Lesson 4

PLANNING A MENU

Aim
Plan menus or list of food products for sale, appropriate to different situations.

THE NEEDS OF SPECIAL GROUPS OF PEOPLE

School Children
As the children of this age are growing fast and very active it is not surprising that the RDI
of energy and nutrients is high in relation to their body size compared with that of an adult.
Typically younger children will need more, smaller meals throughout the day compared to
adults, in order to provide all the nutrients required, while their stomachs are generally still
quite small. Good habits and bad form in children, so encouraging them to eat well from
an early age, and curbing high calorie, poor nutrient foods such as potato chips, cakes and
lollies is important. In many cases, very young children and toddlers will remain chubby,
this is not a cause of concern, unless they continue to increase their weight significantly.
As children grow, provision of a balanced and healthy diet will see them obtain and
maintain their healthy weight. Obesity is a serious cause for concern, but children under 2
should never be on restricted diets unless other medical conditions require it and
overweight children should be fed according to the advice of a nutritionist or dietician to
ensure they dont gain extra weight while still ensuring they are getting all their vitamins
and minerals. Keeping children active will also ensure they are healthy weight.

Adolescents
Typically, adolescents have very big appetites, which is appropriate because their
nutritional requirements are at their highest at this period of development. To meet these
requirements, well-balanced meals of a high nutritional value must be provided. Obesity
among school children and adolescents is nowadays one of the most common forms of
malnutrition. This may be due to a general decrease in physical activity, the energy intake
exceeding expenditure - e.g. riding to school rather than walking, the use of lifts instead of
walking upstairs, and the excessive viewing of the television and playing video games. At
the other end, there may be a few adolescent girls and young women who under-eat,
which can also cause health problems. Bulimia and anorexia are increasing in prevalence
in adolescents and even younger children, and has been reported in young boys and men
also.

Expectant Mothers
During pregnancy, a diet is needed which ensures enough of the essential nutrients both
for the mother-to-be and her baby. No great increase in food intake is needed as long as
the diet includes quality protein foods and she increases her intake of calcium, iron and
some vitamins. The equivalent of an extra pint of milk will provide the protein, calcium and
B group of vitamins required. A small increase in meat, especially if liver is eaten once a
week, will give the extra iron, the liver helping with the fat-soluble vitamins A and D. Citrus
fruits or tomatoes daily will look after the vitamin C. Under the welfare food scheme, milk
and vitamins are available free to poor or large families. Iron and maybe vitamins are
frequently prescribed by the doctor. Notice that the energy value of the diet has not been
mentioned. The increased milk and meat provide extra energy. Do not think that a
pregnant woman has to eat for two.
Nursing Mothers
During lactation, a woman's nutritional needs are normally as high as they are ever likely
to be. Sufficient dietary energy, protein, calcium, iron, folic acid, vitamins C and D and
liquid are essential if the demands of the breast-fed infant are to be met.

The Elderly
Most elderly people remain active until late in life, and the 70 - 75 plus age group are the
elderly of today. As the Basic Metabolism Rate (BMR) slows down with age, and physical
activity is reduced, less food is needed; however, the (Recommended Daily Intake (RDI)
for the essential nutrients is the same as for a younger adult. To keep their weight at the
desired level and to obtain the essential nutrients, the diet of the elderly must be of high
nutritional quality. This is, the amount eaten is smaller but the mixture of foods supplying
the necessary nutrients makes the choice of food very important.

Immigrants
People who resettle from abroad may be used to very different food and climatic
conditions from those that greet them in their new country. For instance, they may
traditionally eat a vegetarian diet, but find themselves unable to find the foods that kept
them healthy in their own country. Sometimes, they find it difficult to adjust to the foods
available to them, or have little understanding of their nutritional value. For immigrants
from warm, sunny climates going to countries with less sunshine, the lack of sunshine may
leave them at risk of vitamin D deficiency, but this is easily overcome with small amounts
of regular sun exposure even in countries with colder climates.

