers the process of strategic pricing, including the factors that in-
fluence pricing decisions.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT

PRICING DECISIONS
The pricing decision remains a critical component of the marketing mix and
the positioning of a product or service. Pricing is a continual process that re-
quires a firm understanding of the market and its environments. The dy-
namic nature of the market and its environments creates a formidable chal-
lenge for even the most experienced managers. Therefore, it is best to take a
systematic approach to pricing that includes establishing pricing objectives
consistent with the overall objectives of the firm, assessing consumer price
sensitivity, and monitoring the external environment.
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Pricing Objectives
Many possible pricing objectives can be grouped into four major categories
based on goals related to financial performance, volume, competition, and im-
age. These objectives are consistent with the organizational objectives dis-
cussed in Chapter 5 and must be considered when setting prices. A brief sum-
mary of the categories follows.
Financial performance objectives focus on areas such as the firms level of

profitability, rates of return on sales and equity, and cash flow. Most large
companies continually monitor these performance measures and find it
easy to use these measures as benchmarks or objectives. It becomes rela-
tively easy to see the role of price in these measures of firm performance.
Volume objectives focus on sales and market share. These measures can
be based either on the number of units sold or on the dollar amount of
units sold. The sales measure looks at the firm individually, while the
market share measure views the firm relative to the competition. Volume
objectives are particularly common in the early stages of the product life
cycle, when firms are willing to forgo profits in exchange for building
long-term sales and market share. In addition, price competition stays
strong in the maturity stage in an attempt to hold market share.
Competition objectives focus on the nature of the competitive environ-
ment. A firm may want to maintain competitive parity with the market
leader, widen the gap between itself and market followers, or simply sur-
vive. There is a good deal of head-to-head competition in the hospitality
and tourism industry. For example, airline companies match each others
price changes so closely that the industry is often under investigation for
price collusion.
Image objectives focus on the firms overall positioning strategy. A firms
position in the market is a direct result of its price-quality relationship as
perceived by consumers. The hotel market can be segmented by price into
economy, midmarket, and premium categories. Also, airline companies
offer bereavement fares for emergency travel, and hotels offer discounts
for guests with family members in the hospital. These discounts enhance
the image of the firm.
Consumer Price Sensitivity

An important factor in setting price is consumer price sensitivity, or how con-
sumers react to changes in price. Many situational factors affect a consumers
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 543
price sensitivity, and these factors can actually vary from one purchase deci-
sion to another. For example, a married couple may be less price-sensitive
when choosing a restaurant for a special occasion than they would be if they
were having a normal meal after work. The following summarizes the most
common effects on consumer price sensitivity.1
PRICE-QUALITY EFFECT. In many situations, consumers use price as an

indicator of a products quality, especially when they do not have much ex-
perience with the product category. In this case, consumers will be less sensi-
tive to a products price to the extent that they believe higher prices signify
higher quality. For example, overseas travelers often use price as a gauge of
quality because they lack familiarity with the travel products in foreign coun-
tries. This pertains to all components of the travel product, such as hotels,
restaurants, car rentals, and tourist attractions. This lack of information is one
of the main reasons that consumers would use price as a signal of quality,
along with the perceived risk of making a bad choice and the belief that qual-
ity differences exist between brands.
UNIQUE VALUE EFFECT. Consumers will be less price-sensitive when a

product stays unique and does not have close substitutes. If a firm successfully
differentiates its product from those of its competitors, it can charge a higher
price. Consumers must remain aware of the differentiation and convinced of
its value in order to pay the higher price. In essence, the firms strategy is to
reduce the effect of substitutes, thereby eliminating the consumers reference
value for the product. Resorts and health spas use this strategy by marketing
themselves as one-of-a kind properties. Similarly, many fine-dining restau-
rants use this approach and differentiate themselves on attributes such as the
chef, the atmosphere, and/or the menu. Airline and car rental companies
would have a more difficult time using this strategy because of the homo-
geneity of the products.
PERCEIVED-SUBSTITUTES EFFECT. Consumers become more price-

sensitive when comparing a products higher price with the lower prices of
perceived substitutes for the product. Consumers must be aware of the other
products and actually perceive them as substitutes. The prices for the substi-
tutes help consumers form a reference price, or a reasonable price range, for
the product. There are many perceived substitutes for products such as fast
food, airline travel, car rentals, and hotel rooms. When there are a number of
substitutes that consumers are aware of, there tends to be a downward pres-
sure on price, resulting in a relatively narrow acceptable range for prices. For
example, there are no significant price differences between products in fast-
food restaurants or airline tickets for a popular route (e.g., New York to
Chicago).
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To many, a hotel spa provides a unique experience. Courtesy Hyatt Hotels Corporation.
DIFFICULT-COMPARISON EFFECT. This effect is closely related to the

perceived-substitutes effect. Consumers may be aware of substitutes for a
product, but they will tend to become less price-sensitive as it becomes more
difficult to compare brands. Therefore, many firms try to differentiate them-
selves from the competition on certain attributes that are difficult to compare.
For example, bars may serve drinks in different quantities, or resorts may
package products in an attempt to make direct comparisons more difficult.
However, rather than spend the time and effort to make comparisons, many
consumers are content to simply choose a brand that they perceive as satis-
factory. Franchises benefit from this phenomenon because they focus on pro-
viding consistent products and services under a recognizable brand name.
Even though they have not made direct comparisons or familiarized them-
selves with all of the alternatives, consumers will feel safe in choosing one of
these well-known brands.
SHARED-COST EFFECT. Consumers will be less sensitive to price if an-
other organization or individual is sharing in the cost of a product. The smaller
the portion of the price paid by the consumer, the less sensitive the individ-
ual is to price. This sharing could be in the form of a tax deduction, a busi-
ness reimbursement, or some type of sales promotion (e.g., coupon or rebate).
When business travelers stay in hotels, eat at restaurants, or rent cars, they
tend to be less sensitive to price because their firms normally pay for most of
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 545
their travel expenses. Hospitality and tourism firms that target business trav-
elers often charge higher relative prices for their products. One exception is
hotels, where business travelers usually pay lower prices than individual trav-
elers, due to the overall volume of the business segment.
EXPENDITURE EFFECT. Consumers will tend to be more price-sensitive
the larger the amount of the total expenditure. This amount can be measured
either in absolute terms or as a percentage of income. For example, a con-
sumer booking a cruise at a price of $5,000 will be more sensitive to price than
if he or she were eating a meal in a restaurant. The cost of the cruise is a rel-
atively large travel expenditure, whereas the cost of a meal pales in compar-
ison. However, a consumer with an income of $500,000 a year would nor-
mally not be as price-sensitive regarding the cruise as one with an income of
$50,000 a year. Also, consumers with higher incomes place a greater value on
their time and may decide to accept higher prices without evaluating alter-
native products.
END-BENEFIT EFFECT. A product may represent only one component of
the purchases necessary to attain a desired benefit. The end-benefit effect con-
sists of two parts: derived demand and the share of total cost. Derived de-
mand refers to the relationship between the desired end benefit and the con-
sumers price sensitivity for something that contributes to that end benefit.
This is most popular in industrial markets where firms purchase products to
resell to other consumers. The more price-sensitive the firms consumers are,
the more price-sensitive the firm will be in purchasing components of the end
benefit. For example, tour operators determine the type of hotel or car rental to
be included in a package based on the price sensitivity of the target segment.
In the retail market, consumers tend to be more price-sensitive when the
price of a component represents a larger portion of the total cost. Consumers
would be less sensitive to beverage or dessert prices at an upscale restaurant
where dinner for two can cost $100 or more. Similarly, a consumer may not
be as price-sensitive to hotel parking rates when spending $200 a night in a
downtown hotel. The use of packages, or bundles, by resorts and tourist at-
tractions attempt to extract as much consumer surplus as possible by back-
ing in to the consumers value for the end benefit.
Environmental Factors
As discussed in depth in Chapter 1, management must keep abreast of the de-
velopments in the external environment. Even though these developments
cannot be controlled, they can affect pricing decisions because they affect a
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 546
firms costs, the demand for its products, and the competition. The compo-
nents of the external environment include the economic environment, the so-
cial environment, the political environment, the technological environment,
and the competitive environment.
ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT. Constant changes occur in the state of the
economy as measured by indicators such as business growth, inflation, con-
sumer spending, unemployment rates, and interest rates. If firms are to com-
pete and earn an acceptable profit, their pricing strategies should reflect
changes in the economy. Firms that compete in international markets must
consider the state of the economy in the foreign markets as well as the do-
mestic market. Foreign exchange rates can affect a firms income statement
drastically and influence the future of the firm. Prices alter in accordance with
changes in income and consumer spending, as well as with variations in a
firms costs resulting from changes in the economy.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT. Consumers tastes often change over time, and
firms that do not adapt go out of business. Changes in cultures and subcul-
tures throughout the world are affecting many societies. Different cultures
have different spending patterns and saving practices. For example, many
Asians tend to save more of their incomes than other nationalities do, but they
also tend to purchase name brands that are associated with high quality.
Therefore, the Asian market is less price-sensitive than some of its counter-
parts. As cultures mesh, they influence each others eating habits. For exam-
ple, consumers in the United States are eating more sushi and drinking more
tea than in the past.
POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT. All levels of government have a tremen-
dous impact on the operation of hospitality and tourism firms throughout the
country. Changes in minimum-wage laws affect the costs of restaurants, while
changes in tax laws related to business expenses affect the demand in restau-
rants. Managers must consider both of these areas when setting menu prices.
Similarly, hotels must consider the impact of hotel taxes on consumers when
setting their prices. For example, hotels in New York City were very con-
cerned about the impact on group and convention business when local hotel
taxes were raised. At one point, the total taxes on guest rooms added up to
over 21 percent. In response, the city lowered hotel taxes to make New York
City a more attractive destination for group business. In addition, govern-
ments impose many fees on businesses, and firms operating in international
markets must contend with additional fees and tariffs.
TECHNOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT. Another area of concern for man-
agers is keeping up with advances in technology. Many of the new technolo-
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 547
broad pricing strategies 547
gies in the hospitality and tourism industry are intended to improve the effi-
ciency of firms, thereby reducing costs. For example, when food servers use
handheld terminals to place orders, they no longer have to enter the kitchen
or move to a stationary terminal in another location. These new point-of-sale
(POS) systems also enable firms to track costs and demand for particular food
items. This information is invaluable in setting prices. Similarly, hotels and
airlines use sophisticated systems to capture costs and demand that help them
maximize revenues through price setting.
COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT. Finally, managers must know what
occurs in the competitive environment. New firms entering the market will
change overall supply, thereby changing the market structure and putting
downward pressure on prices. Competitors also engage in promotional cam-
paigns offering price discounts or free merchandise that will affect consumers
perceptions of value. For example, the airline industry is notorious for its
short-term price wars in a battle for market share.
BROAD PRICING STRATEGIES

Once a firms pricing objectives are set, managers must identify the role that
price will serve in the products overall marketing strategy. Prices can be set
high to restrict the firms market to a limited segment of buyers, as in luxury
hotels and fine dining restaurants (skim pricing); set low to attract buyers, as
in economy hotels and fast-food restaurants (penetration pricing); or kept neu-
tral to emphasize other aspects of marketing, as in midscale hotels and theme
restaurants (neutral pricing).2 Table 15.1 illustrates these strategies based on
the relationship between price and economic value for the middle market of
consumers. Economic value can be defined as the sum of a products refer-
ence value, or the cost of the competing product that the consumer perceives
relative price
economic value Low High
Low Neutral Skim Pricing
High Penetration Pricing Neutral
table 15.1 Strategies based on price and economic value.

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as the closest substitute, and a products differentiation value, or the value to

the consumer (both positive and negative) of any differences between a firms
offering and the reference product.
Skim Pricing
A skim pricing strategy involves setting high prices in relation to the prod-
uct or services economic value to most potential consumers. This strategy is
designed to capture high profit margins from an exclusive segment of con-
sumers who place a high value on a products differentiating attributes. Skim
pricing is a preferred strategy when selling to the exclusive, price-insensitive
market, and it results in higher profits than selling to the mass market at a
lower price. For example, luxury hotels and resorts market hotel rooms with
many amenities such as valet parking, laundry service, and golf. Most con-
sumers are not willing to pay the higher prices associated with this level of
service, but there is a smaller segment of consumers that places a high value
on the additional amenities and will pay the higher prices.
Luxury hotels and resorts add value to their offerings with amenities, such as golf. Cour-
tesy Mobile Bay CVB.
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broad pricing strategies 549
Many service firms have limited capacity, and it may be necessary to max-
imize profits by managing supply and demand through higher prices. Skim
pricing also tends to be used by firms whose variable costs represent a large
portion of total costs and the products price. There is little incentive to de-
crease cost per unit by increasing volume under this cost structure. From a
competitive standpoint, skim pricing works best when a firms product re-
mains unique or is superior to competitive products in perceived quality.
Penetration Pricing
Penetration pricing involves setting low prices in relation to the firms eco-
nomic value to most potential consumers. This strategy works best on price-
sensitive consumers who are willing to change product or service providers
to obtain a better price. Firms using this strategy choose to have lower profit
margins in an attempt to gain high sales volumes and market shares. Pene-
tration pricing stays common among economy hotels that market to con-
sumers who view the product as merely a place to sleep and have no need for
additional amenities.
Most of the costs of providing the rooms in economy hotels are fixed.
Normally, an economy hotel does not have a restaurant with room service
or a concierge to help guests with travel plans. Similarly, fast-food restau-
rants do not have chefs, and food costs are relatively low. In both cases, the
furniture and dcor are fairly basic. The higher volume generated by the
lower prices is expected to result in economies of scale and a lower cost per
unit of providing the service. From a competitive standpoint, penetration
pricing works best when a firm has a significant cost advantage over its
competitors or when the firm is small and not considered a threat by its
competitors. Charter airlines and small commuter airlines are examples of
firms that can adopt a penetration pricing strategy and are not considered
a threat by larger airline companies.
Neutral Pricing
A neutral pricing strategy involves setting prices at a moderate level in rela-
tion to the economic value to most potential consumers. In other words, the
firm makes a strategic decision to use attributes other than price to gain a
competitive advantage. A neutral strategy can be used by default, when a firm
cannot use skim pricing or penetration pricing because of its cost structure or
the market conditions. However, this strategy has become more popular with
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 550
the growth in the value segment of consumers. In the hotel industry, many
consumers do not want to pay high prices, but they do want some amenities
such as restaurants and pools. Finally, a high price can actually be a neutral
price when product value justifies the price to most potential consumers.
PRICING TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES
When management establishes prices, three approaches can be used, either in-
dividually or in combination with one another: cost-oriented pricing, demand-
oriented pricing, and competitive pricing.
Cost-Oriented Pricing
As the name implies, cost-oriented pricing uses a firms cost to provide a
product or service as a basis for pricing. In general, firms want to set a price
high enough to cover costs and make a profit. Two types of costs can be
considered: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are those incurred by
a company to remain in business, and they do not vary with changes in
sales volume. For example, restaurants must invest in a building, kitchen
equipment, and tables before they begin to serve customers. Variable costs
are the costs associated with doing business, and they vary with changes in
sales volume. For example, restaurants incur costs for food, labor, and
cleaning that are directly related to the level of sales.
Break-even analysis can be used to examine the relationships between
costs, sales, and profits. The break-even point (BEP) is the point where total
revenue and total cost are equal. In other words, the BEP in units would be
the number of units that must be sold at a given contribution margin (price-
variable cost) to cover the firms total fixed costs:
Total fixed costs

BEPunits
(Selling price Variable cost)
The break-even point in dollars can be calculated by multiplying the

break-even point in units by the selling price per unit. Break-even analysis is
a seemingly easy method for analyzing potential pricing strategies, but one
must be careful to use only costs that are relevant to the decision so that the
results are accurate.
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pricing techniques and procedures 551
Dollars
Total revenue
Total costs
Losses Profits
Fixed costs
BEPunits Volume
figure 15.1 Break-even analysis.
Figure 15.1 illustrates the relationships between costs, sales, and prof-
its. As mentioned before, fixed costs are incurred regardless of sales. There-
fore, they remain constant with changes in sales volume and are repre-
sented by a horizontal line. The total costs line intersects the fixed costs
line where it begins on the vertical axis and increases with volume to ac-
count for variable costs. The total revenue line begins at the origin and in-
creases with volume. The break-even point in units is the point where the
total revenue line intersects the total costs line. When firms operate at vol-
umes less than the break-even point, losses are incurred because total rev-
enue is not enough to cover the total cost of producing and marketing the
product. When volume exceeds the break-even point, firms will make a
profit because total revenue exceeds total cost.
For example, suppose a family purchases a large home and renovates it
for use as a bed-and-breakfast. The total fixed costs would be the $300,000
purchase price plus the $100,000 spent on renovations, or a total of $400,000.
The owners estimate the variable costs to clean the rooms, restock supplies,
and feed the guests at approximately $25 per day. If the owners were to charge
guests $75 per night to stay at the bed-and-breakfast, the break-even point in
units would be 8,000 room nights [400,000 / (75 25)]. If there were a total
of 20 rooms and they obtained an average occupancy of 50 percent through-
out the year, it would take 800 nights (a little over two years) to recoup their
original investment. However, it is more likely that the purchase was financed
over time, and the owners receive tax credits on the interest, expenses, and
depreciation. Therefore, assuming the owners did not take salaries or hire ad-
ditional workers, it is more likely that the yearly fixed costs are in the neigh-
borhood of $30,000. The new break-even point would be 600 room nights
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 552
[30,000 / (75 25)], which would represent 60 days at an average occupancy

rate of 50 percent.
This example illustrates the benefit of using break-even analysis for set-
ting the prices for new products. However, break-even analysis does not
account for the price sensitivity of consumers or the competition. In addi-
tion, it is very important that the costs used in the analysis are accurate.
Any changes in the contribution margin or fixed costs can have a signifi-
cant impact on the break-even point. For instance, if the owners overesti-
mated the price, and consumers are only willing to pay $50 a night, then
the break-even point would change to 1,200 nights, or double the original
estimate. Finally, the break-even formula can be easily adjusted to account
for a desired amount of profit. The desired amount of profit would be
added to the numerator (total fixed costs) and would represent the addi-
tional number of units that would need to be sold at the current contribu-
tion margin to cover the desired amount.
Cost-plus pricing is the most widely used approach to pricing in the in-
dustry. The price for a product or service is determined by adding a desired
markup to the cost of producing and marketing the item. The markup is in
the form of a percentage, and the price is set using the following equation:
Price ATC m(ATC)
where: ATC the average total cost per unit and

m the markup percentage / 100%.
The average total cost per unit is calculated by adding the variable cost
per unit to the fixed cost per unit. The fixed cost per unit is simply the total
fixed costs divided by the number of units sold. For example, suppose a ho-
tel has an ATC of $35 for turning a room and would like to have a 200 per-
cent markup, which is reasonable for a full-service hotel. The selling price, or
room rate, would be calculated as follows:
Price $35 [(200 / 100) $35] $105
This approach is popular because it is simple and focuses on covering costs

and making a profit. However, management must have a good understanding
of the firms costs in order to price effectively. Some costs are truly fixed, but
other costs may be semifixed. Semifixed costs are fixed over a certain range of
sales but vary when sales go outside that range. In addition to the problem of
determining the relevant costs, the cost-plus approach ignores consumer demand
and the competition. This may cause a firm to charge too much or too little.
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 553
Target-return pricing is another form of cost-oriented pricing that sets

the price to yield a target rate of return on a firms investment. This approach
is more sophisticated than the cost-plus approach because it focuses on an over-
all rate of return for the business rather than a desired profit per unit. The
target-return price can be calculated using the following equation:
Price ATC (desired dollar return / unit sales)
The average total cost per unit is determined the same way as in the cost-
plus approach, and it is increased by the dollar return per unit necessary to
provide the target rate of return. This approach is also relatively simple, but
it still ignores competitors prices and consumer demand.
For example, suppose someone wants to sell souvenir T-shirts in a tourist
area of a popular destination such as the French Quarter in New Orleans. If
he wants to make $30,000 a year, assuming the average total cost is $6.00 (cost
per unit of T-shirts, cart rental, and license/permit) and he sells an average of
20 shirts per day, the price would be calculated as follows:
Price $6.00 [$30,000 / (20 365)]

