The Encyclopedia of Furniture (Art History Ebook) PDF

THIRD EDITION COMPLETELY REVISED
Covering: every period and develop-

ment to the present, the designers and
makers, the woods and other mater-
ials, the architecture and decoration.
Joseph Aronso
2000 ILLUSTRAT
By Joseph Aronson
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FURNITURE

THE BOOK OF FURNITURE AND DECORATION: PERIOD
AND MODERN
THIRD EDITION COMPLETELY REVISED
Joseph Aronson
CROWN PUBLISHERS, INC., NEW YORK

Marin County Free Library
Civic Center Administration Building
San Rafael, California

e
6 06 '
?9
1965, by Joseph Aronson
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 65-24334

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
CONTENTS
PAGE
FOREWORD vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix
TEXT 1 - 475
BIBLIOGRAPHY 476
A GLOSSARY OF
DESIGNERS AND CRAFTSMEN 480
) -
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
It has long seemed to me that the art and industry of edge, supplemented by some 2,500 separate definitions
furniture sorely needed a convenient encyclopedia. and descriptions. The larger subjects or classifications
Everyone who buys or uses furniture, who makes, de- America, Chair, Construction, France, Gothic, Modern,
signs, or sells it, collectors, architects, decorators and Wood, and so on are treated at some length and are
students must feel frequently the singular lack of a related to the arrangements of pictures. More than half
handy reference work for the checking of details, the of the book is devoted to photographs, in the hope of
verification of periods, the inspiration of designs, the effecting the economies suggested by the aforemen-
nature of materials, and so on. tioned Chinese proverb. Thus Number 170, a Gothic
In preparing this work I have kept that need before cupboard of Flamboyant style, is grouped with cabi-
me. Of course, a balanced condensation of the vast nets but is also listed by number under flamboyant.
body of furniture history and technique could not be The sequence of types pictured in these groups is
achieved without the sacrifice of an infinity of detail, roughly based on the chronological development from
all and pertinent to the critic and the spe-
interesting the basis or prototype; it also seeks to demonstrate the
cialist. That seemed justified in the cause of
sacrifice flow of influences over national boundaries, and the
compactness. If accuracy, accessibility and thorough- bridge of time as well as locale in these developments.
ness could compensate for brevity and limited details, That omissions of more or less importance exist is
it seemed that a handy one-volume encyclopedia could a foregone conclusion, their importance depending on
prove useful and valuable for most needs. I have sought the point of view. The accuracy of material presented is
therefore to provide dependable initial information. often a matter of choosing between conflicting sources;
The seeker after more detailed knowledge has available for more palpable errors, I beg the reader's indulgence
a vast library from which the bibliography ( page 476 in advance. In this connection it is interesting to observe
is selected as having been of most assistance to the that actual furniture relics of older days are sometimes
writer. less dependable as sources of knowledge than are the
One picture, say the Chinese, is worth ten thou- old documents, engravings, and paintings.
sand words. This numerical ratio based on the quantity
Joseph Aronson
of photographs offered in this volume would probably
satisfy the writer and the reader in their joint tempta-
tion to delve into the endlessly fascinating details of
furniture lore. The major part of this book consists of New York, N.Y.
monographs of the important items of furniture knowl- October 10, 1938
FOREWORD TO THE THIRD REVISED EDITION
The Enjoyment of Furniture, in common with other The simple fact that a vade mecum to this art sur-
arts of cultivated living, has in a generation achieved vived over a quarter of a century is significant. During
the status of an art itself. is useful and philosophic
There this period I have received a stream of generous and
pleasure in recognizing, in the evolution of utilitarian constructive criticism, resulting in: the format of this
design from artifact to art, a key to the manners, mores, edition, which intends primarily to offer a quicker cor-
and means of other times and places. relation between pictures and text; addition of material
VII
FOREWORD VIII FOREWORD
on the 19th century; substitutions and relocations to every piece was unique, the concept and creation of
emphasize particular points; and the review of illustra- an individual working whimsically and often capri-
tions as pertinent to the broad subject in style and ciously. We can identify some motives and manners;
provenance. finally we are compelled to say that if this or that detail
is not demonstrably true, it ought to be so by deduc-
The format, with its continuous dictionary style, en-
tion. Dates, most of all, are a snare and a delusion. They
deavors to bring illustrations into close sequence with
are used here less for historical certification than to try
the minimize page turning, to visualize and
text, to
to place a feature of a style within a historical frame-
verbalize simultaneously. The ideal balance is of course
work. The collector will do well to precede every date
never achieved, since illustrations simply do not occur
with a good broad "circa."
in such neat sequence. Let us confess that most evolu-
One group of suggestions came from those who felt
tionary steps are theoretical traceable only after the
that artificially narrow limits had been placed on the
fact; one can hardly say that form A actually inspired
geography of furniture design. I am convinced that the
form B. Chronologically, the reverse may often be true.
mainstream flowed from Italy to France with the
This merely proves that style development is never the
spreading Renaissance; thence all over Europe to merge
work of an individual; rather, the large maturing of
with or to obliterate the native arts peculiar to isolated
style is the product of a whole society, homogeneous
locales. With the endof isolation usually came the end
and one-purposeful.
of native art. Every country absorbed what it wanted of
The enlarged view of 19th-century furniture is a
outside influences, and reissued its version of what it
bow to the passage of time and widening horizons. As
accepted. Thus all of Europe and Europe's colonies de-
the century recedes into perspective, its Industrial
veloped styles tributary to the mainstream. These are
Revolution gains significance as the springboard for all
generally too parallel to the source, too little varied in
20th-century philosophy of design. Grandparents be-
essence, to justify extensive differentiation in a volume
come ancestors, and the young no longer try to hide
dedicated to conciseness.
the shame of ancestral esthetic indiscretions, but are
England merits disproportionate attention because
charmed by the naivete, the philosophic gropings, and
the domestic scale in furniture, the felicity of everyday
the inept grapplings with technical innovations and
living, as we know it, and the prototypes of most Ameri-
discoveries.
can furniture developed there. And, of course, there is
Whether or not late-19th-century furniture may substantial representation of American furniture., for all
legitimately be called antique is a question for anti- its provincial derivation from English furniture.
quarians. It is furniture; and worse it sums
for better or
up emotions and and perceptions of its
capabilities The question was solved arbitrarily
of nomenclature
makers, the sentiments of a wide range of impulses re- in favor of conciseness. This removes "stylish" names,
flecting a whole milieu. This book offers no esthetic trade jargon, and the faintly precious use of foreign
judgments. It seeks only to illustrate those forms and terms. The French have good, precise terms for many
styles that in their time gave satisfaction to their makers articles of furniture, but liberal usage here would
and users. weight the book too heavily with bilingual redundan-
Parenthetically, I make no claim for the authentic- cies. Similarly, the fashionable names beloved of the
ity of any piece pictured in this volume. A piece whose merchandising world tend to be too ephemeral, and
origins and history must be reconstructed from the were sacrificed to brevity.
physical evidence of its material leaves much to the
imagination and veracity of the "expert." Expertise is Joseph Aronson
an occupation beyond the province of the student of New York, N.Y.
the art of furniture. Before mass production, virtually November 1, 1965
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Without world of assistance, advice, and coopera-

a Albany Institute of History & Art, Albany, N.Y.;
tion of many individuals and institutions, this work Avery Library, Columbia University, New York; The
would have been impossible; and whatever merit it Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Calhoun Mansion,
may prove to have is largely due to their generous aid. Clemson College, Clemson, S.C.; Colonial Williams-
Among the collectors and dealers who provided photo- burg, Williamsburg, Va.; Cooper Union Museum, New
graphs as well as advice, I am pleased to list: York; The Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.; The
Frick Collection, New York; The Newark Museum,
Newark, The Grand Bapids Public Library, Grand
N.J.;
Mrs. Faith Andrews; Bergdorf Goodman Antiques; Bapids, Mich.; Grand Bapids Public Museum, Grand
Brunovan, Inc.; Dalva Brothers, Inc.; Di Salvo Galleries; Bapids, Mich.; The Hispanic Society of America, New
Dover Publications; Duveen Brothers, Inc.; French & York; The Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, Md.;
Company, Inc.; Ginsburg & Levy, Inc.; Charles B. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; The Mon-
Gracie & Sons, Inc.; Knoll Associates, Inc.; Liebhold- treal Museum of Fine Arts, Montreal, Canada; Munson-
Wallach, Inc.; Frederick Lunning; Lo Mejor de Espana; Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y.; The Museum of
Herman Miller Furniture Co.; P. Nathan, Inc.;Need- Modern Art, New York; Museum of The City of New
hams Antiques, Frank Partridge, Inc.;
Inc.; B. Olivieri; York, New York; Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe,
Putting Antiques Corp.; Jens Bisom Inc.; Don Buseau, N.M.; Musee de la Province, Quebec, Canada; William
Inc.; Israel Sack, Inc.; Mrs. Samuel Schwartz; Stair & Bockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City, Mo.; The
Co., Inc.; Swedish News Agency; Symons Galleries, Newark Museum, Newark, N.J.; New- York Historical
Inc.; Thonet Industries, Inc.; Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.; Society, New York; New York Public Library, New
John S. Walton, Inc.; Wood and Hogan, Inc. York; The Atheneum of Philadelphia, Pa.; Philadel-
phia Museum Museum of Art, Bhode Island
of Art, Pa.;
School of Design, Providence, B.I.; Boyal Ontario
Museum, Toronto, Ont, Canada; Sleepy Hollow Bes-
torations, Tarrytown, N.Y.; University of California,
Los Angeles, Calif.; United States Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Washington, D.C.;
The major source of photographs has of course been Victoria & Albert Museum, South Kensington, London;
the magnificent collections of many libraries and mu- Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn,; Yale Univer-
seums.I am happy to voice my gratitude to their staff sity Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn.; American Walnut
members who so courteously and resourcefully put so Manufacturers Association; Henry Frances Du Pont
much material into my hands. Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del.
IX
The
ol
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FURNITURE
ABACUS. The topmost member of the capital of a ADAM, The Brothers. Robert, 1728-1792; James
column. See orders. 1730-1794. Robert, elder son of a Scottish architect,
began practicing his art in London in 1758 after four
ACACIA. A group of trees similar to the locust. Some years in Italy. There he had been fascinated with the
varieties from Australia and the Sandwich Islands excavations at Herculaneum to such an extent that
yield beautiful veneers ranging in color from yellow- the "Herculaneum" style became his, and through his
brown and green. In England the name
to red is influence, England's basis of decoration for half a
given to the American locust, the wood of which is century. This classical influence displaced the Rococo
tough and durable and similar in texture to oak. forms exploited by Chippendale and his school, and
led to an excessively refined, often inappropriate
ACAJOU. French word for mahogany. delicacy of structure and ornament.
The Adams practiced as architects, employing cabi-
ACANTHUS. Conventionalized leaf of a plant grow- netmakers, painters, sculptors, etc., to execute their
ing in Asia Minor. It is found as the basis of all foliage designs. Thus we find a mixture of names around
ornament in classic Greek and Roman decoration.
some designs, such as Hepplewhite, Angelica Kauff-
Romanesque and Ryzantine acanthus were stiff and mann, Pergolesi, Flaxman, and others, presumably in
spiny. The Renaissance revived its use in graceful de-
the association of designer and craftsman. They be-
signs for every purpose. Every succeeding style has lieved that every detail of the house and its furnish-
used the acanthus in exuberant or restrained manner,
ing must grow from the same mind, and carried this
according to its type. See also ornament.
out in all the minutiae of decoration; witness their
designs for carpets, lighting fixtures, sedan chairs,
table service, snuffboxes, and whatnot. The funda-
mentals of all this they state in their book, The
Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam
(1773). "We have been able to make use of the . . .
beautiful spirit of antiquity, and to transfuse it with

ACANTHUS SCROLL
LEAF -
MOLDING
novelty and variety. ." While there exists in their
. .
ACORIV. Turned ornament resembling an acorn; com- work the delicate splendor of the style of Louis XVI,
it derives not from the French but directly from the
mon in Jacobean furniture as finials on chair posts
and bedposts, as pendants, and as the profile of leg
Roman remains. This classicism is in the earlier work
turnings in Jacobean tables. See turning. [737.]
imposed upon the accepted forms and proportions of
also
Georgian furniture; later, it demanded lighter lines,
in style and delicacy far removed from the mid-
ACROTERIUM. Originally an ornament on the roof
Georgian solidity.
corners of Greek temples. In classical furniture, similar
ornaments applied to the top corners of secretaries, The Adams fostered the transition from the Age of
bookcases, highboys, and other important furniture. Mahogany to the Age of Satinwood. Their choice of
woods covers just this span; beginning with the ac-
cepted mahogany, they later employed whole sur-
.
1 Page from The Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam ( 1778 )
2 DINING ROOM, LANSDOWNE HOUSE, BERKELEY SQUARE, LONDON. Designed
by Robert Adam, 1765-1768.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1932
faces of satinwood, harewood (sycamore dyed gray), were patterned to reflect the ceiling design, either in
and much painted decoration. Sycamore or satinwood carpet or in stone.
had delicate designs painted over in outline, or with Their distinguishing details are: a preference for
plaques and medallions; whole pieces were likewise straight lines or square outlines; swags, festoons,
painted and exquisitely decorated by or in the man- rinceaux, in fact, all ornaments freely drawn but ex-
ner of Angelica Kauffmann and her followers. Gilding ceedingly fine in scale and painstakingly executed;
over a base of white or green paint was extensively mythological figures, rams' heads, lions' heads and
employed, particularly for mirrors, consoles, etc. claws, centaurs, griffins, sphinxes, caryatids, etc., with
Because the architectural picture was of first im- plant forms and vases on most surfaces in paint, low-
portance, Adam rooms possessed a unity of design relief carving, composition, and inlay.
previously found only in French palaces. Most of the The style has great charm and beauty, and an
furniture was designed for special places. Consoles, academic spirit of architectural correctness. Yet its
mirrors, couches, buffets, etc., were as integral a part very perfection brought it the criticism, in its own
of the room designs as the mantels and doors. Ceilings day asnow, of being excessively polite, lacking in
were exquisitely ornamented with classical plaques human warmth and the quality of livability. See also
and rinceaux; walls, generally painted light gray or England. [145, 471, 587, 1113, 1115, 1352.]
jasper, were a foil for the gilt, painted, or light wood
furniture. Their decoration was after the antique ADELPHI, THE. Signature or trade name of the
models of Pompeii and Herculaneum; rich ornamenta- Brothers Adam.
tion of great delicacy was painted or executed in
raised plaster (composition), with medallions of AFFLECK, THOMAS. Philadelphia cabinetmaker,
classical figures, architectural motifs as pilasters, came from London 1763, died 1795. Worked in Chip-
arches, niches, etc., generously distributed. Floors pendale style. [33, 1269.]
AGE OF OAK, WALNUT, MAHOGANY, SATINWOOD AMERICA
AGE OF OAK. WALNUT, MAHOGANY, SATIN- AMERICA. The furniture of early America, far from
WOOD. Easy division of the prime English periods being a single consistent style, is the furniture of many
by the woods employed in furniture, as defined by lands, periods, and Each colony imported its
castes.
MacQuoid. Though the use of the woods may overlap, furniture or its way
making furniture. Englishmen,
of
the general separations are: Swedes, Hollanders, Frenchmen, Spaniards, and Ger-
mans brought to their isolated seaboard settlements
Age of Oak, 1500-1660 the crafts of their homelands. There was virtually no
Age of Walnut, 1660-1720 intercommunication that might have amalgamated
Age of Mahogany, 1720-1765 their various talents; most communication was with
Age of Satinwood, 1765-1800 the home country, from which the changing styles
slowly came. Consequently, the basic theme of
ALCOVE. Recessed part of a room. Bed alcoves exist Colonial American furniture is a laggard echo of the
in Pompeiian rooms, and such placing of the sleeping simpler European styles of the day.
quarters was common in northern Europe through the The English colonies were predominant. Two dis-
Middle Ages and later. In the 18th century special tinct strains appear: the Puritan colonies in New
beds were designed to fit such recesses. Alcoves are England, and the royal-grant plantations in the South.
also used for bookcases and cabinets, dining groups, The Dutch colonized the Hudson Valley, but yielded
etc. [116, 668.] merchant class. Swedes brought to the
to the British
Delaware Valley their own arts, and later German
ALMERY; ALMONRY. See ambry. colonists established their culture in the Pennsylvania
forests. The French and Spanish perma-
colonies, less
ALPINE. The mountainous sections between Ger- nent, bore little fruit. In the Canadian Maritime Prov-
many and Italy were meeting places of the northern inces and the American Southwest, respectively,
and southern styles. In lands like Switzerland and the there are relics of provincial improvisations on themes
Tyrol mixed styles developed, too individual to be of the mother cultures. [1170.]
associated definitely with either source. [104, 114, 343.]
AMARANTH. Purplish wood used for veneering

since the 18th century; also called "violet wood" and
"purpleheart."
AMROYNA. An East Indian wood, used as veneer

and inlay. The burls are light reddish brown, highly
mottled and curled. Known and used in furniture since
Roman times.
AMRRY. In medieval churches a recess for the

storage of goods. The addition of doors gave it the
cupboard form. The English equivalent became a
large cupboard with doors; the interiors were fitted
with shelves for storage. See also armoire. [169, 458,
545.]
AMRULANTE (French). Small portable table, used

for serving tea, etc. Period Louis XV and after. [1251.]
AMBULANrE
AM&R.Y
AMERICA AMERICA
EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD-17TH CENTURY

The New England colonists were provincial middle efforts, and it is likely that they actually imported
class. Possessed by the religious zeal that later pre- more English furniture than did the New Englanders.
cipitated the Civil War in England, they left their Medieval European furniture also appears in the
homes shortly after Elizabeth's death. Inevitably, the Pennsylvania settlements of Germans and Swiss, in
homes they built in . the New World were direct the Swedish colonies in the Delaware Valley after
reminiscences of the Late
Gothic-Tudor tradition. 1636, and in the Dutch communities on the Hudson.
Novelty of a decorative nature was excluded for Straightforward peasant workmanship and inspiration
reasons of religious principle, economy, and possibly a appear in the typical chests and cupboards, tables
lack of skill. New England furniture of the period and chairs. A naive type of painting embellishes much
1620-1720 is largely distinguished by its directness of this work and indicates its descent from the Ger-
and the persistence of English Jacobean character- manic peasant decoration. The older influences fol-
istics.Pictures 221 and 227 show chairs of clear Gothic lowed the pioneers, and pushed away from the coast
lineage. Chests and cupboards bore the distinctive to the frontiers, while the coastal settlements advanced
rectangular paneled construction, as illustrated in pic- closer to the current European model. By 1680, there
tures 352 and 357. was a well-established merchant class on the sea-
Tables of trestle type were supplemented by box board. Wealth and fine houses begat fine furniture.
styles and simple drop-leaf types, as in 1194. Desk Europe was in a fine rash of commercial development,
and a few crude
boxes, Bible boxes, forms or stools, and the process of style exchanging and communica-
beds probably complete the meager inventory of the tion was immeasurably accelerated. French and
period. The materials were usually those closest at Flemish versions of the Italian Baroque style were
hand and, for expediency, those most easily worked. rapidly translated in England into the styles of the
Pine was available in tremendous widths; oak, birch, Restoration and William and Mary. There were
and maple were also largely used, with later work modifying influences by way of Spain and Holland,
in walnut, poplar, and all at-hand woods. The wood and the Chinese urge was never altogether absent
was generally left raw, acquiring color and depth after the formation of the various trading companies.
and polish through simple friction and natural darken- This later 17th-century phase is identified in Ameri-
ing. can furniture by the use of walnut, by turnings of
Virginia and most southern colonies were settled by bold trumpet or inverted-cup shapes, spiral turnings,
a wealthier, more secular group. Their earliest furni- elementary forms of cabriole legs, carved shells and
ture probably comprised the more elaborate Jacobean pendants, and the appearance of highboys, lowboys,
AMERICAN FURNITURE OF THE PILGRIM CENTURY IMPORTED IDEAS OR

ACTUAL PIECES IN THE GOTHIC-TUDOR TRADITION.
3 CHAIR TABLE, 1675. CHEST Ipswich, Massachusetts, 1675. CRADLE, 1625-1675.