Vegetarians
Vegans - will only eat vegetable foods. To obtain a nutritionally adequate diet a wide
variety of foods, often bulky, is essential. Such a diet relies on the supplementary action of
protein to supply the necessary amino acids. A mixture of plant foods including cereals,
peas, beans (soya beans especially) as well as nuts can supply sufficient protein of good
quality. The iron present in vegetable foods is less well absorbed by the body than the
iron from animal sources. Vitamin B1 2 is mainly found in animal foods, but the inclusion
of yeast extract in the diet will ensure the presence of B12 and other B vitamins.

Lacto-vegetarians will consume dairy but not egg

Ovo-vegetarians will consume egg but not dairy

Lacto-ovo vegetarians will consume both egg and dairy

Partial vegetarians generally eat both egg and dairy as well as fish.

Babies ought never to be vegans; breast-feeding is vital for some months before being
weaned. Parents wishing to raise children vegan will require the assistance of guidance of
a nutritionist or dietician to ensure their children are getting all essential nutrients, calcium
is of particular concern in the vegan diet.
MENU PLANNING
The daily meal pattern of different people often varies. Some people prefer to have their
main meal at lunchtime and their evening meal (supper) may be lighter; others may prefer
high tea with an evening snack later. Yet other people prefer to make supper or dinner in
the evening their main meal, and perhaps require a slightly larger snack mid-afternoon,
often depending on the time at which the evening meal is taken.

Elderly and sick persons tend to find it more digestible to have a lighter meal in the
evening and in schools it is customary to provide the main meal at midday too. In
university halls of residence and hostels for young people where meals are provided, it is
usual to provide a dinner at night. In industry, the caterer may provide a cafeteria system
enabling customers to choose whether they have a snack meal or something more
substantial. Cafeteria systems are also being tried in some schools and the children are
given some guidance (by colour codes etc.) as to choosing a balanced meal.

In menu planning, apart from considering the nutritional needs of the people for whom the
menu is intended, the food used must be acceptable to those people. Food is of no use to
the body if not eaten, and preferences in foods can vary not only from country to country
but also from region to region in our own country. For instance, foods acceptable in the
north of England are not always acceptable in the south - e.g. tripe, black pudding. Likes
and dislikes in food develop early in life and are hard to break.

Monotony in menus, especially where similar foods are provided on the same day each
week, is another reason for foods not being eaten. Neither should similar foods (e.g.
pastry) be planned for successive courses, meals or even days.

Menu planning should be done in advance with careful consideration given to variety of
colour, taste, texture, cooking methods, and temperature of foods. Menus for several days
or even a week should be clearly laid out, so that the sequence of foods to be eaten can
be seen at a glance. This may either be meal-by-meal, or day-by-day. The availability of
cooking equipment, and the availability and calibre of staff are other points to be borne in
mind.

The cost of the menus may be of more importance in some establishments than in others
(ie. there is a limit to the cost per head), and it should not be forgotten that the cheaper
cuts of meats are often of similar nutritional value to the more expensive. Less expensive
fish (eg. herrings, mackerel) in fact, sometimes have better nutritional value than more
expensive fish (eg. white fish). Foods in season are less expensive than foods out of
season. It can be useful when planning menus, to compare the cost of different sources of
protein, of particular minerals, vitamins etc. The cost of 10 gm protein portions from
different foods may be calculated and compared, or 4 mg iron portions, or 10 mg vitamin C
portions. Alternatively, the nutrients in foods obtained for a given amount of money may be
calculated for comparisons.

ASSESSING DIETS
When planning a menu, consider its overall nutritional value to the consumers.

Assessing Your Own Dietary Intake

Make accurate notes of all you eat and drink -what amounts -each day for a week. At the
end of the week -or each day -put your notes into a menu form.
Example:
Breakfast: 0.25 oz. cornflakes
1 oz bread (toasted)
butter and 0.5 oz of marmalade
coffee with milk and sugar
Mid morning: cup of coffee
Lunch: 4 oz brown bread and butter
1 oz cheese
4 oz dessert apple

And so on for the whole day. Don't forget to include alcohol, nuts, potato chips, sweets, or
any other snacks.