$6.00 ($30,000 / 7,300)
$6.00 $4.11 $10.11 or approximately $10.00
The 20 shirts per day is an average assuming some seasonality and varia-
tions due to weather. However, it is important to have accurate estimates for
costs and sales in order to price effectively. In addition, the price should be
compared with the competitors prices in the area to make sure it is reasonable.
Demand-Oriented Pricing
Demand-oriented pricing approaches use consumer perceptions of value as
a basis for setting prices. The goal of this pricing approach is to set prices to
capture more value, not to maximize volume. A price is charged that will al-
low the firm to extract the most consumer surplus from the market based on
the reservation price, or the maximum price that a consumer is willing to
pay for a product or service. This price can be difficult to determine unless
management has a firm grasp of the price sensitivity of consumers. Econo-
mists measure price sensitivity using the price elasticity of demand, or the
percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change
in price. Assuming an initial price of P1 and an initial quantity of Q1, the
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 554
price elasticity of demand (P) for a change in price from P1 to P2 can be cal-
culated by:
(Q2 Q1) / Q1
P
(P2 P1) / P1
The price elasticity of demand is usually negative because price increases

tend to result in decreases in quantity demanded. This inverse relationship
between price and quantity demanded, referred to as the law of demand, is
representative of most products and services. However, the demand for prod-
ucts and services can demonstrate varying degrees of elasticity (see Figure
15.2). The demand for products is said to be elastic (P 1) if a percentage
change in price results in a greater percentage change in quantity demanded.
Conversely, the demand for products is said to be inelastic (P 1) if a per-
centage change in price results in a smaller percentage change in quantity
demanded. Unitary elasticity (P 1) occurs when a percentage change in
price results in an equal percentage change in quantity demanded. The ab-
solute value of the price elasticity of demand is used to determine the type of
demand.
In a market with elastic demand, consumers are price-sensitive, and any
changes in price will cause total revenue to change in the opposite direction.
Therefore, firms tend to focus on ways to decrease price in an attempt to in-
crease the quantity demanded and total revenue. In a market with inelastic
demand, consumers are not sensitive to price changes, and total revenue will
change in the same direction. In this situation, firms tend to focus on raising
prices and total revenues, even with a decrease in quantity demanded. In mar-
kets with unitary demand, price changes have no effect on total revenue and
firms should base pricing decisions on other factors, such as cost.
For example, suppose a theme park decreases its price of admission from
$50 to $45 in an attempt to increase the number of visitors. After initiating
Price
P2 P2
P2
P1 P1
P1
Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 Q1 Quantity
a. Elastic Demand b. Inelastic Demand c. Unitary Demand
figure 15.2 Price elasticity of demand.

c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 555
the price change, the park observes an increase in the average daily attendance
at the park from 10,000 to 12,500 people. The price elasticity of demand for
this example would be calculated as follows:
(12,500 10,000) / 10,000 .25

P 1.5
(45 50) / 50 .10
This indicates that the demand for theme park visitation is elastic. In other
words, theme park visitors are price-sensitive and the percentage change in
quantity demanded exceeds the percentage change in price. The total revenue
before the price change was $500,000 and after the change $562,500, repre-
senting an increase of $62,500.
Some popular demand-oriented pricing approaches are based on con-
sumer perceptions of value. These psychological pricing practices have been
proven to be successful based on their ability to influence consumer percep-
tions of price. Prestige pricing is used by firms that have products with strong
price-quality relationships in markets with inelastic demand. These firms set
high prices and try to build value through other quality-related attributes such
as service and atmosphere. This approach is common among five-star hotels
and fine-dining restaurants. Odd/even pricing involves setting prices just be-
low even dollar amounts to give the perception that the product is less ex-
pensive. For example, car rental agencies set prices such as $79.95 rather than
$80, and hotels use prices such as $99 instead of $100. Also, many menu items
are priced with odd endings such as $5.99 or $10.95. Theory has it that peo-
ple read and process prices from left to right, rounding to the lower number.
Price lining refers to the practice of having a limited number of products avail-
able at different price levels based on quality. Demand at each price point is
assumed to be elastic, whereas demand between price points is assumed to be
inelastic. The products at each price level are targeting a different market seg-
ment. For example, rental car companies have economy, midsize, full-size,
and luxury categories.
Competitive Pricing
As the name implies, competitive pricing places emphasis on price in rela-
tion to direct competition. Some firms allow others to establish prices and
then position themselves accordingly, either at, below, or above the compe-
tition. This method ensures that the price charged for products and services
will be within the same range as prices for competitive products in the im-
mediate geographic area. This method, however, has several drawbacks.
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 556
First, consider the case of two similar firms. One is new and the other has
been operating for several years. The new establishment is likely to have
higher fixed costs such as a mortgage with a high interest rate that must be
paid each month. On the other hand, the established firm might have a much
lower mortgage payment each month and fewer costs. Because of these dif-
ferences, the established firm would have lower fixed operating expenses and
could charge lower prices, even if all other expenses were equal. Second, other
expenses might also vary among different firms. Labor costs might be higher
or lower depending on the skill level of the personnel, their length of service
in the operation, and numerous other factors that may come into play. For
this reason, it is extremely risky for managers to rely on the prices of a di-
rect competitor when setting their own prices. Each operation is unique and
has its own unique cost and profit structure. Although management does
need to monitor the competition, prices should never be based solely on prices
charged by a competitor.
SEGMENTED PRICING
The importance of price varies among consumers, and firms often use seg-
mented pricing as a means for segmenting markets. Then a firm can choose
to target one or more of these markets with specific marketing strategies (e.g.,
discounts) tailored to each market. The appropriate strategy depends on the
firms costs, consumers price sensitivities, and the competition. Several tac-
tics can be used to segment markets on the basis of price.3
Segmenting by Buyer Identification

One method that can be used to segment by price is to base the price on some
form of buyer identification. That is, in order to obtain a discounted price,
consumers must belong to a group of people that share similar characteristics.
For example, hotels and motels have many discounted rates available for con-
sumers belonging to groups such as the American Automobile Association
(AAA) or the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP). Another
variation is for consumers to save coupons that can be presented at a later date
for a discount. Many restaurants put coupons in newspapers or direct-mail
pieces that must be saved and brought to the establishment to get a discount
within a certain time period. However, only a particular type of price-sensitive
consumer will take the time to save, file, and redeem coupons for price
discounts.
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segmented pricing 557
Segmenting by Purchase Location

It is possible to segment consumers based on where they purchase a product
or service. Some restaurant chains will vary their prices in different geographic
locations to account for differences in purchasing power and standard of liv-
ing. For example, fast-food restaurants often charge more for menu items in
large cities, food courts, and major highway locations than in suburban and
rural locations. Also, hotel, restaurant, and car rental chains charge different
prices in international markets based on a countrys standard of living. Fi-
nally, a general practice by theme parks is to charge more for tickets pur-
chased at the gate and less for tickets purchased at nearby locations (e.g., ho-
tels and supermarkets) or through various organizations (e.g., government
agencies and AAA).
Segmenting by Time of Purchase

Service firms tend to notice certain purchasing patterns based on the time of
day, week, month, or year. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the
Tickets for theme parks are often discounted at locations other than the entrance gate.
Courtesy LEGOLAND California. LEGO, LEGOLAND, the LEGO and
LEGOLAND logos and the brick configuration are trademarks of the LEGO Group and
are used here with special permission. 2004 The LEGO Group.
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 558
demand during these peak periods. One way to smooth the demand is to of-
fer discounted prices at off-peak times. Restaurants offer early-bird specials
for patrons who are willing to eat earlier in the evening, airlines offer super-
saver rates for consumers who are willing to travel at off-peak times, and ho-
tels offer lower rates for weekends and slower seasons throughout the year.
This results in a shift in demand from peak times to off-peak times by the
most price-sensitive consumers. Yield management programs are used by air-
lines and hotels to set prices that will maximize revenue, based on the costs
of providing services and the price sensitivities of the consumers.
Segmenting by Purchase Volume

One of the most common forms of price segmentation is to vary price based
on the quantity purchased, offering discounts for larger orders. The majority
of firms, both small and large, will negotiate price discounts for larger vol-
ume orders. Hospitality and tourism firms will normally start discounting
prices for groups of ten or more people. In particular, hotel salespeople are
responsible for filling the hotel with groups by offering discounts that tend to
increase with the size of the group. Hotels and restaurants use the same tac-
tics to sell catering functions such as weddings and banquets.
Segmenting by Product Design

Another form of price segmentation is based on the actual product or service.
It may be possible to segment consumers by offering simple variations of a
firms product or service that appeal to the different segments. For example,
airlines found that they could charge substantially more for first-class seating
by widening the seats slightly and providing a little more service. Similarly,
hotels offer suites and concierge floors that are slightly larger and/or provide
some additional services. None of these variations by airlines or hotels has a
significant impact on the cost of providing the service, but the firms are able
to charge significantly higher prices to a small segment of the market that val-
ues the additional amenities and services.
Segmenting by Product Bundling

The last form of price segmentation involves packaging products and services
into price bundles. Firms offer several products to consumers at a packaged
price that is lower than the cost of purchasing the products separately. Fast-
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revenue management 559
food restaurants offer bundled meals that include a sandwich, an order of

french fries, and a soft drink. They also allow consumers to increase the size
of the components for a small amount more. An alternative form of product
bundling is to offer premiums, or free merchandise, with the purchase. Fast-
food restaurants put free game pieces and pull tabs on their packaging, and
they give children free toys with a childs meal.
These are some of the basic tactics that can be used to segment markets
on the basis of price. The various tactics can be used alone or in combination
with one another to achieve a firms desired goals. Todays consumers can ob-
tain information about competitive products and services very easily, result-
ing in a large, value-conscious market. Firms will need to find ways to seg-
ment the price-sensitive consumers from the quality-oriented consumers so
that they can extract the most consumer surplus and revenue from the
marketplace.
REVENUE MANAGEMENT
Revenue management involves combining people and systems in an attempt
to maximize revenue by coordinating the processes of pricing and inventory
management. Pricing is the process of determining the value of products and
services that will result in the maximum total revenue for the firm. In real-
ity, hospitality and tourism firms offer many different products and must de-
termine the appropriate price points based on customer demand and compe-
tition. Inventory management is the process of determining how much of a
product or service should be offered at each price point. For example, hotels
allocate a certain number of guest rooms for groups and try to fill the quota
by setting a price that will extract the most revenue from the market.
One of the challenges of revenue management is that price sensitivity
varies from customer to customer. Market segmentation allows hospitality and
tourism firms to group customers into market segments that share certain
characteristics such as price sensitivity. In a perfect world, a firm would max-
imize its revenue by selling its products and services to customers at the high-
est price each customer is willing to pay for the product or service. Therefore,
the goal of revenue management is to sell the right product to the right cus-
tomer at the right time for the right price.
This concept of revenue management is particularly important in service
industries because of the intangible nature of the product. Hospitality and
tourism firms such as hotels and airlines have limited capacities and resources.
This situation, combined with the fact that the product is perishable and can-
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 560
not be inventoried, leaves firms in a difficult position. Unused capacity for

service firms is lost forever. For example, airlines cannot recoup the revenue
lost by having unoccupied seats on a flight, hotels cannot make up for unsold
rooms, and car rental companies cannot compensate for cars sitting on the lot.
This phenomenon often leads to overbooking by hotels and airlines, since the
firms do not want to have unused capacity because of cancellations or no-
shows. In some cases, revenue can be recouped through requiring deposits or
charging penalties, but there are limits to the effectiveness of these practices.
For example, charging a group a penalty for not picking up its entire room
block could cause the group to discontinue using your hotel or brand in the
future.
Establishing a Pricing Structure

Revenue per available room (REVPAR) provides a better indication of a ho-
tels capacity utilization than average daily rate (ADR). ADR is calculated us-
ing total revenue, occupancy rate, and the number of available rooms.
Total revenue Sum of (room price) for all rooms sold

Number of rooms sold Occupancy rate Available rooms
Average daily rate Total revenue / Number of rooms sold
ADR and average occupancy rate can be used to estimate long-term rev-
enues (monthly, quarterly, or annually) for hotels and other lodging facilities.
Airlines perform the same type of analysis using revenue per available seat
and average fare based on the number of seats sold. However, there are many
factors such as seasonality, business cycles, and economic trends that can af-
fect future performance. This makes it difficult to get accurate estimates for
use in strategic pricing, but firms need to determine how much inventory to
make available at each price point in an effort to maximize revenue.
The following is a simplified example to illustrate the decision facing an
airline trying to maximize revenue. Only two possible prices exist: a discounted
fare and the full fare. The airline must decide whether to sell a seat at the dis-
counted fare ($200) or take the chance that the seat can be sold at a later date
at full fare ($500). The decision tree that appears in Figure 15.3 outlines the
options facing the airline.
If the airline sells now at the discounted fare, there is guaranteed revenue
of $200. If the airline decides not to sell at the discounted fare, the two possi-
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 561
Sell at Discounted Fare

Decision Sell at Full Fare
Do Not Sell at Discount
Leave Seat Empty
figure 15.3 Decision tree for airline revenue.
ble outcomes are to sell at the full fare or to have the seat remain empty. If
the seat does not get sold, there is zero revenue. Therefore, the final decision
is based on the expected value of each option based on the probability that the
seat will be sold at a later date for full fare. If there is a 50 percent chance of
selling the seat for full fare, the expected value of waiting would be:
.50 ($500) .50 ($0) $250
Since the expected value of waiting ($250) exceeds the expected value of
selling at the discounted fare (1.0 $200 $200), then the airline should wait.
In this case, as long as the probability of selling at a later date for full fare is
greater than 40 percent (200 / 500), the airline is better off waiting. The esti-
mated probability is based on past experience. In reality, this decision is much
more complicated.
A firms pricing structure gets established based on a careful analysis of
customers, the firms business, and the market for its products and services.
First, the customer analysis should include an examination of customer mar-
ket segments and their shared characteristics. It is important to know what
attributes are used by the customers to make decisions (e.g., rate/price, loca-
tion, convenience, service quality). In addition, it is useful to know the price
sensitivity of the market segment and what distribution channels are used to
buy the firms services. Second, the firm should take an objective look at the
quality of its product-service mix, its marketing programs, and the results of
past pricing actions. Finally, the firm should examine the demand for its prod-
uct and its competitive position (i.e., strengths and weaknesses relative to the
competition).
Yield Management
Yield management refers to a technique used to maximize the revenue, or
yield, obtained from a service operation, given limited capacity and uneven
demand. This technique was first used by airline companies and then adopted
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 562
by lodging and cruise firms. Within the hospitality and tourism industry, yield
management has come into more widespread use with the expansion of com-
puterized property management systems. In its most basic form, yield man-
agement uses a firms historical data to predict the demand for future reser-
vations, with the goal of setting prices that will maximize the firms revenue
and profit.
Yield management is widely used within the hospitality and tourism in-
dustry for several reasons:
Perishable inventory. As discussed in Chapter 2, hospitality and tourism ser-

vices are highly perishable. If a hotel room is not occupied one evening or
an airline flies with empty seats, the potential revenue for those services can-
not be captured at a later date. In other words, there are no inventories for
services.
Fluctuating demand. Most hospitality and tourism firms experience de-
mand that rises and falls within a day, week, month, or year. During high-
demand periods, services are sold at or near full price. During the low-
demand or nonpeak periods, capacity remains unused.
Ability to segment customers. Firms must segment customers based on
price, as discussed earlier in this chapter, and offer a discounted price to
a selective group of customers.
Low variable costs. Hospitality and tourism firms often have a large ra-
tio of fixed to variable costs, which would favor a high-volume strategy.
The marginal cost of serving an additional customer is minimal as long as

there is excess capacity.
Selective Discounting
One of the cornerstones of yield management is the ability to offer discounts
to only a selected group of customers. Rather than offer one price for a given
time period, either peak or nonpeak, firms can distinguish between con-
sumers. This minimizes the effect of lost revenue resulting from consumers
who are willing to pay full price being able to pay the discounted price. To
accomplish this, service firms normally place restrictions on the discounted
price so that consumers must sacrifice something in return for the discount.
For example, airline companies require passengers to book in advance (up to
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 563
% of Rooms Sold
100%
75% reduce discounts
50%
25%
increase discounts
10 20 30 40
Weeks Prior to Date

figure 15.4 Booking pattern curve for a conference hotel.
21 days), stay over Saturday night, and accept a no-cancellation policy to ob-
tain the discounted fare. Similarly, hotels require guests to stay over week-
ends, during nonpeak seasons, or for a minimum number of nights.
Historical Booking Analysis

One of the major problems facing service firms using yield management sys-
tems is the determination of the amount of capacity to make available at the
discounted rate. As mentioned earlier, yield management makes use of his-
torical data in predicting future trends. A curve is constructed using data from
the same period the previous year, and adjusting for recent trends seen in the
most recent periods. Figure 15.4 illustrates a typical pattern for a large con-
ference hotel. The solid line represents the historical pattern for room sales
prior to the date in question. In general, the hotel would determine a com-
fort zone or construct a confidence interval around the actual occupancy rate.
If prior sales are within this interval, then the hotel continues to use its cur-
rent discounting policy. If the occupancy rate exceeds the upper level, then
the hotel will temporarily reduce the number of discounted rooms and rates.
If the occupancy rate falls below the lower level, then the hotel will offer more
discounted rooms and rates until the occupancy rate is brought back within
the predicted interval.
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Yield Management Equation

As stated earlier, the goal of yield management is to maximize the revenue,
or yield, from a service operation. The following equation is a simplified ver-
sion of the calculation used in actual programs.