CARVER ARMCHAIR, 1650-1700.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909
'
* *
iW
AMERICA AMERICA
AMERICAN FURNITURE IN THE 17TH CENTURY SIMPLIFIED THE

DECORATION DETAILS OF THE MOTHER COUNTRIES.
4 COURT CUPBOARD, oak, carving of early style. 5 PRESS CUPBOARD c. 1700. Pine of simplified
Metropolitan Museum of Art Jacobean style.
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909
9 WAINSCOT CHAIR,
tape loom back.
6 PILGRIM TYPE c. 1660.
7 BREWSTER CHAIR 8 WAINSCOT CHAIR, 1648.
AMERICA
10 TRESTLE TABLE, Massachusetts, c. 1650. 11 SUN-

FLOWER CHEST, Connecticut, c. 1680. 12 MINIATURE
SPICE CABINET, Pennsylvania. Model of William and Mary
highboy.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Fanny Avery Welcher, 1911

AMERICA AMERICA
AMERICAN FURNITURE OF THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY IMPORTED MOTIFS
OF ENGLISH RESTORATION, WILLIAM AND MARY, AND CONTINENTAL STYLES.
13 BANISTER-BACK ARMCHAIR, ram's-horn arms, c. 1690. GATELEG TABLE, 1730-1740,

mahogany. FLEMISH-STYLE ARMCHAIR, belonged to Colonel Peter
reveals early use of
Schuyler, Albany.
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
16 STRETCHER TABLE, Pennsylvania type, 1725-1750.

15 WALL CUPBOARD, Pennsylvania. Gothic

reminiscence in hardware and joining.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
AMERICA 9 AMERICA
CHAIR DETAILS-FLEMISH STYLE
14 HIGHBOY, Boston, 1680-1700. William, and Mary style, trumpet turnings,

L~l por.r Q)frt fchrr decorated lacquer.
Ginsburg and Levy
1*
=4 lrchrt
PLAM of HIGHBOY STRETCHER.

SPANISH FOOT
AMERICA 10 AMERICA
AT THE OPENING OF THE 18TH CENTURY THE ENGLISH CHARACTER

YIELDED TO A DISTINCTIVELY AMERICAN STYLE. THIS BECAME THE TYPICAL
COLONIAL OR PROVINCIAL STYLE THAT PERSISTED IN COUNTRY
FURNITURE FOR TWO CENTURIES. SEE 77-84.
17 WINDSOR TABLE, PENNSYLVANIA SETTEE, CANDLESTAND.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. J. Wesley Rln>*, 1947
19 SLANT-TOP DESK ON FRAME, New England, 1680-1700. 18 QUEEN ANNE ARMCHAIR, black,
Pine and maple.
New England, c. 1730.
Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence Israel Sack, Inc.
H
*&/> -
'I ..
'$ ^ \J
20 WILLIAM AND MARY SIDE CHAIR,

New York, c. 1710.
painted black,
Israel Sack, Inc.
22 DECORATED CHEST, Connecticut, c. 1690; oak and tulipwood.

Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
21 QUEEN ANNE SIDE CHAIR, maple, Spanish

foot. Attributed to John Gaines, Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, c. 1720.
Israel Sack, Inc.
23 ROUNDABOUT CHAIR. 24 WAGON SEAT, New England, 18th century.

AMERICA 12 AMERICA
25 LOWBOY, New England, early 18th century, is matched

with 26 HIGHBOY, below.
Israel Sack, Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc.
27A A MIRROR IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE.

Early date indicated by glass in two pieces.
27 DETAIL, NEW HAMPSHIRE CHEST, 1775-1790,

attributed to Samuel Dunlop. Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford
V^JP
j
i
AMERICA 13 AMERICA
THE MID-18TH CENTURY
SHOWS EMERGING AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS.
chests, upholstered chairs, etc. in fact, the roots of

the entire furniture program of the 18th century.
LATER COLONIAL-18TH CENTURY

With the 18th century came mahogany, the develop-
ment of separate style centers in various cities, the
Rococo influence, and the wealth and culture to em-
ploy them. The Queen Anne style is a generalization
for the use of cabriole legs with shell carvings, pad or
animal feet, and a consistent refinement of style and
finish. The Georgian styles were sometimes executed
in walnut, but mahogany ultimately came to the fore.

By 1750, there were distinct styles of cabinetmaking
in Boston,Newport, New York, and Philadelphia.
Goddard inNewport, Savery, Randolph, Gostelowe,
and Gillingham in Philadelphia produced furniture
comparable to the better English work. Their styles
were individual, employing architectural details, in-
tricate Rococo curves, claw feet, and most of the
ornament vocabulary current in England.
28 CHEST, curly maple, drake foot, mid- 18th century.

Israel Sack, Inc.

29 SECRETARY in three parts, 1730-1750.
Connecticut ornament, cherry.
SNAKt Toof
AMERICA 14 AMERICA
MATURE 18TH-CENTURY BAROQUE.
35 KNEEHOLE DESK c. 1760. Israel Sack, Inc.
30 MIRROR, Dutch style.

Wadsworth Athencum, Hartford, Conn.
31 BLOCKFRONT DESK, 1760-1770. Israel Sack, Inc.
32 QUEEN ANNE WALNUT

ARMCHAIR,
drake foot, attributed to William Savery,
C. 1750. Israel Sack, Inc.
34 CORNER CHAIR with fluted column,

Massachusetts, C. 1760. Israel Sack, Inc.
15 AMERICA
33 CHIPPENDALE-STYLE CHAIR attributed

to Thomas Affleck. Wadsworth Athcneum, Hartford
36 "THE ADAMS SECRETARY. Ginsburg and Levy
37 CAMELBACK SOFA, Philadelphia, c. 1760. Israel Sack, inc.
ftSBfflfi
AMERICA 16 AMERICA
39 LATE-18TH-CENTURY BED. John S. Walton, Inc.
38 CHEST-ON-CHEST, Massachusetts, 1770-1780.

Transition of the base shape from serpentine to block
form, then to the flat upper plane, is unusual and most
ingenious. Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
AMERICA 17 AMERICA
40 SERPENTINE-FRONT BUREAU, ogee bracket feet,

Massachusetts, C. 1750. Israel Sack, Inc.
41 BOMBE CHEST, Massachusetts, c. 1760.

42 TALL CLOCK, second quarter of

the 18th century.
Albany Institute of History and Art
AMERICA 18 AMERICA
TRANSITION FROM BAROQUE-LATE COLONIAL TO

CLASSIC FEDERAL STYLE IS MARKED BY GENERAL
LIGHTENING OF ORNAMENTAL DETAIL AS
WELL AS OF BULK.
44 CHEST, Sheraton style, 1820-1830. Israel Sack, Inc.
FEDERAL PERIOD
The Colonial period may be considered ended by
the Revolution. When the war was over, there was
enough resentment of English things to promote the
French influence; since English style of the period
was strongly classical, however, it is difficult to isolate
the direct Italian influence through Thomas Jefferson,
43 PENNSYLVANIA CLOCK, the French imports, or the English classicism of Adam,
c. 1810.
Hepplewhite, Shearer, and Sheraton. Of the latter,
there remain excellent interpretations by the Salem
carver Samuel Mclntire, by Charles Bulfinch, and by
Robert Wellford of Philadelphia. The pinnacle of
American classicism was attained by Duncan Phyfe
[962] with his superb designs after Sheraton and the
French Directoire manner.
The houses into which this furniture found its way
had by this time established their own idioms, dif-
19 AMERICA
45 EXTENSION TABLE in three drop-leaf units, Hepplewhite style, late 18th century. Israel Sack, Inc.
CD
FEDER.AL.
TURNING
fering from the European sources and from each

other, according to climate. In the South the rich
plantations supported great Italian villa forms more
naturally than either Italy or England. More com-
pact houses of stone and brick developed with local
variations in all seaboard cities. New England pro-
duced a superb type of wooden house, beautifully
adapted to the climate and the materials. Sound
craftsmanship flourished. A discreet classicism em- AMERICAN SHERATON CHAIR. BACK.
bellished architecture and furniture alike. Exterior
corner boards became pilasters; flat cornice boards
were molded into classically dentiled friezes; gables
became pediments. Interior parts affected the same
architectural costuming: fireplaces, doors and win-
dows, dadoes and cornices were fine-scaled after
Palladio and Vignola. The furniture of the period
1780-1810, whether imported from France or England
or of domestic manufacture, was notably free of
architectural excesses.
CHAIRS OF AMERICAN FEDERAL STYLE WERE LARGELY AFTER SHERATON.
iffliinmiiu
it
46 Left, Baltimore. 47 Center, New York. 48 Right, Massachusetts. 49 PAINTED SHERATON CHAIR.
50 CABINET, Sheraton style.
51 CLOCK.
All photos Israel Sack, Inc.

SHERATON CHAIRS, c. 1800. 21 AMERICAN
54 Attributed to Mclntire. 55 Maryland. 56 Newburyport, Massachusetts. 57 Philadelphia.
52 TAMBOUR DESK, New York.
INLAYS AND FINE VENEERS i-i-.TnYiv--- -niV

"-"-
ARE STRESSED
IN EARLY-19TH-CENTURY
CARINETWORK.
3^33 fees"
51A INLAY DETAIL, New England,

end of 18th century. Israel Sack, Inc.
22
53 SERPENTINE-FRONT SIDEROARD, Hepplewhite style, c. 1790. Israel Sack, Inc.
58 REDPOSTS, Salem, Massachusetts. 59 MAHOGANY FOUR-

POSTER in the Sheraton tradition, New York, c. 1820.
Yale University Art Gallery, Mabel Brady Garvan Collection
60 TERRY MANTEL CLOCK

c.1817.
61 CARD TARLE, New York, attributed

toMichael Allison.
^Bf^
A
Israel Sack, Inc.
^N,
65 DETAIL OF CARVING,
table c. 1800.
63 CHAIR, style of Phyfe, Albany, N.Y., Museum of the City of New York
1S15-1820. Albany Institute of History and Art
/
64 TRIPOD TABLE, 1810-1820.
New-York Historical Society, New York City
66 SOFA TABLE. Israel Sack, Inc.
AMERICA 24
71 MIRROR, 86 inches high.

67 NEW ENGLAND TAMBOUR DESK.
Photographs Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
69 HEPPLEWHITE ARMCHAIR, Massachusetts, c. 1790. 70

SHERATON-STYLE "MARTHA WASHINGTON" ARM-
68 SEWING TABLE, Massachusetts, c. 1800. CHAIR, Massachusetts, 1790-1800.
The stretcher is rare.
73 SIDEBOARD, Sheraton style, Boston, 1800-1810.
W^^^ t'
r*
72 GIRANDOLE MIRROR.
74 FALL-FRONT DESK.
Israel Sack, Inc.
75 BOW-BACK SOFA, Massachusetts, c. 1800. Israel Sack, Inc.
76 SEWING TABLE, New York, c. 1810.

26
77 LIVING ROOM, LUTHER BURBANK BIRTHPLACE.
All photographs except No. 82 front Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
AMERICAN COUNTRY FURNITURE
The country or village styles of Colonial American wood exhibit the tremendous vitality of a people de-
furniture developed many utilitarian types absent or pendent on their own resources. Beds with short posts,
scarce in city Chief of these is the Windsor
life. ladder-back chairs, wagon seats, rocking chairs, writ-
chair, with innumerable local variations. Stools,
its ing chairs, etc., are uniquely American. By far the
chairs, benches, chests, cabinets, etc., of unique types greatest independence of design and technique is
made in pine, maple, hickory, oak, apple, or cherry found in these robust folk arts that declined only
with the Machine Age. [77 et scq.]
78 HITCHCOCK CHAIR, 1825-1828. 79 SHERATON "FANCY" CHAIR, New York, 1820.

80 FIVE-SIDED TABLE c. 1785. 81 ARROWBACK ARMCHAIR, Massachusetts, 1820-
1830.
PENNSYLVANIA
" LEPPELBORTIE"
82 PINE DRESSER, mkl-18th century. Anderson Galleries
84 NEW ENGLAND
BOW-BACK WINDSOR
83 PAINTED ROCKING SETTEE, c. 1830. c. 1800, with concave
stretcher.
AMERICA 28
AMERICAN EMPIRE
85 ARMCHAIR, New York(?), 1815-1820.

Museum of the City of New York
89 DETAIL OF BED by Lannuier.

87 DROP-LEAF BANQUET TABLE, New England ( ?),

1820-1825. 88 PIER TABLE, marble top and columns, mirror back.
Munson-W illiams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N. Y. (From Fountain Elms) fohn S. Walton, Inc.
29 ANCIENT FURNITURE
represents the flowering of this mood that ran through

the seventies. [124.]
About 1874, a reform wave, drawing on ideas pro-
pounded earlier by Charles Eastlake, synthesized a
return to neo-Gothic simplicity, but in structural prin-
ciple rather than in mere detail. The style of the
1880's lived only to yield to a revived classicism after

the Columbian Exposition in 1893. On the most
fashionable levels this looked back to the Italian
Renaissance, the French Renaissance, to Louis XV,
and an effort at total recall, not excluding a resus-
citated Colonial. Laissez-faire eclecticism or stylish-
ness has been the American leitmotif ever since. As
90 MAHOGANY SIDEBOARD c. 1820. this situation is not limited to the United States, the
subject is considered more thoroughly under the head-
ing NINETEENTH CENTURY. See also EASTLAKE; HITCH-
COCK; PHYFE.
EMPIRE
Napoleon's Empire style was not long in arriving.
It added to furniture a forced architectural heaviness
that symbolizes the decline of pure line. Even Phyfe's
work after 1825 took on the thick, graceless quality
that earned the title "Butcher's Furniture." Closely
following the Regency mannerisms in England, the A M OR N I
Pompeiian-Roman delicacy yielded to Greek-Egyptian

solidity. A mistaken archaeology interpreted the solid AMORINI (Italian). Cupids, painted or carved in
stonework of the latter into wood furniture of massive decoration. Sometimes only the winged head is used.
plainness. Curved brackets, legs, etc., were thick and Profuse in Baroque work, especially under direct
heavily ornamented. Sleigh beds, massive bureaus, Italian influence.
scroll sofas,heavy pedestal tables, etc., were decorated

with coarse carving, sometimes gilded, suggested by ANCIENT FURNITURE. Our knowledge of the fur-
the bronze appliques used in France. [210, 423, 495.] niture of the ancient civilizations is gleaned from
Phyfe, Lannuier, and other outstanding designers two sources: (a) actual remains or remaining models,
moved from Directoire inspiration to Empire; then, and (b) pictorial, sculptural, or written descriptions.
together with the craft as a whole they coarsened, Thanks to the Egyptian custom of providing the dead
debased the Empire, crossed it with neo-Gothic, neo- with objects of daily use, we find in their tombs a
Classic, neo-Rococo, and every other whim that crossed key to the earliest furniture forms. Of the furniture
the Atlantic. Expanding markets created a far-flung of Assyria and nearer Asia there remains only the
industry based on the machine and on mass produc- record of stone sculptures. Greece and Rome also
tion. Sheraton's chair gave rise to the "fancy" chair, left picture records in carving and vase ornaments
for which there was an insatiable appetite. (Carl and wall paintings, as well as some relics in stone
Deppard estimates that in 1830 there were more than and metal. These point to a highly developed art of
8,100 chairmakers for fewer than 13 million people.) woodworking in keeping with the architectural superi-
The Hitchcock chair is a good example. In 1818, ority of these peoples, but actual forms and styles
Lambert Hitchcock devised a mass-production chair, are conjectural.
shipped and exported in parts by the many thou- Egypt may be regarded as the source of the most
sands every year. ancient furniture ideas, some vestiges of such develop-
The style setters ( custom makers with rich clienteles ment being attributed to the era prior to 1800 b.c.
in the large cities) kept fashion turnover lively. The In this remote time, tables and chairs, couches, stools,
was lost in the voluptuous
classicism of the thirties and chests of recognizable form were in use, in-
curves ofpudgy Rococo, inspired by the 1851
a dicating skill in turning, carving, joining, inlay, and
Crystal Palace. By the end of the Civil War, this painting. These talents and their products were ex-
Rococo revival had assumed the forms and manners ported to the then known world Crete, Assyria, Baby-
of a full style, commonly called Victorian. Belter lonia, Phoenicia, and, later, Persia and Greece. More
ANCIENT FURNITURE 30 ARCA
or less similar motives were reworked to the local ment to offer as evidence of age or authenticity. Thus
taste and materials, and descended to the present day. there is a premium on This is turn must
reliability.
See also antique; egypt; greek; pompeiian; roman. invite a degree of reticence on the part of reliable
dealers. The signs by which authenticity is recognized
ANGEL BED. Bedstead with a canopy, but with no are too precarious for the average collector.
pillars in front. The curtains are drawn back at the Antique furniture may be described as repaired,
sides next to the head of the bed. Usually the canopy The last frankly admits
restored, or copied. to being
extends over only a part of the bed, while the counter- newly made, but more or less painstakingly after an
pane goes right down over the foot. Chiefly French, old model, often employing old wood and old proc-
18th century. See bed. [113.] esses. Restorations are a pitfall, since the restored
sections may represent the greater bulk; an old table-
ANIMAL-COUCHANT FOOT. Furniture leg ending top mounted on a new base, no matter how well
in the form of a reclining animal. [1035.] studied and matched, should not be represented as an
antique, although such representations are occasion-
ally detected. Repairs are often necessary for the
continued existence of the piece. The extent of these
and the care with which they are effected will be the
determining factors in the valuation of the piece. See
I.I M
1 J I I
also ANTIQUING; FAKES AND FAKING; REPLICA; REPRO-
AMIMAL COOCMAMf FOOT
DUCTION .
ANTHEDIION. The Greek honeysuckle pattern con-

ventionalized to radiating cluster. ANTIQUING. The process of treating wood or finish
on furniture to make it look old. Wood may be simply
ANTIMACASSAR. 19th-century doily or cloth used worn oft at the edges and corners; it is sometimes
to protect chairbacksfrom soiling by hair, which at
scratched, gouged, planed, etc. (called "distressed"
that time was dressed with macassar oil.

