CONCLUSION

2002 by CRC Press LLC

 Chapter 30
CHEMICAL PROPULSION: WHAT IS IN THE HORIZON?
G. D. Roy

30.1 INTRODUCTION

Propulsion research has progressed steadily and well along focussed avenues
during the past several decades. The outstanding contributions by talented
researchers in the combustion discipline have led to the unprecedented fuel econ-
omy, reliability, and safety of the propulsion engines of today. Whereas funda-
mental problems in combustion related to propulsion are being solved at labora-
tories (in universities and industry), innovative systems are made commercially
available. Laboratory experiments and numerical simulations lead to design
optimizations that would otherwise involve heavy capital investment and long
development times. Advances in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and in
computational hardware led to a new frontier in numerical simulation and pre-
diction of combustion phenomena through Computational Combustion Dynam-
ics (CCD). The advent of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology,
diode lasers, miniature sensors, controls, and diagnostics makes it possible to
control combustion starting at the fuel tank all the way to the exhaust pipe. To-
days combustion researcher, developer, and designer have extremely powerful
tools at hand.
To develop a totally new engine concept and to nd commercial or military
applications is a major challenge. When piston engines were the norm, the intro-
duction of gas turbine engines was criticized as an exercise in futility. Research
and perseverance have shown otherwise, and gas turbine engines are the engines
of choice for most propulsion applications today. The time is right to focus on
developing a new engine, to provide an alternate choice, perhaps a better choice,
for certain applications.

2002 by CRC Press LLC

30.2 LIMITATIONS OF PRESENT SYSTEMS

What are the choices for chemical propulsion in this century an engine operat-
ing on a totally dierent fuel, one operating on a dierent thermodynamic cycle,
or a combination of both? Of course, the choice depends upon the application.
It is worthwhile to develop a new concept of engines, ensure there are no show
stoppers, identify the issues, select appropriate approaches to solve the issues,
and establish the fundamental understanding needed to develop the concept into
a practical engine.
Before venturing into an alternate engine concept, it is prudent to briey
examine the limits and operational characteristics of existing or already tried
engines. Most of the U.S. tactical missiles employ solid rocket motors due to
their simplicity, small volume, and high-speed capability, but have a limited
range, especially powered range. For missiles requiring longer range and carrying
heavier payloads, turbojets/turbofans are employed because of their increased
specic impulse. However, they become prohibitively expensive for higher Mach
number operation, and are used for subsonic ight. Ramjets and ducted rockets
have been developed for providing long powered range at higher Mach number
(M = 24). However, they typically require solid propellant boosters to accel-
erate them to ramjet takeover speeds (M = 1.82.5), which increases cost and
complexity. They, also, do not have the capability to loiter at subsonic speeds.
Combined cycle engines such as air turbo rockets, turbo ramjets, etc. oer
the potential for missions that require wide range in operating speed, but they
are too complex and expensive [1].

30.3 HIGH-ENERGY-DENSITY FUELS

Increased range, speed, stealth, reliability, reduced size, and the capability to op-
erate over a wide range of operational conditions without penalty in performance
are desired of modern propulsion systems. Further, these should be achieved with
less fuel consumption using an engine that costs less. An attractive way to in-
crease the range of a given propulsion system is to increase the energy per unit
volume of its fuel. For liquid hydrocarbon-fueled ramjets and cruise missiles,
a new class of high-density strained-hydrocarbon fuels have been synthesized
and its combustion characteristics were evaluated [2]. Research eorts in the de-
velopment and characterization of these fuels are given in Section 1 of this book.
The utilization of these fuels has not been demonstrated in actual engines, though
the major issues in combusting these fuels are solved, and synthesis techniques
for larger scale productions are in place [3].
The advantages of these fuels are often underestimated, considering the prob-
able higher cost of the fuel compared with conventional fuels like JP-10 or diesel

2002 by CRC Press LLC

oil. However, the system advantages are to be evaluated very carefully. For
example, a 20% range increase in a cruise missile means staying away from the
hostile war zone or target, by this extra distance. If the platform is manned
(aircraft or ship), this results in reductions in risk to life, as well. A systems
study incorporating this factor will show that the range advantages obtained by
using these fuels will outweigh the cost of making them. With appropriate high-
energy strained-hydrocarbon fuels, range increases over 40% can potentially be
achieved in volume-limited systems. These fuels will have an impact in commer-
cial transport as well by providing longer nonstop ights. However, cost will
be of primary importance since fuel cost/passenger mile is a deciding factor.
Research and development (R&D) in this decade should focus on manufac-
turing/rening these fuels through more economical synthetic routes and from
cheaper starting materials. If sucient quantities are made available, demon-
stration of the utilization of these fuels in real systems will be possible. Compu-
tational tools are in place to perform numerical experimentation [4]. The next
step should be making large quantities of these fuels, and evaluating these fuels
so as to transfer this science to technology applications.