Actual revenue
Maximize
Potential revenue
The potential revenue for a hotel would be the number of total rooms
available for sale multiplied by the rack rate for those rooms. For instance, if
a hotel had 200 rooms that all had a rack rate of $100, the potential room rev-
enue for that hotel would be $20,000 per night. However, if the hotel had an
occupancy rate of 70 percent and an average room rate of $80, then the actual
revenue would be $11,200 [(.7 200) 80]. The yield in this case would be
.56 (11,200 / 20,000). The goal is to maximize this figure or to get it as close
to 1.0 as possible. What if this hotel offered more discounts and had an oc-
cupancy rate of 80 percent and an average room rate of $75? The actual rev-
Hotels earn additional revenue through various on-site services, including the bar. Cour-
tesy of Foxwoods Resort Casino.
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 565
enue would have been $12,000 [(.8 200) 75], or a yield of .60 (12,000/
20,000). As you can see, the potential revenue remains the same, but the ac-
tual revenue will change depending on the level of discounts and the price
sensitivity of consumers.
This example is simplified to demonstrate the basic use of yield manage-
ment. In reality, hotels have different rooms with different rack rates, and
many different market segments, including business, pleasure or transient,
and various group markets. Each of these major segments can be divided into
smaller subsets. For instance, the group market can be segmented into asso-
ciation, corporate, and incentive travel. Hotels have created positions and, in
some cases, departments that are responsible for revenue management. These
individuals perform historical booking analysis and confer with the hotels ex-
ecutive committee to determine discounting policies.
Another area that needs to be considered in determining a hotels dis-
counting policy is the additional revenue, other than room revenue, that is
generated from guests. For example, hotels can earn additional revenue
from the restaurant, bar, fitness center, parking, laundry services, room ser-
vice, corporate services such as faxing and shipping, and catering for
groups. Rather than analyze each guest, hotels look at the major market
segments and calculate a multiplier that can be used to adjust room rev-
enue for additional revenue potential. This is important because hotels must
maximize the revenue they receive from all sources. For instance, it would
be a mistake to sell the room to a transient guest who paid $10 more a night
than a business traveler if the business traveler is likely to spend more than
$10 a day for additional services. Similarly, turning down a group because
of high demand among transient customers may result in a loss of revenue
from catering services that would have been purchased by the group. How-
ever, in peak demand seasons, such as fall in New England, hotels can
charge considerably more to transient customers than to groups, and it
would be a mistake to book a group well in advance and forgo this addi-
tional revenue.
Yield management has had a major impact on the hospitality and tourism
industry. Advances in computer technology have improved the ability to esti-
mate demand and revenue. In addition, it has become easier to segment markets
and employ selective discounting through vehicles such as the Internet. In the
future, yield management programs will become more affordable for smaller op-
erations. In fact, yield management systems can be developed using ordinary
spreadsheet software. Finally, companies are working on resource management
models that will analyze the revenue contribution from all sources in the hotel,
rather than focusing only on guest rooms.
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PRICING LAW AND ETHICS

Pricing practices are normally illegal if they are found to be anticompetitive
or if they take unfair advantage of consumers. However, ethical standards are
not as clear as legal standards developed through case law. Many people feel
that although it is legal to maximize profits through pricing, it may not al-
ways be ethical. First we will discuss the legal issues surrounding pricing de-
cisions, and then we will present a typology that can be used for considering
the ethical constraints on pricing.
Legal Issues in Pricing

The federal government has sought to ensure fair price competition since it passed
the Sherman Act in 1890, followed by the Clayton Act in 1914. These two pieces
of antitrust legislation were enacted in response to growing concerns for small
businesses with the advent of large corporations competing on a national level.
Most of the laws are open to interpretation and often difficult to enforce, espe-
cially in regard to services. The Robinson-Patman Act, passed in 1936 to
strengthen the Clayton Act, targeted unfair pricing practices. Most laws focus on
goods or commodities, for which grade and quality can be easily determined,
whereas services vary greatly. Therefore, the government has devoted most of
its resources to monitoring the pricing of tangible products. Pricing practices that
are potentially illegal fall into four groups: explicit agreements, nonexplicit agree-
ments, price discrimination, and tie-in sales.4
EXPLICIT AGREEMENTS. Explicit agreements are formal agreements
among firms to set the same prices or to use the same formula in setting prices.
This practice of price fixing is generally regarded as illegal and will be en-
forced. It is illegal for competitive hotels to discuss prices, even if they are ac-
commodating guests for the same conference. For example, a Marriott and a
Sheraton have formed a hotel connection in Springfield, Massachusetts, to
compete for meetings requiring more rooms than either hotel contains. The
two hotels are physically connected, and they operate as two wings of one ho-
tel for larger conferences. Guests can charge meals and other services from
either hotel to their rooms. However, each hotel must negotiate price sepa-
rately with the meeting planner without any contact, or it would be illegal.
NONEXPLICIT AGREEMENTS. Nonexplicit agreements take the form of
concerted actions by competitors that are not formal but represent some level
of collusion. The courts look for a pattern of uniform business conduct, or
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pricing law and ethics 567
conscious parallelism. It is not enough for competitive firms to exhibit parallel

behavior; they must also be found guilty of making a conscious effort to en-
gage in that behavior. Airline companies have been investigated, and prose-
cuted, for this behavior in the past. Even today, it is not uncommon to be
quoted identical fares on competitive airlines for the same routes. As with ex-
plicit agreements, it is unlawful for firms to exchange price information if it
is intended to affect prices or if it identifies specific customers. Convention
and visitors bureaus are able to provide aggregate price information on hotel
rates in their regions as long as they do not identify the rates for specific cus-
tomers, including groups for meetings and conventions.
PRICE DISCRIMINATION LAWS. Under price discrimination laws,
firms are forbidden from charging purchasers different prices for commodi-
ties of like grade and quality in an attempt to substantially lessen competi-
tion. Two legal defenses exist for discriminatory prices: cost justification and
meeting competition. The cost justification defense allows firms to charge dif-
ferent prices when the costs of providing the product differ between pur-
chasers, and the meeting competition defense allows firms to charge different
prices to meet the lower price of a competitor. As mentioned earlier, it is dif-
ficult to use these criteria to evaluate the pricing practices of service firms.
Every service experience is different and, with the consumer being part of the
production process, firms could argue that the cost of providing the service
differs between purchasers. There is a fine line when it comes to the price
segmentation techniques applied in the yield management programs used by
hotels and airline companies, but services have remained largely untouched
by the price discrimination laws as stated in the Robinson-Patman Act.
TIE-IN SALES. This is the practice of sellers requiring that, as a condition
of purchasing one product, customers must buy other products exclusively
from the seller. Tying arrangements were deemed unlawful according to the
Clayton Act if the arrangements were meant to substantially lessen competi-
tion. The courts have been lenient in allowing tying arrangements that are
voluntary or result in pro-competitive benefits. For instance, courts have al-
lowed franchisors, such as McDonalds, to require franchisees to purchase
products from them that are necessary to maintain standards of performance
and a consistent image.
Ethical Issues in Pricing

Ethical standards are much more difficult to evaluate and uphold than legal
standards in the area of pricing. Peoples views regarding ethics can be as di-
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 568
level of ethical restraint
low high
1 2 3 4 5
Price is paid voluntarily X X X X X
Price is based on equal information X X X X
Price is not exploiting buyers essential needs X X X
Price is justified by costs X X
Price provides equal access to goods regardless of X

ones ability to cover costs
table 15.2 Pricing ethics.
verse as their cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds. At one end of the con-

tinuum, there is a view that as long as a practice is legal, it is ethical to charge
a price that will result in maximal profit. At the other end, there is a view
that individuals and firms should not exploit one another for personal gain
and that societal benefits should be stressed over those of any one entity. Table
15.2 illustrates the levels constituting the continuum, from the legal perspec-
tive to the societal perspective.
Level one assumes that all exchanges are voluntary and it is the responsi-
bility of the buyer to obtain as much information as necessary to make a good
decision. The legal principle of caveat emptor, or let the buyer beware, is the
cornerstone of a capitalist economy. This principle enables firms to compete
and results in a larger variety of products offered at lower prices. However,
services cannot be physically held or evaluated until after they are purchased
and consumed. This, along with the high level of variability associated with
services, provides a high degree of risk and uncertainty for consumers in pur-
chasing hospitality and tourism products.
Level two suggests that consumers should not be exposed to making pur-
chases under conditions of asymmetric information. That is, the seller should
be required to disclose pertinent information to buyers so that they are not at
a disadvantage. For example, airline companies are required to disclose any
restrictions placed on tickets for air travel, such as the fact that supersaver
rates are nonrefundable. Similarly, hotels must disclose room cancellation poli-
cies to would-be guests.
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pricing law and ethics 569
Level three imposes an additional restriction that sellers cannot earn exces-
sive profits by charging artificially high prices for essential products. The best
example of this practice would be when pharmaceutical companies charge high
prices for life-saving drugs that are unaffordable for those without insurance or
people with lower incomes. Airline companies and hotels offer discounted prices
for certain consumers who must travel and find lodging away from home be-
cause of emergencies (e.g., funerals, family illnesses, accidents). Also, restaurants
often donate food to soup kitchens and food banks.
Level four condemns the practice of segmented pricing even when the
product is nonessential. It states that prices should not be segmented based on
value, and firms should not take advantage of consumers during periods
where there are shortages, even for nonessential products. Hotels engage in
questionable practices when they charge higher than normal rates during pe-
riods of high demand such as college graduations and special events. They of-
ten require minimum stays and charge a price above the published rate (rack
rate). Additionally, some restaurants use different menus with higher prices
for holidays and other special events.
Level five would seem extreme to most people because it is not consistent
with free markets in a capitalist economy. Instead, this ethical restraint re-
sembles a standard that one would find in a socialist society. It suggests that
every member of the community or society should share with others to en-
sure a minimum standard of living. This standard would be more applicable
to underdeveloped countries or to communities where the members are com-
mitted to a societal goal (such as religious communities). This ethical restraint
would normally result in less variety of products and services of lower qual-
ity.
In closing, ones approach to the world would certainly affect ones belief
about the appropriate level of ethical restraint. Obviously, a trade-off exists
between what is best for an individual and what is best for society. The more
levels of restraint imposed, the smaller the gap between the higher and lower
incomes in a society. There is not as much incentive for people to invest, re-
sulting in a lower overall standard of living. Therefore, the correct level of
restraint is probably somewhere between levels one and five as determined by
the respective society.
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 570

Price remains an important component of the marketing mix because it di-
rectly affects the revenue of a firm. Price is also a critical element in seg-
menting markets and positioning a firms products and services. As such, firms
must consider all of the factors that affect price, such as the objectives of the
firm, consumers price sensitivity, and the external environment. Government
regulations, trends in demographics and purchasing patterns, economic con-
ditions, technological advances, and changes in the competitive environment
all impact prices.
Consumers perceptions of value are the basis for making pricing deci-
sions. After all, price must be an accurate representation of the value that a
consumer places on a product or service, or an exchange would not occur. The
three broad pricing strategiesprice skimming, price penetration, and neu-
tral pricingare based on the relationship between price and economic value.
Chapter review
Firms attempt to differentiate their products from one another, and then fo-
cus on those segments of the population that value their product-service mixes.
Price segmentation should concentrate on those attributes that are valued dif-
ferently by various segments of the population.
The most common pricing techniques are the cost-oriented, demand-
oriented, and competitive pricing approaches. Cost-oriented approaches base
pricing decisions on the cost of providing the product, starting with the break-
even point and then adding a markup or target return. Demand-oriented ap-
proaches focus on consumer price sensitivity and market demand, including
certain psychological tactics. Competitive pricing involves setting prices in re-
lation to a firms competition. The firm must choose to price at, below, or
above the competition.
Finally, legal and ethical issues surround product pricing. Laws exist to
protect consumers and ensure fair competition. Firms cannot collude to fix
prices and take advantage of consumers and other competitors. In addition to
the legal standards, firms must often deal with ethical standards imposed by
society. These standards will vary somewhere between let the buyer beware
in a pure capitalist economy and a socialist economy, which restricts profits
for personal gain.
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chapter review 571
Chapter review
Bartering
Break-even analysis
Competitive pricing
Consumer price sensitivity
Cost-oriented pricing
Demand-oriented pricing
Differentiation value
Economic value
Law of demand
Neutral pricing
Odd/even pricing
Penetration pricing
Prestige pricing
Price discrimination laws
Price elasticity of demand
Price lining
Pricing objectives
Psychological pricing
Reference value
Reservation price
Revenue management
Segmented pricing
Skim pricing
Yield management

Discussion
1. What is price? What are some of the major factors that
affect pricing decisions?
2. What are the major pricing objectives discussed in the
chapter?
c15.qxd 12/21/04 12:30 PM Page 572
3. What are the most common effects on consumer price

sensitivity?
4. What are the three broad pricing strategies? When is it
appropriate to use each strategy?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using break-
even analysis?
6. What is economic value? Give an example of how you
would determine the economic value for a particular
hospitality service.
7. Discuss some of the price segmentation strategies that can
be used by hospitality and tourism firms.
8. What are the three major pricing techniques? Can you use
Chapter review
more than one? Explain.

9. What is revenue management? How are yield management
and revenue management related?
10. What are some of the legal and ethical issues surrounding
pricing decisions?
Notes
1 Thomas T. Nagle and Reed K. Holden, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: A Guide to Profitable Decision Mak-
ing, 2nd edition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995), pp. 7794.
2 Ibid., pp. 15261.
3 Thomas T. Nagle, Economic Foundations for Pricing, Journal of Business 57, 1, Part 2 (1984) S3S26.
4 Nagle and Holden, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing, pp. 36681.
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case study 573
case study
case study
The Pasta Shack
T he Pasta Shack is an Italian restaurant in Florida near the major

tourist attractions that has noticed a recent decline in sales. The
owner and his managers decided to have a meeting to come up with
some strategies to reverse this trend. One of the managers used to work for
an independent restaurant in a suburban neighborhood in Chicago and sug-
gested a strategy used successfully by his former restaurant: offering an early-
bird menu to customers who order before 6:00 P.M. The idea is to provide a
limited number of entres at a discounted price.
The original price of the entres placed on the early-bird menu was $10.95
and included a salad. The new price for the specials would be $8.95. After the
first two weeks of offering the specials, the daily average number of covers
increased from 50 to 58 during the 4 to 6 P.M. time period. However, the daily
average number of covers after 6 P.M. decreased from 75 to 70, due to some
cannibalization of current customers. Assume that $8.95 is the average price
per person from 4 to 6 P.M. and $10.95 is the average price per person after 6
P.M. when answering the following questions.
Case Questions and Issues

1. What was the effect of the price change on total revenues during the
early-bird time period?
2. Using the concepts presented in the chapter, how would you explain
this change?
3. Are there any additional costs associated with the new strategy?
4. Is the new strategy successful? Explain your answer.
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Courtesy PhotoDisc, Inc.

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chapter
16
Using Menu Design as
a Marketing Tool
Chapter Objectives
1. Outline the role of printed menus in
foodservice marketing.
2. Discuss guidelines used in selecting and organizing
menu items.
3. Describe common design features of printed menus.
4. Discuss the potential pitfalls associated with menu
planning.
5. Emphasize the importance of accuracy in menu
information.
6. Evaluate menu items by analyzing sales information.
Chapter Outline
Industry Profile Producing the Printed Menu
The menu cover
Introduction Writing menu copy
The role of menus in marketing
Type style and paper stock
Desktop publishing
Wine lists and promotions
Menu Planning Considerations Banquet menus
Selecting menu items
Managing price increases
Issues Surrounding Menu Planning
Menu planning pitfalls to avoid
(continues)
575
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Accuracy in menus Summary of Chapter Objectives

Cycle menus
Menu Evaluation
Checklist for menu evaluation Questions for Review and
Menu sales mix analysis Discussion
Menu engineering application Case Study: Matts Bar and Grill
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industry profile
Tom Duca Regional Director
Jillians Entertainment Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN
I started working in the hospitality industry in a family-owned bar. Upon

completing my degree in hospitality, I left the family business to work
for Chevys restaurant chain as an assistant manager. I eventually left
Chevys to take a position with Jillians Entertainment as a general manager
and worked my way to my current position as a regional director. This pro-
gression took several years and required me to relocate four or five times.

I am currently employed as regional director for Jillians Entertainment. I
oversee an 84,000-square-foot eight-concept multientertainment complex. My
regional duties have extended to overseeing other Jillians locations. These in-
clude Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Phoenix, Las Vegas, and Denver.
My main functions are to ensure the fiscal success of the properties, recruit
and train management teams, implement corporate and property marketing
and promotions, and supervise all food and beverage operations, human re-
sources, legal issues, and vendor relations.

The satisfaction part is easy. I enjoy the ability to impact younger managers
careers and lives through leadership and mentoring.
The most frustrating part of my position is the hours needed to execute
all aspects of my position. It severely limits the amount of time I can spend
with my family.

youre facing?
The most challenging aspect of our work is our ability to satisfy a certain per-
centage of guests. Some members of the food and beverage industry have cre-
ated a mind-set with hospitality guests that is not a balanced one. Many guests
feel that if their experience is not perfect, then they do not need to pay their
bills. I personally answer all guest complaints for my locations. The completely
unreasonable nature of some of the complaints is mind-boggling. It is the only
industry I know of where guests will knowingly commit larceny (walking out
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578 chapter 16 using menu design as a marketing tool
on their bills/refusing to pay) if they feel slightly annoyed. I have witnessed

many guests assault staff, verbally berate young people, and get arrested over
the slightest malfeasance. I have not ever witnessed someone getting arrested
at the supermarket.

industry?
The major trend I see is the deterioration of the foreign tourist segment. Our
business at the Mall of America has been reduced 13 percent since 9/11. The
local segment has rebounded nicely. The foreign guest segment is still no-
ticeably absent. Our Jillians property at Universal Citywalk in Hollywood
has suffered considerably as well. These were historically high-traffic desti-
nation tourist properties that performed well pre-9/11.
industry profile

company?
Marketing plays a major role on our property and many of the similar large
Mall properties. Advertising is split among many different mediums. The
most common are radio and entertainment guides. There is also a large pres-
ence in magazine-specific advertising (event sales, etc.). The marketing is used
to launch promotional activities as well as one-offs such as Halloween, Colum-
bus Day, Thanksgiving, etc. The large properties all employ promotional
managers who interface with the corporate marketing team as well as work
with local vendors.

you suggest?
My piece of advice would contain several elements. They are:
Use your academic advantage. I have managed over 300 food and bever-
age managers in my career. Ninety-nine percent of these managers ended
up in this industry by being promoted through line level positions. Your
education is a huge advantage if used correctly.
Choose your first company wisely. Stability is a very attractive quality
when recruiting. It shows commitment and loyalty. Do not take a posi-
tion to get your foot in. You will probably not last there.
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industry profile
Decide what you want most out of your work. Is it financial reward? Is
it quality of life? Different jobs will have pros and cons (this is obvious);
however, there are no dream jobs. Typically, the jobs that pay more re-
sult in less quality of life. You need to decide ahead of time what is im-
portant to you.
Invest in your career. Everybody works hard. Most upper-level managers
recognize those who work harder than their peers. These leaders will also
reward people who go above and beyond. I admire younger managers
who come to work early, stay late, come in on their scheduled days off to
complete their work ahead of time. These are the personality types who
get promoted quicker.
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INTRODUCTION
The printed menu used by a foodservice operation affords management one
of the best methods to communicate with the customer. The menu should
provide more than a mere listing of the food and beverage offerings. The
menu should influence the customers selection of food and beverage items.
Planning is crucial when creating menus; a successful menu does not result
from chance. Careful planning and attention to design principles are needed
at each step of the design process. No quick and easy formulas apply to all
foodservice operations, but basic principles may be modified to fit the needs
of each individual foodservice operation. The menu should complement the
organizations other marketing activities. That is, it should be designed to sat-
isfy specific marketing objectives. In fact, there are entire books devoted to
using menu design to increase profitability.1
One of the main goals of the menu is to increase repeat patronage. This
can be accomplished by providing not only items that have proven to be highly
popular but also a wide enough selection to prevent menu monotony. The
menu can also provide a competitive advantage in appealing to new target
market segments. By closely studying menu census data, marketing informa-
tion systems, and market research data, management can identify trends and
alter the menu to take advantage of changing consumer tastes. The menu
might also be used to expand the market, as a restaurant does when banquet
services are promoted within the regular menu. The promotional piece draws
customers attention to additional product service offerings that they may not
otherwise have considered.
The Role of Menus in Marketing

A successful menu should, in fact, satisfy four major marketing objectives.
First, the menu should further the goals of the marketing concept. Recall
that the marketing concept holds that the needs and wants of the consumer
should be given the highest priority. If the hospitality organization is suc-
cessful in satisfying these needs and wants, then the marketing concept
holds that financial success will naturally result. In short, if consumers are
happy, the organization will experience increasing volume and should suc-
ceed. It follows that if consumers are not satisfied, volume will decrease
and the operation will not succeed. Therefore, every effort should be made
to design the menu to include food and beverage items that the target
market segment(s) will find appealing. Establishing consumer needs and
wants can be accomplished in some part through market research and anal-
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introduction 581
ysis of internal marketing information systems and national menu census

data.
Second, the menu should contribute to establishing the perceived image
of the operation. For example, a menu used by an operation that appeals to
young singles desiring a fun-filled atmosphere might include humorous names
for menu items and cartoon drawings on the menu to establish the perceived
image. A Mexican restaurant might use a drawing of a building with Mexican-
style architecture on the front of its menu. The menu is one of the initial com-
munication vehicles that the customer encounters after entering the hospital-
ity operation. The menus impact in the formation of a positive perception
should not be discounted.
Third, the menu should act as a means to influence customer demand for
menu items. Through menu inserts (lists of specials and/or seasonal menu
items), menu copy (item descriptions), positioning of menu items on the menu,
and artwork, the menu planner can influence customer demand. Extremely
popular or profitable items are given extra attention or more prominent po-
sitioning, thereby making the customer more likely to select them. Attempt-
ing to influence customer behavior in this manner can result in a menu mix
that not only increases the number of some menu items sold but can also sub-
stantially increase sales and gross profits. Experimenting with different menu
mixes can result in substantially different levels of gross profitability, even
without an increase in the total number of menu items sold.
Fourth, the menu is a vehicle to gain a competitive advantage. A successful
operation often has selected menu items for which it is noted; these are called
Menus can help restaurants establish a perceived image among customers. Courtesy Red
Lobster Restaurants, Orlando, Florida.
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signature items and are promoted heavily on the menu, further adding to the
competitive advantage. Hospitality operators should attempt to create certain
signature items to enhance the perceived image of the operation and to cre-
ate a distinct competitive advantage.
Desktop Publishing
Computer technology has had a great impact on the restaurant industry re-
garding menu design and printing. Powerful software packages enable restau-
rants to make menu changes in a fraction of the time and at less expense than
in the past. Most restaurants have a computer system with menu-designing
software and a laser-quality printer that allows them to produce menus with
various fonts and formatting styles. In addition, graphics can be easily inserted
into any menu. The software packages also have more sophisticated proofing
tools such as spell checkers and grammar checkers that reduce the amount of
time spent proofreading final documents. Restaurants can now produce menus
that rival the more expensive alternative of using a professional designer and
print shop.
A wide range of products is available for restaurants to use in publishing
their menus. For example, they could use basic word processing software or
purchase more sophisticated menu-design software. Printers can also range
from low-end laser quality to higher-end color laser printers. Regardless of the
level of product, it is easy to make changes and view them before making a fi-
nal decision. Restaurants can test different types of paper stock, type style, and
menu layout without incurring any major costs or taking a great deal of time.
In addition to using computers for menu design and production, restau-
rants use accounting and other software packages to improve the operation of
the business. Once again, restaurants can use basic software packages, such as
Microsoft Office, or purchase specific software made for the restaurant indus-
try. Computers make it easy for restaurants to chart expenses, conduct sales
analysis, and analyze operational data. This ability to link menu design to per-
formance will enable restaurants to become more competitive and customer-
oriented.
MENU PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