finishes). Even fine bird shot and nails are used to
simulate wormholes and other ravages of time. Wood
ANTIQUE, THE. Reference to the classic Greek and is also subjected to various acid treatments, bleaches,
Roman styles. and stains to suggest age. Paint finishes are glazed
with washes of dirt colors to reduce the brilliance
ANTIQUES. In current use the description "antique and to provide an uneven surface.
furniture" implies something more than "old furni-
ture." The something more is relative, depending on APPLE. The wood of the apple tree is very hard, of
local attitudes and values, particularly as to age and a brown-pink color, polishes well, and can be used
cultural worth. for small parts in furniture. It is ideal for turning,
Antique furniture is prized for age, rarity, unique and as such is found in many American 18th-century
beauty, association, or documentary interest or per- pieces. Like all fruitwoods, it has been extensively
sonal sentiment. Though the United States Customs used in provincial furniture throughout Europe.
rules that antiques must be "before 1830," age alone
is and includes too much. In the young
too relative APPLIQUE. Applied ornament. See ornament.
West a piece of Civil War date that might earn
reverence as an antique could be regarded as mere APRON. A structural part of furniture. In tables, the
junk in three-century-old New England. In the South piece connecting the legs, just under the top; in chairs,
the same piece might evoke a nostalgia for a departed beneath the seat; in cabinets, etc., along the base.
and glorious past, the sentiment overcoming possible Sometimes called "skirt." See also construction.
aesthetic deficiencies. Original worth or style is of
prime importance, yet many crude or rough styles ARARESQUE. Painted, inlaid, or flat carved designs,
are valued. The market for antiques is therefore one composed of floral and geometrical scrolls, human or
of specialties. animal and mythological forms, etc. Usually framed
The antique collectors comprises a com-
cult of within a simple shape such as a rectangle.
plete industry, with values and standards and ethics.
The genuineness of antiques is almost as relative as ARCA. Chest for storing treasures, chiefly in the
age. Excluding deliberate counterfeiting or outright Middle Ages and Early Renaissance in Spain and
deception, the dealer has rarely more than his judg- Italy. See also coffer; cupboard.
ARCADE 31 ARMOIRE
ARCADE. In furniture, a carved decoration repre- ARM PAD. The upholstered part of a chair arm.
senting a series of arches; also, a chairback in this
form. [345, 443, 546, 1017.]
ARCADED RACK. Chair or bed back with top rail

cut to resemble one or more arches with pillars. [118.]
ARM STUMP. The front vertical support of the arm

of a chair. See also chair; construction.
ARMCHAIR. See chair.
IDID t>AClC ARMOIRE. A tallcupboard or wardrobe, with doors.

The Gothic types are massive and are decorated
ARCADED PANEL. Typical English Renaissance chiefly with elaborate iron hinges and locks. [173.]
panel decoration consisting of two stubby columns The earliest armoires were probably painted, and
with arch in low relief. [226.] were used for the storage of arms and armor. Later
they were carved with elaborate pictorial panels or
ARCHED STRETCHER. Arched or hoop-shaped simple linenfold patterns. In Frr.nce the Renaissance
stretcher in chairs, tables, and cabinets of the English
91 FRENCH REGENCE, early 18th century.
Restoration period. [267, 1032, 1235, 1276.] Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1919
ARCHITECTS' FURNITURE. Specifically, English

furniture of the 18th century, designed by architects
and exhibiting architectural features, such as arches,
columns, etc.
ARCHITECT'S TADLE. Desk with drawing board

in a drawer or otherwise attached, with other drawers
for supplies. Made in England in the late 18th century
for the then fashionable interest in architecture.
Similar to davenport desk.
1 ten i7ic;i
T6tS
[
ARCHITRAVE. Lowest member of a cornice. Also
a door molding. See orders.
AUK WRIGHT. Early English name for cabinet-

maker. From "ark," the old name for cabinet, and
"wright," mechanic or maker. Arkwright furniture
refers to Late Gothic types in England in which the
construction resembles carpentry rather than cabinet-
work.
ARRAS 32 ART NOUVEAU
influence endowed the armoire with a wealth of

columns, pilasters, canopied niches, and panels carved
with mythological pictures. [695, 1335, 1336.]
ARRAS. Tapestry, particularly as used to drape beds

and walls after the 14th century. Derives from the
city Arras, where the weaving of tapestries was a
major industry in the Middle Ages.
ARRIS. Sharp or salient edge formed by the meeting

of two surfaces. Particularly the ridge between the
channels of a Doric column. See also orders.
ARROW. Decorative theme used in revivals of classic

styles;Renaissance and later, especially Directoire,
Empire, and Biedermeier.
ARROW SPINDLE. Flattened spindle with one end

resembling an arrow. Found on some Sheraton chairs,
and on derivative forms in American chairs of the
Federal period. [79.]
ART MODERNE. French term for the various schools

of contemporary design, affectedly used in America
during the 1920's to label the earliest modern work.
92 CANADIAN, early- 19th-century Provincial Louis XV. See also modern.
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
93 AUSTRIAN OR BAVARIAN, painted, dated 1819.

Liebhold-Wallach
A.HT MOD6RME
ART IVOEVEAIJ. A revived interest in the decorative

arts flowed over Europe about 1875, giving rise to a
concerted rebellion against the stale eclecticism of
the time. A conscious effort to create along new lines
inspired this "New Art." It drew on various motives-
Gothic and Japanese principally and established an
ornamental vocabulary based on natural growing
forms. The typical line is long and slightly curved,
ending abruptly in a whiplike sharp curve.
Henri Van de Velde is the outstanding name of
the style. His exhibitions in Brussels and Paris in
1894 and 1895 demonstrated his personal style. The
33 ASSYRIAN
ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT. A revival of in-
terest in decorative art in England began about 1875.
By 1884, it grew to a definite revolt against tasteless
overmechanization; and it inspired groups like the
Art-Workers Guild to seek to reestablish the individual
quality in the crafts. The ideal was the personal
craftsmanship of the Middle Ages. Neo-Gothic archi-
tects, such as the Pugins, Henry Shaw, and Philip
Webb, and the Pre-Raphaelite group of painters, led
by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones,
and such strong personalities as William Morris and
John Ruskin all contributed to this ideal. Their efforts
created new interest and new expression in furniture
and architecture, pottery, jewelry, textile, and book
design. A deliberately amateur quality, glorifying
handwork, was too violently in opposition to all but
the most intellectual trends, and the movement failed
94 DETAIL OF SIDE TABLE designed to elicit a popular response. In America it materialized
by Hector Guinard c. 1908. in a parallel movement; Elbert Hubbard and his
Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Roycroft crystallizing the ideal, while various degrees
Gift of Mrs. Hector Guimard of success attended the efforts of commercial manu-
copyists were numerous but less successful. His man- facturers who accepted the outward forms for ma-
ner particularly influenced French design for about chine-made products. The Mission style is one of the
a decade, while the Arts and Crafts Movement in offshoots. The furniture forms of the Arts and Crafts
England was a contemporary expression, as were de- Movement are essentially simple and crude; in their
velopments like the Jugendstil (Youth Style) and joinery concepts, rudimentary.They consciously lack
Secession in Germany and Austria. grace, lightness, and charm. The value of the intel-
Generally, the results of these rebellions were more lectual movement cannot be overestimated. It clearly
successful in the minor arts, such as silver and jewelry set a track for later thought. Schools of design and
work, than in furniture or architecture. Most vital is individuals were moved to examine the forces at
the impetus toward a clearer, more rational expres- work, and the result is only now materializing. See
sion. See also modern; nineteenth century. also EASTLAKE; MODERN; MORRIS; NINETEENTH CENTURY.
ASH. A family of trees, the woods of many of which

95 ART NOUVEAU CABINET, Paris, c. 1900.
are used for furniture. The European ash belongs to
a group that also includes olive, and lilac, privet,
jasmine. The olive ash burls of both England and
France are exquisitely figured, and capable of beauti-
ful veneer matching. The color varies from a light
honey color to a medium brown. The American ashes
are used principally as lumber where great strength
is required, as in upholstery frames. The wood is a
very light creamy color, heavy and dense, with a
prominent grain resembling oak. It was used for some
turnings and bent work in very early Windsor chairs.
ASPEN. Species of poplar; the wood is light in
weight and color, satiny in texture; poor structurally,
but decorative as veneer.
ASSYRIAN. Assyrian decorative art was approxi-

mately contemporaneous with the Egyptian. Orna-
mental motives were borrowed, the lotus and other
natural forms being adapted. Animal forms were more
distinctive, featuring the winged bull, lion, and eagle.
ASTER CARVING 34 BALL FOOT
Bronze, ivory, and gold ornaments remain; the wood BACHELOR CHEST. Modern name for small chest
has disappeared, so that the forms of Assyrian fur- of drawers in typically early-18th-century English
niture are conjectural. style. [568.]
ASTER CARVING. On Connecticut chests, three BACK STOOL. Early form of chair without arms,
flowers on a central panel; also sunflower carving, such as the sgabelli of Italy and similar forms in Al-
See also Connecticut chest. pine countries. [217, 707.]
ASTRAGAL. Small half-round or convex bead mold- BACKGAMMON BOARD AND TABLE. The game
ing; molding on overlapping doors. [173.] goes back to the Middle Ages, and furniture for its
play appeared as soon as specialized tables appeared
ATHENIENNE. Round tripod table or stand, adapted in the 17th century. Fine examples occur in French
in Louis XVI and Empire periods to washstands, etc. and English work. [1278.]
[1338.]
}
BAG TABLE. Small work or sewing table, with one
or two drawers, the lower having a cloth bag at-
tached. Common in 18th and early 19th century,
England and America. See also table. [68, 96, 1260.]
ATHENIENNE ATUHTfS
ATLANTES. Supporting columns in the shape of

male figures. See caryatid. [1035.]
ALFBCSSON. Fine handwoven tapestries or carpets

originating in the French village of that name. [1132.]
96 VICTORIAN ENGLISH BAG TABLE.
AUSTRIA. Austrian furniture is essentially German,

following the Gothic phase with the Renaissance in- It All IT (French). In the Middle Ages, a portable
fluences of Italian origins. Proximity to Italy brought coffer or chest used for personal luggage. It usually
the Italian manners, but the German character is had a rounded and was covered with leather and
top,
basic. The Alpine variants of these styles are found studded with developed into a chest perma-
nails. It
in Austrian furniture of the 16th and 17th centuries; nently mounted on feet, and was used for storing
oak, pine, and fir in paneling, chests, and beds recall household goods. The current form in France is a
the Swiss types. Cabinets are in the South German decorative high cabinet.
manner. Occasionally, there were periods when the
High Renaissance Italian types dominated, but Austria BAIL. Metal loop or ring forming a handle. See also
must be considered aesthetically a German province. HARDWARE.
There are no distinct types or schools; the local varia-
tions, while highly characteristic and individualistic, BALDACHIN. A free-standing canopy supported on
may be considered uniformly German in character. columns.
See also Germany. [457, 466.]
BALL AND CLAW. See claw and ball. [27, 183.]
AVODIRE. African wood of medium density and
strength, light-yellow color and satin-smooth texture. BALL AND RING. A turning of a ball and narrow
Extensively used in decorative veneering in modern member, found in 17th-century work.
cabinetwork.
BALL FOOT. Round turning used as foot on chests,
AYOCS. Light-colored wood similar in color and etc., chiefly in 17th-century furniture. Same as bun
markings to primavera, but softer in texture. foot in England. [798, 1034.]
.
35 BAROMETER CASE
BANDY LEG. Cabriole leg.
banister. Baluster.
RANISTER RACK. Chairback with spindles or simi-

lar upright members. In 17th-century English and
American work, it was common as split turnings.
[242.]
RANJO CLOCK. 19th-century American wall clock

in the form of a banjo. [101.]
97, 98 ENGLISH BALLOON-BACK CHAIRS, 1850-1870.
RALLOON RACK. Chairback style developed by

Hepplewhite, extensively used in Victorian work.
[97, 897.]
BA LESTER. Small column, turned, square, or flat,
supporting a rail: it also formed chairbacks in archi-

tectural forms. [635.]
BAMBINO. Representation of the infant Jesus, used

as a decorative feature in Early Italian Renaissance
work, and subsequently.
BAMBOO. The wood of thebamboo tree is used for

furniture in the East, and came to the Occident with
the various waves of Chinese influences. In the 18th
century this was so important that the characteristic
appearance of the bamboo was simulated in wood
turnings in England and America, and the type is
known as the "bamboo turning." [1087.] In the last

quarter of the 19th century, a literary and artistic en-
thusiasm for things Japanese produced a unique style
in minor or cottage furniture, worked in actual bam-
boo as well as in turned-wood simulations painted 99 BAROMETER, England, 1793. 100 BAROMETER. New
ochre yellow. York, 1820. 101 BANJO CLOCK, Willard, 1801.
RANK. A long seat or form, of the Middle Ages

BANDEROLE. Painted or carved ribbon decoration, ( England )
often with an inscription or other device. See also
RIBAND. RANQLETTE (French). An upholstered bench.
HANDING. A narrow edging or border of veneer BANTAM WORK. Type of lacquering in late-17th-
around the fronts of drawers; a contrasting band of century Dutch and English work, derived from Ban-
inlay. [389.]
tam in Dutch Java. Design usually incised in black
bamboo settee enslisw \<*
t cento^v ground.
ball feet
BAROMETER CASE. Barometers, with other sci-
4 entific instruments,
the 18th century.
were objects
Handsome
of great interest in
were designed for
cases
them, particularly in England, France, and Italy, in
the various Rococo and classical styles. [99, 100.]
BAROQUE 36 BEAD
BAROQUE. The whole tendency of European design

in the 17th century was toward exaggeration, over-
emphasized brilliance. The movement was a natural
consequence of the increasingly ornamental Renais-
sance style; its extremes resulted from the Jesuit
Counter Reformation, the effort of the militant Cath-
olicorder to recapture the imagination of the masses
through overawing splendor. Italian art had exhausted
the simpler vocabulary by 1550. The need for new
types opened a path for unrestrained virtuosity. The
spreading Renaissance carried manner every-
this free LlTI lfLIK
where, and for two centuries most European art was I>kLoqvi
Baroque.
Motion is the essence of the Baroque, as distin- blustering and bold. Its feminine counterpart, the
guished from the repose of the classic ideal. Large Rococo, came in the 18th century, substituting pret-
curves, fantastic and irregular, are explosively inter-

tiness and charm for Baroque magnificence.
preted, reversed, ornamented. Twisted columns, dis-