30.4 CONTROL OF COMBUSTION PROCESSES

Though control of combustion dates back to almost a century, when centrifugal

governors were introduced to control the speed of steam engines, as the engines
become more complex, complex control systems are needed to maintain desired
and optimal performance. As a result of the extensive research performed on
atomization, vaporization, and mixing of fuel and oxidizer it has been possible
to design engines with substantial improvement in specic fuel consumption,
and consequently reduction in operational costs. However, mixing enhancement
is largely conned to passive or active inuence around the fuel injection area.
Future engines should be controlled before combustion, during combustion, and
after combustion, to ensure maximum utilization of energy, optimum and stable
performance, and environmental compliance.
A focussed multidisciplinary, multiuniversity research program is sponsored
by ONR to investigate such a scenario of obtaining all the above through the con-
trolofcombustionprocessesoccurringinapropulsionengine[58].Figure30.1
shows the roadmap of this eort. The control of mixing all through the combus-
tion process will play the most important role. This becomes more demanding
and dicult as the ow velocities increase and the combustor length (and vol-
ume) decreases. Further advances in this area are needed and accelerated R&D
is in order. Joint industryuniversity and industrygovernment R&D eorts are
also underway to implement the control strategies developed by university re-
searchers in industry applications. These joint endeavors substantially reduce

2002 by CRC Press LLC

 Figure 30.1 Control of combustion processes roadmap

the time it takes and the cost to realize technology applications. It is hoped that
future engines will perform equally well in o-design conditions, with improved
reliability and easier maintenance.

30.5 PULSE DETONATION ENGINES

An engine concept that utilizes a more ecient thermodynamic cycle that con-
sumes less fuel, and is simple and capable of operation at both subsonic as well
as supersonic speeds, would be an attractive alternative for future propulsion
systems. Pulse detonation engines (PDE), in principle, can provide higher ef-
ciency [9], and better performance over a wide range of operating conditions,
with fewer moving parts.
Over several decades, extensive research has been undertaken on the fun-
damental theory and the mechanisms involved in detonation. Extensive infor-
mation on this research is in the literature [10]. But of the three fundamental
combustion phenomena deagration, explosion, and detonation only det-
onation has not found exploitation in practical civilian or military applications
to the extent that this phenomenon warrants. This is partly due to the fact that
the science and technology involved is very complex due to the intense and fast
energy release rates and their interaction with the connement prescribed by the

2002 by CRC Press LLC

 Figure 30.2 Schematic of PDE operation [9]

application. The lack of decisive customer demand for devices based on detona-
tion phenomena is another factor that has prevented the transition of detonation
science to technology.
The climate has changed in both of these areas. Measurements with very
high spatial and temporal resolution, recently made possible, will help to under-
stand and control detonation wave propagation in conned geometry. The evo-
lution of MEMS enables advanced control strategies. Further, current advances
in CCD and the capability of modern computers make it possible to perform
meaningful computations, parametric studies, and scale-up of the transient pro-
cess. With the increasing emphasis in costs and economic fuel usage, simple and
thermodynamically more ecient engines are receiving added attention. PDE
has this potential, with a wider operational envelope and fewer moving parts. In
a PDE, detonation is initiated in a tube that serves as the combustor. The tube
can be of constant area, axisymmetric, variable area, or nonaxisymmetric. The
detonation wave rapidly traverses the chamber resulting in a nearly constant-
volume heat addition process that produces a high pressure in the combustor
and provides the thrust. The operation of multitube congurations at high fre-
quencies (100 Hz and more) can produce a near-constant thrust. A schematic of
PDE operation is shown in Fig. 30.2 [9].
In Fig. 30.3, the thermodynamic eciencies of a constant-pressure Brayton
cycle, a constant-volume Humphery cycle (which approximates a PDE cycle),
and a true detonation ChapmanJouguet (CJ) cycle for a typical hydrocarbon
fuel are compared [11]. Though the constant-volume cycle shows substantial ef-
ciency advantage, this zeroth order comparison cannot be taken as the correct
quantitative comparison, since PDE operates in a pulsed transient mode. How-

2002 by CRC Press LLC

Figure 30.3 Comparison of thermo- Figure 30.4 Variations of I sp with tube
dynamic eciency of various cycles. 1 exit relaxation modes. 1 very fast re-
CJ cycle; 2 Humphery cycle; and 3 laxation; 2 very slow relaxation [11]
Brayton cycle [11]

ever, this gives the condence that one begins with a much more ecient cycle
to develop PDE.