NOTE: 1 ounce = 28 grams for those who prefer to use metric weights

Before starting this assessment, use the scales to weigh servings, and determine average
quantities that you eat, for such things as cereals, sugar in beverages, etc. Weigh anything
that may be variable from meal to meal.

Foods such as milk and butter can be calculated for daily intake (eg. 1 litre of milk per day,
10 gm of butter per day, etc. You might then list these things as follows:
0.25 oz of cornflakes, plus milk from daily allowance
coffee - milk and sugar from daily allowance.

Assess your milk intake by starting the day with a given amount, and you (ie. no one else)
only taking milk from that container for a day. Then determine what was used for that day.

Meals away from home may be estimated providing you determine what common servings
appear like first (eg. make sure you know what a 7 oz steak looks like, or a 2 oz. potato).

Now that you have your weeks food menu in front of you, you can use what you have
learnt to evaluate, criticise and modify your diet. Consider; if it will provide your RDI of
nutrients. If not, what nutrients are lacking? Do your menus contain dietary fibre? Now
check your assessment by calculating, using food tables, a weekday, and a weekend daily
intake. Calculate the protein, fat, carbohydrates, energy, calcium, iron, retinol, carotene,
vitamin D, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, potential nicotinic acid from tryptophan, and vitamin
C, for both days. Consider:
How did your actual intake compare with the RDI?
Was your iron, vitamin C or vitamin D low? (If iron is low, check the other days to see if
a high-iron food was eaten on any other day. If so, the weekly iron may be adequate).
Where you getting enough calcium?
Did you get too much of any nutrient?

By the time you have completed this exercise you will:

Be familiar with the portion size of many foods
Appreciate the foods contributing to the various nutrients in valuable amounts
Be familiar with your food tables
Be able to assess dietaries for nutritional adequacy
Be able to interpret your calculations intelligently.
A weeks dietary intake is much more meaningful than what is eaten on any one day. This
applies to iron in particular. However, the B group of vitamins needs to be near to the RDI
daily. Vitamin D is obtained, remember, by activating the sterol (7-dehydrocholesterol) in
the skin.

A DAY'S DIET IN A RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

Consider a day's diet from a residential school.

Breakfast: Porridge, bacon, half a tomato, bread, butter, jam, tea.

Mid morning: 250 ml milk
Lunch: Cold roast beef, mashed potatoes, pickles, rice pudding
Afternoon tea Brown and white bread and butter, small cake or scone, tea.
Dinner: Baked beans on toast, bread and butter, tea.

Such menus have in the past been repeated on the same day each week of a term. What
can be said about them?

The first obvious thing to note is that 250ml of milk provides only half the calcium a young
child 4-8 years old requires and about a third of that required by older children. Even with
milk in porridge and tea, the small amount in bread, butter, cakes and tea it is likely some
children will be deficient. Also, using baked goods as a necessary source of any nutrient
is not ideal given the typically high fat, simple sugar and sodium content. Sodium in this
diet would likely be high with bacon, bread, pickles and baked goods all containing
sodium, as well as its inevitable use at the table on meats. Baked beans provide an
important source of many nutrients, although these may be high in salt, a low salt brand
would be more suitable. Mashed potatoes will have their skins removed, wasting many
vital nutrients, including fibre. Fibre content in the day is moderate if the children eat
wholegrain bread, as the oats in the porridge and the baked beans provide good amounts
of fibre. Fats are likely to be too high and of poor quality in baked goods. Tea is good as
an antioxidant, but caffeine is unnecessary for children and if they are not drinking enough
water they may well end up dehydrated.

There is no fruit in this diet at all and extremely limited vegetables. Colourful vegetables
ensure a variety of nutrients are being consumed and dark green leafy vegetables provide
an array of essential nutrients. The protein sources are limited and consuming red meat
every day is against the recommendations of every major health organisation. Water
soluble vitamins are likely to be severely limited in this diet.