BARREL CHAIR. Easy chair with a fully rounded
torted and broken pediments, and oversized moldings
back, developed in England after the gondole of the
sacrificed the structural sense to a tremendous the-
Louis XV period. [289.]
atrical effect. Scale and proportion had new meaning,
everything being calculated to strike the eye, to excite
RASE. The lowest member of a piece of furniture or
rather than to suggest quiet and harmony. [172.]
of a column. As "basses" the word designated the
In furniture the earlier Baroque tendencies were
lower part of 17th-century English beds.
merely exaggeration of scale. Fantastically overloaded
ornament was added later; the earlier work was \si\ STAND. Washstand; light table on which
IS
actually freer of plastic decoration than the preceding
basins were set. Common in 18th-century English
Late Renaissance types [192, 464]. Cabinets whose
work, it was sometimes spelled "bason-stand." [1339.]
midsections were simply, if insistently, paneled, were
carried on excessively carved bases and bore great
BAS-RELIEF. Sculpture in which the carving pro-
pediments, usually broken and capped with towering
jects only slightly from the background. See also
finials. Chairs were elaborately scrolled and carved
CARVING.
[559]. Tables had bases of rich sculpture, fancifully
shaped stretchers; others had twisted columns or com-
BASSET TABLE. Card table, Queen Anne period.
plex scrolls as legs. Beds, particularly in France and
England, were colossal structures of draped textiles.
BASSINET. Bed for a baby. Originally basket
[107.]
shaped, and sometimes made of wicker.
RASSWOOD. American wood of light color and

weight, softtexture, slight figure, and medium
strength. Works well and does not warp or check
readily. Used for inexpensive painted flatwork, but
chiefly valuable as core stock for plywood panels.
BATIK. Figured fabric produced with wax resist

and successive dyeings or paintings, after an ancient
Javanese process.
Surface treatment became more splendid after 1650.
Earlier solid wood surfaces were then painted, gilded, BATTEN. Strips of wood used as a brace or cleat
polychromed; inlays and marquetry reached their across one or more boards.
ultimate heights in the work of Boulle and the imita-
tive scrollwork of seaweed marquetry. Marble and RAYWOOD. Honduras mahogany.
imitation stone, vivid textiles, cane and metals all con-
tributed to this unrestrained decorative orgy. [159.] BEAD. Half-round molding, usually small. See also
The Baroque is withal a masculine style, virile and MOLDING.
BEAD AM) REEL 37 BED
BEAD AND REEL. Bead mold in which are carved
alternate round and oval forms. See also molding.
BEADED DRAWER: Fine molded half-round or

quarter-round profile on four edges of a drawer,
typically 18th-century English. [476.]
BEARING RAIL. Member in table orcabinetwork

that carries the drawer. See also construction.
HEAL BBLMMEL. Late-18th-century English dress-

ing table with complex arrangements of adjustable
mirrors, candle brackets, shelves, and drawers. De-
signed for men's use, they became
increasingly com-
plicated after Early Georgian types, as male dandyism
spread. The name was acquired during the George IV
period. [520.]
DUTCH
Box >ED
NEU/ yoRK C.I fc$0
BEALFAIT. BEALFATT, BEALFET. Early spell-
ings of "buffet." leaves and moss. Mattresses, stuffed with feathers,
wool, or hair were invented early in the Middle Ages.
BEALVAIS: Tapestry from French city of that name. These were piled upon benches against the wall or
Looms started in 1664. [1125.] into the low boxlike structures that persisted in
provincial sections through the 18th century. Probably
the Crusades yielded the idea of the canopy or curtain,
for after the 12th century beds are always pictured
with draperies that could enclose the bed. These grew
in elegance and size; in the north the addition of
wood panels made a complete room-within-a-room.
After the 14th century fabrics were richer and thicker.
One type of free-standing bed had suspended tester
BED. Ancient drawings portray well-developed bed or canopy and several layers of draperies; this form
types in Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome. grew in importance through the 17th century when
Over basic structures of stone, wood, or metal were it attained tremendous size and splendor and extremes
thrown animal skins and textile for softness and of costliness. In Europe the wooden-en-
northern
warmth. The framework was often well designed and closure idea was favored, utilizing the two walls of a
adorned with inlays or appliques of metal, ivory, etc. corner. Picture 102 shows a North German example
Egyptian tomb remains show typical couches, wood with curtains forming the enclosure. The step in the
frames with lacing of hide or rope, often made to foreground is a chest for bedding, etc. In the northern
fold. Turned or animal-shaped legs of good design French provinces a similar type lasted through the
are common. Bedding consisted of manifold layers early 19th century, often with sliding wood panels in
of linen sheets. The pillow was a wooden stand curved place of curtains. Pictures 103104 show free-standing
to fit the head, and more comfortable than it looks; German structures of wood embodying the same idea,
it was cool in the hot summer nights and prevented
smaller in scale and freer for ventilation. In the Eng-
the elaborate headdress from becoming disarranged. lish example, 105, it is significant that the bed stock
Greek sculptures show high frames, with turned is a separate frame.
legs, probably of wood. Roman beds were even higher, The wooden superstructure and enclosure reached
with a raised head section and inlays of gold and its zenith in England in Elizabeth's reign [549]. By
ivory in fine woods. Bronze and even silver were also that date the Continental tendency toward multiplica-
used. The fabric parts were elaborate and costly. tion of fabric parts had spread to England. The period
Some Pompeiian houses had curtained alcoves for saw the bed grow, like the dinosaur, to the exaggera-
beds. tion that predicted its doom. In France the state bed
The first beds in northern Europe were piles of was a composition of over thirty textile parts, with
leavesupon the floor covered with skins, followed at yardage of embroidered satin and bullion fringe and
an early date by a shallow box or chest filled with cloth of gold enough to run the cost into fair fortunes.
38 BED
102 NORTH GERMAN RENAISSANCE, 1568. Corner

of room enclosed by wood canopy and curtains.
No wood was There was a multiplicity of

visible.
fabric members pentes, basses, cantonniers, and bon-
negrdces covering everything, and topped off by
103 SOUTH GERMAN, early 17th century. Free-standing
clusters of plumes or swags. In England, too, the bed wood canopy.
remained a colossal symbol of wealth and position up
to the reign of Queen Anne. Measuring 7 by 8 feet 104 LATE GOTHIC ALPINE c. 1500. Detached boxlike
enclosure.
and 11 feet high, the cost often ran up to many
thousands of pounds. [105.]
The 18th century scaled down room and furniture.

Beds became lighter and simpler in woodwork and
drapery. In France many variations appeared: the
small separate bed frame in an alcove, draperies
covering the open front; the baldaquin bed, or crown
bed; the angel bed, suspended canopy and
with
*\ >\ fLA
curtains looped back; the duchess bed, and others.

In England the general type was a simpler four-
poster bearing canopy and draw curtains. Beds by
Chippendale, Hepplewhite, the Adams, and Sheraton
were important and highly decorative structures but III
the draperies are less voluminous and the whole scale
The "field bed" appeared as a smaller canopy
finer.
type that became popular in America. Beds of the

Empire period were low, chunky blocks, usually un-
draped, and sometimes set on a dais, often with the
typical heavy scroll. In America this was known as
the "sleigh" bed. Most significant about all 19th-
century beds is the low, solid quality. American four-
posters with abnormally heavy posts, richly carved,
1
Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright
105 THE "GREAT BED OF WARE," late 16th century. Carved oak, inlaid and painted, 10
feet 9 inches square.
106 ENGLISH, period of Henry VIII.

Collection Cooper Union Library, New York City
105A CHINESE, MING DYNASTY, 1368-1628. Light en-

closedframework is described in documents of the era.
From Chinese Household Furniture, by George Kates,
courtesy Dover Publications, New York.
BED 40 BED

107 THE GREAT STATE BED OF THE 17TH CENTURY, from Rushbrooke Hall, England,
c. 1685. In size and cost of decoration, beds of the Restoration period in England and of the
era of Louis XIV in France reached a peak. All exposed parts are of fabric and needlework.
108 The 18th century saw the diminution of size and of fabric parts, and increasing emphasis
on decorative woodwork. Black and gold lacquer, made by Chippendale c. 1755. Drapery
missing.
BEDS OF LATE-18TH-CENTURY DESIGN WERE LIGHT
FRAMEWORKS WITH DECORATIVE DRAPERY.
109 AMERICAN, mid-18th century. John S. Walton, inc. 110 PHYFE, 1800-1810. Museum of the City of New York
111 FRENCH, late 18th century. Don Ruseau 112 WOOD CANOPY, DIRECTOIRE. Don Ruseau
BED 43 BED
THE CANOPY BECAME MERELY DECORATIVE are common. The current styles of beds are
still
AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND PLACES ACCORDING TO chiefly based on these designs, scaled still smaller,
THE CHANGE IN VENTILATING CONDITIONS OF ROOMS.
and ornamented with period forms rather than copied
literally from the larger prototypes.
The perfection of modern springs and mattresses
has removed the necessity for the heavy wood fram-
ing that was required by the laced-rope floor of 19th-
century beds. The minimum framing, just enough to
raise the bedding from the floor, with a panel for the
head, is favored in much contemporary designing.
Metal frames, usually iron or brass tubing and /or
bars, became popular about mid-18th century, and
have more or less held favor since. Wrought-iron
headboards had been familiar in Mediterranean coun-
tries earlier, but utilitarian production and sanitary
aspects appealed to 19th-century logic. Cast-iron ap-

peared in decorative designs in Spain, France, and
America or wherever casting was practiced. It gave
way to assemblies of bars and tubes fabricated with
cast-iron ornaments in the later 1800's and culminated
in the tubular brass bed. [1095a, 1312.]
113 "ANGEL" BED, France, c. 1780. The canopy is on the

wall. 114 BEDSTEAD, pine, Tyrol, 16th century. 115
COLONIAL AMERICAN c. 1725. The partial canopy and
curtains are purely decorative.
Don Ruscau
THE ALCOVE AS BASIS OF THE BED DESIGN EX-
PRESSED THE ULTIMATE LUXURIOUSNESS OF THE
18TH CENTURY.
116 BED ALCOVE Palazzo Segrado, Venice, c. 1718.

in the
Harmony of elements and accessory furniture
architectural
makes the whole composition more significant than the bed
alone.
Now in Metropolitan Museum of Art
117 BED ALCOVE, period of Louis XVI, from the Hotel de

Gaulin, Dijon, 1772.
Now in Metropolitan Museum of Art
45
118 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, 16th century. Di Salvo
IN WARMER CLIMATES THE CANOPIES DISAPPEARED

ENTIRELY, AND POSTS RECAME DECORATIVE ONLY.
120 FLEMISH c. 1625. Free-standing bedstead with stump

footboard. Ginsburg and Levy
.rflA' dfl * '
fti!r r**?*^L3i
I i
*
***** '?r ??
'
~Z, "i
119 ITALIAN, 17th century. French and Co., Inc.

BEDSTEPS
ENCLISH
16 CENTURY
French ir Co., Inc.
EARLY 19TH-CENTURY
EMPIRE INFLUENCE.
121 AMERICAN EMPIRE

STYLE, mahogany with ormolu
decoration, c. 1810-1820. Probably
the bed referred to in Duncan
Phyfe's bill. ( See phyfe. )
122 MAHOGANY "FRENCH

RED" OR "SLEIGH RED" with
square plinth feet inthe style of
the Rest6ration, New York or
Newark, 1835-1845.
123 FRENCH, designed by Per-

cier and Fontaine , executed 1815
by Desmalter. State bed of Alex-
ander I, Mahogany, with ormolu
mounts. Statues at foot are "Con-
quering Love" and "Apollo Con-
quering a Lion." Medallions of
Day, Night, Signs of the Zodiac,
etc.
BED BOLT 47
BED BOLT. Covered bolt and sunken nut used in

some styles of bed to fasten the rail to the headboard
and footboard. Decorative brass cover plates occur in
Federal American beds. See also hardware.
BED MOLDING. Small mold under the corona or

large molding of a cornice.
BED STEPS. Low steps made for climbing into high

beds; 18th-century English and American work.
BEDSTOCK. and some Continental

In Elizabethan
types the posts of the bed often stood clear of the bed
proper. In this type the bedstock was the framework
that actually supported the bedding. [105.]
BEECH. Northern hardwood, Europe and America;

dense texture and light color. Used chiefly in middle-
quality work, country style in England, etc., since the
17th century; found in good French provincial furni-
ture. Adapted to turning, polishes well to light-brown
color.
BELL SEAT. Round seat, Queen Anne period.
BELLFLOWEB. Ornamental detail, carved or painted,

resembling bell-shaped flowers arranged vertically.
See also husk; ornament.
BELTER. JOHN H. American cabinetmaker; he had

125 CONSOLE WITH WHATNOT. Rosewood and maple
a shop in New
York after 1840, and made rosewood, "parlor suite," by John Belter.
walnut, and oak furniture in the style of the Second, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Lowell Ross Burch and Miss Jean McLean Morton, 1951
or late, Empire, generally referred to as Victorian.
Highly carved sinuous framework lines with heavy Belter is credited with developing a form of lamina-
roll moldings and fine naturalistic flower carving; tion for chairbacks, which were later pierced and
upholstery in brocades and damasks. The craftsman- carved in complex designs that would have been im-
ship was excellent, and much of his work survives. possible in solid wood. [125, 912.]
Btooklyn Museum
124A CHAISE LONGUE by Belter, c. 1860. Rosewood.
124 CENTER TABLE.

127 FLEMISH, 15th-century Gothic.
BENCH. Seat without a back, usually a long oval or

oblong. In England the word sometimes refers to seat
with a back or ends, or a settee. See also cassapanca; 131 SPANISH. Lo Mejor de Espana
SETTEE; WAGON SEAT. [126 Ct Seq., 1160.]
BENCH Workman's, joiner's, etc. Heavy work-

table, usually fitted with "Bench
vise, tool racks, etc.
made" implies handwork, as distinguished from ma-

chine or quantity-assembled work.
132 FRENCH, RUSTIC. Don Ruseau

133 ITALIAN, 16th century. ^TcTJmZentLTl94l
128 FRENCH BANQUETTE, 17th century.
129 SPANISH. Lo Meior de Espana

BENEMAN 49
BF\F>I\V GUILLAUME. Outstanding cabinet-

maker-designer of the earlier Empire styleFrance; in
noted for monumental mahogany cupboards and com-
modes of architectural character.
BENTWOOO. Bending wet wood into chair parts

of
legs, bows, arms, etc. was practiced by country
woodworkers (probably originally wheelwrights)
from earliest times. Windsors in England and America
show skill with certain woods. About 1840 Michael
Thonet in Vienna began to bend all parts of chairs
designed so as to utilize the special strength of such
parts scientifically joined together. Thiswas one of
the earliest mass-production enterprises,and millions
of chairs, tables, etc., made by this technique were
produced, are still being produced, and are in general
use. Bentwood must not be confused with molded
134, 135, 136 BENTWOOD by thonet, Vienna after 1860.
plywood. See also nineteenth century. [913, 1006.]
BERAIN. French family of designers and craftsmen.

Jean, 1640-1711, published books that spread the style
of Louis XVI; he designed arabesques, etc., for Boulle. 137 BIBLE BOX c. 1690 on chest dated 1693. New England,
Claude, brother of Jean; Jean (the younger), 1678- oak. Typical half turnings and small panels.
1726. See also boulle; France. [1125.]
BERGERE. Upholstered armchair with closed up-

holstered sides. Specifically, chairs of French style,
copied in England and Germany. Also spelled
"birjair," "barjair." [284.]
BEVEL. A sloping edge, of various angles, applied to

any material wood, glass, metal, etc. Similar to
CHAMFER.
BIBELOT. Small objets d'art; knickknacks. Stands

like whatnots, etageres, etc., made for collections.
BIBLE BOX. Small slant-top table or desk, used to

hold the Bible. [1016.]
Itlltl IOIIII )|l I 50 BIRDCAGE
BIBLIOTHEQUE. French term for large architectural

; * I f
bookcase. See also bookcase. [143.] \ {
1 \
(Dene
i
KM HI mil II It. German style, first half of the 19th

!
t.
century, chiefly based on French Empire forms. It is

1
essentially a style of the lesser nobility and the

bourgeoisie, imitating the Paris Empire meubles de
luxe of the grander houses. These adaptations, the
products of local materials and skill, are odd mixtures
in varying degrees of sophisticated motives, with naive
proportions and techniques. Architectural themes and
classic ornaments are given homely interpretation.
Carved details are represented in paint, black or gold;
the classic flora are sometimes rendered as more
familiar vegetable forms. Simplified surfaces and de-
tails recall Empire outlines. The woods are largely
local pear and other fruitwoods, walnut, maple, birch,
beech but much mahogany furniture remains. The
name from a comic-paper character, Papa
derives
Biedermeier, symbol of homely substantial comfort
and well-being Gemiitlichkeit. Later, it also con-
noted "old fashioned," "stodgy." In either case the
style, imitative and awkward as it may be, is an in-
teresting example of the process of copying and
adapting a foreign style in toto. See also biedermeier;
Germany. [138, 151, 164, 331, 337, 391, 901, 1056.]
BILBOA. Mirror with frame of marble or of marble

and wood. Popular late 18th century, named after the
usual port of origin. Also spelled "bilbao."
BIRCfl. Wood family of many varieties found in

temperate zones. White and sap birches are soft; red,
black, and yellow are hard. Used everywhere for fur- BIEDERMEIER
niture, usually Harder varieties have
inexpensive.
great strength, work well and polish well, often as
imitations of mahogany and walnut. Most extensively
used for structural work, next to gumwood.
BIBDCAGE. Openwork box of wire, wood, wicker,

used for caging birds. Occurs decoratively in
etc.,
many styles, and sometimes forms an important fea-

ture in the decoration of rooms.
BIPPCACE
ENGLISH ie TW CENTURV
BIEDERMEIER
BIRDCAGE CLOCK. English brass clock with open BLANKET CHEST. Any chest for the storage of
pendulum and weights, chiefly late 17th century. blankets. Now, particularly, chests with a hinged top
section with drawer in or near the base.
BIRDS-BEAK Rounded V cut on molded corners:
English and Early American. BLISTEB. Figure some woods, such
in as maple,
mahogany, cedar, poplar, and pine.
BIBD'S-EYE. Small figure in wood grain resembling
a bird's eye. Principally in maple but occasionally in BLOCK FOOT. Square end of an untapered leg, as
other woods. It is produced by cutting tangentially in Chippendale work. [409.]
through the indentations that sometimes appear in the

annual rings. [801, 928.]
BISELLUJM. Roman seat for two persons.
BLACK WALNUT. See walnut.
BLACKAMOOR. Negro figure used as table base in
Baroque Continental furniture, early 18th century and

again in Victorian work, 1850-1870, England and
America.
6LACK.AMOOR-
bLOCK. FCOT
HI Ot KFRONT 552 BONBE
RLOCKFRONT. Front of chest, desk, etc., divided

vertically into three panels, the center concave, the
end panels convex. The best types are mainly flat,
curving only near the panel edges. The tops end in
flat arches, or, better, with a carved shell. The type
seems be peculiarly American, a Baroque expres-

to
sion dating from the period of 1760-1780, and is as-
sociated with the work of John Goddard and the
Newport School. [367, 489.]
60M&E COMMODE &ER.MAN
BOLECTION. Important projecting molding, used to

frame a fireplace, large panel, etc. Generally with out-
ward roll and ogee shape in section.
BOMBE. Swelling or convex surface; bulging fronts

and sides, as found in furniture of period of Louis XV,
late-18th-century Italian and other Baroque work. [41,
365, 370, 1036.]
BOISER.IE
I8CENTUR.Y FRENCH
BLOND WOODS, FINISHES. A vogue for light wood
tones has brought forward many of the lighter woods
such as holly, primavera, avodire, aspen, birch, and
maple.
whitish
grain and
In poorer work these
finish,
are given
Other devices include bleaching, suc-

color.
cessful to a degree in mahogany and walnut; pig-
mentation, in which the open grain is filled with light
opaque fillers; pickling, using plaster on soft woods.
a
tending to obscure the irregularities of
cloudy
H
IIP ! 1? &
BOARD. Table, prior to the 16th century. Early din-

ing tables were loose boards borne on trestles. Later,
refers to sideboard.
BOASTING. Rough or preliminary carving.
BOAT BED. Low heavy bed of Empire period,

chiefly American, like the gondola or sleigh bed.
[122.]
BOBBIN-TURNED. The bulging or swelled part of

the turned stretchers of Windsor chairs. [473.]
BODYING-IN. The operation of filling the grain of a

coarse wood in the process of finishing.
BOISERIE. French term

cifically for
for woodwork; used spe-
18th-century carved panels.
%mm^mmm W mfmhiW
fflWF
KOMII I l< 53 BOOKCASE
BOMIFl R BE JOER. French desk consisting of a

flat cabinet with fall front, carried on legs. Developed
for the use of ladies in the era of letter and diary,
period of Louis XVI and afterward. [141, 494.]
French it Co., Inc.