Several factors should be taken into consideration during initial stages of
the menu-design process. Perhaps the most obvious factor is the consumer.
What are the likes and dislikes of those who patronize the operation? What
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planning menu considerations 583
food items currently on the menu do they like most or least? A detailed
sales history and other data provided by the marketing information system
are invaluable in menu planning. Any menu must satisfy the consumer in
order to be successful; therefore, a hospitality manager must fully under-
stand consumer behavior and must always keep the consumer in the proper
perspective. The entire business should be organized so that the consumer
will derive satisfaction. Managers must always strive to provide consumers
with exactly what they want to buy, not just what management wishes to
sell. If the consuming public is demanding fast-food items, then a prudent
hospitality manager should provide them, even though a manager may, in
fact, prefer to produce something else. Management selects specific target
market segments, and the needs and wants of these market segments must
always be the first consideration when planning a menu.
Once the consumers desires are determined, another consideration arises.
What is the availability and cost of the needed food and beverage products?
Many food items are seasonal, and some fresh ingredients may be difficult to
obtain at a reasonable price on a year-round basis. Once a hospitality man-
ager has determined that consumers desire a certain product, a consistent
source of supply must be located.
The skills of production and service employees must also be considered.
If new menu items are introduced, do the current employees possess all the
talents and skills necessary to prepare, present, and serve each new item cor-
rectly? If they do not, what training measures must be undertaken to teach
them the necessary skills? Should additional employees be hired? These are
important questions that a hospitality manager must ask during the initial
stages of the menu planning process.
The physical layout and design of the operation must also be considered.
The layout and design of the kitchen is particularly important. Is the food-
service equipment capable of producing the new menu items? Decisions re-
garding space limitations, equipment capacities, and layout must be made.
Modifications in the layout of the kitchen and service areas may be necessary
to facilitate production and serving of new menu items. In other instances,
additional equipment may have to be purchased to produce and serve the new
items. For example, if a manager decided to switch from American table
service to a combination of French and Russian table service, a considerable
investment would have to be made in equipment.
Menus should provide consumers with the opportunity to select a nutri-
tional meal. Certainly, institutional operations have a much stronger obliga-
tion to satisfy the nutritional needs of the clientele than do commercial oper-
ations. This is not to say, however, that commercial operations can ignore
nutritional considerations. Every effort should be made to provide the con-
sumer with the option of a meal that will satisfy one-third of the recommended
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dietary allowance (RDA). It is also important to remember, as numerous

studies have shown, that consumers are more concerned and more knowl-
edgeable about nutrition than ever before.
Finally, menus must be balanced. Menus will achieve increased success if
they balance several aesthetic factors. Food and beverage items must be se-
lected so that overall the menu is a balanced variety of the following:
Flavor: sweet, sour, spicy, hot, bland

Color: dark brown, golden brown, light green, dark green, white, red,
orange
Texture: firm, soft, chewy, crisp
Shape: cubed, solid, ground, strips, balls, sliced
Method of preparation: broiled, fried, baked, braised, boiled
Sauces: a variety of both sauced and nonsauced items
Selecting Menu Items

Before the managers of a foodservice operation begin the layout and planning
of a menu, they should give careful thought to the selection of menu items.
A restaurants menu policy should define the number of items and the type
of food that the restaurant intends to offer consumers. Figure 16.1 provides
an example of a menu policy flow chart that can be used in selecting menu
items.2 The first step is to formulate a list of menu groups that will be in-
cluded on the menu. Second, management must choose the group classifica-
tions within each menu group. Third, group specifications must be included
under each group classification. Finally, the exact specifications are deter-
mined for each item that will be included on the menu. This process must be
followed for every menu item, and all four of the factors in the flow chart are
equally important.
The final selection of menu items should be based on a thorough analy-
sis of the restaurants sales. Once this listing is comprehensive enough to meet
the operations needs, management should rank-order each item in each cat-
egory for its customer popularity and profitability. Based on these combined
priorities, knowledge of the foodservice operation, and experience, manage-
ment should begin to finalize the selection of menu items to be included on
the new menu.
Management should also consider menu census data in selecting food and
beverage items for the menu. Several of the industry trade journals publish
menu census reports. These reports represent the findings of national research
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MENU POLICY
MENU GROUPS
Appetizer Salad Entre Vegetable Dessert Bread/Beverage
GROUP CLASSIFICATION
Veal Beef Pork Fish Game Lamb Shellfish Poultry Nonmeat
GROUP SPECIFICATION
Solid Cubed Ground Roast Cooked
SPECIFIC MENU ITEM
Filet hunter style Broiled strip steak
figure 16.1 Menu policy flow chart.
studies undertaken by respected market research firms. Both Restaurant & In-
stitutions and Restaurant Business, for example, publish this type of data and
reports. Menu census reports usually contain useful information relating to
(1) key menu trends, such as a concern for freshness, (2) trends that allow for
regional differences and uniqueness, (3) best-selling items in North American
hospitality, and (4) menu census data broken down by type of operation.
Although menu census data published by industry trade journals will not
provide data specific to one operation or one narrowly defined geographic lo-
cation, these reports represent excellent sources for monitoring both geo-
graphic trends (national and regional) and trends by type of operation. When
those data are combined with internally generated sales histories, marketing
information systems, and managerial judgment, the result is a solid basis for
decisions concerning menu item selection.
Managing Price Increases

One of the most critical decisions facing restaurant managers is raising menu
prices. There are many factors to consider. First, how often should prices be
increased? Customers will become disenchanted with a restaurant if it raises
prices too often. Second, how much should prices be increased? Customers
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High-end restaurants such as Le Cirque 2000 pride themselves on their unique menu se-
lection. Courtesy Le Cirque 2000.
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have a certain range of price increase that is acceptable without resulting in a

decrease in sales volume. Third, how many menu items will be affected by
the price increase? Some restaurants increase the prices of a few menu items
at a time, whereas others raise the prices of the entire menu at one time. In
other words, some choose to increase prices for the most popular items, or
those for which the cost of ingredients has risen, and others attempt to cover
the cost increases by spreading it among all of the menu items.
It is important to examine all of these factors when making a decision to
increase prices. However, one thing is certain: the less attention drawn to a
price increase, the better. The following is a list of common marketing prac-
tices used to disguise menu price increases.
Avoid making price increases across the board. This is very noticeable to
customers and can cause a major backlash.
Try to avoid listing prices in a straight line. When prices are aligned in
a straight line on one side of the menu, they stand out from the menu
copy and become the focus of attention.
Dont list items according to price. Once again, this will cause price to be-
come the focus of attention and make the price range readily apparent.
Never cross out prices or write over them. This will signal any price in-
creases, and it looks very unprofessional.
Use odd-even pricing. The most common prices end in a 5 or a 9. Research
has shown that consumers perceive a price such as $7.95 as being closer to
$7.00 rather than $8.00. This is because many people process numbers from
left to right. Also, it is more difficult to notice an increase involving an odd
amount.
Trade off portions with price changes. Profit is a function of both price
and cost. A price increase can sometimes be avoided by reducing the por-
tion or the cost of ingredients. Items that have ingredients that fluctuate
greatly in cost should not be priced on the menu but should be listed as
market price. Also, packaging entres with other items can disguise
price increases. This is an approach called product bundling, in which
menu items are bundled with other items, often at a price that is less than
if the individual items were ordered separately. This is common practice
in the foodservice business, and it is especially common in the quick-
service segment.
Avoid raising prices when introducing a new menu. Customers will look
for price increases when a new menu is introduced. It is better to phase
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in price increases before a major change in menu design. Similarly, menu

items with increased prices should be placed in less obvious locations on
the menu.
PRODUCING THE PRINTED MENU

All foodservice managers like to consider themselves professionals. Foodser-
vice, like any other field, requires certain unique skills and expertise. How-
ever, not all managers possess all the necessary skills that the field demands.
When a menu is planned and designed, layout, copywriting, and artistic skills
are needed, yet many hospitality managers do not have a great deal of talent
or skill in these areas. A wise manager recognizes these shortcomings and
seeks professional assistance.
A wide variety of sources are available. Some sources can complete the en-
tire menu from initial planning to final production and printing. Others may
be able to offer expertise dealing with only certain aspects of the menu. The
first source of assistance is a firm engaged solely in menu layout and design.
Many design firms offer stock menus as well as custom-designed menus tai-
lored to each individual operation. In developing a custom-designed menu,
they will completely design and produce the concept, design, typesetting, paste-
up, photography, and printing. These services are not inexpensive, but the in-
vestment in professionally designed and produced menus is normally rewarded
by increased sales and by the achievement of the managers menu objectives.
Advertising agencies may also be able to assist in menu design. Agencies have
individuals on staff who can produce photographs and artwork suitable for a
hospitality menu. They also employ copywriters who may be able to add the ex-
tra flair that a menu needs to make it unique and to produce increased sales.
If a hospitality manager chooses to design a menu personally, the only out-
side help necessary is a top-quality print shop. Most print shops will be able
to do the job adequately, but it is wise to work closely with a print shop that
has experience with menus. When selecting a print shop, consider the fol-
lowing questions: Is the print shops equipment capable of producing the size,
color, and style of the menu exactly as desired? Is the print shop able to pro-
vide quick service on short runs when prices or menu items change?
The Menu Cover

First impressions are vitally important, so the design of the menu cover is crit-
ical. It sets the tone, creates the mood, and establishes the image of the food-
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producing the printed menu 589
service establishment in the mind of the consumer. The cover is the first part
of the menu that is seen by the customer, and it should contain the restaurant
name and logo. Additional items depend on the size of the menu and the
atmosphere that is being conveyed. In essence, the menu cover introduces the
customer to the restaurant.
The choice of cover designs is nearly limitless, but a number of factors
may limit the selection process. Cost limitations may force a manager to se-
lect a more conservative and less expensive menu cover. If cost is of great con-
cern, then only one color should be printed on a solid-color background. This
can still have a dramatic effect, yet it remains relatively inexpensive. The
length of service desired for the menu is another factor that should be con-
sidered when selecting a menu cover. If a long service life is desired, heavy-
weight and grease-resistant paper stock should be used.
No concrete rules dictate exactly what should be included on a menu cover,
so the following are only guidelines. The name of the foodservice operations
and any artwork should appear on the front. The address, phone number,
hours of operation, and credit cards accepted should be included either on the
back cover or within the menu. The cover should reflect the theme and atmo-
sphere of the hospitality operation and should be as creative as possible.
Writing Menu Copy

The words appearing on the menu are referred to as copy. These words must
be carefully chosen and must be designed to sell, rather than merely list the
available food items and prices. A well-written menu has a definite flair that
can be translated into higher check averages and increased profits. As all man-
agers are interested in increased sales, menu copy is an excellent starting point
for reaching this goal. Menu copy can be divided into three main categories:
(1) listings of menu items and prices, (2) descriptive selling of menu items, and
(3) copy relating to extra services, special cuisine, or special features of the
product-service mix offered.
LISTING MENU ITEMS AND PRICES. Listing menu items and prices
is the first and most basic step in developing menu copy, but it is important
to consider the organization and sequencing of the items as well. In what or-
der should the items appear on the menu? Should all the items receive equal
attention? To answer the first question, one school of thought holds that the
items should appear on the menu in the same order in which the customer
would eat them. For example, appetizers should be first, followed by soups
and salads, entres, and desserts. If a hospitality operation does not follow a
rigid pattern of service, similar menu items should be grouped together. This
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might mean grouping sandwiches, side orders, pizzas, beverages, and com-
plete dinners. Not all menu items should receive equal attention on the menu,
because not all items are equally popular with consumers, nor are they equally
profitable to the operator. For example, why should a cup of coffee selling for
95 cents be given the same amount of space and copy as a highly profitable
entre selling for $17.95? Items that should be given special and bolder at-
tention are those popular with consumers, profitable for the operation, or
preferably both.
Another school of thought is that menu items should be positioned so that
the items that are the most popular and most profitable are seen first by the
consumer. This will initiate the dining experience in a positive manner. Fig-
ure 16.2 illustrates the eye-movement pattern typical with a threefold menu.
Generally speaking, a consumer looking at a single-page menu will first fo-
cus slightly above the middle of the page. With a four-page menu, a consumer
will focus slightly above the middle of the right-hand page when looking at
the inner two pages.
Many hospitality managers merely list the menu items and the corre-
sponding prices. The consumers first reading of the menu copy is the mo-
ment of truth for any restaurant. The consumer is going to make a selection
based on the presentation of the items on the menu. The menu should be de-
signed with flair and should predominantly feature popular and profitable
items. A menu lacking any descriptive selling of its items is dull, for if menu
items and prices are merely listed, the menu looks like a telephone book, with
names in one column and numbers in the other. Todays hospitality consumers
Upper left 2 Upper right

corner corner
4
3 Middle 5
(first eye focus)
Bottom left Bottom right

corner corner
figure 16.2 Eye movement on the threefold menu.

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are becoming more sophisticated and are more demanding. Consumers have
been exposed to many innovative operations and are increasingly less likely
to patronize operations with dull and mundane menus and presentations. The
menu should not merely listit should sell!
DESCRIPTIVE SELLING OF MENU ITEMS. Not every menu item can
be given an extensive description, but most items can be given some extra
copy. Copy can easily be developed to show an items preparation, ingredients
used, portion size, quality of ingredients, or any other special features. It
is not difficult to add flair to a menu. The copy need not be amusing, only
accurate.
SPECIAL COPY. The third category of menu copy is related to extra ser-
vices, special cuisine, or other interesting features. A hospitality menu should
never contain any blank pages. Pages that do not contain menu items should
be used to promote such extra services as banquets, takeouts, or other fea-
tures. Menus should be treated as advertising space. Blank pages are a waste
of money because they could be used in some way to promote the operation.
This copy may actively promote such profit makers as banquets, or it may
reinforce the operations image by discussing the quality of products used or
by describing any special furniture or paintings the hospitality operation
might own. Use the space to the greatest promotional advantage. It is better
for a patron to be reading about the aging process for beef than to be glar-
ing across the dining room at a service person or reading where the silver-
ware is manufactured.
Type Style and Paper Stock

Through careful selection of type style and paper stock, a manager can greatly
improve a menu. Type style and paper stock can be used in combination to
create the desired impression. The menu is one of the few communication
links with the consumer, so it must be both readable and attractive.
When selecting type style or paper stock, it is advisable to view the sam-
ples under the same conditions as those experienced by a consumer. For ex-
ample, do not select type style or paper stock under bright fluorescent light-
ing if the lighting in the dining room is low-level incandescent or candles.
Many different type styles are available in a wide range of sizes. Most
printers have a wide enough selection to satisfy the needs of most foodservice
operations. A few guidelines should be followed to make the final menu both
readable and attractive. Type size is measured in points and ranges from 6 to
72 points. Most menus should not be printed in less than 10-point type be-
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cause smaller sizes are difficult to read, especially for older customers. To help
you get a better understanding of point size, consider the following:
This is 8-point type

It is also advisable to use a larger type size for headings, so that they will
be bolder and stand out better. A combination of capital and lowercase let-
ters should be used because a menu composed entirely of capital letters is more
difficult to read.
The primary consideration when selecting paper stock is the length of ser-
vice desired. If a menu is going to be changed weekly, it would not have to
be printed on stock as heavy as one that will be changed monthly. For menus
that a manager is planning to use for an extended period of time, lamination
may be applied to make the menu impervious to liquids and grease. Also, a
vinyl cover can be used to protect high-quality paper stock and increase the
life of a menu.
Menus can be expensive to design and print, and the cost of the paper will
represent roughly one-third the cost of printing a menu. It is, however, a false
economy to use a menu after its useful life is over. The image of the restau-
rant will suffer if consumers receive dog-eared or stained menus. Prices that
have been crossed out and the new price written in by hand only draw un-
necessary attention to price increases. A menu is an important communica-
tion tool. Its appearance should be the very best that a hospitality operation
can offer.
Wine Lists and Promotions

Wine has two major attributes. First, it offers a chance for romance and en-
joyment. Second, it can be highly profitable, especially when a substantial vol-
ume is sold. These two attributes mark wine for special attention. Many as-
pects of menu design apply to the design of a wine list as well. The successful
selling of wine depends not only on a well-planned wine list but also on per-
sonal selling by the service personnel. Several factors should be considered
when designing a wine list.
First, an idea successfully used by many hospitality organizations is to pair
specific wines with individual entres on the menu. Usually, two wines are
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This menu makes customers more comfortable with purchasing wine by including descrip-
tions of wine and suggesting wines for dinner entres. Courtesy of Brennans Restaurant.
The Brennans logo is a registered trademark.
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Brennans menu (continued).

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Brennans menu (continued).