So, how could this diet be improved? Firstly, variety, with different meals each day.
Secondly, by addressing the lack of vitamins by providing fresh fruits and vegetables.
Carrots, capsicum, tomato, mushroom, sweet potato and other vegetables can be made
appetising by blending them into sauces, or stacking them to make a lasagne style dish.
Raw vegetables are also a good snack. Cheese or yoghurt should be added to increase
calcium, and baked goods removed and served rarely. Red meat should be lean and
alternated with fish and poultry, and tofu if available and accepted by the children.
Potatoes should be served with skin on. Egg based dishes with breakfast could be more
interesting, with omelettes or frittatas and soy milk could be used to make these dishes.
Bacon is not necessary at breakfast and could be limited to once a week as it is high in fat
and sodium. Occasional breakfasts of pancakes made with wholegrain flour and served
with fresh fruit sauces, fruit salad or yoghurt could be served for variety.
Breakfast should be high in fibre and a wholegrain cereal is a good option. Many
wholegrain cereals are fortified and enriched with minerals as well.

As you can see, simple changes can drastically alter the nutritive value of daily food
intake!

PLATE WASTE
This refers to food not eaten, but which may have been served as part of a predetermined
dietary plan.

Plate waste may occur because:

There was too much on the plate
The person was not hungry
The person did not like the food.

It is quite possible, and even probable, that food is left on the plate at some stage during
the week. Remember, appetite is the best guide to food intake, and appetite is very
efficient in regulating energy intake to energy use. If food is not liked, and not eaten; and
then not replaced in the diet, there can be harmful effects.

In institutional catering, plate waste may mean:

Too much food being provided, meaning costs are higher than necessary
The food being poorly prepared
Food being badly served
Food is being served at the wrong time
Food being unacceptable because it is completely different to what is familiar.

Assessing Plate Waste

This can be done by weighing food when it leaves a kitchen, then collecting and weighing
waste at the end of a meal. During collection of plate waste, it should be noted what type
of food is left, and in what quantities. If a high proportion of green vegetables are left, for
example, review the types of green vegetables being served and the cooking methods
being used, as well as the quantities which are served. Also, consider surveying the
people who left the food to get their comments on the meal.

Plate waste results in lower food intake, and that may result in nutritional deficiencies.
Menus which see frequent plate waste may accordingly need to be modified to ensure
adequate nutrition is maintained. Generally, if a person is leaving plate waste, they will be
consuming other foods to satisfy hunger and these will typically be processed foods eaten
on the run.

Diet Formulation
In institutions such as old peoples homes, residential schools, armed forces, hospitals etc.
menus will form the basis of a persons diet. Where there is a choice of menu, the
individual has the final responsibility for selecting food to maintain a balanced diet. A
caterer or restaurateur can however, with proper dietary planning, contribute towards
providing their customers with a balanced diet.
With a better understanding of nutrition, and better diet, many diseases associated with
malnutrition in the past have become scarce in today's developed countries. There are,
however, problems associated with a developed society that may impact upon nutrition.
These include heat disease, cancers, bowel disease, dental cavities, and others.

Caterers and restaurants will often find requests from people suffering food allergies or
bowel disorders. Common requests and enquiries will generally include:

Nut allergies
These can be mild or life-threatening. In order to cater to the customer the caterer
must be sure none of the raw ingredients have traces of nuts, that the cooking oils do
not contain nuts and in some cases, that pots or pans do not have traces of nuts or nut
oils from other dishes.

Gluten free
A variety of conditions affecting the bowel can make people sensitive to gluten (wheat
products). Generally, ingesting gluten will make the person feel quite unwell, but
shouldnt result in anaphylactic shock, unless the person has a gluten allergy. Many
establishments now provide gluten free meal options as the percentage of the
population requiring or desiring them increases

Allergy
Common food allergies include nuts, as well as shellfish, strawberries, seeds and
dairy. If you plan to cater to a customer who reports an allergy, you need to know
exactly what that person cannot eat, and then check all your ingredients to ensure they
are ok for the customer. Allergies, as mentioned above, can be lethal, so care must be
taken. If you do not think you can meet the customers needs dont serve them!