Dah a Brothers, Inc.
142 BONNETIERE, France, end of 18th century. Normandy

141 BONHEUR DU JOUR, Louis XVI, Sevres plaque in face. type of traditional Louis XV design but with Revolutionary
symbols.
BOOK BOX. Same as bible box.

BONN EGB ACE. Bed curtain, 17th century.
BOOKCASE. The earliest bound books were stored
BONNET TOP. An unbroken pediment or top section in shelved closets, and the architectural bookcase was
of a highboy, secretary, and the like; also "hooded the only type known until the 17th century. About
top." Typical late-17th, early-18th-century English de- the middle of that century detached bookcases ap-
sign. peared, retaining their architectural relationship to the
room. About 1700, smaller cases were known in
BONNETIEBE. French cabinet, tall and narrow, and France. Detached bookcases of oak and walnut ap-
deep enough to accommodate the elaborate bonnets peared in England during the Restoration; and in the
peculiar to Normandy and Brittany in the 18th cen- first half of the 18th century they were of prime in-
tury. [142.] terest to architectural designers like Kent and the
BOOKCASE 54 BOOKCASE

s.
143 BIBLIOTHEQUE, painted white and gold, from the Hotel de Gaulin, Dijon, 1772.
Though not detached from the wall paneling, this shape is essentially that of the breakfront
type developed contemporaneously in England.
cZ/urm?ii ^yOacma:,
144 PLATE XC FROM CHIPPEN-

DALE'S The Gentleman and Cabinet-
Maker's Director, 1762.
Langleys. Bookcases by the latter were simply detailed
and beautifully proportioned. Kent applied nonarchi-
tecturalornament in the form of columns, consoles, 145 DESIGNED BY ROBERT ADAM c. 1767. Carved and
and rich carving. By mid-18th century, Chippendale gilded decoration, pine stained to imitate mahogany.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cadwalader Fund, 1951
had developed his masterful designs to a level that
has remained a standard ever since. [144, 727, 1322.]
The architectural character remained throughout
the 18th century, in which the bookcase form de-
veloped. The three-part breakfront form was most

popular in France and England. The best examples,
from the point of contemporary usage, were made in
England. These were usually conceived as the perma-
nent decorative features of a given wall, in which
respect they developed from the architectural idea.
[Cf. 143 with 146.] Chippendale, the Adams, Hepple-
white, valued the bookcase as a wall feature, and
etc.,
their bookcases are among the best of their designs.

The small bookcase [bookshelf, 155] seems to have
originated in France, but its superior development
took place in England toward the close of the 18th
century. The Begency period shows the best of this
size, with numerous variations, such as alcove and
recess cabinets, smaller stands, combinations with
worktables, shelves for display of biblelots, curios.
Nineteenth-century bookcases were too often an ex-
cuse for an excessively architectural composition of
too many unrelated parts. Small bookcases were de-
vices accessory to easy chairs. They often had re-
volving racks. See also cabinet; secretaire; shelves;
WHATNOT.
146 ENGLISH c. 1800. French <b Co., Inc.
147 ENGLISH, late 18th century. Needham's Antiques, Inc. 148 AMERICAN BREAKFRONT, Gothic tracery. Israel Sack, Inc.
57 BOOKCASE
149 BOOKCASE-CONSOLE, Sytnons Galleries, Inc.

English Regency.
151 BIEDERMEIER c. 1810.
150 WRITING TABLE WITH Sytnons Galleries, Inc.

BOOKRACK, Regency.
152 ENGLISH REGENCY c. 1820.

Sytnons Galleries, Inc.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1923 Needham's Antiques, Inc.
153 ENGLISH REGENCY TABLE WITH BOOK CARRIER. 154 REVOLVING BOOK-
STAND, English c. 1800.155 BOOKSHELF, English c. 1780. 156 REVOLVING BOOK
TABLE, French c. 1880.
BOOKREST. Slanting framework, sometimes adjust-

able, on which to rest a book. See also reading stand.
BOOKSHELF. See bookcase; standing shelf.
BOOTJACK. Hinged or solid board with V cut to fit
the heel, used to help pull off boots; in Early American

work, a V cut in the end board of a chest, for the
same purpose.
BORAX. Colloquial for cheap, showy furniture, par-

ticularly intended for the installment trade. The origin
of the word in this sense is speculative. One guess
attributes it to the premiums formerly given with a
well-known cleaning compound of borax; others iden-
tify it as corrupted foreign-language slang.
BORNE 59 ROULLE
ROTTLE-E1VB GLAZING. The bull's-eye forms, or
bottle bottoms, were leaded together and used to
glaze the doors of cupboards in England and on the
Continent, 16th and 17th centuries.
BOTTLE TURNING. William and Mary leg turning

reminiscent of the shape of a bottle. Originally Dutch.
[1194.]
ROLILLOTTE TARLE. Small round table originally

made for the game of that name, French, 18th century.
BORNE FRANCE C 1850
[158.]
RORNE. French type of sofa, oval or round, with a

pillar in the center. [910, 1307].
BOSS. Round or oval ornament after Gothic sources, 158 BOUILLOTTE TABLE, Louis XVI. Marble top,
common in 17th-century English and American work, parquetry. Doha Brothers, Inc.
particularly on chests. Usually half-turning painted

black. [11, 352.]
BOSTON ROCKER. Rocking chair, American 19th

century, with wood seat curved upward, wide scrolled
top rail, and delicate spindles. Usually painted with
fine ornamental detail. [77, 157.]
157 BOSTON ROCKER c. 1835. Stenciled gilt flowers on seat

and top rail.
ROULLE. Andre-Charles Boulle, 1642-1732, French

cabinetmaker under the patronage of Louis XIV. He
designed and executed the mirrored walls, "wood
mosaic" floors, inlaid paneling, and pieces of mar-
quetry of the Palace of Versailles. He advanced the
art of marquetry and introduced the practice of in-
laying brass into wood or tortoiseshell. This distinctive

style has come to be known by his name, often spelled
"Boull" or "Buhl" work. [179, 502, 636, 1039, 1375.]
EOC III
60 HOI I I I
159 BOULLE "SECRETAIRE A ABATTANT' Datva Brothers, Inc.

inlaid with pewter, brass, mother-of-pearl,
ivory, mounted bronze-dore.
BOURBON RESTORATION 61
ROLRRON restoration. After Napoleon I, the

French restored the Bourbon monarchy, which lasted
through Louis XVIII and Charles X (1824-1830).
Design in this period took no initiative but followed
the eclectic Late Empire trends current throughout Sweden l6r, c
Europe. See also nineteenth century; restoration.
ROX RED. Early beds of northern Europe were more
ROW RACK. Windsor chairback which the bow
in or less boxlike enclosures, an open side having wood
or hoop is continuous either down to the arms or to panels (in France) or curtains. Later, a folding type
the seat. [1349.] was common in Scotland.
ROW TOP. Continuously curved top rail of a chair. ROX SETTLE. Low chest used as a seat, with back
formed by a hinged lid. Early development from cof-
ROWFRONT. Convex-shaped front of a chest, buffet, fer. [3.]
etc., characteristic of 18th-century work.

ROX STOOL. Stool with hinged lid over box section;
BOWL STAND. Same as hasin stand; washstand. chiefly Early Renaissance. [879.]
ROX. One of the most primitive pieces of furniture, ROXWOOD. Dense, light yellow wood of genus
boxes are used as receptacles for every conceivable Buxus. Its uniform close grain is excellent for carving
object. They lend themselves to the widest variety of and for small articles, such as turned parts, handles,
decoration, and so are more easily described by their rules, inlays, etc.
special uses. See also chest; coffer; desk hox; pipe
Boxes. RRACED RACK. See fiddle brace back. [318.]
Wadsworth Athenenum, Hartford, Conn. Museum of the City of New York

160 CARVED WALNUT CASKET, Dutch, c. 1600. 162 SEWING BOX, American, 1800-1820.
Metropolitan Museum of Art Museum of the City of New York

161 PAINTED BOX, Italian (Ligurian), 15th century. 163 DUELING BOX, London, c. 1830.
BRACKET 62 Itltl AKIitOM
BRACKET. A small ornamental shelf. Also, any wall 164 BIEDERMEIER BREAKFRONT BOOKCASE,
lighting fixture. A supporting member between the first quarter 19th century.
leg and seat of a chair or table, or the leg and body

of a case. Pierced brackets of many designs are char-
acteristic of Chippendale work.
RRACKET CLOCK. English clock intended to stand

on a bracket or shelf. See also clock; shelf clock.
[421.]
BRACKET CORNICE. Cornice supported by brack-

ets or modillions at regular intervals. [102.]
RRACKET FOOT. Simple base on chests and case

furniture of the 18th century. The foot runs two ways
from the corner, in more or less simple shapes. The
type was highly ornamented by Chippendale in Eng-
land, by Goddard and others in America. [262, 442,
565, 710.]
CHIPPENDALE
FEETVORK
6HACKETS
165 "SALEM" SECRETARY, American Breakfront.
C. 1800. Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
Clock. Bracks
BRASSES. Handles.
RRAZIER. Metal receptacle for holding burning

coals, commonly used in the Orient and the Mediter-
ranean countries for heating; they are often beautifully
designed and decorated. [1156.]
RREAK. Marked projection on a cabinet.
RREAKFROIVT. Front formed on two or more planes.

Specifically, the word is now used to describe a book-
case or cabinet in which a center section projects for-
ward from the two end sections. [95, 146, 578, 1322.]
BRETON 63 BUILT-IN FURNITURE
ered with a raised pattern. An important upholstery

and drapery fabric originating in India and exten-
sively used in the Renaissance and other ornate styles.
.[287.]
BBOCATELLE. Heavy fabric, chiefly silk, woven usu-

ally in large patterns that appear to be embossed.
BBOKEN ABCH; BBOKEN PEDIMENT. Referring

to a pediment whether straight, swan-neck, or goose-
neck, the side lines or scrolls of which do not meet or
come to a point. [91, 738.]
BROKEN FRONT. Breakfront.
RROKEN PEDIMENT. Pediment of any shape that

is interrupted at the apex. [36, 444, 1041, 1045.]
RRONZE. Extensively used for furniture in the an-

cient world, its strength permitted an extreme light-
ness of design that is accepted as typically Greco-
Roman, and was so copied in the classic revivals of
166 BREAKFRONT BOOKCASE, English, Early Victorian.
the 18th century, ormolu, process of gilding bronze,
became very popular in 18th-century France. Louis
BRETON. French provincial style of Brittany.

XV and subsequent work is noted for its superb
bronze chasing and modeling. [1296, 1338.]
BREWSTER CHAIR. New
England type either
Early
originated by the Pilgrims or brought over by them.
RURINGA. African hardwood even stripe with
of
It has heavy turned posts, many turned spindles, and

mottled figure, medium red-brown. Very hard and
wood durable, and polishes well.
a seat. Provincial Jacobean in type, its general
characteristics are common in earlier chairs from the
Continent. [7, 227.]
RUFFET. Sideboard; dining-room dresser, of almost
any description, used as a receptacle for articles not
BBIDAL CHEST. Same as dower chest or hope immediately wanted at the table. Originally Italian,
chest. A decorated box for the accumulation of house- the buffet was highly developed in France and in
hold and personal goods. The romantic implications England in the Stuart period, and later in many forms
led to its becoming the object of considerable deco- throughout the Georgian Era. See also court cup-
ration, particularly in New England, Germany, and ROARD; SERVER; SIDEHOARD; TAHLE ( SIDE ) .
Sweden. See also Connecticut chest.

RUHL. Spelling used in England for Boulle work.
BRITISH COLONIAL. Style in architecture and fur-
niture developed by British settlers and officials in BUILT-IN FUBNITURE. Chests, cabinets, corner
colonies such as the West Indies ( Bahamas, Bermuda, cupboards, bookcases, etc., treated as integral parts of
etc.), South Africa, India, etc., in late 18th and early the structure have been known since the earliest times.
19th centuries. Consistently simple and reminiscent of In the Far East, particularly Japan, the practice is
Late Georgian work, it exhibits local influences in universal in the case of receptacle furniture. In Europe
appropriate planning and materials. the upper classes in the Middle Ages lived a nomadic
existence, necessitating portable chests, etc., but the
BBOABCLOTH. Plain woven fabric; mentioned as a lower classes developed built-in beds and benches,
material for bed curtains and draperies. chests and cupboards. Becent styles have favored such
built-in equipment as cupboards, closets, and book-
BBOCABE. Textile woven with a pattern of raised The contemporary functional style utilizes the
cases.
figures resembling embroidery. Originally in gold or economy and efficiency of built-in furniture, including
silver, in later use any fabric richly wrought or flow- even seatings to an unprecedented degree. [1094.]
64 BUTTEBFLY TABLE
BUBEAU. Originally a cloth cover for a table, used
when writing. In France, a desk derived from a chest
set upon a table, and pushed back to afford the writer
an armrest (Louis XIII). [1033.]
Sheraton defined the bureau as a "common desk
with drawers," and this was the name given in Eng-
land to the entire family of desk-and-drawer combina-
tions known in America as "secretary." In America the
word came to refer to a chest of drawers, generally
for the bedroom, and was highly developed during
the early 19th century.
BUBEAU BOOKCASE. Chippendale's term for a

piece of furniture of which the lower part was a desk,
the upper a bookcase.
BUBEAU TABLE. Goddard's name for his kneehole

table.
BUBJAB. Chippendale's name for a large upholstered

chair like the French bergere.
BUBL. Excrescences or abnormal or diseased growths

appearing on trees, often from an injury to the bark.
When sliced into fine cross sections for veneer, they
produce beautifully figured mottled or speckled pat-
terns. These are used for the most decorative veneer-
ing. As the usable portions are often small, they are
matched in symmetrical panels. Walrtut, maple and
ash are the commonest American burls, but many fine
burls occur all over the world. [567, 573, 737.]
BURR. Burl.
French <b Co., Inc. BUTT. The stump end of the log. The root spreads
167 BUILT-IN FURNITURE originated in treatment of stor-
away from the trunk, and sections through the junc-
age utilities as part of woodwork. Recessed sideboard of Gothic
elements. ture possess a unique grain, desirable for decorative
veneering.
BULBOUS. Turning resembling a bulb, common to
most European styles from the Renaissance on. The
BUTT BINGE. Common type of hinge for hanging
Dutch passed it on to the English, who made it an doors. See also hardware.
outstanding characteristic of their furniture in the
16th and 17th centuries. [555, 1194.]
BUTT JOINT. Joining, either of solid wood or of
veneer, at the ends of the grains. See also construc-
BULLION I TMNGE. Fringe of heavy twisted cords. tion.
Originally these had metal strands.

BUTTEB CUPBOABD. Ventilated cabinet used in
BULL'S-EYE MIRROR. Round ornamental mirror, Europe for the storage of bread. [459.]
often with convex or concave glass. See also giran-
dole. [72, 866.] BUTTEBFLY TABLE. Small drop-leaf table whose
leaves are supported by a swinging bracket resembling
BUN FOOT. English term for "ball foot," usually a butterfly wing or rudder. Chiefly American, after
somewhat flattened. [356.] 1700, the earliest examples are of maple. [168.]
BUTTERFLY WEDGE 65 CABINET
CABINET. Almost any type of receptacle furniture
1
alp/-
I may be termed a cabinet, though it generally implies
drawers or shelves.
The cabinet, or cupboard, form has a mixed ances-
try in the coffer or chest, and the closetlike armoire
[91] or ambry. It is primarily a receptacle; as such its
B varietymust be infinite. It was early realized in Italy

and France that the top of a coffer could be used as
a seat or table; this suggested the front opening in-
stead of the top, the first stage in the cabinet.The
form was complete when the cabinet was mounted on
legs high enough to eliminate stooping to see the in-
terior [170]. This type is the sideboard-credence type.
The parallel type, the boxlike cupboard, whatever its
source, came to resemble the chest-on-legs as soon as
Scole I I '
d
itwas found expedient in the latter to make use of the
fe.h
Drawing from Nye, "Colonial Furniture" lower section by closing in the open space. The conver-
gence of these elementary types is shown in the evo-
168 BUTTERFLY TABLE.
lution ofFrench cabinets from the simple Gothic box
[714] to the Burgundian cabinet [175] with vertical
BUTTERFLY WEDGE. Butterfly-shaped cleat in-
emphasis, or from the horizontal cabinet of earliest
serted into adjoining boards to hold them together. Renaissance style to the mature style of Louis XIII
[177]. In this period, the early 17th century, the cab-
BLTTEBNIJT. Hardwood similar to black walnut. Its inet was the dominant article of furniture, embellished
importance increases with the demand for black wal- by every decorative resource. Carving and painting,
nut. Also known as white walnut, its grain is similar inlaying, marquetry, and encrustation with stones of
to that of black walnut, but its color is lighter and beauty and value, with mirrors or metals, paneling
texture softer. and moldings, were lavished on the monumental cabi-
nets of Italy and France. Their height and physical
BYZANTINE. From Byzantium, Roman Empire of importance made them focal points in the room, and
the East, centering in Constantinople, 476-1200. By- their association with articles of value and beauty jus-
zantine furniture, entirely royal or ecclesiastical, was tified the lavish decoration. The cabinetmaker was
debased Roman with profuse ornamentation in Near therefore the head of the woodworking craftsmen, and
Eastern style. Rich carving, with inlays of gold, glass, the name persisted.
stones, in motives of ritual significance. Interlacing Another structural point caused this name to stand
bands, stiff animal forms, sharply cut foliage, etc., out. Earliest cofferswere solid wood planks. Sometime
remain in later Russian and South European as well in the Middle Ages the carpenters who specialized in
as Italian work. furniture hit on the framed panel ( a thin panel fixed in
grooves in a stout frame). For lightness and strength
BYZANTINE. Specifically, a three-cornered chair be- this was far superior to the solid board. It also reduced
lieved to have originated in Scandinavia, and popu- the risk of cracking and of warping from shrinkage.
larized in England in the Middle Ages. [239.] The paneling itself provided some decorative charac-
ter. The guild of huchiers-menuisiers broke away from
the guild of simple charpentiers. Ever since, the hu-

chier hutch maker, cabinetmaker has isolated his
craft from that of the mere carpenter.
The ornate cabinet passed its zenith in France but
did not deteriorate in the provinces for two centuries.
The bold pointed panels of this style are characteris-
tic [633]; these passed to England, and characterize
Jacobean work. German cabinets favored twisted turn-

ings, applied at corners [172]. The Augsburg style was
famous. Another development was the desk cabinet.
BYZANTINE THRONE
169 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916
170 Symons Galleries, Inc.