30.5.1 Scientic and Engineering Challenges

During the past several years, universities and industry have studied PDEs, deto-
nation physics as applied to PDE, and the performance and operational envelope
of PDE, as well as have demonstrated single and multicycle detonations. Cal-
culation of the theoretical cycle eciency requires prediction of detonation wave
structure, and the resulting head-end pressuretime history, which is dependent
upon the PDE geometry. The geometry inuences the evacuation and relling
times as well as the pressure history, while the detonation wave traverses the
tube. This could result in considerable dierences in the calculation of PDE
cycle eciency. Various assumptions made and the boundary conditions used in
the formulation will predict varying performance advantages. Figure 30.4 shows
the variation in the specic impulse, depending upon how the exit boundary con-
ditions of the detonation tubes are prescribed [11]. As can be seen, substantial
dierence can occur when the gases are relaxed instantaneously to the ambient
as opposed to gradual relaxation. The performance of PDE varies with the al-
titude at which it ies and the type of fuel it uses. Hence, the development of
PDE performance criteria and the tools to predict accurately the performance
are vital not only for design, but also for comparison with other competing tech-
nologies. Performance and operational envelope of various engines provided by
Adroit Systems, Inc. are shown in Fig. 30.5 [12].

2002 by CRC Press LLC

 A PDE, using hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuels, has a performance advantage
and exhibits nearly constant specic impulse over the ight regime. It also
provides the capability of propulsion from subsonic to supersonic speeds without
a booster. The simplicity in design and easy scalability could result in reduced
development time and cost of PDE-based air-breathing propulsion systems.
Several investigations on detonation for propulsion applications have been
reported [13, 14]; however, research during the past decades focussed mainly on
the fundamental physics of detona-
tions. Due to the diculties involved
in initiating, sustaining, and control-
ling detonations in prescribed cong-
urations, a PDE-based practical pro-
pulsion system has not yet emerged.
There has been a renewed interest
due to the recent advances in com-
bustion diagnostics and CCD, and
the search for propulsion system ap-
plicable to both subsonic and super-
sonic ight. In order to utilize PDE,
high-frequency (> 100 Hz), multi-
tube operation will be required. Mul- Figure 30.5 Comparison of specic im-
ticycle PDE operation has been dem- pulse and ight Mach number for hydro-
onstrated by industry using gaseous gen (1) and hydrocarbons (2). PDE per-
formance estimated using ASI Performance
fuels, and a demonstration using liq-
deck; turbojet, ramjet, and scramjet per-
uid fuels is underway [15]. In ad- formance levels reect well-designed systems
dition to the engineering issues re- for man-rated thrust classes. TJ turbo-
garding valves, thermal manage- jets; RJ ramjets; SJ scramjets; PDE
ment, packaging, etc., several scien- pulse detonation engines; PIL preignition
tic issues need to be further ad- limit [12]
dressed. Future research should fo-
cus on the following challenges:

1. Understanding the complex physical, chemical, and thermodynamic phenom-

ena associated with liquid-phase injection, mixing and ignition, those which
inuence rapid development of detonation waves, and the role of transverse
waves in the detonation process.

2. Investigating ecient fuel injection and ignition.

3. Exploring methods of eciently integrating PDE with mixed compression

supersonic inlets, and high-performance exhaust nozzles.

4. Understanding the dynamic coupling between multitube detonation cham-

bers.

2002 by CRC Press LLC

5. Developing complex diagnostics including semiconductor surface sensors and
optical sensors, based on tunable laser diodes for sensing both gaseous and
liquid characteristics.

6. Investigating adaptive, active control to ensure optimal performance while

maintaining margin of stability.

7. Performing mathematical analysis, advanced computational simulation, and

modeling of detonation of multicomponent mixtures using real chemistry and
molecular mixing.

These issues should be addressed simultaneously and cross-fertilized in order to

make timely progress in PDE development.
Though the fundamental issues in developing PDE are the same, depending
on the operational modes such as a Pulse Detonation Rocket Engine (PDRE)
or a Pulse Detonation Air-Breathing Engine (PDABE), or the fuel (gas or liq-
uid) and oxidant (oxygen or air), the challenges can vary. It is easier to det-
onate a gaseous fuel than a liquid fuel, and is easier to detonate with oxygen
rather than air. The Navy is interested in liquid fuel and air as the oxidant,
which is the most dicult scenario. In order to sustain detonation a min-
imum number of transverse waves is shown to be required in a given cross-
section. The fundamental diculty in detonating a fuel in air is illustrated in
Fig. 30.6 [16]. In Fig. 30.6a, for a given channel width, the detonation struc-
ture is shown for ethyleneoxygen mixture. For the same channel width, the
detonation structure is shown for ethyleneair (Fig. 30.6b). The number of
transverse waves has decreased with air mixture, having a damping eect on