Vegetarianism & Ethnic Groups

The number of vegetarians in modern societies is increasing, and information
regarding vegetarian options, and vegan options is often requested. It is important to
be aware of the differences between vegetarian and vegan and many will want to
know that foods are prepared separately, cooked in separate dishes or that raw
ingredients have no trace of animal products (such as gelatine, milk derivatives etc).
Particular religious and ethnic groups will not eat certain foods (eg. no pork or beef).
Some will only eat meats from animals slaughtered in a specific manner and to cater to
these groups (Jews and Muslims) you will need to get certification from an appropriate
body (a Kashrut or Halaal organisation). This is really only worthwhile in areas where
you have a large number of people from these backgrounds. Organic and additive
free foods are also increasingly popular. Sourcing animal and plant foods from organic
enterprises can be a real selling point, another step further is to use only organic food
and getting certification from an organic organisation, again this is often only viable in
areas where organic food is particularly popular.

It is possible to design a balanced diet using only plant foods, but to do so requires the use
of a wide variety of different and carefully chosen foods. Vegetarian diets are often bulky,
and without careful planning they may be deficient in calcium, iron, vitamin B12, vitamin D
and energy requirements.
FOOD ADDITIVES
Chemicals used in the preservation of foods belong to a larger group of substances known
as food additives. Food additives fall into two broad categories:

Those that prevent food spoilage (eg. preservatives)

Those added to enhance the appearance, flavour or texture of food.

All foods are comprised of chemicals. The bulk of most foods will usually be well known, safe
chemical compounds, from the major food groups (ie. Any combination of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minerals, vitamins, water).

Other components in foods, usually found in relatively small quantities, may include:
Alcohol
Flavourings
Drugs (Pharmacologically active substances such as caffeine)
Toxins (e.g. naturally occurring poisons such as cyanide, or mercury)
Toxic Contaminants (e.g. pesticides)
Non-toxic Contaminants
Trace Elements
Colourings
Additives (preservatives, flavour enhancers etc).

Some of these things may upset the bodies metabolism. Generally these other
components are in such small quantities that they are of no major concern, for most
people. Some people, however, may be more sensitive to particular additives, and may
suffer when exposed to relatively low levels (ie. levels which the general population may
tolerate).

Preservatives
Many chemicals have been used in the preservation of food for many years. Preserving
methods include:
Salting
Curing
Smoking
Pickling
Jellying.

These use traditional chemical preservatives, including smoke, salt, sugars, vinegars and spices.
Preservatives may be classed as:

Antimicrobial inhibit micro-organisms

Anti-oxidant prevent chemical reactions with oxygen that make food rot/spoil or go rancid.

Sulphur dioxide is the most common preservative in use, and works by its conversion to
sulphuric acid in solution. This changes the pH and making the food less habitable for
micro organisms as well as denaturing enzymes which may speed decay. Thiamine is
rapidly destroyed by sulphites and pork sausages which contain sulphites as a
preservative contain much less thiamine than the original pork. Sulphites promote the
retention of vitamin C, and their presence in fruit juice and pulp may be regarded as
advantageous, apart from their preservative qualities.
At the moment there is considerable doubt about using nitrites and even nitrates in food
due to their carcinogenic potential. However, nitrites are used in almost all canned foods,
as they prevent the growth of the bacteria that cause botulism. The problem is not nitrites
ad nitrates themselves, but rather the fact that they can react with other chemicals to form
nitrous amines which are then carcinogens. However, if this reaction can be limited in the
food product, then the risk of developing cancer from such small amounts of these amines
is much lower than your chances of developing botulism if the food was not preserved with
the original nitrites.

The use of chemicals to preserve food is controlled by government regulations in most

developed countries. Generally there is a trade-off between the risks of illness due to not
preserving the food versus the risk of illness developing as a result of chronic exposure to
the preservative. However, in general, the response is to set stringent limits ensuring
preservative levels are very low, reducing the risk of the preservative exposure to a level
far below the risk of disease from ingesting unpreserved food. Preservatives remain a very
controversial area of food processing. Yet, the majority of the worlds population relies on
processed foods for their nutrition, and, living far from primary industries, require that food
be preserved so it arrives to them in an edible state.