CABINET 67 CABINET
EARLY CABINETS DEVELOPED FROM THE CHEST OR Since money and papers had been stored in coffers,
CUPBOARD, RAISED OFF THE FLOOR AND FITTED
WITH PAIRED DOORS FOR ACCESS FROM the specialized cabinet providing many small compart-
THE FRONT AT EYE LEVEL. ments, and drawers persisted. [1037, 1056.]
Charles II brought back to England the craze for
cabinets. Styles are largely exemplified by cabinets
169 CUPBOARD developed from chest; Flemish, late-15th- after that: the William and Mary highboys with their
century Gothic.
turned bases and marquetry top sections, the Chinese
lacquered cabinets [392] of Queen Anne and Geor-
170 CHEST-ON-STAND; flamboyant Gothic-Early Renais- gian times, the richly carved and gilded bases of late-
sance, France.
17th-century cabinets, and the important cabinets of
Chippendale and the Georgian designers testify to
their vitality.
Specialization in the 18th century led to so many
types that they can scarcely be listed the use is part
of the name, as in jewel cabinet, sewing cabinet, etc.
Cabinets were less imposing as they became smaller,
so that today the usual implication is a box or case
for a particular use. Many cabinets are built in, or so

designed as to form part of the plan of the room, such
as corner cupboards, recess cupboards, etc.
Small cabinet stands appeared in the 18th century
as accents in architectural decoration, and for the
housing and display of collections of objets d'art, and
curios. See also buffet; chest; desk; highboy; hutch.
172 DUTCH, 17th-century Baroque. Rosewood and ebony.

Hispanic Society of America
171 INDO-PORTUGUESE, 17th century. Redwood with

ivory, ebony, and mother-of-pearl inlay.
PLEKISH CRLDENCQ l5thC

CABINET 68 CABINET
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of ]. Pierpont Morgan, 1916

173 GOTHIC OAK CABINET, late- 15th-century French. Post-and-panel construction with
linenfold panel decoration. The carved astragal and wrought-iron lock and hinges are superior
features.
174 CHINESE INLAID WOOD CABINET, Late Ming Dynasty, 1368-1628.
175 FBENCH, Henry IV, early 17th century. Armoire a deux corps. Style of Jean Goujon.
176 ITALIAN, 16th century.
177 FBENCH, Louis XIII c. 1620-1625; Italian influence,

ebony.
CABINET
THE CABINET REACHED ITS HEIGHT AS A SHOW-
PIECE AFTER 1600 IN ALL ADVANCED CENTERS
OF EUROPE.
CABINET 70 CABINET
178 GERMAN JEWEL CABINET, 17th century. Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
179 CABINET in the style of Boulle, Louis XVI. Frick Collection

180 ENGLISH c. 1771. Rosewood and satinwood veneer with inlays of marble mosaic.
181 REGENCE "VITRINE.

warn
CHARLES E. CABINET
CABINET
72
CABINET
ViCt ri "" nd
Albert Museu m, C rown
Copyright
,ffiENa,s
'".*.i,. aJ marquetry.
.
CABINET STAND 73 CABRIOLE

CABINET STAND. Decorative stands for cabinets, CABRIOLE. Furniture leg shaped in a double curve,
chests, etc., appeared as soon as life in Europe ceased the upper part swelling out, the curve swinging in
to be nomadic. The handsome chests and, later, Ori- toward the foot, which again flares out. Rs use in
ental cabinets were mounted on elaborately carved European furniture began late in the 17th century with
and gilt frames. Planned for use against a wall, only the many efforts at varying the familiar turned and
the fronts were ornamented. There was often a rim square legs. Raroque virtuosity sought new complexi-
to hold the cabinet in place. The shape either evolved ties for this member, having exhausted all manner of
into a side-table form, or combined with the cabinet decorated and spiral turnings. First it added scroll
to form the highboy and the tall cabinet. forms to the feet; then double and reversed scrolls. In
time the sharp break was smoothed out and the whole
CABINETMAKER. General term for joiners or case- leg made into a sinuous line. Elaboration appeared at
furniture makers. Joiners make rigid box forms in the knee, the top outcurve, and at the foot. In the
which the parts are articulated by means of specially method of articulating the vertical leg to the horizon-
shaped interlocking parts, such as dovetails, secured tal apron came the development of flowing lines that
by adhesives, not nails, or adhesives helped by screws distinguish the Rococo style.
as well as by the cut joint. This distinguishes the The foregoing development is particularly exempli-
cabinetmaker from the carpenter, who makes struc- fied in the Dutch, Flemish, and English schools of the
tures mostly held together by nails. late 17th century, but illustrates only one phase of the
Specialization within this field began early. The general trend toward curvilinear forms. In France
European guilds defined ranks of achievement, rising the transition from Raroque Louis XIV to Rococo Louis
to the ebeniste. Incidental specialists became turners, XV through the Regence is illustrated in the growing
chairmakers, etc. See also cabinet; construction; importance of the curved leg. Here the type evolved
JOINERY. through the fancy of the animal foot pied-de-biche
being carved from the square block in a slight curve
CABINETWORK. The finer classification of interior ending in a carved animal's foot doe, goat, ram, horse,
woodwork and furniture, as distinguished from car- etc. In time the curve became richer, the shoulder or
pentry. knee (upper part) being more continuously joined to
the curve of the horizontal structure. In later Rococo
CABLE. Rope molding. [810.] work the animal resemblance was abandoned and be-
came an abstract sinuous line ending in a scroll.
CABLE FLLTING. Fluting whose lower ends are Another source of the cabriole form may be in the
filled in with a convex molding. Far East, whence the Dutch navigators brought the
dragon foot, clasping a jewel. This general form is
CABOCHON. Carved ornament resembling a gem or heavily echoed in some work of the middle 17th
polished stone, common in French Rococo work and century.
English derivatives.
183 AMERICAN CABRIOLE

Albany, 1750-1775.
CABRIOLE 74 CANCELLATED
The name springs from the root copra goat through French and British mannerisms, with a minimum of
the Spanish cabriole, suggesting its resemblance to the imports. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a
bent leg of an animal. fairly definite trend emerges in the French-speaking
In all styles in which it appears, the excellence of areas, typically rustic-provincial with a remembered
the cabriole leg is an index of the quality of the whole French accent, gay and independent. Separately, the
design.A good flowing line that nevertheless retains English colonists continued their Late Georgian tradi-
an unbroken center line in conformity with the grain tion with imports and adaptations. [248, 435, 451, 971,
of the wood is more pleasing to the eye than an 972.]
excessive curve that cuts the vertical quality. [262,
314,479,528.] CANAPE. Sofa or couch, originally curtained. [1126.]
CAFFIERI, JACQUES, 1678-1755; PHILIPPE, CANDLE BOARD. Small sliding shelf beneath a
1714-1774. French bronze workers; made important tabletop, used to hold a candlestick. Principally Eng-
metal decorations for furniture, period of Louis XV. lish 18th centurv.
CAMBER. Hollowed or slightly convex surface, to CANDLE BOX. Tall hanging box of tin or wood in
correct the illusion of sagging in unsupported hori- which candles are kept. [964.]
zontal lines.
CANDLE SLIDE. Sliding shelf just over the desk
CAMELBACK. Double curved chairback, shield- section of secretaries, on which candlesticks were
shaped; characteristic Hepplewhite tvpe. [37.] placed. [1069, 1387.]
CAIWEO. Raised carving, usually delicate, on stone CANDLESTAND. Small table, usually tripod, pedes-
or imitations of stone. Used as furniture ornaments by tal or with four legs, for candlestick or small objects.
Sheraton, the Adams, and in the Empire style. [141, [17, 1243.]
204.]
CANE. Flexible rattan woven in open patterns for
CAMPAIGN FURNITURE. Primarily military; por- chair seats, backs, etc. First occurring in English fur-
table utilities such as chairs, tables, beds, chests, desks. niture about the time of the Restoration, it was fa-
Often folding or collapsible or separable into parts, vored by furniture makers of the periods of Charles II,
fitted with handles and lugs, and with minimum pro- William and Mary, and Queen Anne; during the re-
tuberances, to facilitate carrying and stowing. [359.] vivals of the Chinese taste in the late 18th century,
and in the classic work of the Adams brothers; also in
CANADA. Scant surviving furniture of the early set- French furniture of the corresponding periods, partic-
tlements indicates little more than the most functional ularly the Louis XV and Louis XVI styles. [256, 279,
646,902.]
CANNELLATED. Fluted.
CHAIR. CANADA 184 CANADIAN PINE COFFER, 18th century. Musee de la Province, Quebec
r
17 CENTURY (?)
CAQUEFEU5E
75 CARTONNII It
CARD CUT. Latticework ornament low relief (not

in
pierced) in the Chinese manner. Favored by Chippen-
dale. [413.]
CARD TARLE. Appearing in the later 17th century,

card tables reached their zenith in 18th-century Eng-
land. From Queen Anne through the Regency every
style has fine examples. Leisure and a passion for
gambling universal among the upper classes made the
card table an outstanding necessity. Card tables were
almost always made to fold. Earlier types featured
scooped -out "guinea holes." Finely ornamented cabriole
legs are typical. The style spread to the Continent,
and fine types are found in Late Italian work, especially
in the Directoire style. The fixed type, or permanent,
bridge table and the completely collapsible utilitarian
table are the chief types today. See also game table ;
table. [61, 962.]
185 CANTERBURY, English c. 1800. Srt'dhdJn's Antiques, Inc.
CANOPY. Covering or hood over bed or throne, sus-

pended from wall or ceiling or carried on posts. Archi-
( ^ . irvr ^ ylr r-^F
tecturally, an ornamental projection. See also testeb.
[102, 1311.]
I
CANT. Bevel or chamfer, as on an edge.
CANTEEN. Small box or case, partitioned for cutlery

or bottles. CARLTON HOUSE DESK.
CANTERBURY. In current use, a magazine rack;

originally a portable stand with partitions for sheet CARLTON TARLE; CARLTON HOUSE DESK.
music, etc., also used to carry supper tray, cutlery and English writing table, end of 18th and early 19th cen-
plates. Named for the cleric who first ordered such tury. In Sheraton'sDrawing Book it appears as a
a piece. [823.] "Lady's Drawing and Writing Table," with a bank of
small drawers and compartments placed upon a table.
CANTONNIERE. also CANTOINE, CANTONEER. The central part of the tabletop pulls out or is adjust-
Narrow embroidered band forming part of the drap- able to an angle, and beneath this leaf are wide
ery of a canopy bed. drawers for drawing paper. Usually mahogany or
satinwood, with brass gallery. [1382.]
CAPITAL. The head of a column or pilaster. The
various orders of architecture are easily distinguished CAROLEAN. Referring to the period of Charles II,
by their capitals. All types are used in furniture orna- King of England 1660-1685. See also England; bes-
ment. See also obdebs. tobation.
CAPPING. A turned or square ornament. CARTEL CLOCK. 18th-century hanging clock, often
bronze. [416.]
CAQUETEUSE; CAQUETOIRE. French chair with
high narrow back and curved arms. Late 16th century. CARTON-PIERRE. Composition substitute used to
[220.] simulate wood carving, introduced by Robert Adam.
CARCASS; CARCASE. Body or framework of a piece CARTONNIER (French). Ornamented box foi hold-
of cabinet furniture. * papers. [1378.]

~ **
r-.n **
76 CARVING
CARVING. Carving applied to furniture includes
every type of relief from simple scratching, gouging,
and chipping, using conventional patterns largely in
one plane, to full relief in plastic or sculptural form.
uui"wwu| jp| n ini Semisavage decoration includes the carving of geo-
a is
s CARTOU CH G
CARVER CHAtK.
CARTOUCHE. Ornamental feature form of an

in the
unrolled scroll or oval table with the edges curled or
rolled over; originally a card partly unrolled or turned
over at the corners, often emblazoned with arms, ini-
tials, etc., as a central decoration in architecture and

William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art (Nelson Fund), Kansas City, Mo.
furniture. Derived from Italian Renaissance architec-
186 COPTIC CARVING, stone, 5th century. Vigorous space-
tural forms, it occurs extensively in Italian furniture
filling flat relief.
after the 15th century, and in French work from Fran-
cis I on. Chippendale employed cartouches as the
central motive on high cabinets. [191, 198.]
CARVER CHAIR. Early American chair of turned

wood parts, named after a chair owned by Governor
Carver of Plymouth. Earlier models are ash, later of
maple, usually with rush seats. [3.]

188 NEW ENGLAND CHAIRBACK c. 1690. Coarsely
simplified detail is due to hardness of curly maple.

189 PHYFE CHAIR SPLAT, 1815-1820.
190 LOUIS XVI CHAPEL CHAIR by
I. Jacob. Overall surface pattern of rineeaux.
Daha Brothers, Inc.
187 SHALLOW FLAT SURFACE CARVING in pine-board

face of New Mexican chest; Spanish influence, early 19th
century. Museum of New Mexico
)
CARVING 77 CARVING
191 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, 16th century; late naturalistic figure modeling. Frick Collection
192 BAROQUE, EARLY GEORGIAN Full relief naturalistic

metric spaces in flat relief. Relics of the most ancient sculpture as table support. ( See 574. Stair ir Company, Inc.
civilizations show the application of this decorative m

technique to articles of everyday utility such as stools,
boxes, etc. Egyptian furniture was carved with reli-
gious symbols and representations of animals done

with meticulous craftsmanship. There is every reason
to believe that the Greeks, Assyrians, Romans, and
other ancients used plastic forms in wood furniture as
well as in stone. Byzantine and Romanesque carving
of the Early Middle Ages show classic vestiges, to-
gether with the Near Eastern or Mohammedan influ-
ences, which include sharp geometric forms low in
relief. During this era the Far East enjoyed the labors
of superlative craftsmen using highly conventionalized
motives and methods. China, Japan, and India ex-
ploited carving beyond most other arts; these were
largely in wood, and partake of the wood quality.
[472, 934.]
European Gothic wood carving is in the greatest
tradition. Its style was perfected in oak and superbly
adapted to the hard, brittle, coarse texture. Renais-
sance carving, largely in walnut, is finer and subtler,
in the classic contrast of thin detail against smooth

surface, but the drawing and architectural outline are
uniformly firm. As the Renaissance waxed, carving
grew more bold, approaching the great plastic com-
positions, with much freestanding relief, by which
Baroque art distinguished. [837.] This robust high
is
relief also typifies the Late Renaissance in France. In

particular, the Burgundian school of Hugues Sambin
CARVING 78
spread carving over everything, to the obliteration of

architectural outlines. [175, 632, 640.]
In the north countries, the Early Gothic tradition
clung; indeed, Romanesque-Celtic influence in the
form of complex convolutions persisted in cruder
work, while the Gothic and earlier Renaissance styles
dominated the upper classes. Scandinavian, German,
Celtic, and even English carving of the 15th and early
16th centuries show such qualities. On them and their
Gothic mixtures was imposed the classical Renaissance
formula. England carved in oak for another century
before accepting the walnut prevalent on the Conti-
nent. The Renaissance forms of fruit and flowers,
angels and instruments, carved throughout Europe, French i? Co., Inc.
inspired Grinling Gibbons and a great art in England.