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suggested as being complementary to each entre. This copy is included di-

rectly on the menu, indicating either the names of the wines or the bin num-
bers of the recommended wines. Of the two wines suggested, one should be
in the low-to-moderate price range and the other in the moderate-to-high
price range. By offering different price ranges, the guest is given a choice with-
out having to feel as though the higher-priced wines are being promoted
exclusively. Suggestive selling of wines to accompany each entre is highly
recommended.
Second, a description of the wine on the actual wine list assists the guest,
especially the novice wine drinker, in selection. Despite the increasing per
capita consumption of wine in the United States, many restaurant guests are
unsure of themselves when they order wine. In many cases, where the name
and vintage of the wine are the only listings, the guest does not have enough
information to make an informed decision. If a description of each wine is in-
cluded, the guest will feel more certain of the selected wine and will not feel
nearly as anxious.
Finally, the most neglected aspect of selling wines is the service person-
nel. Often, they do not have the tools necessary to sell the wine properly. They
need to be adequately trained not only in presenting, opening, and pouring
the wine but in selling it. Extra attention must be given to training the ser-
vice personnel. In particular, they must be shown how to approach the guests
and evaluate their potential for ordering wine. The next step is to get the wine
list in the hands of the guest who is the decision maker, captivate the guests
interest by talking about the wines and how they will complement the selected
entres, and offer positive suggestions about which wines to recommend. To
accomplish these tasks, the service personnel will need to receive training that
focuses on product knowledge, the handling and serving of wine, and, most
important, techniques for selling wine successfully. It is very important that
personnel learn how to ask for the wine sale: if they dont ask for the sale,
they will rarely receive it.
The marketing and promotion of wine is an aspect of menu planning and
design that often does not receive adequate time and attention to detail. Wine
is a profitable aspect of the operation, and professionally planned wine lists
are a real asset.
Banquet Menus
Within hotels and restaurants that have targeted group business as a sub-
stantial part of their volume, the selling of group meal functions is critical.
One of the aids to selling this type of group is the banquet menu. First and
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Group meal functions are critical to hotels and restaurants targeting group business. Cour-
tesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach, Florida.
foremost, planning banquet menus is in many respects very similar to plan-

ning other types of menus. However, banquet menus do not have to be bor-
ing. The entre selections do not have to be limited to several varieties of roast
beef, chicken, and fish. A great deal can be done with food and beverage pres-
entation and the flair with which items are presented and served. This type
of banquet presentation can make the occasion memorable.
Hotels that book numerous catering events (e.g., the Waldorf-Astoria in
New York City) offer extensive menus with many choices and options for
groups. Theme parties of endless variety help turn simple group meal func-
tions into memorable events. Smaller hotels and restaurants that are active in
the banquet business can use this same approach on a smaller scale. Presenta-
tion of banquet menus often consists of a packet of information along with all
menus offered. The banquet menus are normally included in the hotels meet-
ing planner guide that includes information on the hotels guest rooms, func-
tion rooms, and food and beverage options. One of the more popular presen-
tations is to have each page be a different size so that they can be fanned,
allowing the planner to see each of the headings (e.g., hors doeuvres, break
packages, lunch and dinner menus). Sales and catering software such as Del-
phi and Caterease allows banquet providers to input food and beverage costs,
estimate profit, assign function rooms, and determine room layouts.
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ISSUES SURROUNDING
MENU PLANNING
The preceding discussion revolved around the techniques used in planning
menus and how the menu can be useful as a marketing tool. This section fo-
cuses on some of the major issues surrounding menu design and planning, in-
cluding potential pitfalls, ethical issues regarding accuracy in menus, and the
concept of using cycle menus to minimize customer boredom.
Menu Planning Pitfalls to Avoid

Despite the best efforts of hospitality managers, mistakes are made in menu
design and production. The following are common menu pitfalls.
Being the wrong physical size. Often a menu is too small to accommo-
date all the items. The result is overcrowding, which makes the menu dif-
ficult to read. On the other hand, some menus are so large that they be-
come difficult for the guest to handle, particularly at a crowded table.
Management should strive to achieve a happy medium.
Using too small a type size. Often the type size is too small for many peo-
ple to read easily. Not everyone has 20/20 vision, and many consumers
are somewhat vain and do not want to put on glasses just to read a menu.
It is common for people over the age of 40 to need corrective lenses for
reading.
Failing to sell. Many menus lack any sort of descriptive selling copy. These
menus fail to communicate fully with the guest. Also, menus can become
stale or boring. It is a good idea to adjust your menu at least twice a year
to remove less profitable items and add variety.
Treating all menu items equally. Do not treat all menu items equally on
a menu. A hospitality operation does not make an equal profit on all food
and beverage items. To increase sales, special attention should be given to
items that are popular and/or profitable.
Using tacky clip-ons. Make certain that any menu clip-ons do not cover
any part of the regular menu. If this is not possible, it is better to use table
tents to showcase specials and feature items. It is also advisable to have
the service personnel personally describe and sell specials or signature
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issues surrounding menu planning 599
items. It is also advisable to have the clip-on printed on the same paper
stock and in the same type style as the regular menu. In this way, the clip-
on will appear to be an integral part of the menu, not an afterthought.
Forgetting the basics. Be sure to include on the menu such basic infor-
mation as hours of operation and whether credit cards are accepted.
Poor menu quality. Dont be lazy or cheap about keeping menus clean
and up-to-date. It is not a good practice to make handwritten changes or
to ignore mistakes in spelling or grammar. Other areas to avoid are us-
ing menus that become wrinkled or soiled, or using cheap paper and/or
cheap copies.
Accuracy in Menus
With the growing sophistication of hospitality consumers has come an increased
emphasis on accuracy in menus. Simply stated, this means serving exactly what
the menu says will be served. For many years, restaurants have been subject to
licensing, minimum-wage, tax, and sanitation laws and codes, but the words
placed on the menu were not legislated or controlled to any great extent. Con-
sumer groups have become more active in this area, however, and consumers are
now more aware of potential violations in menu accuracy.
Accuracy in menus is centered on several areas where potential problems
might arise, including the following:
Representation of quantity. If food products are merchandised on the

menu by weight or volume, then that is the exact amount that must be
served. Steaks are often merchandised this way (e.g., an 8-ounce sirloin).
Also, sometimes an implication of size is made on the menu. For exam-
ple, a cup of soup is less than a bowl.
Representation of quality. Federal and state standards are sometimes used
on a menu for products such as beef, poultry, eggs, fruits, and dairy prod-
ucts. If claims are made on the menu about a specific grade or standard,
this is exactly what must be served. For example, if a steak is merchan-
dised as being prime, it must be USDA prime, not USDA choice or any
lower grade. By USDA definition, ground beef is just that, ground beef.
It cannot contain any type of extra fat, water, or extenders.
Representation of price. The menu should be very specific about what is
included at the stated price. For example, if there is an extra charge for
an all-white-meat chicken entre, the menu should clearly state this. If a
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15 percent service charge is automatically added for parties of six or more,

this should be stated on the menu.
Representation of brand names. Brand names must be accurate as well.
Blue cheese may not be substituted for Roquefort cheese. If Jell-O is listed
on the menu, then Jell-O brand must be used, not another gelatin prod-
uct. Containers of products, such as ketchup, that are placed on the tables
must contain the brand name stated on the label.
Representation of product identification. The exact product stated on the
menu must be served. A cheaper product should not be substituted. Ex-
amples of products that might cause an accuracy-in-menu problem in-
clude maple syrup and maple-flavored syrup, whipped cream and
whipped topping, butter and margarine, turkey and chicken, white tuna
and light tuna, sole and flounder, and ground sirloin and ground beef.
Representation of point of origin. The point of origin must be exactly as
stated on the menu. If challenged, the restaurant manager should be pre-
pared to substantiate the menu claim by showing packing labels or other
documentation. Examples include Idaho potatoes, Maine lobster, Long Is-
land duckling, Wisconsin cheese, Smithfield ham, Gulf shrimp, and
Chesapeake Bay oysters.
Representation of merchandising terms. Merchandising terms such as
our own special salad dressing, chefs special sauce, or finest quality
must not be used when the operation is unable to substantiate such state-
ments. Commercially prepared salad dressings or sauces may not be called
house specialties. Other merchandising terms that may cause a problem
include fresh daily, ground daily, and baked each day on our
premises.
Representation of means of preservation. Food products may be preserved
in a wide variety of forms, such as fresh, frozen, canned, or chilled. If
these terms are used on the menu, they must be accurate.
Representation of food preparation method. The method of preparation
represented on the menu must be accurate. If a menu item is represented
as charbroiled, it must be exactly that and nothing else. Other prepara-
tion methods include sauteing, baking, broiling, deep-frying, smoking,
poaching, and microwaving.
Verbal and visual representation. Any representation by means of a pic-
ture or a servers comments must be accurate. For example, if a picture
of a dessert on the menu shows whole strawberries, then it would be im-
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proper to use sliced strawberries in the item that is served. If a server states
that the fish is fresh, then it must indeed be fresh, not frozen.
Representation of nutritional claims. Menu merchandising terms such as
low calorie must be able to be substantiated.
Figure 16.3 is the position paper of the National Restaurant Association

concerning accuracy in menus that is still used today. This is a standard that
figure 16.3 National Restaurant Association position statement concerning accuracy

in menu offerings. Courtesy the National Restaurant Association.
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all foodservice operations would do well to uphold. Compromising standards

is unethical and an example of poor marketing.
Accuracy in menus should be a major concern when a manager is writ-
ing or reviewing a menu. The following are guidelines:
Read your menu! Check the details on the menu with what your kitchen
staff actually serves. If you have made changes in purchasing or prepar-
ing food but have not listed them on the menu, take immediate action to
bring the menu up to date.
Talk to your service personnel. Are they aware of what you serve and
where it comes from? Do they describe your menu items correctly? Re-
member that accuracy in menus includes the oral statements of employ-
ees as well as the printed menu. Perhaps a manager should conduct a
menu review session with the entire staff.
Evaluate consumer comments and complaints related to accuracy in
menus. As with any area of marketing, consumer perceptions are im-
portant. Managers should be concerned whenever consumers feel that
certain claims are inaccurate.
Institute a training program in handling consumer complaints. Standard
operating practices should be developed for all possible situations.
Consumers expect and demand honest representation of food and beverages,

and they have a right to get it. Programs to support accuracy in menus rep-
resent legitimate efforts by ethical businesspeople and national and state
restaurant associations.
Cycle Menus
Many managers of institutional operations such as hospitals feel that market-
ing does not play a part in the menu planning and design process. Rather,
their major focus is on the nutritional needs of the clients. Marketing should,
however, remain a major concern, in addition to nutritional concerns, because
one of the biggest problems in institutional operations is menu monotony and
lack of interest on the clients part. Management of institutional operations
must give careful consideration to merchandising and marketing to increase
client satisfaction. Cycle menus repeat menu items according to a specific cy-
cle or pattern and can be adjusted to include more items and longer cycles in
an effort to reduce monotony.
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CYCLE MENU PATTERNS. Central to the menu-design process in insti-

tutions is the cycle menu. Institutional operations have developed and used
many different forms of cycle menus. For example, a very short cycle of per-
haps five to seven days might be used in a hospital setting. A much longer cy-
cle, perhaps four to six weeks, might be used for a university foodservice op-
eration. This longer cycle is necessary to maintain customer interest. Cycle
menus can be designed using several patterns:
Typical. This cycle always begins on the same day. For example, the cy-
cle might start on Monday and end on a Sunday, beginning a new cycle
on Monday.
Typical break cycle menu. This type of cycle menu begins each new cy-
cle on a different day so that the same foods are not repeated on the same
day of the week. This helps to avoid the problem of serving meatloaf every
Monday. An example of this type of menu is shown in Figure 16.4.3
Random cycle menu. This type of cycle is used for extended captive cus-
tomers, such as students or long-term hospital patients. In this type of cy-
cle, each menu is assigned a letter and then the letters are picked at random
and assigned to the individual day. An example is shown in Figure 16.4.
For marketing, cycle menus are most important because they can be used to
reduce consumer boredom. Cycle menus should be constantly updated with
new menu items to maintain consumer interest. In institutional settings, this
is of critical importance. Once consumers become bored with the menu se-
lection, it is not long before negative feelings begin to develop in other areas,
such as food quality, sanitation, and price. As an example, students and em-
ployees could examine the menus in their cafeterias to see if they can deter-
mine the type of cycle menu that is being used.
MARKETING CYCLE MENUS. In addition to producing a printed cycle
menu, management should give careful consideration to the merchandising and
marketing of the menu. Many managers use innovative names for menu items,
ones that spark consumer interest and accurately reflect the nature of the food
items. In addition, management should plan special events to maintain consumer
interest. These special events should be scheduled periodically throughout the
cycle (perhaps once a month). Special events might be used in a university hos-
pitality operation to include the following:
Ethnic dinners (Mexican, Asian, or Italian)

Special decorations and dcor changes in the dining room to reflect sea-
sonal changes
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TYPICAL BREAK CYCLE MENU
WEEK 1
[ MONDAY
DAY 1
TUESDAY
DAY 2
WEDNESDAY
DAY 3
THURSDAY
DAY 4
WEEK 2 MONDAY
DAY 5
TUESDAY
DAY 6 ][ WEDNESDAY
DAY 1
THURSDAY
DAY 2
WEEK 3 MONDAY
DAY 3
TUESDAY
DAY 4
WEDNESDAY
DAY 5
THURSDAY
DAY 6 ]
WEEK 4
[ MONDAY
DAY 1
TUESDAY
DAY 2
WEDNESDAY
DAY 3
THURSDAY
DAY 4
WEEK 5 MONDAY
DAY 5
TUESDAY
DAY 6 ]
RANDOM CYCLE MENU
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4 DAY 5 DAY 6 DAY 7

A J L Z C D M
DAY 8 DAY 9 DAY10 DAY 11 DAY 12 DAY 13 DAY 14

P I B Q N E W

F O H R V K S

U G X T Y A J
figure 16.4 Samples of cycle menu patterns. Courtesy Nancy Loman Scanlon, Market-
ing by Menu (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1985).
Special entertainment in the dining room

Special presentation of food items, such as a meat entre (steamship round
of beef) carved in the dining room
Extended hours of service offering coffee, soft drinks, and light snacks
during exam week, perhaps until midnight
Birthday cakes presented to residents on request
Dinners offered in separate dining rooms for identified groups, such as
residents of a dormitory floor, thereby promoting unity
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menu evaluation 605
Sick baskets delivered to students who have been hospitalized because

of illness or accident
Build your own sundae, featuring several varieties of ice cream and
toppings
Hors doeuvres featured in the lounge before dinner begins
Cycle menus should not be dull. They should be designed with four objectives
in mind: (1) to provide the consumer with the menu items desired, (2) to achieve
the financial goals and objectives of the organization, (3) to adequately provide
for the nutritional needs of the consumers, and (4) to maintain consumer inter-
est and relieve monotony.
MENU EVALUATION
When managers design a menu, they seek to accomplish specific objectives.
As with any effort, however, it is often difficult to ascertain the degree of suc-
cess. Some measure of evaluation must therefore be used. Performance crite-
ria must be established prior to implementing a new menu, and actual per-
formance must be measured against these criteria. For example, management
may give special treatment to a single menu item, such as prime rib, with the
objective that this entre should constitute 20 percent of all entre sales. A
simple method to evaluate this objective would be to calculate the prime ribs
percentage of total entre sales. In the same manner, it would be possible to
determine the degree to which each objective was achieved. After the menu
has been in use for some time, perhaps a month or two, the degree of success
for all objectives should be analyzed. According to restaurant consultants in-
terviewed by Restaurants USA, a menu redesign can improve sales an average
of 2 to 10 percent.4
Checklist for Menu Evaluation

Menu planning is a dynamic process that requires constant monitoring and
control. The following is a list of questions that can be used to evaluate the
menu and determine if any changes need to be made.5
1. Does the menu meet nutritional guidelines and organizational objectives?

2. Are the in-season foods that are offered available and within an accept-
able price range?
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3. Do foods on each menu offer contrasts of color? Texture? Flavor? Con-

sistency? Shape or form? Type of preparation? Temperature?
4. Can these foods be prepared with the personnel and equipment available?
5. Are the workloads balanced for personnel and equipment?
6. Is any one food item or flavor repeated too frequently during this menu
period?
7. Are the meals made attractive with suitable garnishes and accompani-
ments?
8. Do the combinations make a pleasing whole, and will they be acceptable
to the clientele?
This is a starting point in the menu evaluation process. However, more de-
tailed analysis must be conducted to determine the profitability of the menu
items and the necessary allocation of resources.
Menu Sales Mix Analysis

Numerous methods can be used to evaluate menu effectiveness. The selection
of one method over another is usually a function of time and money. The sim-
plest method used to evaluate menu effectiveness is to count the number of
times that each item is sold. This method is commonly referred to as menu
sales mix analysis. In most foodservice operations today, this information is
readily available from the detailed tape printout and spreadsheet files pro-
duced by point-of-sale (POS) systems. Based on this information, manage-
ment can add or delete menu items or change the merchandising focus of the
menu. Another common approach is a comparison with menu census data.
Menu census data allow management to compare sales figures and sales trends
with regional and national data.
A more sophisticated approach, referred to as menu engineering, would
be to perform an in-depth analysis of the menu items, including their sales
and costs. Some of the methods used in menu engineering resemble the
growth-share matrix introduced in Chapter 8. In the case of a menu, each
item is treated as its own strategic business unit. The two axes are item con-
tribution margin in dollars and the number sold of each item. Items with
larger contribution margins would be considered good growth prospects that
warrant more marketing effort and resources. Items with larger sales figures
would be considered high-share items and a good source of revenue. The axes
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menu evaluation 607
High
Average number sold
Stars Question marks
Item
Contribution
Margin ($)
Average contribution
margin
Cash cows Dogs
Low
High Low
Number Sold
figure 16.5 Sales mix analysis matrix.
would be divided to form four quadrants using the average contribution mar-
gin and the average number sold (see Figure 16.5).
Each menu item would be plotted on the matrix based on its contribution
margin and the number sold during the time period in question. Based on
these two criteria, menu items are classified as dogs, question marks, stars, or
cash cows. Each quadrant has some baseline strategies that can be used for
the menu items that are positioned in it. Once again, this is similar to the
Boston Consulting Groups growth-share matrix. There are other variations
of this methodology, but this one was chosen because it is consistent with the
approach used in product management. The important thing to remember is
that any approach should take into account food costs, food prices, and sales
volume. In this case, the contribution margin is the difference between menu
price and food cost.
DOGS. These menu items have low sales volumes and low contribution mar-
gins. They dont warrant much attention and should be placed in less desir-
able locations on the menu. In an attempt to increase the contribution mar-
gin, management can consider raising the prices on these items and/or
lowering the food costs of preparing the items. In the long run, management
should consider finding a substitute for this item. The substitute could be an
item that is already on the menu that can be promoted, or a new item that
can be added to the menu to take its place. If the contribution margin cannot
be improved, then the item may need to be removed from the menu.
QUESTION MARKS. These menu items have low sales volumes and high
contribution margins. They have the potential for growth and should receive
managements attention. Given the high contribution margin, an increase in
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sales volume would greatly benefit the restaurant. These items should be
placed in prime locations on the menu and be strongly promoted. For exam-
ple, waiters could be instructed to focus on them in their suggestive selling,
and the items could be highlighted on table tents and other in-store promo-
tions. Other strategies that could be employed include making one a signa-
ture item, or offering special deals to create awareness and trial.
STARS. These menu items have high sales volumes and high contribution
margins. They should occupy prime locations on the menu and be a major
focus of promotional efforts. These menu items should be promoted through
in-store displays and suggestive-selling efforts. It is important to maintain cur-
rent levels of quality and price. Any significant changes could hurt the sales
of these items, which would impact greatly on the profitability of the restau-
rant. These menu items are often signature items for restaurants and should be
carefully managed until newer items (i.e., question marks) can be phased in.
CASH COWS. These menu items have high sales volumes and low contri-
bution margins. They tend to be menu items that have been around for a
while, and in many cases they are used as loss leaders. Whether they are sig-
nature items or not, these menu items attract customers and sell other items.
Management should experiment with price increases or ways to decrease food
costs. However, if customers are sensitive to changes in price, it is advisable
to focus more on costs. For example, management could decide to substitute
less expensive ingredients or serve smaller portions, thereby increasing the
contribution margin. In the long run, it is possible to find different items that
are similar and offer larger contribution margins. Over time, these menu items
can be moved to less prominent locations on the menu.
Menu Engineering Application

Menu engineering can be applied in a variety of situations and at a variety of
levels. For instance, a firm that operates multiple restaurant chains (e.g., Dar-
den Restaurant Group) could use the growth-share process discussed in Chap-
ter 8 to evaluate its divisions. Additionally, a particular foodservice operation
could plot menu items by food group (e.g., chicken, beef, vegetarian, Asian,
etc.) to evaluate the performance of each group. Finally, a restaurant could
evaluate each of its menu items by plotting them in the grid based on contri-
bution margin and growth potential or popularity. Figure 16.6 represents a
hypothetical example of using the food group approach for Burger King
restaurants.
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menu evaluation 609
High
Star Question mark
Chicken & fish Salads
Growth
Potential
Cash cow Dog
Whopper & Kids meals &

burgers breakfast
Low
High Low
Contribution Margin
figure 16.6 An example of a sales mix analysis for Burger King.
As you can see, the original burgers and the signature Whopper would
be considered the cash cows for the restaurant. The contribution margin is
relatively high, but the growth potential for hamburgers remains low. Kids
meals and breakfast meals have probably reached saturation for these mar-
kets, and the contribution margin is fairly low. In fact, kids meals are often
offered as loss leaders in an attempt to bring families to restaurants. The
chicken and fish sandwiches are the menu items with the most growth po-
tential, given the societal trend toward healthful menu items. The prices are
higher than those charged for comparable hamburger sandwiches, and the
percentage of sales continues to grow. Finally, salads have some growth po-
tential, but it may be hard to sell them at a price that would be attractive to
the fast-food market. Therefore, Burger King would want to allocate its re-
sources toward developing new menu items and concepts with growth po-
tential while maintaining its market share for its cash cow items such as
Whoppers.
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This chapter is an overview of several important factors dealing with menu
planning and design. The achievement of marketing objectives through the
menu-design process must be considered. These objectives usually focus on
achieving the marketing concept, enhancing the operations image, influenc-
ing the consumers selection of menu items, and using the menu as a means
of gaining a competitive advantage.
Several factors that must be considered when planning a menu include
consumer likes and dislikes, availability and cost of food and beverages, per-
sonnel skills and talents, physical layout of the hospitality facility, and the need
for a nutritionally balanced menu. A simple technique can show how to se-
lect priorities for both profitable and popular menu items. Data from a na-
tional or regional menu census can also be used. Managers who lack the time
and/or talent to produce high-quality menus should refer to sources of ex-
Chapter review
pertise for design assistance. The design and production aspects of the actual
menu include menu cover, copywriting, type, paper stock, wine lists, and ac-
curacy in menus. Managers should avoid common pitfalls of the menu design
process.
Selected aspects of cycle menus include both patterns and suggestions for
improved marketing and promotion of cycle menus. Evaluating menu effec-
tiveness is important, and widely used methods of evaluation are available.
The menu is of critical importance in the marketing efforts of a hospitality
manager. It communicates, sells, creates the mood, and establishes the tone.
The chapter introduces the reader to the use of the menu sales mix analysis
for menu engineering.