Additives for Enhancing Appearance and Colour

The appearance, taste and smell of a food (the organoleptic quality), rather than its
nutritive value, determine the appeal of food. The appearance and smell stimulate the flow
of digestive juices, and so aid digestion. When natural colouring of a food is lost or altered
during processing, "colouring materials" may be added. Natural substances such as
cochineal, saffron, annatto or caramel may be used, as well as such things as paprika,
turmeric and sandalwood which will also significantly alter flavour. There have been a
number of synthetic colourings (e.g. coal tar dyes), but these are not as likely to be used
because of suspected harmful affects. The use of synthetic additives for purely cosmetic
purposes is controversial. They generally add no nutrient value to the original food, and
may in fact be harmful. Artificial colours in particular have been linked in many cases to
cancers and many that were once in use are now banned.

Flavouring Agents
Flavouring agents form the largest group of food additives, and originally dried herbs &
spices (sometimes powdered) were used. These increased palatability for a monotonous
diet. Later it was possible to extract the volatile oils, which are much stronger in flavouring
power than the plant/leaves/bark/roots that had been previously used.

Following the volatile oils, synthetic flavouring agents were developed. These may be in
the form of a solution or powder and generally prove to be more concentrated, cheaper
and far more convenient to use than the corresponding natural flavours. Many are blends
of synthetic materials used to imitate the natural flavour more closely. The body of scientific
research to date indicates that synthetic flavours are quite safe for human consumption,
unlike artificial colours, however, many people dispute this stance.

Aside from straight flavourings, flavour enhancers are also added to many foods. They
have little to no flavour of their own, but are able to draw out and intensify the natural
flavours within a food. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is the most widely used flavour
enhancer, and is particularly useful in bringing out the natural flavour of meat, fish and
vegetable foods. It is added to many canned foods, dried soups, etc. Some people are
sensitive to MSG, so it should be used with caution.
In many places its use is discouraged or banned and it should not be in foods for babies or
small children.

Ribonucleotides have now been isolated from micro organisms, and are added to
processed meat and fish products. Only small quantities are required as their flavour
enhancing property is very great, about ten times that of monosodium glutamate (MSG).
They are naturally occurring molecules that are found in the cells of plants and animals.

Sweetening Agents
Sweetening agents are used in a variety of foods. The principal one is sugar, or more
specifically sucrose. While sugar may be in many ways the ideal sweetener, it has
disadvantages: it is not sweet enough for certain manufactured foods; it has a relatively
high energy value, and in the large quantities now consumed in many countries, it
contributes significantly to obesity, dental decay, diabetes and possibly coronary heart
disease. Other natural sugars such as fructose, which is found in fruit is less calorie dense
and twice as sweet as sucrose.

Artificial sweeteners have been developed that are significantly more sweet than sucrose.
Saccharin is the main artificial sweetener used. It is 300 to 500 times as sweet as sucrose,
and has no energy value, but it leaves an unpleasant bitter "after taste", particularly after
heating. It therefore has limited uses in the food industry. It is under moratorium in the
United States and banned in some countries because it was found to cause cancer in
laboratory experiments.

Cyclamates are one tenth as sweet as saccharin, but have no bitter after taste. In the
1960s it was reported that cyclamate caused cancer. It was banned from use in food,
however more recent studies suggest it is not a carcinogen at all. It is still banned in the
United States. Another sweetener, aspartame, is the most common in use in most
countries today and is sold as NutraSweet and Equal. There is emerging evidence that
chronic exposure to high levels of this sweetener can have adverse health effects.

Sorbitol is made from glucose, and hence is related to sugars. It is sometimes added to
diabetic foods, because it is slowly absorbed. Its energy value however is similar to
glucose, and this must be taken into account in a diet. Other natural sweeteners
sometimes used, include honey and molasses.

Emulsifying Agents and Stabilisers

Emulsifying agents and stabilisers are added to certain food products containing fat, to
form a stable emulsion and enable the more economic use of fat.

Apart from certain natural foods, e.g. eggs, starches, which have some emulsifying or
stabilising power, all emulsifiers and stabilisers permitted in food are listed in relevant state
Regulations. Of these glyceryl monostearate (GMS) is the most important. It is widely
used in the food industry, eg. in the making of margarine, salad dressing, ice cream and
cooking fats. The addition of glyceryl monostearate helps produce a smoother, softer
texture in bread-making and helps delay the staling process.