[798.]
Eighteenth-century carving throughout Europe fol-
lows the trend from free naturalism to stiff classic

decoration. In England the Grinling Gibbons school,
full formed and robust, persisted through the period
of Chippendale influence, and some authorities estab-
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Michael Friedsam Collection
193 LOUIS XVI. Strong, deep modeling.
194 Left center. NEW ENGLAND c. 1770. Shell carving into

the block.
195 BAVARIAN BED HEADBOARD, early 19th century,

style of Louis XVI in Provincial simplicity.
196 FRENCH RENAISSANCE, 16th centurv.
Israel Sack, I)
Lichhold-Wallach, Inc.
':)
'
ii-i
I m
COItMlJCOPlA
BlEDEEMEIEE
SOW C l&iO
3M
CARVING 79 CASSAPANCA
lish 18th-century chronology by types of carving: lion CASE. General term for any receptacle, cabinet, or
mask, satyr mask, etc. In Continental carving the Ba- box used for holding things. In cabinetwork, "case"
roque was lush, large, and full. The Rococo tended refers to the boxlike structure that forms the shell of
toward lightness and grace, replacing mythological a chest of drawers, cabinet, etc.
figures and large-scale classic motives with rocks and
shells, flowers, swags, and ribbons in unclassical asym- CASKET. Small box or chest, often of value and
metry, graceful and rambling. Much plastic or mod- beauty, made woods and metals; inlaid,
of precious
eled decoration of this style was executed in bronze, carved, or painted, they were used to hold money,
cast and chased, and overlaid upon fine wood veneers. jewels, papers, and other valuables. See also chest;
[159, 559, 574, 582, 649.] coffer. [160,178.]
The classic revivals of the later 18th century mini-
mized carved ornamentation. The Adams and the CASSAPANCA. Italian settee formed by adding arms
Louis XVI styles used the thin classical carvings of and back to a chest literally cassone plus banca.
Herculaneum; scrolls and mythological, figures were Chiefly Middle Renaissance Florentine; prototype of
always attenuated, as were acanthus and water leaves English box settle, etc. [198, 1073, 1077.]
and other formal band moldings. Paterae, medallions,
swags, vases, etc., were contained within severe out-
lines, differing from the loosely composed Rococo
compositions. The Empire style used carving more

sparingly than any other, but later 19th-century de-
velopments employed coarsened classic forms. Modern
styles have almost completely eliminated carving on
furniture. See also ornament. [641, 646.]
CARYATID. Greek architectural ornament in the

form of female figures used as supporting columns.
Male figures of the same character are called Atlantes.
Adapted to form legs of tables, chairs, stands of cabi-
nets, etc., and as pilasters for beds, cabinets, mantels,
paneling, etc., they are found in the classic revivals
and in all the more decorative architectural styles of CAK.YATIDS
furniture, such as the later Italian Renaissance, Jaco-
bean, Francis I, Louis XIV, Empire, etc. [640.]
trick Collection
197 CASSONE, Italian, 16th century, walnut
198 CASSAPANCA, Italian, 16th century, walnut. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rotters Fund, 1912
CASSOLETTE. Box or vase with perforated cover for materials. At the height of their use in the 18th and
incense or perfume; also called "essence vases." Eng- 19th centuries, they were used as a definite part of the
land, last half of the 18th century. design. This commendable practice died in the 19th
century, and even now for the most part castors are
CASSONE. Italian chest or box with painted, carved, merely applied after the piece is completed, with the
or inlaid decoration. See also chest; italy. [191.] result that they often mar a good design.
CAST IRON. Iron casting figures extensively in 19th- CATHEDRAL SHAPE. Pointed arch in bookcase
century decorative work. By midcentury there was a and 19th centuries (Gothic revivals)
tracery, late 18th
large list of outdoor furniture. The ease of duplicating in England and America; also on the backs of some
different carved effects
appealed to the Victorian love Sheraton chairs, and in the shaping of the bases of
both for factory methods and for ornate surfaces, and some simple chests of drawers. [446, 1089.]
it could be done cheaply. In interiors it found use
mostly in utilitarian things such as sewing-machine CALSECSE. Upholstered armchair with open sides.
stands, reading stands, table bases, brackets, boxes,
etc. These were often beautifully modeled, with
CAVETTO. Concave molding usually found as the im-
irrelevant ornament. Stoves, as scientific devices, be-
portant member of a cornice. In English walnut furni-
ginning early in the century, were designed architec-
ture this was often veneered crosswise.
turally or with decorative cast-iron elements of naive
charm if not of appropriateness. Beds were fitted with
cast-ironornaments applied to wrought-iron or tubing
CEDAR. The Juniperus virginiana of North America
frames, although there are some all-cast examples. See and the Cedrela odorata of the West Indies are the
also IRON; METAL FURNITURE. fragrant red cedar familiarly used for protection
[199, 1299.]
against moths. It first appears in 18th-century English
CASTELLATED. Architecturally a regularly pierced furniture for drawer linings, boxes, and traveling
cornice,from the parapets of fortified castles. The chests, a use that is still current.
motive was copied in some Gothic furniture.

CEDAR CHEST. The current American household
CASTOR. Small roller attached to the feet or base of chest for storage of woolens, etc., for protection
a piece of furniture, for ease in moving around with- against moths.
out lifting. Castor making was a distinct trade in
England by the end of the 17th century. Early castors CELLARETTE. Deep drawer for bottles in a side-
were of wood; later superseded by leather and brass, board; also a separate cabinet for liquors, glasses, etc.
they are now principally made of rubber and synthetic See also cistern; wine cooler; wine sideroard. [86,
1351.]
81
America has long been noted for the luxurious

easiness of its chairs, which combine in them-
selves all the means of gratification a Sybarite
could wish. The American Chair Company, of
New York, exhibit some novelties, which even
increase the luxury and convenience of this

necessary article of furniture instead of the
;
ordinary legs conjoined to each angle of the seat,

they combine to support a stem, as in ordinary
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich. music-stools, between which and the seat the
199 STOVE, Troy, New York, 1843. Four-column dolphin Spring is inserted ; this we exhibit in our first
cut. It will allow of the greatest weight and
design. freest motion on all sides ; the seat is also made
200 CAST-IRON GARDEN CHAIR, Philadelphia, 1804.

Israel Sack, Inc.
to revolve on its axis. The design and fittings

of these chairs are equally good and elegant,
and certainly we have never tested a more easy
and commodious article of household furniture.
From "Industry of All Nations; the

"
Crystal Palace Exhibition, 1851
201 CHAIRS OF CAST IRON with steel springs c. 1850.
CENTER DRAWER GUIDE 82 CERTOSUVA
CENTER DRAWER GUIDE. Wooden track under CERTOSUVA. Style of inlay employing bone or ivory
the center of a drawer as a guide for its operation on a dark wood ground. Usually small geometric pat-
when drawn. See also construction. ternsstars, triangles, crescents, etc., suggesting Mo-
hammedan origin. Appears in Venetian work in the
CENTER TABLE. Round, oblong, oval, square, or any 14th century; also in Spanish work of Moorish tvpe,
other shaped table finished on all sides so that it may and in subsequent derivations. [215, 1145.]
be used in the center of a room for any purpose. [125,
135,543,952.]
CERAMIC. Seen in furniture as tile tabletops in the
Near East, Spain, and the Netherlands, and in

Italy,
modern work. Decorative inserts in cabinets and

tables appear in 18th-century work in France ( Sevres
[202] and England (Wedgwood) [204], and in Ori-
ental screens and cabinets. China made whole ceramic
pieces as stools and tabourets. Picture and mirror
frames and accessory furniture articles were made in
the great experimental potteries in Italy and Germany
(Capo di Monte and Meissen) and in Scandinavia.
Decorative and ingenious ceramic stoves and fire-
places were made in the Baltic lands in the 18th and
19th centuries. [708.]
202 LOUIS XVI GUERIDON, gilt bronze with

Sevres plates. Frick Collection
OiM^
Doha Brothers, Inc.
203 DIRECTOIRE CONSOLE, ceramic panels in top. Aprons
and legs framed with bronze d'ore. France c. 1800.
204 WEDGWOOD PLAQUES inserted in cylinder desk, c.

1780, bv Saunier. French i? Co., Inc.
CHAIR 83 CHAIR
CHAIR. The' chair, a single movable seat, is most vertugadin, like the farthingale chairs of England,
ancient. Most familiar types were known in ancient were made necessary by the women's extravagant
Egypt, Greece, and Rome; significantly, the names for skirts. Later, the fauteuil, a comfortable chair with
special types are ancient. [205 et seq.] arms, developed, utilizing the newly invented uphol-
Egyptian remains indicate the use of wooden chairs stered seat. Louis XIV saw the development of mag-
as well as of ivory and metal. The folding, or X, type nificent, luxurious chairs, scaled from thrones to simple
is found in tombs; it was often carved with animal styles and by 1700 most of the familiar forms had
forms and covered with whole skins. Fixed four-legged appeared: fauteuils, bergeres, wing chairs, confession-
chairs were significantly carved and painted, animal als. During the Regence the lines became flowing,
feet, as of the bull and lion, being common. Greek curved; stretchers disappeared; chairs of the Louis XV
chairs, evidenced by sculptured reliefs, were of grace- period are delicate, exceedingly graceful, masterpieces
fully curved form; the grand type was called thronos. of fluid line.About this time springs were invented,
From Rome there are relics of light turned chairs of changing the upholstery principle.
metal, wood, and ivory elaborately wrought and cush- In England progress followed the French example,
ioned with In Rome the X-chair had some
silk pillows. with local variations. Jacobean chairs were still basi-
significance of caste; it seems to have been reserved cally Gothic, and the Renaissance appeared slowly,
for magistrates and nobles on public occasions. The adding details from Italy, Spain, Flanders. Heavy oak
cathedra was a chair with a back used by women. was universal in square box constructions through the
The Early Middle Ages left little evidence of a com- Commonwealth, with nothing but sausage turnings to
mon use of chairs; the curule type, developed as a modify the angularity. With the Restoration came Ba-
folding form, persisted for the use of dignitaries. Later roque details, spiral turnings, boisterously carved
medieval chairs were entirely a prerogative of high stretchers and crestings; these were imposing but
estate; they traveled about with the lord, and when
rarely comfortable. The X-chair fairly disappeared at
set up were mounted on a dais and capped with a this time, but the elementary overstuffed chair came
soon after. The Dutch William and Mary established
tester or canopy. A more permanent type of chair
the cabriole leg; and Queen Anne's style shows a
evolved in Late Gothic times by the addition of a seat
to the wall paneling the wainscot chair that with a wholly new type, Baroque in its wholesale curvature,
solid panel back is found as late as the 17th century

yet distinctly English. Seat plan, back posts and front
in New England. Elsewhere the panel became posts,

legs, splats and cresting were all curved, yet the curva-
the whole structure lighter and more comfortably pro-

ture was entirely different from the contemporary
portioned; but the connotation of caste remained. French chair. For some years the development of the
In Italy the Renaissance brought forward (besides English chair followed this decorated Queen Anne
the development of the curule chair into Dantesca and style.Chippendale developed pierced slats, new top-
Savonarola types) the simple chair structure of four rail and finally the square front-foot after
shapes,
posts with arms, less architectural than the wainscot Chinese lines in place of the ubiquitous claw-and-ball
or paneled chair, though scarcely more comfortable. cabriole leg. Chippendale chairs are notably wider,
Comfort came with the addition of upholstery, at lower, more comfortable.
first loose cushions; later, attached pads with fine fab- The French influence again became dominant after
ric or leather covering. The development of ornamen- 1750. Hepplewhite and others literally reproduced the
tally carved members as seats and stretchers was rapid exquisite Rococo shapes. Even the Classic Revival ac-
and significant. Lesser chairs were usually a narrow cepted the whole proportion and silhouette, substitut-
board or frame; early domestic types of turned frame- ing for the sinuous lines a set of sharply rectilinear
works with rush seats were known. Spanish chairs fol- shapes that we identify as Adam, Louis XVI, etc. This
lowed the Italian in most respects; the rustic types of angularity invited new forms; and Sheraton and the
crude workmanship probably became common in the other end-of-18th-century designers produced them
17th century. without limit, borrowing, adapting, distorting every
France produced the earliest comfortable chairs and motive from classical times. In their extreme variety
the widest variety. The chaire always has had special early-19th-century chairs show clearly the frenzied
significance. Under Francis I it begat scaled-down search for novelty. Probably the most significant type
versions with modifications, always toward lightness, was the graceful chair form associated with Duncan
producing a simple armchair type at first called chaises Phyfe in Federal American work.
a femmes, and finally a simple portable framework Of were multiplied everywhere
course, chair forms
dubbed caquetoire, or gossip chairs. The chaises a in Europe. The sgabelle type appeared in all provin-
CHAIR 84
cialwork, most ornate and uncomfortable in the exces-

sively carved Swiss and German forms. The northern
versions of Regence and Rococo bergeres, etc., were
almost new types in themselves. The old chairs of
turned parts persisted in outlying districts into the
19th century, even the triangular type. The ladder
back developed both into a crude rush-seated affair
and into beautifully proportioned slat backs, best of
all America. The exquisite straw-seated chairs of
in
France also grew out of these turned-post forms.
The Windsor chair, utilizing turnings and bent
parts, developedAmerica into a
in triumph of light-
ness, comfort, strength,and economy.
The nineteenth century began with a proliferation 205 GREEK TOMBSTONE showing
of chair styles and sheer quantity as a result of the chair, 5th century b.c.
Industrial Revolution. Sheraton and the Empire domi-

nated England and the Continent and the colonies.
206 207 EGYPTIAN, 2nd century B.C.
From these came infinite variations, some creditable,
but more on the path of debasement that ran right
through the century. Most characteristic types on his-
toric models are the balloon-back Victorian Rococo
shapes in England and America and France; the
semiclassic, such as the Riedermeier in northern Eu-
rope and the Directoire derivatives in Italy. The last
quarter of the century saw the whole gamut of eclec-
tically inspired innovation, approached from every
fashion angle. Upholstery saw the most intensive de-
velopment in history.
new challenge to
Collaterally, the chair presented a
those who perceived the scope of the new mechanics
and materials as well as of the new society. Adven-
turous experiments in mechanical seating devices sel-
dom went beyond the Patent Office, but there was

groping with mediums. Though iron, cast
fruitful and
wrought, was handled with imagination, it was not
pursued far enough. Some of its line quality passed
into Thonet's bentwood. Plasticity was recognized in
the techniques of lamination.
The chair, being insistently a functional engineering

object, challenged the reformers from the start. The
Morris chair met a demand squarely, whereas the
avant-garde three decades later men such as Charles
Mackintosh, Frank Lloyd Wright, Gerrit Rietveld
strained theory to achieve art. A truer rationale in the
1920's culminated in
Marcel Rreuer's steel tubing
chair and its Mies van der Rohe's Rar-
derivatives; in
celona chair; Alvar Aalto's molded plywood; Charles
Eames's Fiberglas; Eero Saarinen's shells; Harry
Rertoia's wire frames; Hans Wegner's wood crafts-
manship; the engineered logic of George Nelson. In
the United States this idiom has had the benefit of
commercialization by architecturally oriented firms
such as Knoll, Risom, and Miller.
CHAIR
208 ROMAN, stone, 1st century c.e. 209 ROMAN, stone, 2nd century c.e.
210 Maryland Historical Society 211 Metropolitan Museum of Art
212
THE FURNITURE OUTLINES OF CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY REAPPEAR IN SPONTANEOUS REVIVALS,
SUCH AS THE RENAISSANCE AND THE EMPIRE
STYLE OF THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY.
210 REVIVAL OF CLASSIC MOTIVES. American, c. 1815,

by Lannuier, New York. 211 ITALIAN EMPIRE. 212
FRENCH, period of the Consulate, 1799-1804, painted and
gilded.
Metropolitan Museum and Mrs. W. G. Fitch,

of Art, Gift of Captain
1910, in memory of Clyde Hill
CHAIR 86 CHAIR

213 ITALIAN, early 16th century, primitive
folding chair, nail-studded walnut with
stretched leather.
214 ITALIAN, 16th century, "Dante"

folding chair, luxuriously detailed.
214 Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of William H. Riggs, 1913 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1913
215 ITALIAN, "Savonarola" folding chair, inlaid certosina 216 ENGLISH c. 1570. "Faldstool," Late Gothic carving with
work of ivory and metal. lozenges of French Renaissance type.
CHAIR 87
Metropolitan Museum of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Bequest of Annie C. Kane, 1926 Fletcher Fund, 1930 Rogers Fund, 1908
217 218 219

25
THE SGABELLE TYPE

SOME CHAIR FORMS GREW OUT OF THE ADDITION OF A BACK TO A STOOL.
THIS PERSISTED IN RUSTIC WORK, AND HAS SOME IDENTIFICATION WITH
THE WINDSOR-CHAIR IDEA.
217 ITALIAN (Urbino?), early 16th century. 218 ITALIAN, 1490. From the Strozzi Palace,
Florence. 219 SWISS, 17th-century peasant chair. 220 CAQUETEUSE, French, 16th cen-
tury. 221 AMERICAN (Ohio) c. 1850. German peasant tradition. 222 ENGLISH, 18th
century. 223 GERMAN, 18th century. 224 SWISS, 19th century.
224
Henry Ford Museum, 222 Arthui S. Vernay, Inc. 223 Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Dearborn, Mich. Rogers Fund, 1908
CHAIR 88 CHAIR
THE WAINSCOT CHAIR GREW OUT OF THE ADDITION OF A SEAT TO

THE WOODEN WALL PANELING. DETACHED, IT GREW
LIGHTER AND LESS THRONELIKE.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Rogers Fund, 1907 Sylmaris Collection, Gift of George Coe Graves, 1923
227
225 FRENCH GOTHIC c. 1500. 226 FRENCH (Lyon), 1550-1580. Italian Renais-
227 THE "BREWSTER" CHAIR, brought to America in 1623.
sance detail.

228 AMERICAN,
_ - . . early' .
17th century.
J 229-30 ENGLISH c. 1635-1650, lighter
and
225 ,. .
Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941 smaller; Gothic influence in carving.
228 229-30
Israel Sack, Inc. Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.

CHAIR 89
233 Hispanic Society of America
232
231
BASIC BOX FRAMES EVOLVED OUT OF THE WAINSCOT-CHAIR FORM.
231 ROMANESQUE FORM, Norway. 232 NORTHERN EUROPEAN, Gothic Era.

233 SPANISH, 17th century. 234 ITALIAN, late 16th century, Venice or Brescia. 235
FRENCH, Louis XIII. 236-237 ENGLISH, c. 1630, "Yorkshire" chairs.
234
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916
236-237
235
Stair ir Company, Inc. Don Ruseau

CHAIR 90 CHAIR

239 ENGLISH, late 16th century.
238 NORTHERN EUROPE, possibly 240 AMERICAN, late 17th century.
before 16th century.
MADE OF TURNED OR "THROWNE" PARTS

CHAIRS
ORIGINATED WITH THE ART OF WOOD TURNING, AND APPEARED EVERYWHERE
AS A PRIMITIVE FORM. THE DEVELOPED FORM USED DECORATIVE VARIATIONS,
SUCH AS FACE TURNINGS IN BACKS, AND OFF-CENTER TURNINGS FOR THE
SPOON-FOOT IDEA, AS WELL AS SPLIT TURNINGS FOR SMOOTH BACKS.
241 PENNSYLVANIA, 1700-1725, 242 NEW ENGLAND, 1700-1720. 243 ENGLISH, 18th century. Turnings
half-turned back splats; flat members. Walnut. Turnings used decoratively. suggest Indo-Portuguese influence.
Gift of Mrs. Robert W. de Forest, 1933 Stair h Company, Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc.
Don Ruseau
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1908 nj
245
~
AMERICAN
.x ,-.r>T/~.
a h ROUNDABOUT
nnimi-. ,. TT ._

CHAIR,, _ .
Spanish
, ', 246 FRENCH PROVINCIAL, late
foot.
244 SWISS, 1679. Turnings treated with 18th century.
decorative variations.
VARIATIONS IN TURNINGS AND THE ADDITION OF FLAT

AND SHAPED PARTS CREATED ENDLESS VARIETY.
249 FLANDERS, 17th Century.