Cycle menus
Menu census data
Menu copy
Menu cover
Menu engineering
Menu inserts
Menu policy flow chart
Menu sales mix analysis
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chapter review 611
Chapter review
Paper stock
Point-of-sale (POS) systems
Product bundling
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
Signature items
Type size
Type style

Discussion
1. What factors must be considered when planning a menu?
How do they impact the menu-design process?
2. How should a manager select items to be included on the
menu?
3. If you were a foodservice manager, what professional assis-
tance would you seek when developing a new menu? Why?
4. How will length of service desired affect the menu cover
selection?
5. What is menu copy?
6. What are the three categories of menu copy?
7. Of what value is descriptive copy?
8. Cite and discuss the guidelines for accuracy in menus.
9. What is menu sales mix analysis?
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Notes
1 Lora Arduser and Douglas Robert Brown, Food Service Menus: Pricing and Managing the Food Service Menu for
Maximum Profit (Ocala, FL: Atlantic Publishing, 2003); David V. Pavesic, Restaurant Managers Pocket Hand-
book: 25 Keys to Profitable Success: Menu Design (New York: Lebhar-Friedman Books, 1999); Albin G. Seaberg,
Menu Design: Merchandising and Marketing, 4th edition (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997).
2 Jack E. Miller and David V. Pavesic, Menu Pricing and Strategy, 4th edition (New York: Van Nostrand Rein-
hold, 1996), pp. 157 et passim.
3 Nancy L. Scanlon, Marketing by Menu (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985), pp. 7275.
4 Beth Panitz, Reading Between the Lines: The Psychology of Menu Design, Restaurants USA, August 2000,
http://www.restaurant.org/rusa/magIssue.cfm?Year2000&Month8.
5 June Payne-Palacio and Monica Theis, Introduction to Foodservice, 9th edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 2001), p. 105.
Chapter review
c16.qxd 2/2/05 2:08 PM Page 613
case study 613
case study
case study
Matts Bar and Grill
M atts Bar and Grill is a restaurant that offers a basic menu of sand-
wiches, pasta, and stir-fry entres. In addition, there are a few ap-
petizers and a normal childrens menu. The sandwiches range in
price from $6.99 to $7.99, and the entres range from $9.99 to $13.99. The
restaurant is a popular place because of its rustic atmosphere and the personal
attention that customers receive from the staff. There is a small bar business
from some of the locals, but the restaurant is known mainly for its good food.
Recently, the restaurant has experienced a downturn in sales due to the
opening of a chain restaurant in the immediate trading area. Upon grad-
uating from a top program in hospitality at a nearby college, you have been
approached by your family to return home and help with the restaurant.
In the past, your parents have made decisions based on their gut feelings
and their experience with the restaurant over twenty years. However, they
are no match for the resources and expertise at the disposal of the corpo-
rate chain.
It is difficult for you to turn down the invitation, given that the restau-
rant was named after you and the profits helped pay for your college educa-
tion. The first order of business is to perform a menu sales mix analysis to de-
termine the popularity and contribution of the various menu items. The table
on page 614 contains all of the relevant figures for the menu items at Matts
Bar and Grill. Use contribution margin and sales volume as the variables to
categorize the menu items and plot the menu items in a matrix.
After performing the menu sales mix analysis, you must now make some
tough decisions regarding the menu items. Some of them may need to be dis-
continued and others will have to undergo changes in price or food cost to
make them more profitable.
case study
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weekly percentage of cost per profit

614
menu item volume Price total sales total sales unit margin
Chicken quesadilla 2,050 $ 7.29 $ 14,944.50 7.499% $1.41 5.88
Buffalo wings 2,694 6.99 18,831.06 9.449 1.88 5.11
Ultimate nachos 243 7.99 1,941.57 0.974 1.52 6.47
Onion rings 797 5.99 4,774.03 2.396 1.56 4.43
Caesar salad 861 5.99 5,157.39 2.588 1.38 4.61
Garden salad 2,264 5.99 13,561.36 6.805 1.21 4.78
Asian salad 782 7.99 6,248.18 3.135 2.05 5.94
Blackened burger 422 7.49 3,160.78 1.586 2.08 5.41
Cheeseburger 3,150 6.99 22,018.50 11.049 1.76 5.23
Grilled chicken 1,588 6.99 11,100.12 5.570 1.79 5.20
Patty melt 778 7.49 5,827.22 2.924 2.02 5.47
Philly cheesesteak 1,690 7.99 13,503.10 6.776 2.48 5.51
Chicken rigatoni 1,023 9.99 10,219.77 5.128 1.58 8.41
Shrimp scampi 955 11.49 10,972.95 5.506 2.16 9.33
BBQ combo 324 13.99 4,532.76 2.275 5.07 8.92
Cajun pork chops 647 12.99 8,404.53 4.217 8.61 4.38
Chicken stir-fry 877 9.99 8,761.23 4.396 1.83 8.16
Stir-fry combo 275 12.99 3,572.25 1.793 2.69 10.30
chapter 16 using menu design as a marketing tool
Top sirloin 1,737 12.99 22,563.63 11.322 5.66 7.33

Kids cheeseburger 626 3.95 2,472.70 1.241 1.16 2.79
Kids grilled cheese 531 3.95 2,097.45 1.053 1.06 2.89
Kids chicken tenders 1,169 3.95 4,617.55 2.317 1.09 2.86
Total 25,483 $ 199,282.63
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case study 615
case study
1. Are there any menu items that you would recommend be
discontinued? Why?
2. Would you increase or decrease price for any of the menu items?
Explain your answer.
3. Do you feel that your parents have their food costs under control?
bindex.qxd 12/21/04 11:44 AM Page 616
index
A Internet check in, 47, 48, 5051 Bertuccis Brick Oven Pizzerias, 66, 314
Absolut vodka ads, 394 Internet sales, 356 Bleed advertisement, 429
Accessibility, for market segmentation, 125126 pricing structure, 560561 Blind cutting, 528529
Acquisitions, as product development, 255 senior market discounts, 131 Blueprint, service, 57, 67
Actionability, for market segmentation, 126 See also specific carriers by name Bollenback, Steven, 50
Action plans, implementing, 178 Alamo car rental, 256 Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix, 293294
Active listening, by sales rep, 518519 Alexandria Inn, 452453 menu sales mix matrix, 607609
Act software, 498 Alliances: strategic business units (SBUs), 293296
Adams, Wendell, 193195 examples of, 255256 Boston Market, 380
ADDY (American Advertising Awards), 393 as product development, 255256 Boundary-spanning roles:
Administered vertical marketing systems, 324 All-you-can-afford method, 384 defined, 45
Adoption process, see Consumer adoption process Alternatives, evaluation by consumers, 100102 of service employees, 46
Advertising, 386407 Amazon.com, 352 Branding, 262264
attacks on competition, 47 American Association of Retired Persons brand, meaning of, 262
awards, 393 (AARP), 23, 131, 556 brands, development of, 251
budget for, 391, 423 American Express, 256 effective, criteria for, 264
campaign checkpoints, 395 American Express Membership Rewards, 460 image-building and distribution channels,
central appeal, 390 American Heart Association, menus and 325326
to change consumer perception, 147 recipes, 23 importance of, 262263
components of, 386387 American Hotel & Lodging Association Brand loyalty, 375
cooperative advertising, 387 (AH&LA), 26, 214 Brand mark, 262
criticisms of, 403405 Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 229 Brand name, 262
defined, 373, 386 AOL Travel, 346, 352 Break-ation, 89
economic effects of, 405407 Appeal, in advertising, 390 The Breakers, 270, 389, 504, 597
effective, criteria for, 391392 Applebees, 24, 142 Break-even analysis, 550552
evaluating campaign, 397399 Aramark, 176, 249 computation of, 550552
functions of, 374376 Artex International, 441 Brennans Restaurant, 461, 593595
local advertising, 387 Asset revenue generating efficiency (ARGE), Bribery, and meeting planners, 528
managerial decisions about, 400 299300 Broadcast media, see Radio advertising;
media for, see Media selection Associations, as market segment, 506508, 511 Television advertising
national advertising, 387 Attitudes: Brochures, 446447
objective testing of, 398399 and consumer behavior, 87, 96 design of, 446447, 476
planning, 392393, 395397 defined, 96 as merchandising, 475476
psychographics, use of, 132133 and market segmentation, 132133 Budget car rental, 142
and purchasing patterns, 169 and roles, 87 Budget competition, 25
strategy, development of, 388390 Attribute data, in perceptual maps, 146 Budgets:
Advertising agencies, 400403 Auctions, online, 353 for advertising, 391, 423
benefits to use, 400 Audiovisual equipment, leasing of, 49 See also Promotional budget
compensation to, 402403 Audiovisual materials, for public relations, 479 Bundling of products:
relationship with agency, 399 Augmented products, 278 fast-food industry, 71, 284, 286
role of, 400401 Authentication, Internet security, 343 and pricing, 558559, 587
selection of, 401402 Autoregressive moving averages (ARMA), 185 as sales promotion, 462, 464
services of, 401 Average daily rate (ADR), 291292, 560 Burger King, 9, 24, 48, 147, 250, 379, 393,
types of, 401 Avis, 24, 264 608609
Advertising spot, 434 Business analysis, product development, 261
Agate line, 428429 B Business failures, reasons for, 15
Age, market segmentation by, 127 Banquet facilities, 511 Business Periodicals Index, 215
AIDA (attention, interest, desire, action), 440, Banquet menus, 596597 Buying intentions survey, sales forecasting, 184
462, 517 Base rate, 429 Buying unit:
Aimless profile, 134 Baskin-Robbins, 251 members of, 109111
AIO (attitudes, interests, and opinions) Behavioral variables: See also Organizational buying
statements, 132 heavy users, identifying, 133
Airline industry: market segmentation, 133135 C
airline clubs, 93 Bel Air Motel, 237238 Cabaldon, Chris, 159
attributes of, 143 Belongers, 134 Cannibalization, and diversification, 177
curbside check-in, 53 Belonging needs, and consumer behavior, 93 Cape Cod Chamber of Commerce and
frequent flyer miles, 255256, 459460 Benchmarking, 6162 Convention and Visitors Bureau, 121122
616
index 617
Carnival Cruise Lines, 51, 80 Competitive benefit matrix, 144 compensatory strategies, 103
Case analysis, 220 Competitive objectives, 174 conjunctive approach, 104
Cash cows: Competitive parity method, 384 disjunctive approach, 104105
menu items, 608 Complaints, see Customer complaints extended problem-solving, 107108
strategic business units (SBUs), 295, 297 Concentrated market segmentation strategy, lexicographic approach, 105
C.A.S.I.E. (Coalition for Advertising Supported 141 limited problem-solving, 106107
Information and Entertainment), 393 Concept testing, 260261 routine response behavior, 106
Caterese, 527, 597 Concierge, 321 Contact management software, 498
Causal analysis, 182186 Conjunctive approach, consumer problem- Contests:
econometric models, 186 solving, 104 participation in, 464
regression analysis, 186 Conscious parallelism, 566 and promotion, 378
Causal research, methods of, 221228 Consolidated metropolitan statistical areas pros and cons of, 467
Caveat emptor, 567 (MSAs), 128 Contractual vertical marketing systems, 324
Cendant Corp, 21 Conspicuous consumers, 134 Convenience sample, 241
Census, 228 Consumer adoption process, 9698 Conventions:
Central reservation systems (CRS), 316 diffusion and adoption, 97 for sales and service training, 463
Chains, see Hospitality and tourism chains; innovators to late adopters continuum, 97 See also Meetings and conventions
Restaurant chains and product life cycle, 97 Convention and visitors bureau (CVB),
Channels, see Distribution channels and risk, 98 320321, 358
Check in, automated, 50 trends related to, 96 Convivial dimension, defining quality service,
Check out, express, 47 Consumer analysis, sales forecasting, 169 6364
Chilis, 24, 250, 379 Consumer behavior, 8696 Cooperative advertising, 387, 463
Choice Hotels International, 9, 33, 48, 140, 251 and advertising, 403406 Copy testing, 398399
Chu Zhou Hotel, 273275 and attitudes, 87 Copywriting:
Circulation, print media, 429 and culture, 8889 for brochures, 447
Clarion Hotels and Suites, 140, 251 and experience, 9495 for direct mail, 442
Clayton Act (1914), 565, 567 feelings and behaviors related to, 96 for print ads, 427428
Clio Awards, 393 and households, 91 Core products, 277
Closed-ended questions, 239 needs related to, 9194 Corporate sales offices, sales prospecting at, 516
Closing sale, 521522 and perceptions/attitudes, 96, 144146 Corporate vertical marketing systems, 323
Coca-Cola, 139, 263 and personality/self-image, 95 Corporations, as market segment, 508511
Cold calls, 516 profiling, see Market segmentation Correlations, statistical, 229
Collateral materials: and reference groups, 8990 Cost/benefit analysis, of service failures, 66
for brochures, 446 and roles, 8687 Cost control data, performance evaluation, 180
online, 463 and social forces, 86 Cost efficiency, and distribution channels,
Comes, Brian, 457 and social setting, 86 326328
Comfort Inns and Suites, 71, 140, 251, 264 and socioeconomic status, 89 Cost-oriented pricing, 550553
Comment cards, 225226 understanding, importance of, 85, 87 break-even analysis, 550552
customer satisfaction measure, 68, 213 See also Customers cost-plus pricing, 552
limitations of, 58, 225 Consumer Behavior (McNeal), 86 target-return pricing, 553
for restaurants, 143 Consumer decision-making, 98103 Cost per thousand (CPM) formula, 429
Commercials, see Radio advertising; Television evaluation of alternatives, 100102 Cost-plus pricing, 552
advertising information search, 99100 Coupons:
Communication, in promotions, 374 postpurchase evaluation, 102103 distribution methods, 425, 426427, 464
Communication mix, components of, 1920 problem recognition, 9899 and newspaper advertising, 425, 426427
Communications gap, and service quality, purchase decision, 102 promotional pros and cons, 465
5758 Consumer feedback: for promotions, 379380
Community, sales force leads in, 516 complaints, see Customer complaints tallying as measure, 399
Comparative reference groups, 8990 customer satisfaction assessment methods, 47, Covey, Stephen R., 56
Compensatory strategies, consumer problem- 58, 6869 Credence qualities, customer purchase
solving, 103 internal information system for, 213 decisions, 54
Competition: performance evaluation, 181 Credit accounts, via Internet, 359360
advertising, effects on, 406 surveys, see Customer surveys Critical incidents, service failures, 65
attacks/defamation of, 47, 529 Consumer price index (CPI), 22 Cross-sectional studies, 221
basic strategies, 54 Consumer price sensitivity, 542545 Cross-tabulations, 229
budget competition, 25 defined, 542543 Cross-training, 301
forms of, 24 difficult-comparison effect, 544 Crowne Plaza, 281
general competition, 25 end-benefit effect, 545 Culture, and consumer behavior, 8889
and marketing strategy, 2425 expenditure effect, 545 Curbside check-in, 53
perfect competition, 24 perceived-substitutes effect, 543 Customer complaints:
and pricing, 542, 547, 555556 price-quality effect, 543 to assess satisfaction level, 68
product category type of, 24 shared-cost effect, 544545 encouraging, 6667
product form type of, 24 unique value effect, 543 forms of, 66
and sales promotions, 461462 Consumer problem-solving, 103108 hotlines for, 66, 67
services industry, growth of, 4650 combination strategies, 105106 statistics related to, 62
618 index
Customer needs failures, meaning of, 65 Decline stage: Distribution:

Customers: product life cycle, 281282, 380 activities related to, 313
customer objectives, 173174 tourist area life cycle, 290 and Internet, 312
distribution channel benefits to, 325326 Defensive strategy, product development, objective of, 312313
expectations of service performance, 58 252254 Distribution channels:
guest history data, 47 Delivery gap, and service quality, 57 central reservation systems (CRS), 316
loyalty, promotions for, 6970 Delphi software, 527, 597 convention and visitors bureau (CVB),
participation in service delivery, 47, 5051 Delphi technique, 183 320321
as part of product, 51 Delta Airlines, 2425, 48, 255256, 264, 280 cost efficiency, improving, 326328
perceived value, 47 Demand: customer benefits, increasing, 325326
purchase decisions, factors in, 5354 fluctuating, 562 direct channels, 316
service quality, 5461 market demand, 137 exclusive distribution, 313314
in service-quality orientation, 59 price elasticity of, 24, 554555 global distribution systems (GDS), 317
testing advertising campaign with, 399 projected demand, 137138 indirect channels, 315316
See also Meetings and conventions; entries Demand-oriented pricing, 553555 intensive distribution, 315
under Consumers computation of, 554555 intermediaries, 317321
Customer satisfaction, 6164 odd/even pricing, 555, 587 leadership of, 323
assessment techniques, 47, 58, 6869 prestige pricing, 555 member selection and retention, 324
defined, 62 price lining, 555 power relations, 322323
and word of mouth, 14 psychological pricing, 555 selective distribution, 314
Customer surveys, 223227 DeMeglio, Nick, 416 vertical marketing systems, 323324
AIO (attitudes, interests, and opinions) Demographics: Distribution mix, components of, 20
statements, 132 defined, 23 Diversification:
of buying intentions, 184 and marketing strategy, 2324 and customer cannibalization, 177
comment cards, 225226 and market segmentation, 128132 strategy, 177178
comparison of methods, 223 Dependent variables, 225 Dogs:
customer satisfaction measure, 68 Derived demand: menu items, 607
design of, see Questionnaires and end-benefit effect, 545 strategic business units (SBUs), 295, 297
effectiveness of, 223 and organizational buying, 108109 Domain name system (DNS), 360
experience surveys, 220 Descriptive research: Dominos Pizza, 371372
limitations of, 58, 68 cross-sectional studies, 221 Drive time, 434
questionnaires, 227228 longitudinal studies, 221 Dubbing, 438
telephone surveys, 223224 Desired objective method, 383 Duca, Tom, 577
Cyberspace concept, 342 Desktop publishing, 582 Dunkin Donuts, 263
Cycle menus, 602605 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 23
design of, 605 Dietary habits, effects on food service E
marketing cycle menus, 603605 operations, 2324, 8586 Early dining, 169
patterns for, 603 Differentiated market segmentation strategy, Econo Lodge, 140
140141 Econometric models, 186
Diffusion and adoption, and early adopters, 97 Economic environment:
D Digitized information exchange, 345 components of, 22
Daily operations, marketing management tasks, Direct channels, 316 consumer price index (CPI), 22
32 Direct mail, 439443 and marketing strategy, 2223
Darden Restaurant Group, 608 flyers, 378 and pricing, 546
Data analysis: guidelines for use, 440442 Electronic commerce:
marketing information systems, 203217 mailing lists, 442443 applications of, 353
marketing research, 228229 pros and cons of, 421, 439440 characteristics of, 345, 348
secondary, 220 sales prospecting, 516 classification of selling-buying structures, 350
statistical analysis, 228229 Direct marketing: customer relationship management (CRM), 361
Data collection: defined, 28 development of, 350
external data, 211, 214216 and technology, 7172 forms of, 341
guidelines for, 216 Direct Marketing Association (DMA), 442 networked economy, features of, 344345
internal data, 211213 Directories, as data source, 215216 popularity and growth of, 341, 343
primary data, 209, 217 Director of marketing, 500 revenue model, 352
secondary data, 209211 Director of sales, 500 and size of firm, 351
validity and reliability, 211, 216 Director of sales and marketing, 500 trend summary, 346347
See also Marketing data; Marketing research Discretionary effort, 60 use, decision-making criteria, 349350
Data quality, and sales forecasting, 187 Discretionary income: value proposition, 352353
Days Hotel, 251 defined, 22 See also Internet
Days Inn, 251, 291 and family life cycle, 129131 Electronic data interchange (EDI), 350
Days Inn Suites, 251 and marketing strategy, 2223 Electronic funds transfer (EFT), 350
Deceptive advertising, 403404 Disjunctive approach, consumer problem- Employees:
Deciders, organizational buyers, 111 solving, 104105 cross-training, 301
Decision-making, of consumers, see Consumer Disposable income, 22 front line, empowering, 67
decision-making Dissolve, 438 internal information system for, 213
index 619
organization communication with, 61 External environments, and marketing process, Gaps in coverage:
performance evaluation, 64 12 product-service mix, 146147
rewarding and recognizing, 61, 64 External mailing lists, 443 See also Service-quality gaps
as source of ideas, 255, 258259 Gatekeepers, organizational buyers, 111
and supply and demand management, 301 F General competition, 25
turnover rate, 33 FAB selling, 500505, 511 General Electric (GE) matrix, 295296
unsolicited actions of, 65 Facilitating products, 277 Geographic variables, market segmentation,
Employee training: Fact sheets, 477 127128
basic requirements, 61 Fade in/fade out, 438 Global distribution systems (GDS), 317
in merchandising methods, 472474 Fairfield Inns, 71, 251 Globalization:
response to service failures, 67 Family life cycle: defined, 48
for sales promotions, 469 defined, 129 and growth of services, 48
Empty nest, 130 and market segmentation, 129132 Goals:
Encryption, Internet security, 343 traditional versus modernized, 130 defined, 171
Endless chain, 515516 Family size: of external study, 216
Enterprise Rent-a-Car, 142 average size by 2010, 129 purpose of, 171
Entertainment, as merchandising, 475 and market segmentation, 128129 See also Objectives
Entrepreneurial strategy, as product Fast-food industry: Government, as data source, 215
development, 255 bundling of products, 71, 284, 286 Government deregulation, and growth of
Environmental changes: positioning strategies, 147 services, 46
and growth of services, 4650 pricing competition, 281 Grand Hyatt, 494495
historical appraisal, 169 product life cycle, approach to, 282284 Graphics image format (GIF), 361
and marketing strategy, 2128 product-service mix development, 249250 Gray market, 131132
and pricing, 545547 See also specific establishments by name The Greenbrier, 58, 247248, 314
Environmental scanning: Federal budget deficit, and cost-shifting to Gross rating points, 434
of competitive environment, 207 states, 26 Growth stage:
defined, 21 Feedback: product life cycle, 279280, 379
of macroenvironment, 206207 of customers, see Consumer feedback tourist area life cycle, 289
and marketing information systems, 205208 performance evaluation, 178182 Guest history data, 212213
and marketing strategy, 21 Field research, 227 benefits of, 47
of organizational environment, 207208 Financial objectives, 172173 internal information system for, 213
Epcot Center, 301 Financial projections, versus marketing plan, Guest services, 416417
Erikson, Erik, 9394 165
ESPN Zone, 314 Financial risk, and consumer adoption, 98 H
Esteem needs, and consumer behavior, 93 Firewalls, 343 Hampton Inn, 71
Ethical issues: Flighting media scheduling, 423424 Handbills, promotional, 378
advertising, 403405 Flyers, promotional, 378 Hard Rock Cafe, 314
personal selling, 527529 Focus groups, 220221 Harris Polls, 215
pricing, 567569 Follow-up calls, 513 Heinsius, Howard, 420
research ethics, 231232 Foo, Carol, 494 Hertz, 2425, 142, 264
Examining, questions in, 25 Food budget, 22 Hewlett-Packard, 49
Exclusive distribution, 313314 Forecasting: Hilton Hotels and Resorts, 9, 46, 50, 176, 196,
ExecuStays, 294 market segment performance, 137138 262264, 348, 351, 357
Expedia, 346, 348, 352, 353 sales projections, 283284 History-based methods:
Experience: See also Sales forecasting guest histories, 47, 212213
and consumer behavior, 9495 Foreign languages, brand name translation to, historical booking analysis, 563
customer purchase decisions, 53 264 historic appraisal, 168169
Experience surveys, 220 Four Seasons Hotels, 2425, 103104, 292, 314 for product life cycle, 283
Experimentalists, 134 Foxwoods Resort Casino, 88, 564 time series analysis, 184185
Experiments: Franchise networks, growth of, 4748 Holiday Inn, 103105, 256, 279, 291
marketing research, 225, 227 Franchising, 328330 Holiday Inn Express, 71, 257, 281
settings for, 227 defined, 48 Holiday Inn Select, 281
test marketing, 227 in food service, 48 The Homestead, 314
variables in, 225 in lodgings industry, 48 Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association
Expert opinion, sales forecasting, 183 pros and cons of, 328330 International (HSMAI), 214, 497
Expert power, 322323 Frequency distribution, 229 Hospitality and tourism chains:
Explicit agreements, 566 Frequent flyer miles, 255256, 459460 growth of, 22, 4748
Exloratory research, methods of, 220221 Frequent guest programs, 462 types of, 48
Exponential smoothing, 185 Friendlys Restaurants, 264 Hospitality and tourism industry:
Express checkout, 47 Fringe time, 438 advertising strategy, 4647
Extended problem-solving, by consumers, 108 Full-service advertising agency, 401 budget segment, growth of, 7071
External data, 211213 and competitive environment, 2425
collection guidelines, 216 G and consumer sophistication, 7071
defined, 211 Gain-sharing programs, 299 customer loyalty, 6970
marketing information systems, 214216 Gallup Polls, 215 development strategy in, 175178
620 index
Hospitality and tourism industry (contd) Intermediaries, 317321 Lexicographic approach, consumer problem-
economic effects on, 2223 concierge, 321 solving, 105
intermediaries, use of, 312 hotel representatives, 320 Lexis-Nexis, 216
legislation, effects on, 2627 meeting planners, 319 Library, as data source, 215216
market segments, focus on, 7172 role of, 312, 317 Life stages, and consumer behavior, 9394
one-stop destinations, 71 tour wholesalers and operators, 318319 Lifestyle, and market segmentation, 132133
opinion leaders in, 90 travel agents, 318 Limardo, Luis, 310
political effects on, 2627 travel bureaus, 320321 Limited problem-solving, by consumers,
professional associations, 26 Internal data, 211216 106107
and senior market, 132 customer feedback, 213 Lloyd, Patti, 121122
social effects on, 2324 defined, 211 Local advertising, 387
technological effects on, 2728 guest histories, 212213 Loews Hotels, 58
Hotel operations: for marketing information systems, 211213 Logo, on brochure, 476
attributes of, 143 sales data, 212213 Longitudinal studies, 221
chains, 22, 4748 staff information, 213 Lottery, compared to sweepstakes, 464
comment cards, 226 Internal marketing, and service quality, 6061 Lovelock, Christopher, 46, 50
frequent guest programs, 462 Internet: Loyalty programs, features of, 70
multiple brands of, 281 airline travel check in, 47, 48 Lucas, Jenny, 5
perceptual map for, 144146 benefits of, 351, 361
product-service mix development, 250 consumers and service delivery, 47 M
wheel of retailing, 291292 customer information from, 356 Macroenvironment:
See also specific hotels by name cyberspace concept, 342 defined, 206
Hotel representatives, 320 as data source, 215 environmental scanning of, 206207
Hotels.com, 353 development of, 341342 Magazine advertising, pros and cons of, 421,
Hotlines, for customer complaints, 66, 67 and distribution, 312 425426
Hot Shoppe, 264 effects on industry, 28 Mailing lists, 378, 442443
Households: financial transactions on, 358360 types of, 442443
and consumer behavior, 91 promotions on, 463 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, 48,
and market segmentation, 128129 security issues, 342343 255, 322, 361
and sales forecasting, 169 technology concepts, 360361 Managers:
See also entries under Family travel Web sites, names of, 346, 348 innovative, and growth of services, 4950
Howard Johnson, 168, 291292 Web site design/layout, 357358 internal information system for, 213
Human resources: Web sites, uses of, 354356 and marketing process, see Marketing
major activities of, 33 See also Electronic commerce management
and marketing management, 3233 Introduction stage, product life cycle, 278279, tasks of, 1314, 31
Hutchinson, Shelley, 459 377378 Manufacturers, as service providers, 49
Hyatt Hotels and Resorts, 9, 25, 141, 175, 177, MapQuest, 346
263, 457458, 536 J Margin of error, 137
Jillians Entertainment, 577579 Market demand:
I Joint picture encoding group (JPEG), 361 defined, 137
IBM, 49 Jones, Reginald, 486488 determining, 137
Idea generation, product development, 258259 Judgment sample, 241 Market development strategy, 177
Image, and pricing, 542 Market execution, 30
Imitative strategy, product development, 254 K Marketing:
Implication questions, by sales rep, 523 Kang Long Hotel, 273275 defined, 910
Inception stage, tourist area life cycle, 288289 Kelleher, Herb, 390 direct, 28
Income: Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), 24, 49, 255 online, 353
discretionary, 22 Key account management, 524525 as product development, 255
disposable, 22 Kmart, 291 versus selling, 1417, 496
Income statement, importance of, 181 Knowledge gap, and service quality, 5556 Marketing audits, purpose of, 207
Independent variables, 225 Marketing concept, 1214
Indexes, as data source, 215216 L application vs nonapplication, 13
Indianapolis Princess Suites, 486488 Laboratory experiments, 227 basis of, 11
Indirect channels, 315316 Leadership, of distribution channels, 323 Marketing cycle menus, 603605
Industry analysis, sales forecasting, 169 Leasing businesses, and growth of services, 49 Marketing data:
Inferential analysis, 229 Le Cirque 2000, 313, 586 customer feedback, 213
Influencers, organizational buyers, 111 Lee, Thomas, 83 external, 214216
Information search, consumer decision-making, Legal environment, and marketing strategy, government sources, 215
99100 2627 guest histories, 212213
In-house mailing lists, 442443 Legal protection: guides/indexes/directories, 215216
Innovators, consumer adopters, 97 of brand name, 264 internal, 211213
Inquiry and sales method, 399 pricing practices, 565567 Internet, 215
Inserts and enclosures, for public relations, 478 Legitimate power, 323 Internet databases, 356
Intensive distribution, 315 LEGOLAND, 40, 126, 557 primary, 209, 217
InterContinental, 281 Letters, for public relations, 478 sales data, 212213
index 621
secondary, 209211 descriptive research, 221 Maslow, Abraham, 9293

staff information, 213 ethical issues, 230232 Mass customization, 28
syndicated services, 215 experience surveys, 220 Mass-market strategy, 138140
trade associations, 214 experiments, 225, 227 Materialism, and advertising, 404
trade journals/periodicals, 214215 exploratory research, 220221 Matts Bar and Grill, 613
travel bureaus, 214 focus groups, 220221 Maturity stage:
universities, 215 marketing audits, 207 product life cycle, 280281, 379380
Marketing environment, 2029 questionnaires, 239240 tourist area life cycle, 289
Marketing evaluation, elements of, 3031 research design, 220 Maximizer software, 498
Marketing information systems, 203217 sampling, 228, 241 McClelland, David, 94
basic requirements for, 208209 secondary data analysis, 220 McDonalds, 9, 2425, 48, 139140, 177, 251,
conceptual model, diagram of, 206 surveys, 223227 262, 264, 282284, 315, 323, 375, 379380,
data use for advertising plan, 395396 test marketing, 227228 389390, 567
defined, 204 Marketing research process, 218230 McNeal, James, 86
effective, criteria for, 204206 data analysis, 228229 McPherson, Amy, 339
and environmental scanning, 205208 defined, 218 Mean, 220
information needs, 203 planning research, 220228 Measurability test, for market segmentation, 125
Marketing management: problem definition, 219 Median, 220
and daily operations, 32 report, final, 229230 Media selection, 392, 418448
financial goals, 32 Marketing strategy: brochures, 446447
and human resources, 3233 branding, 262264 decision making about, 418419
research and development in, 33 changes in, basis of, 21 direct mail, 439443
Marketing management cycle: and competitive environment, 2425 market analysis for, 419
market execution, 30 and economic environment, 2223 media mix, 420423
marketing evaluation, 3031 and environmental scanning, 21 and media objectives, 419420
in marketing process, 12 importance of, 276 media planning process, 419420
market planning, 2930 and legal environment, 2627 outdoor advertising, 444446
Marketing mix: and marketing mix, 20 print media, 424429
communication mix, 1920 and political environment, 2627 for promotion, 378
defined, 11 and social environment, 2324 radio advertising, 430434
distribution mix, 20 and technological environment, 2728 scheduling of media, 423424
and marketing strategy formulation, 20 Market introduction, new product, 261262 specialty advertising, 447448
presentation mix, 19 Market penetration strategy, 175 and target market, 423
pricing mix, 20 Market segmentation: television advertising, 435438
product-service mix, 19 behavioral variables, 133135 Meeting market segments, 505512
traditional mix, 11, 1719 concentrated strategy, 141 association market segment, 506508
Marketing planning process, 166182 criteria for, 125126 corporate market segment, 508510
action plans, implementing, 178 and customer benefits, 135 selection criteria by, 510511
consumer needs, focus on, 181182 demographic variables, 128132 sports market segment, 511
goals and objectives, defining, 171174 differentiated strategy, 140141 tour group market, 511512
historic appraisal, 168169 effectiveness of, 123124, 135 Meeting planners, 319
mission statement, 166167 and family life cycle, 129132 Meetings and conventions
performance evaluation, 178182 forecasting segment performance, 13738 factors of importance for, 510511
position statement, 167 geographic variables, 127128 See also Meeting market segments; Personal
product development strategy, 175177 industry focus on, 7172 selling
situation analysis, 167171 mass-market strategy, 13840 The Melting Pot, 16, 314
SWOT analysis, 170171 matching marketing to segment, 126 Melton, David, 371
timing factors, 174175 and media selection, 419 Menus, 582588
Marketing plans: product-service mix, 141148 banquet menus, 596597
failures, reasons for, 164166 profiling market segments, 136137 cycle menus, 602605
formulating, see Marketing planning process psychographic variables, 132133 evaluation of, 605609
objectives of, 2930 ROI as goal, 138 flavor balancing, 584
pros and cons of, 162164 segmentation bases, identifying, 136 inaccuracy, avoiding, 599602
strategic plans, 161 selecting best segments, 138 managerial review of, 602
tactile plans, 161162 Market share: and marketing, 580582
Marketing process, 1012 calculation of, 179 menu census data, 584585
and external environments, 12 customer satisfaction measure, 6869 menu engineering, 606607
management cycle in, 12 relative, 293294 menu items selection, 584585
Marketing program: Marriott Courtyard Hotels, 142, 251, 280, 295 menu policy flow chart, 584585
causal research, 221228 Marriott International, 9, 2425, 33, 48, 50, 67, menu sales mix analysis, 606609
purpose of, 11 177, 205, 227, 249, 251, 262, 264, 291, 315, nutritional factors, 583584
Marketing research, 220221 339, 348, 351, 356, 462 pre-planning data, 583
case analysis, 220 Marriott Residence Inns, 93, 142, 251, 294295 price increases, 585, 587588
and competitive environment, 207 Marriott Vacation Club, 251 problems related to, 598599
defined, 204 Martin, William, 63 wine lists, 592, 596
622 index
Menus design and production, 582, 588592 Nonpeak periods: Organizational environment, environmental
copy for, 589591 boosting demand, 300 scanning of, 207208
cover, 588589 sales promotions for, 462 Organizational objectives, and advertising plan,
and eye movement, 590 Nonprobability sample, 241 396
fanning pages, 597 Nonprofit operations: Outback Steakhouse, 24, 250, 306307
paper stock, 592 new income sources, 49 Outdoor advertising, 444446
special copy for extras, 591 return on investment (ROI), 14 guidelines for use, 445
type size and style, 591592 types of, 10 pros and cons of, 421, 444445
Merchandising, 470476 Normative reference groups, 90 types of, 445446
brochures, 475476 Northwest Airlines, 67 Outdoor advertising plant, 445
entertainment, 475 Nutritional factors:
menu terms, 600 current dietary concerns, 2324, 8586, 251, P
staff training for, 472474 581582 Package concept, tours, 318319
suggestive-selling, 471473 menu planning, 581582, 599, 601 Palace Hotel, 314
Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), 128 Panels, descriptive research, 221
Microsoft Excel, 184, 284 O Panera Bread, 24
Microsoft Office, 213, 582 Oakwood Worldwide, 294 Paper stock, menus, 592
Microsoft Outlook, 498 Obesity, American population, 23 Paramount, 250
Milline formula, 429 Objections, to sales presentation, 519521 Passive investments, 26
Mission statement, components of, 166167 Objectives: Pasta Shack, 573
Mobile Bay CVB, 55, 79, 548 competitive objectives, 174 Penetration pricing, 549
Mode, 220 components of, 171 PepsiCo, 10, 49, 255
Monopolistic competition, 24 customer objectives, 173174 Perceived value, 47
Monopoly, 24 defined, 171 Percentage of sales method, 382383
Mooncakes Restaurant, 8384 effective, features of, 172173 Perceptions:
Motives: of external study, 216 changing, methods of, 147
and consume behavior, 91 financial objectives, 172173 and consumer behavior, 96
hierarchy of needs, 9293 functions of, 171172 of current services, measuring, 144146
social motives, 94 for media advertising, 419420 defined, 96
Moving average: multiple, pros and cons, 174 perceptual maps, 144146
autoregressive moving averages (ARMA), pricing, 542 Perceptual maps, 144146
185 sales objectives, 173174 attribute data in, 146
functions of, 185 Odd/even pricing, 555, 587 defined, 144
Multiple-category questions, 239 Older population: preference data in, 145
Multivariate statistics, 229 dining trends, 152, 169 similarity-dissimilarity data in, 145
discounts to, 131 Perfect competition, 24
N as gray market, 131132 Performance evaluation, 178182
National advertising, 387 growth of population, 131 consumer feedback, 181
National Car Rental, 24, 264, 310311 market segmentation for, 132 cost control data, 180
National Restaurant Association (NRA), 23, 26, as viable market segment, 23 employees, 64
214, 601 Oligopoly, 24 profit control data, 180181
Natural foods, 23 Omni Hotels, 4344, 314 sales control data, 179
Need-payoff questions, by sales rep, 523524 ONeill, Sean, 199 Performance risk, and consumer adoption, 98
Needs: Open-ended questions, 239 Periodicals, as data source, 214215
and consumer behavior, 9194 Open houses and tours, for public relations, Peripheral services, to core product, 277
Maslows hierarchy of, 9293 479 Perishables, 562
Negotiation: Operations, service setting, variability in, 52 Personality:
in organizational buying, 109 Opinion leaders: and consumer behavior, 95
in personal selling, 525526 and consumer behavior, 90 and market segmentation, 132133
Networked economy, features of, 344345 defined, 90 Personal selling:
Networking, by sales reps, 515516 and promotion, 378 active listening in, 518519
Networks, TV, 438 roles of, 90 closing sale, 521522
Neutral pricing, 549550 Orbitz, 346 defined, 373, 512
Newmarket International, 199202 Order getters, 496 effective salesperson, profile of, 497500
New products: Order takers, 496 ethical issues, 527529
sales promotions for, 461 Organizational buying, 108112 FAB selling, question in, 500505, 511
See also Product development after sale concerns, 109 and hospitality industry, 513
Newsletters, for public relations, 479 buying unit members, 109111 key account management, 524525
Newspaper advertising: defined, 108 leads, sources for, 515516
pros and cons of, 421, 424425 and derived demand, 108109 meeting market segments, 505512
See also Print media influencing factors, 111112 negotiating in, 525526
News release, 478 large-volume purchases, 108 objections, overcoming, 519521
Noncompensatory strategies, consumer multiple buyers, 109 probing questions, SPIN approach, 522523
problem-solving, 103105 negotiation in, 109 prospecting, 514516
Nonexplicit agreements, 566 repeat buyers, 109 sales calls, types of, 513514
index 623
sales and catering software, 527 Pricing mix, components of, 20 and promotion over, 376380
sales presentations, 517519 Pricing practices, 566567 pros and cons of, 286288
sales roles, 496497 explicit agreements, 566 and resource allocation models, 296297
software tools, 498, 527 nonexplicit agreements, 566 Product lines:
suggestive selling, 471473, 526 and price discrimination laws, 566567 defined, 250
up-selling, 526 tie-in sales, 567 importance of, 250252
Phoenix Open (2003), 443 Primary data: Product management:
Physical risk, and consumer adoption, 98 benefits to use, 217 product life cycle, 278288
Pizza Hut, 24, 249, 255, 263 defined, 209 resource allocation models, 292297
Place, in marketing mix, 11, 18 limitations of, 217 service business, 297301
Planet Hollywood, 281282 for marketing information systems, 217 tourist area life cycle, 288290
Point-of-sale (POS) Primary metropolitan statistical areas (PMSAs), wheel of retailing, 290291
displays, 463 128 Products:
spreadsheet information from, 606 Prime time, 438 components of, 18
Political environment: Print media, 424429 cost, effects of advertising on, 406407
and growth of services, 46 copywriting for, 427428 defined, 910
and marketing strategy, 2627 guidelines for use, 426427 in marketing mix, 11, 18
and pricing, 546 terms related to, 428430 product category competition, 24
Population, for sample, 228 Privatization: product form competition, 24
Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind (Ries and defined, 47 compared to services, 5053
Trout), 147148 and growth of services, 47 Product screening, 259260
Positioning: Probability sample, 241 Product-service mix, 141148
defined, 141 Probing questions, by sales rep, 522524 components of, 15, 19
desired position strategy, 147148 Problem definition, marketing research process, current offerings, evaluating, 144145
pre-positioning questions, 148 219 desired position strategy, 147148
process, 142 Problem questions, by sales rep, 523 and differentiated market segmentation
of product-service mix, 141148 Problem recognition, consumer decision- strategy, 140141
and product-service mix, 146 making, 9899 gaps in coverage, 146147
success, criteria for, 146147 Procedural dimension, defining quality service, ideal mix, determining, 142143
unique selling proposition (USP), 147 6364 management of, 276
Position statement, components of, 167 Producer-consumer exchange, 10 Professional associations, see Trade associations
Postpurchase evaluation, by consumers, Product allocation models, 292297 Profit control data, performance evaluation,
102103 Product development: 180181
Power relations, distribution channels, 322323 business analysis, 261 Profits:
Preemptible rates, 434 concept testing, 260261 decreased costs, impact of, 181
Preference data, in perceptual maps, 145 defensive strategy, 252254 managerial role, 1314
Premiums: idea generation stage, 258259 uses of, 10
pros and cons of, 466467 imitative strategy, 254 Projected demand, 137138
self-liquidating, 464 market introduction, 261262 defined, 138
Presentation mix, components of, 19 new product committee, 256 determining, 138
Press kit, 477478 new product department, 256257 Promotional budget, 380386
Press releases, 378 proactive strategies, 254256 all-you-can-afford method, 384
Prestige pricing, 555 product managers, 257 budgeting process, 384386, 469
Pretest, questionnaires, 228 product screening, 259260 competitive parity method, 384
Price, in marketing mix, 11, 17 responsive strategy, 254 desired objective method, 383
Price discrimination laws, 566567 test marketing, 261 functions of, 381
Price elasticity of demand: venture teams, 257 percentage of sales method, 382383
defined, 24 Product development strategy, 175177 pros and cons of, 381382
and demand-oriented pricing, 554555 basis of, 175 Promotions:
Price increases, restaurants, 587588 diversification strategy, 177178 to change consumer perception, 147
Price lining, 555 market development strategy, 177 components of, 1819
Price modification, supply and demand market penetration strategy, 175 expenses for, see Promotional budget
management, 300 Product differentiation, and positioning, functions of, 374376
Price reduction, as promotional technique, 464 141142 information flow model, 375
Pricing, 541559 Productivity improvement, and growth of in marketing mix, 11, 1819
competitive pricing, 542, 547, 555556 services, 48 and product life cycle, 376380
consumer price sensitivity, 542545 Product levels, 276277 promotion bans, removal of, 4647
cost-oriented pricing, 550553 Product life cycle, 278288 promotion mix, 373374
demand-oriented pricing, 553555 analysis of, 283284 and purchasing patterns, 169
ethical issues, 567569 and consumer adoption, 97 to repeat customers, 6970
neutral pricing, 549550 decline stage, 281282, 380 types of activities, 377380
objectives, 542 extending, 284286 expenses for, see Promotional budget
penetration pricing, 549 growth stage, 279280, 379 See also Sales promotions
segmented pricing, 556559 introduction stage, 278279, 377378 Promus Hotel Corporation, 33
skim pricing, 548549 maturity stage, 280281, 379380 Property analysis checklist, 502
624 index
Prospecting, in personal selling, 514516 and type of station, 432 Return on investment (ROI)
Psychographics: See also Print media calculation of, 138
defined, 132 Random cycle menu, 603 defined, 138
focus of, 132 Random sampling, 241 managerial role, 14
Psychographic variables: Range, statistical, 220 nonprofit operations, 14
AIO (attitudes, interests, and opinions) Recommended dietary allowance (RDA), 584 Revenue management, 559565
statements, 132 Recovery strategies, from service failures, 6667 defined, 559
market segmentation, 132133 Red Lobster Restaurants, 18, 264, 581 historical booking analysis, 563
Social Value Groups, 133134 Red Roof Inns, 291 pricing structure, establishing, 560561
Psychological needs, and consumer behavior, 92 Reference groups: selective discounting, 562
Psychological pricing, 555 and consumer behavior, 8990 and service industries, 559560
Public appearances, for public relations, 479 defined, 89 yield management, 561562
Public relations, 476482 types of, 8990 Revenue model, electronic commerce, 352
defined, 373, 476477 Regression analysis, 186 Revenue per available room (REVPAR),
evaluating results, 480, 482 Relationship marketing: 299300, 560
guidelines for, 479480 criteria for, 60 Reward power, 322
methods used, 478479 defined, 59 Ries, Al, 147148
press kit, 477478 and service quality, 5960 Risk, and consumer adoption, 98
timetable, 481 Relative market share, 293 Ritz-Carlton, 24, 48, 67, 112, 159160, 255, 292,
Pull promotional techniques, 463464 BCG matrix, 293294 322, 354, 361
Pulsing advertising, 424 Reliability, data collection, 211, 216 Robinson-Patman Act (1936), 565, 567
Purchase decisions: Renaissance Hotels and Resorts, 141, 177, 251 Roles, and consumer behavior, 8687
and consumer decision-making, 102 Rental businesses, and growth of services, 49 Routine response behavior, consumer problem-
credence qualities in, 54 Rental car companies: solving, 106
experience qualities in, 53 attributes of, 143
search qualities in, 53 See also specific companies by name S
Purchasing power: Repeat customers, customer satisfaction S&H Green Stamps, 459
defined, 22 measure, 68 Safety needs, and consumer behavior, 9293
and marketing goals, 22 Reporting, marketing research results, 229230 Sales blitz, 497, 513
and older population, 23 Research design, marketing research, 220 Sales calls, types of, 513
and price level offerings, 22 Research and development: Sales control data, performance evaluation, 179
Push promotional techniques, 463 and marketing management, 33 Sales data, internal information system for,
tasks of, 33 212213
Q Research ethics: Sales forecasting, 182188
Qualitative methods: and client, 231232 buying intentions survey, 184
sales forecasting, 182184 and marketing research, 230232 causal analysis, 182183, 185186
situations for use, 187 and respondents, 231 choosing method, 186188
Quality Inns and Suites, 140, 251 and suppliers, 231 consumer analysis, 169
Quality Service: The Restaurant Managers Bible Research studies, see Marketing research Delphi technique, 183
(Martin), 63 Reservations, supply and demand management econometric models, 186
Quality standards, defining, 6364 with, 300301 expert opinion, 183
Quantitative methods: Reservation systems, and growth of services, industry analysis, 169
sales forecasting, 184186 47 regression analysis, 186
situations for use, 187 Resource allocation models, 292297 sales force forecast, 184
Question marks: BCG matrix, 293294 time series analysis, 183, 184185
menu items, 607608 defined, 276 timing factors, 186187
strategic business units (SBUs), 294, 296 GE matrix, 295296 Sales managers, role of, 499500, 503505
Questionnaires, 227228 and product life cycle, 296297 Sales objectives, 173174
closed-ended questions, 239 strategic business units (SBUs), 293296 Sales presentations, delivery of, 517519
construction guidelines, 240 Responsive strategy, product development, 254 Sales projections, and product life cycle,
multiple-category questions, 239 Restaurant chains: 283284
open-ended questions, 239 expansion of, 24 Sales promotions, 459470
organizing, 227228 types of, 48 contests and sweepstakes, 467468
pretest, 228 Restaurant operations: coupons, 465
scaled-response questions, 240 attributes of, 143 defined, 373
See also Customer surveys comment cards, 143, 225 evaluating impact, 469470
Quota sample, 241 concept operations, evolution of, 1517 historical view, 459460
healthful eating trend, 2324, 8586, 251 objectives of, 460462
R prices, raising, 585588 premiums, 466
Radio advertising, 430434 self-service trends, 301 pull promotional techniques, 463464
guidelines for use, 431432 and senior market, 152, 169 push promotional techniques, 463
production of commercials, 433434 suggestive selling, 471473, 526 sampling, 465466
pros and cons of, 421, 430431 See also Pricing; specific restaurants by name steps in process, 468469
spots, selecting, 432433 Retailing, wheel of, 290294 Sales records, customer satisfaction measure,
terms related to, 434 Retaliation, by dissatisfied customer, 66 6869
index 625
Sales staff: Service employees: Smith, Will, 237238