In cake-making it also improves the texture by its stabilising effect on the emulsion, and its
shortening power is especially of importance in biscuit making. In both bread and cake-
making when emulsifying agents are used there will be a decrease in the fat used.
Anti-caking Agents and Humectants
Anti-caking agents and humectants absorb moisture and so reduce the effect of humidity;
and inert gas (nitrogen) used in packaging to minimise oxidation, on foods. They are used
simply to facilitate processing and to confer the properties required of convenience foods.

THE MENU
Many establishments think that variety on the menu means the more dishes offered the
better. This is not correct. The extent of the menu can often confuse consumers. It is
better to offer less choice and a well-balanced menu. Cutting down on choice can help cut
down on waste materials in the production department, and allows the kitchen staff to
operate efficiently. Another advantage of reduced choice on the menu is that when
customers tire of the present menu, a menu of equal quality is easy to produce. This will
help maintain guest and staff interest, and so promote trade.

You may write superb menus, but if the staff cannot prepare them, they are useless. When
planning menus, the capabilities of the staff must be considered. Staff may attempt to
produce the dishes listed, but they are not likely to produce them to the required standard
if they are not well trained, or there is insufficient manpower.

PLANNING
Success in food preparation and service is directly related to the quality of the planning
involved, and inversely proportional to the amount of guesswork used instead of planning.
One cannot estimate or control wage costs until the quantity and quality of the labour
required to produce and serve items on a given menu are known. Therefore the menu is
vital to the proper planning of food and beverage operations.

An inadequate menu can result in:

Increased food costs
Increased labour costs or poorly deployed labour
Inadequate and complicated purchasing methods
Poor production techniques and poor labour relations
Reduced quality and quantity of production
Poor service techniques
Poor quality control and customer control.

There are several vital factors that contribute to a good menu:

The layout and printing (graphics etc) of the printed menu must be well presented
A menu planner must have a thorough knowledge of methods of food preparation and
all types of service
A menu planner must know the potential of food production and food service
equipment
Simpler and more convenient purchasing methods for food, equipment and cleaning
contribute to a better menu
A menu planner must be aware of the need for form, texture, colours and flavour in
food materials and their interaction with acceptable items produced for a menu. This
includes knowledge of basic nutrition and simple dietetics
 Menu planning depends on management and should not be left to those with
inadequate experience, knowledge, or even interest, because menus should be a
greater part of the attraction for a restaurant or food facility. Menu planning is the first
step in planning the catering side of a new restaurant, guesthouse or food facility. It is
the blueprint upon which one bases the plans, equipment and furnishings to give a
logical flow system.

TYPES OF MENUS
There are two types of menus: the set meal or table d'hote and the a la carte menu.

The meal or table d'hote (the hosts table) menu consists of a main meal, which can be
breakfast, luncheon, afternoon tea, dinner or supper. The menu is made up of several
courses or items and sells at a set price.

The a la carte menu consists of some dishes or items each of which is priced separately.
A la carte menus are much more common in hotels, resorts or restaurants. In a
guesthouse or bed and breakfast, it is unusual to offer an a la carte breakfast.

The set price table d'hote menu usually offer a choice of dishes; for example, fruit juice or
soup, a meat, poultry, fish dish, cold fare, and a sweet, cheese tray, or savoury. The
choice is optional. The set menu for a function does not offer a choice, to allow for easier
service, especially with large numbers. However, the menu must be planned to appeal to
all present.

Another way to structure a menu is to add and price a choice of supplementary dishes to a
set meal. Some establishments may include an additional charge for bread, side dishes or
condiments.

MENU COMPOSITION
The menu is an important marketing medium. Menu planning is one of the most skilled
tasks that confront caterers. Even the most knowledgeable often find it a challenge to their
creative powers. A menu must be properly balanced, it must read well, and it must be
practical. One must also price a menu, and this is a critical task. There are serious
financial implications to how much the food costs the caterer, and how much it will cost the
consumer.