Figure 30.6 Comparison of detonation structures with ethyleneoxygen (a) and

ethyleneair (b) [16]

2002 by CRC Press LLC

 Figure 30.7 Expected knowledge from ONR PDE research

the detonation propagation. Since weight taken by an oxygen tank on board a

missile is a penalty, direct detonation of liquid fuel in air is a challenge to be
addressed.
The scientic issues indicated earlier are presently addressed in a ve-year
focussed research program sponsored by ONR. A research roadmap has been
formulated with the participation of several U.S. universities, industry, and
international research organizations. The scientic research areas addressed
and the knowledge (transition elements to technology) expected from this pro-
gram to help the development community in their PDE eorts are shown in
Fig. 30.7.

2002 by CRC Press LLC

30.5.2 Opportunities in PDE Research and Development

In todays climate any evolving or innovative technology should meet two crite-
ria: (a) operational reliability, eciency, etc., and (b) be able to compete with
existing technology with sucient margin. Small incremental advantages do not
warrant substantial investment when R&D funds are getting scarce. Several
R&D opportunities arise from the challenges pointed out earlier. First of all,
there is a need for reliable performance prediction. This opportunity comprises
not only direct numerical simulation of the PDE process in a realistic control
volume, but also the reduced chemical reactions formulation, and appropriate
user-friendly model development. Inter-agency sponsorship is needed to develop
a mutually agreed upon and veriable performance prediction strategy.
There is opportunity in the future not only to perform CCD simulations
to understand and develop parametrics of components, but also to elucidate
inlet, combustor, nozzle interactions, and optimization. Further a validated
system code is needed from the system performance prediction, comparison,
optimization, and design points of view. The study should be extended to various
fueloxidizer combinations.
Development of benchmark experiments that can accurately measure per-
formance of simple PDE congurations, which can be used for CCD code val-
idations, is required. This will also provide fuel droplet size and distribution,
species concentration, and soot and thrust measurements.
The fuels area oers signicant future opportunities for the synthetic chem-
ists and combustion scientists. A tailored fuel may be in order since fuels that
exhibit rapid initiation and rapid development of chemical reactions can signi-
cantly inuence the detonation process.
There is also an opportunity to use the concept of controlled in-chamber
blending of two fuels exhibiting dierent detonability characteristics [17].
Simple axisymmetric detonation tubes of constant cross-sections have been
used in most of the laboratory scale and development experiments. Such a cross-
section oers ease of fabrication and stacking; however, to minimize the length
of the detonation chamber and to sustain ecient detonation propagation and
scale-up, a noncircular varying geometry cross-section may be more appropriate.
There are opportunities to explore this aspect both from the basic detonation
initiation and propagation points of view, and from the engineering design and
packaging points of view.
Tailored fuel injection, multicycle operation, and multichannel congura-
tions provide a challenging opportunity for control of detonation-based propul-
sion systems. By sequencing the ring order and controlling the number of cycles,
uidic thrust vectoring without external ns and actuators may be feasible. This
will further the competitive edge of PDE due to the associated reduction in drag,
and improved acceleration, deceleration, and maneuverability.

2002 by CRC Press LLC

30.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The past several decades have seen substantial advances in chemical propul-
sion. A number of scientic accomplishments such as sequential fuel injection
and active feed-back control with diode-laser sensors have been transitioned to
technology applications. In the 21st century, the demands on engines used in
chemical propulsion systems are increasing, whereas the development time and
costs both capital and operational are to be reduced. This leads research to
a multidisciplinary, multiorganizational structure and to a close and constant in-
teraction among scientic/technology/industry/customer communities. The old
paradigm of a scientic research leading to technology development and product
changed to a new paradigm of integration, shown in Fig. 30.8.

Figure 30.8 A comparison of the new and old paradigms

Research in this decade should focus on new energetic and tailored fuels
with faster energy release rates. The combustion process should be controlled
at all steps to obtain optimal performance from the chemical propulsion sys-
tem at all conditions of operation. Detonation processes should be investigated
with reference to propulsion applications such as a multitube multicycle PDE.
Investigations of new and novel combustion concepts are in order. With the
unprecedented tools on hand ultrafast computing capability, in situ diag-
nostics with high temporal and spatial resolution, and faster data processing
algorithms maybe quantum leaps can become reality in chemical propulsion
in the near future.

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2002 by CRC Press LLC

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