roles in, 500 boundary-spanning roles of, 45 Smoking bans, effects on industry, 26
See also Personal selling jobs of, 45 Social environment:
Sales tests, 399 training areas for, 474 components of, 23
Same-sex couples, 130 Service failures, 6567 and marketing strategy, 2324
Sample, 228 in consumer postpurchase stage, 102103 and pricing, 546
Sampling: and customer complaints, 66 Social forces, and consumer behavior, 86
census, 228 customer needs failures, 65 Social needs, and consumer behavior, 93
convenience sample, 241 defined, 65 Social registers profile, 134
judgment sample, 241 employee response, 67 Social risk, and consumer adoption, 98
nonprobability sample, 241 recovery strategies, 6667 Social setting, and consumer behavior, 86
population in, 228 system failures, 65 Social Value Groups, 133134
probability sample, 241 unsolicited employee actions, 65 Socioeconomic status:
quota sample, 241 Service quality, 5461 and consumer behavior, 89
random sampling, 241 benchmarking, 6162 market segmentation by, 127
sample unit, 228 customer satisfaction, 6164 Sodexho, 176
sampling error, 228, 241 defined, 54 Software tools:
steps in, 228 gaps in, see Service quality gaps for catering, 527
stratified sample, 228 improving, five-step process, 6364 contact management, 498
systematic sample, 241 and internal marketing, 6061 menu design and production, 582
Sampling of product, 465466 and perception of customers, 59 sales and catering, 527
pros and cons of, 466 process of, 5558 sales forecasting, 284
Scaled-response questions, 240 and relationship marketing, 5960 spreadsheets, 184186
Search qualities: time in, 5253 Southwest Airlines, 473
customer purchase decisions, 53 Service quality gaps: Special programs, for market segmentation, 126
defined, 53 communications gap, 5758 Specialty advertising, pros and cons of, 447448
Sears, 291 defined, 55 Sperry, Thomas, 459
Secondary data: delivery gap, 57 SPIN approach, personal selling, 522523
analysis of, 220 knowledge gap, 5556 Spoken comments, customer satisfaction
benefits to use, 209210 service gap, 55 measure, 68
defined, 209 standards gaps, 5657 Sports meeting market, 511
external data, 214216 Service quality movement, aspects of, 4849 Spreadsheets:
internal data, 211213 Services: menu sales mix analysis, 606
limitations of, 210211 competitive strategies, 54 quantitative forecasting, 184186
for marketing information systems, customer evaluation criteria, 5354 sales forecasts, 284
209211 defined, 910, 45 Spring Hill Suites, 251
Secret shoppers, 69 distribution channels for, 53 Standard deviation, 229
Security issues, internet, 342343 evaluation difficulties, 52 Standards gaps, and service quality, 5657
Segmented pricing, 556559 growth, factors related to, 4650 Star Alliance, 256
by buyer identification, 556 operations versus marketing, 297298 Stars:
by product bundling, 558559 -product mix, see Product-service mix menu items, 608
by product design, 558 compared to products, 5053 strategic business units (SBUs), 294297
by purchase location, 557 and revenue management, 559560 Starwood Hotels and Resorts, 9, 33
by purchase volume, 558 service blueprint, 57 Statistical Abstract of the United States, 215
by time of purchase, 557558 supply and demand management, 299301 Statistical analysis, 228229
Selective discounting, 562 uncontrollable aspects of, 52 analysis of variance (ANOVA), 229
Selective distribution, 314 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, The (Covey), correlations/cross-tablulations, 229
Self-actualization needs, and consumer 56 frequency distribution, 229
behavior, 93 Sheraton, 24, 291 inferential analysis, 229
Self-explorers, 134 Sherman Act (1890), 565 mean/median/mode, 229
Self-image, and consumer behavior, 95 Shopping reports, customer satisfaction multivariate statistics, 229
Self-liquidating premiums, 464 measure, 69 range, 229
Self-service: Showing, outdoor ads, 445 standard deviation, 229
customer in service delivery process, 47, Similarity-dissimilarity data, in perceptual t and z-statistics, 229
5051 maps, 145 Status reference groups, 90
effects on industry, 28 Singles, discretionary income, 129 Stoner, Rodney C., 247
and supply and demand management, 301 Situation analysis, 167171 Stouffer Renaissance Hotels, 89
Selling: historic appraisal, 168169 Strategic business units (SBUs), 293296
defined, 15, 496 SWOT analysis, 170171 cash cows, 295, 297
versus marketing, 1417, 496 Situation questions, by sales rep, 522 defined, 161, 293
suggestive selling, 471473 Six Flags, 250 dogs, 295, 297
See also Personal selling Skim pricing, 548549 evaluation of, 293294
Seniors, see Older population SkyMiles, 255256 question marks, 294, 296
Service blueprint, function of, 57, 67 Sleep Inns, 140, 251 stars, 294297
Service channels, elements of, 312 Smirnoff vodka, 181 Strategic marketing plans, developing, 161
626 index
Strategic planning: Test marketing, 227 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), 128
defined, 161 product development, 261 migration patterns, 128
questions answered by, 161 Theme parks, product-service mix, 250 size of (2000), 127
Strategic window, 174175 Thomas, Dave, 390 Universities, as data source, 215
Strategy formulation, and advertising plan, Tie-in sales, 567 Uno Chicago Grills, 539540
396397 Time series analysis, 184185 Unsolicited employee actions, as service failure,
Stratified sample, 228 autoregressive moving averages (ARMA), 185 65
Subcultures, and consumer behavior, 89 exponential smoothing, 185 Up-selling, 526
Substantiality, for market segmentation, 125 moving average, 185 Urban areas:
Subway, 142 trend extrapolation, 185 consolidated metropolitan statistical areas
Suggestive selling, 471473, 526 Timing factors: (MSAs), 128
Supply and demand management, 299301 advertising, 391 convention and visitors bureau (CVB),
asset revenue generating efficiency (ARGE), consumer purchases, 169 320321
299300 data quality, 209, 211, 217 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), 128
nonpeak periods, boosting demand, 300 marketing planning process, 174175 primary metropolitan statistical areas
price modification, 300 public relations activities, 481 (PMSAs), 128
with reservations, 300301 sales forecasting, 186187 USAir, 264
revenue per available room (REVPAR), strategic window, 174175 US Airways, 24, 131
299300 Total quality management, 354 Users, organizational buyers, 110111
and self-service, 301 Tour group market, 511512
Supporting products, 277278 Tourist area life cycle, 288290 V
Surveys, see Customer surveys decline stage, 290 Validity, data collection, 216
Survivor profile, 134 growth stage, 289 Value proposition, electronic commerce,
Sweepstakes: inception stage, 288289 352353
compared to lottery, 464 maturity stage, 289 Variables, in experiments, 225
pros and cons of, 467468 Tour wholesalers and operators, 318319 Vertical marketing systems, 323324
SWOT analysis, 170171 TownPlace Suites, 251 Virtual marketing, 353
Syndicated services, as data source, 215 Trade associations: Volume rate, 429
Synergy Consulting, 133 ban of promotion, easing of, 4647
Systematic sample, 241 as data source, 214 W
System failures, meaning of, 65 hospitality industry, 26, 497 Wages, hospitality industry, 33
Trade journals: Waiting time, effects of, 5253
T as data source, 214 Waldorf-Astoria, 597
Taco Bell, 24, 48, 49, 146, 147, 255, 284, 379 popular journals, 214 Walker, Bill, 452453
Tactile marketing plans Trademark, 263 Wal-Mart, 283, 291
elements of, 161162 Trade-outs, 403 Walt Disney World, 9495, 250, 286, 289, 323
questions answered by, 162 Transit advertising, 446 Web sites, see Internet
Target Group Index, 215 Transmission control protocol and Internet Weddings, 511512
Target market: protocol (TCP/IP), 360 Wendys, 24, 48, 279, 375, 379
defined, 1011 Travel agents, 318 Westwind Resort, 193195
defining, importance of, 95 Travel bureaus, 320321 Wheeler, Dan, 539
and media selection, 423 as data source, 214 Wheel of retailing, 290292
Target-return pricing, 553 TravelCLICK, 346 Wine lists, 592593, 596
Taxation rules, and marketing strategy, 2223 Travelocity, 346 Wingate Tulfarris Hotel and Golf Resort, 21
Tax credits, reduction in, 26 Travelodge, 140 Wing Shack, 334
Technology: Travel and Tourism Research Association Wolfschmidt vodka, 181
customer involvement in service delivery, (TTRA), 214 Word of mouth:
5051 Trends: benefits of, 14, 471
and direct marketing, 7172 and product life cycle, 283 customer complaints, 66
and growth of services, 47 sales forecasting, 182188 World Tourism Organization (WTO), 214, 321
innovations, types of, 47 trend extrapolation, 185 World Wide Web, see Internet
marketing information systems, 203217 Tripp, Joanne, 43 Wright, Lauren, 46, 50
and marketing strategy, 2728 Trout, Jack, 147148 W.R. Simmons, 215
and pricing, 546547 Trump Hotels and Resorts, 50 Wyndham Hotels, 264, 279
See also Electronic commerce; Internet; T-statistic, 229
Software tools Turnover rate, hospitality industry, 33 Y
Telephone surveys, 223224 Type style, menus, 591592 Yield management, 561562
Television advertising, 435438 reasons for use, 562
commercials, types of, 437 U yield management equation, 563565
guidelines for use, 436437 Unique selling proposition (USP), 147 Yum! Brands, Inc., 49, 255
pros and cons of, 421, 435436 United Airlines, 24, 139, 264, 460
terms related to, 437438 United States population: Z
Tempura Garden, 116117 geographic distribution of, 127128 Zhang, Jian, 273
Tendering systems, online, 353 gray market, 131132 Z-statistic, 229

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ffirs.

qxd 2/2/05 2:03 PM Page iii

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

SPINSelling and SPIN are registered trademarks of Huthwaite, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Printed in the United States of America

Consumer Decision-Making Model 98

Questions for Review and Discussion 363

Chapter 14 Personal Selling 493

New to the Fourth Edition

Section on service blueprinting. Service blueprinting is a method used

How-to approach to developing a marketing plan. More emphasis was

More coverage on branding and strategic alliances. The strategy behind

Detailed explanation of budgeting for advertising. This edition includes

Real-world examples of actual media plans. In an attempt to provide

Sections on SPINSelling and sales software. Readers are introduced

Enhanced Pedagogical Tools

Courtesy of The Breakers, Palm Beach, Florida.

Courtesy of Cendant Corp.

1. What are the major components or duties

6 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

2. What are the components of your position that

3. What are the most challenging aspects

5. What role does marketing play within your

8 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

6. If you could offer one piece of advice to an

10 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

The Marketing Process

Economic Price Product

figure 1.1 The marketing mix.

12 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

nent is covered in Chapters 9 and 10, the promotion component is covered in

The Emergence of the Marketing Concept

when the marketing concept when the marketing concept

table 1.1 Marketing concept philosophies.

proaches is whether consumers are given priority, or whether the operation

14 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

actual dollars or as a percentage of sales. Third, a manager is expected to gen-

Marketing Versus Selling

16 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

To remain competitive, hospitality organizations must keep up with the ever-changing

the marketing mix 17

With these three factors in mind, the high-energy restaurant concept

THE MARKETING MIX

The Traditional Marketing Mix

18 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

PRODUCT. This component refers to the unique combination of goods and

the marketing mix 19

amount to be spent on each component of the promotion mix, the strategies

The Hospitality Marketing Mix

20 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

the marketing environment 21

tition, increased emphasis on technology, newer forms of distribution and sales

22 chapter 1 the functions of marketing

the Economic Environment

The percentage of independently owned hospitality operations has de-

the marketing environment 23

the Social Environment