Bearing this in mind, compose the menu to the following considerations:

The foods available, the weather, the time and season

The type of business, customer tastes and the number to be catered for
The balance of dishes, their colour, taste and avoidance of repetition
The deployment, occupancy and availability of equipment, and skill in the kitchen
The sequence planning so one can correctly serve the meal and organise service. The
menu must be production planned
The selection and portioning of foods and the costing of dishes to the budgeted ratio of
profit.
Other factors that should be considered, depending upon the type of operation, the target
market, and economic viability are:

Nutritional value of the food

Selection of wines to go with the foods
Language of the menu.

Menus should be seasonal and topical. A heavy meal will not be acceptable during a heat
wave, and people are unlikely to appreciate a selection of cold dishes in the depths of
winter. Also, traditions often sets certain expectations of the menu, for instance, at
Christmas, during Hannukah or Thanksgiving, when some guests might want traditional
fare. Different religions and culture of the world tend to associate certain foods with certain
festivals or celebrations, and the menu planner should consider whether to meet traditional
expectations, at least as one menu option, or not.

Another factor to be aware of is customer perceptions, which are formed, to a large degree
by customer expectations and past experience. While food fashions do change, it can be
risky to be too innovative with a menu, or to try to educate the customers. On the other
hand, as customers become more sophisticated and cosmopolitan in their tastes, some
may be happy to try something different, such as unusual combinations of ingredients or
much smaller than usual portions of food beautifully presented. Such decisions must be
carefully considered.

The balancing of a menu is a matter for the caterer, and it demands his constant attention
to providing variety within a menu while ensuring that all parts complement each other.
Avoid poor balancing mistakes such as:

Having a tomato dish (pasta with a tomato based sauce) following tomato soup
Offering something heavy such as bread immediately after something heavy such as a
steak and kidney pie
Following cream of chicken soup with a chicken and rice dish, and finishing with a rice
pudding.

It is possible to feature the same foods (eg. potatoes) more than once in a meal, if
presented very differently each time; for example a potato and leek soup can be followed
by a main meal that has fries. Variety is created also by using a variety of cooking
methods, so that the menu does not heavy in fried, boiled, dry or moist foods. Aim for both
balance and variety.

Give some thought to the serving of dishes at the table also. You may need to modify what
is in the menu in order to minimise the fuss and time required to serve the food. For
instance, a traditional Caesar salad is prepared at the table and requires several important
steps; this may make it an unsuitable choice for the menu. Also, all dishes should be
served with the correct garnishes and the appropriate choice of accompaniments. For
example, serve tartar sauce and slices of lemon with fish. Mustards, sauces or gravies are
often served with grilled or roast meats, and the time and cost of providing those
accompaniments should be considered in menu planning.
BEVERAGES
Wine and Alcohol Lists
Research has shown that many consumers are ignorant of a wine label. Being afraid to
display their ignorance, they often choose wines that are familiar with generic names. A
good list will have a range that satisfies all needs, with some generic wines, and others for
connoisseurs. There should be variety in the price range and type of wine available, as
well, and a good wine list should include dry, medium and sweet, red, white, and sparkling
wines. You may also offer Rose.

Consider offering drinks to complement the menu or style of restaurant. A Greek

restaurant may serve Ouzo; an Italian restaurant may Lambrusco and a range of good
red wines; a Mexican restaurant may feature drinks such as Margueritas and Tequila,
while fruit cocktails may be appropriate for a tropical resort-style restaurant.

It is generally illegal to serve alcoholic drinks without a licence. You must check and
comply with appropriate laws for the state or country you operate in. It is also useful to be
able to offer low alcohol content drinks.

Non-Alcoholic Drinks
Always include some non-alcoholic drinks. There is an increasingly wide range of these
available including juices, squashes, cider, non-alcoholic wine, mineral water, carbonated
soft drinks, teas and coffees.

We will investigate beverages in more depth in the following lessons.

SET TASK
1. Obtain (or copy) a menu from an a-la-carte restaurant. Select a three or four course
meal from this menu, and consider how the waiter should serve that menu.

2. Visit at least two different food service establishments (eg. a restaurant, a hotel, or a grill
and bar, etc). Observe the way waiters/waitresses are working in these establishments.
Make notes.