Spiral or twist turnings.
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Photograph, A. J. Wyatt
248 CANADIAN, 17th century. Fully turned

Provincial French forms, splint seat.
247 ENGLISH, 18th century. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
Rush seat, ladder back.
Stair b- Company, Inc.
250 Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941
251 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916 252 Frick Collection
250 SPANISH 16th-century folding chair with stretched leather. 251 FLEMISH, 17th cen-
tury. Spanish influence in carving. 252 FRENCH, 16th century. Early Italianate.
THE SIMPLEST CHAIR FRAMEWORKS WERE OF A SCALE TO SIGNIFY

IMPORTANCE RATHER THAN COMFORT, BUT THE BEGINNINGS OF
UPHOLSTERY ALLOWED FOR SOME COMFORT AS WELL
AS THE DISPLAY OF RICH FABRICS.
253 ITALIAN, 16th century. 254 PORTUGUESE, second half of the 17th century, embossed
leather. 255 ENGLISH, 1660-1685. Charles II style.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1911

253 Gift of Mrs. Henry S. Redmond. 1947
254
255 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fu/id, 1932

:
Jr^^-'^
'.**'j^^j*.'

258 Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
256 ENGLISH, 1660-1680. Charles II style. Caned walnut.
258 AMERICAN c. 1700, Flemish influence.
BY 1700 THE GREAT DECORATIVE CHAIRS HAD BECOME

LIGHT, GRACEFUL, AND MORE COMFORTABLE.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917
257 FRENCH, Late Louis XIV style.
261 FRENCH "CONFESSIONAL." The stretchers

show early Louis XV date.
259 AMERICAN c. 1700.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 19C
260 FRENCH c. 1700. Transitional Regence leg FlCam/K Foof

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Benjamin Altman, 1913
259 Israel Sack, Inc.
it^rr,
262 Frick Collection 263 W'adsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn. 264 French h Co., Inc.
262 ENGLISH, early 18th century. Straight front legs with animal foot suggest cabriole. 263
AMERICAN 1700. Spanish foot with novel leg shape.
c. 264 ENGLISH, Early Georgian.
Decorated cabriole form, advanced style.
EVOLUTION OF THE CABRIOLE LEG MARKS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

SIDE CHAIR IN THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY.
265 ENGLISH. Queen Anne. Early form without stretchers. 266 EARLY GEORGIAN, 1720-
1730. Carved gesso, gilt. 267 COLONIAL (Eastern) version of Georgian English design.
265 266
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1910 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1931
267 French C- Co., Inc.
^ %
?;
%
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn
268
Israel Sack, Inc. 270
268 NEW ENGLAND 1740. Queen Anne corner chair.
c. 269 AMERICAN, Dutch influence,
1740-1760. 270 NEW ENGLAND 1740, Queen Anne
c. type.
BAROQUE EXUBERANCE BECAME DOMESTICATED WITH THE

BEGINNING OF THE GEORGIAN EPOCH.
271 ENGLISH c. 1750. 272 PHILADELPHIA c. 1750, balloon-shaped seat, intaglio carved
knee. 273 ENGLISH c. 1710.
"Dr*k -foot-
STho.ll on Kna
273
FANCIFUL ECLECTICISM MARKS THE SCHOOL OF CHIPPENDALE-
ENGLISH, PROVINCIAL AND COLONIAL.
274 CHINESE STYLE, 1755-1766. Painted white, gilt decoration. 275

GOTHIC, a style widely revived at intervals in the 19th century. 276 COUN-
TRY TYPE, English.
275
276 Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.
Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.
278 PHILADELPHIA c. 1770. Israel Sack, Inc.

97 CHAIR
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1926 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
279 SIGNED G. SENE (1724-1792), carved molding; painted 280 DESK CHAIR, Louis XV, roundabout form, carved
white with flowers and leaves in natural colors and molding in beechwood with cane.
red.
INTHE ERA OF LOUIS XV, CURVES FLOWED OVER EVERY SURFACE AND LINE.
THE CURVILINEAR SHAPE REACHED PERFECTION IN THE MID 18TH CENTURY,
AND WAS A RASIS FOR CHAIR DESIGN IN EUROPE FOR THE NEXT CENTURY.
282 VENETIAN, mid-18th century. 283 LOUIS XV, height of Rococo style.
281 PROVINCIAL FRENCH. Don Ruseau Brunovan, Inc. French 6- Co., Inc.
Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
Metropolitan Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1922
284 REGENCE. Square plan with slow curving 285 ITALIAN, mid-18th century.
ornamentation, painted gray. Lacquered and silvered wood.
FRENCH CHAIRS REACHED THE HEIGHT OF THE STYLE BY BECOMING LIGHTER,

MORE GRACEFUL, AND MORE COMFORTABLE THROUGH SHAPE,
PROPORTION, AND SOFT UPHOLSTERING.
286 "GONDOLA," Louis XV c. 1750. 287 CLASSIC, period of Louis XVI. Signed G. Iacob.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
99
j
r5:*fr
"*?*^*
c-^*
1
i
'
tin /. ->-.ig- ,(
Arthur S. Vernay, Inc. 289 BARREL CHAIR C. 1765, Needham's Antiques, Inc.
288 EARLY-18TH-CENTURY TYPE. Chippendale style, mahogany.
ENGLISH UPHOLSTERED CHAIRS STRESSED COMFORT AND SOLIDITY OF OUTLINE.
290 ENGLISH, 1735-1750.

291 WING CHAIR, George I, c. 1725. Walnut.
Needham's Antiques, Inc.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 295 Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Fletcher Fund, 1945 Rogers Fund, 1923
292 ARMCHAIR, 1770-1780, signed G. Iacob, shows inclination to angular

lines with Greco-Roman detail. 293 HEIGHT OF LOUIS XVI STYLE,
signed P. Bhizard. 294 FRENCH c. 1786. 295 Signed I B Lelarge.
296 Appearance of the LYRE MOTIF. 297 HEPPLEWHITE c. 1785.
292
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, 1928
CLASSIC REVIVAL, BEGINNING WITH LOUIS
293 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1926 XVI, REPLACED CURVES WITH STRAIGHT
LINES,AND ENDED THE BAROQUE ROCOCO
ASYMMETRY. THIS SUITED THE TASTE OF
THE ENGLISH TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY
PERFECTED THE FORM AND SPREAD IT
THROUGHOUT THE WESTERN WORLD.
296
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906

CHAIR 101 CHAIR
Arthur i>. Vernay, Inc. 299 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Annie C. Kane, 1926 300
298 PAINTED SATINWOOD c. 1790. 299 HEPPLEWHITE, 1780-1790.

300 VENETIAN, 18th century, carved and polychromed. 301-302 SPAN- Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1910 303
ISH, 19th-century interpretation of Louis XVI and Hepplewhite. 303
SHERATON STYLE, painted and gilded.
301-302 Lo Meior de Espana

CHAIR 102 CHAIR
Ginsburg and Levy Philadelphia Museum of Art, Photogrip}i A. J. Wyatt

304 NEW YORK SHERATON c. 1795. 305 PHILADELPHIA c. 1820. Klismos
form with painted Greco-Roman decoration.
SHERATONS STYLE DOMINATES THE END OF THE

18TH CENTURY. TRANSITIONAL WORK BEGINNING
SOON AFTER 1800 SHOWS A MIXTURE OF CLASSICAL
INFLUENCES.
306 ENGLISH c. 1800. Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.
307 FRENCH EMPIRE C. 1810. French 6 Co., Inc. P.Nathan

Bronze mounts on mahogany. 308 LATE REGENCY, English c. 1825.
CHAIR 103 CHAIR
309 Munson-W illiams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y.
310 Collection Bergdorf Goodman Antiques
309 DUNCAN PHYFE, 1815-1820. Klismos form with water-leaf carved legs, paw feet.
310 ENGLISH REGENCY 1815. Painted decoration, gold on black.
c. 311 EM- FRENCH
PIRE c. 1810. Classical angularity after Percier and Fontaine. 312 NEW
YORK, 1810-1820,
after Thomas Hope. 313 FRANCE, RESTORATION MAHOGANY CHAIR.
311 DonRuseau 312 Museum of the City of New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1926 313
SPLAYED LEGS PEGGED INTO A WOOD SEAT, AND A
BOW BACK BBACED WITH LIGHT SPINDLES ABE THE
ESSENTIAL INGBEDIENTS OF THE WINDSOB CHAIB.
Symons Galleries, Inc.

315 ENGLISH c. 1800, Elm and yew wood. Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright
314 ENGLISH, probably mid-18th century, with splat back,
good cabriole leg, and curved stretcher.
THBEE NEW ENGLAND WINDSOBS IN THE HENBY FOBD MUSEUM, DEABBOBN, MICHIGAN.
316 The classic-type form, 1775-1800. 317 Bare X-stretcher c. 1800. 318 The seat was probably originally
upholstered; c. 1775-1800.
105 CHAIR
Israel Sack, Inc.

319
320 Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1 909
319 COMB-BACK WBITING CHAIR, fitted with drawer and candle slide. The comb is off
320 TURNINGS, SEAT SHAPE,
center, indicating a comfortable writing angle for the sitter.
AND COMB WIDTH are peculiar to Pennsylvania. Spruce and oak, 1750-1775. 321-322
ENGLISH WINDSORS. 323 OHIO, 1830-1870, painted and grained.
321-322 Stair 6- Company, Inc.
323 Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.

325 Ginsburg and Levy 326 Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Bequest of Mrs. Maria P. James, 1911
324 John S. Walton, Inc.
324 AMERICAN "FANCY" CHAIR after Sheraton school. 325 HITCHCOCK STYLE,
Roston, 1820-1825. "Fancy"-chair type with unusual arms and eagle splat. 326 RENT FOOT,
"cheesebox" rush seat edging. Stenciled. 327 LATER HITCHCOCK TYPE, 1829-1843, cane
seat. 328 ENGLISH, mid-19th century. Papier-mache, gilt decoration on black. 329
ITALIAN NEO-CLASSIC.
329 Lavezzo.
327 Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
328
CHAIR 107 CHAIR
330 332 333
330 NEO-GOTHIC, German c. 1820. 332 MID-VICTORIAN AMERICAN c. 1860 (Buttfield).
331 GERMAN CLASSICISM, early 19th century. 333 SWEDISH, c. 1925, by Karl Malmsten.
CONTEMPORARY VARIATIONS ON THE WINDSOR CHAIR.
334 SWEDISH, 1947, ash and teak,

designed by Hans Wegner. Frederick Lunning, Inc.
Japan Trade Center

335 JAPANESE, 1961.
CHAIR-BED 10 CHAISE LONGUE
CHAIR-BED. Chair that can be extended to form a

bed. Common in 18th-century England. [994.]
CHAIB TABLE. Chair with a hinged back that forms

a tabletop when tipped down, a chairback when up.
See also monk's bench. [3.]
CHAISE LONGCE. A long chair; a form of sofa or

daybed with upholstered back, for reclining. French
18th-century types were often made in two or three
parts; the two-part type consisted of a deep bergere
and a large stool; the three-part style had two arm-
chairs and a stool between. [336 et seq.] See also day- 338 MID-19TH CENTURY, suggests Louis XV; tight upholstery.
beds; BEST BEDS.
336 LOUIS XV STYLE.

Don Ruseau
337 BIEDERMEIER, German(?) c. 1820.

Two bergeres and matching footstool.
Don Ruseau
CHAMBER HORSE 109 CHESSBOARD: CHESS TABLE
CHASING. Ornamentation of metal by etching, en-
graving, or incising. See also ormolu.
. CHALFFELSE. Small French fireside chair with low

seat. [675.]
CHECKER, CHEQUER. Decorative use of alternately

colored squares, as in a checkerboard.
CHEESEBOX SEAT. Chair seat, usually rush, and

round or bell shaped with thin rim of wood bent
around the edge. American, early 19th century. [324.]
339 ENGLISH VICTORIAN c. 1870, heavily tufted upholstery. CHENILLE. A kind of velvety cord with short thread
ends standing out, used trimming and banding up-
in
holstered furniture. It is also used in rug weaving, and
CHAMBER HORSE. Exercising chair, English late in fabrics for upholstery and drapery fabrics.
18th century.
CHEBRY. American wild-cherry wood is a hard com-
CHAMBERS. SIR WILLIAM, 1726-1796. English pact fine-grained, red-brown wood, usually light. It is
architect. After traveling in China, he published in highly suitable for cabinetmaking, is beautiful and
1757 his Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, strong both for structural and for decorative uses; it
etc., strongly influential in developing the fad for resists warping and takes a fine polish. It was favored
chinoiserie. by the colonists wherever it was found, and much old
American furniture of cherry remains from the entire
CHAMFER. Groove, splayed, or beveled-off corner of period of colonization as well as from the 19th cen-
a post or a molding. [710.] tury. The European cherry is similar but lighter in
color; it appears in much country furniture, and ex-
CHANNEL. Groove or fluting cut into a surface as a tensively in Biedermeier and similar 19th-century
decorative accent; sometimes filled with reed-shaped styles.
convex mold.
CHARLES I. King of England, 1625-1649. Furniture

style classified as Early Jacobean. See also England.
e r w e>
CHARLES II. King of England, 1660-1685. Furniture

style referred to as Carolean, Restoration,Late Jaco- CHERUB. Winged child figure used in decoration
bean, Late Stuart. See also carolean; England. from the Renaissance and afterward; also called
amorini. In Italian and French work the whole figure is
CHARLES X. King of France, 1824-1830. Period of usual, but after Charles II the English carvers, such
Bourbon Restoration, furniture of late Empire, Louis as Grinling Gibbons, often used the winged head
alone.
XVI, and eclectic Rococo and Renaissance detail. See
also nineteenth century.
CHESSBOARD: CHESS TABLE. See game table.
[1275, 1319.]
Lou/s XIV
Xuitittl"""".",
H^w^f,
CHEST 110 CHEST
CHEST. Originally a large box with hinged lid, the erally were larger and more ornately carved and
coffer, or chest, is the primary form of all receptacle painted. Renaissance chests were made with a clear
furniture. In ancient Egypt and Rome they assumed architectural profile and classic ornament. In the same
artistic form, and developed variations for special pur- century the French Gothic chest began its evolution
poses. In theMiddle Ages, the instability of life made into a credence. In the 16th century the Italian chest
the portable chest the most vital piece of furniture. had begun to yield to the variety of credenzas, side-
As conditions settled and life became more sedentary, boards, etc.; the influence in England produced court
chests became larger and produced the deviations cupboards, and modification of the chest by means of
recognized as chests of drawers, credences, cabinets, drawers and door compartments, which gradually
buffets and sideboards, bureaus, and all receptacle raised the total height and produced, finally, the chest
types; also traceable to it are bed forms, from the re- of drawers.For special purposes the chest with hinged
tainers' habit of sleeping on the chest; as well as lidhas survived, as the marriage or dower chest in
several seating forms. [396.] Germanic communities, including the Pennsylvania
Early chests everywhere were small and sturdily Dutch; the blanket chest and ceremonial or decorative
constructed, often with iron bands. Gothic chests gen- types.
340 FLORENTINE MARRIAGE CHEST, early 15th century. Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright
341 ITALIAN c. 1500. WOODEN CASSONE;

painted gesso with iron mounts.

CHEST tph CHEST
342 VENETIAN VELVET COFFER, 16th century.
From "Chinese Household Furniture" by George Kates,

courtesy Dover Publications, N.Y.
344 CHINESE, undated. Style may be from 14th century to
contemporary.
Liehhold-Wallach
343 ALPINE, dated 1766. German-Gothic vestiges in shape
and ornamentation.
345 WOOD CHEST with linenfold and Late Gothic carving, dovetailed corners. Berne, Swit-
zerland, 16th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1907
CHEST
346 Center, left, GERMAN BAROQUE, Philadelphia Museum of Art

17th century. Oak and ebony inlay.
347 PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN c.
1720. Stenciled decoration; architec-

tural theme recalls Baroque work.
Ginsburg and Levy
348 VENETIAN, 16th century. Climax of decorative carved chest. Duveen Brothers, Inc.
113 CHEST
349 UMBRIAN, early 17th century.
Early appearance of drawers.
350 SPANISH "PAPELERA," 17th century.

Renaissance architecture with Moorish senti-
ment.
351 CONNECTICUT c. 1700. Painted "Guil-

ford" chest; hinged top with drawer, raised
feet.
CHEST
THE DRAWER DISTINGUISHES THE AD-

VANCED CHEST FROM THE ELEMEN-
TARY PORTABLE CHEST. IN GENERAL
IT WAS ADDED TENTATIVELY TO THE
BASIC LIFT-LID DESIGN. HOWEVER, THE
FULLY DRAWERED CABINET APPEARED
EARLY IN REGIONS WHERE JOINERY
HAD ADVANCED.
354 Henri/ Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
353 Philadelphia Museum of Art
352 Cinsburg and Levy
352 CONNECTICUT (Hartford) c. 1700. Sunflower

chest; hinged lid and drawer, carved ornament Tudor
style. 353 PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN DOWER
CHEST, 1803. Painted in late style. 354 HADLEY
CHEST, Connecticut, c. 1690. Shallow all-over carv-
ing in flower motif.
355 FRENCH CHEST OF DRAWERS, 15th century,

made for church vestments.
Cloisters Collection, Purchase, 1947
356 ENGLISH c. 1700. Oak chest with burl walnut drawers
Israel Sack, Inc.
357 MASSACHUSETTS c. 1690. Jacobean geometric panels,

grained walnut surface.
358 PENNSYLVANIA c. 1830. Blue-green paint with thumb-

print decorations.
359 ENGLISH c. 1830. Naval captain's chest with two port-

able elements; similar to "campaign" chests.
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich. Symon-s Galleries, Inc.

CHEST 116 CHEST
360 ENGLISH c. 1685. Oystered top, ornate marquetry. Anderson Galleries
BAROQUE FORMS OFTEN USED FANCIFUL SURFACE TREATMENT

AS A FOIL AGAINST FLAT, SIMPLE FORMS.
CHIPPENPAle
361 FRENCH COMMODE, end of the 17th century. Rich hardware over
rosewood veneers complements extravagant modeling of bombe shape. Fore-
runner of the sinuous lines of Regence and Louis XV Rococo.
.
Needham's Antiques, Inc. Ginsburg and Levy

362 ENGLISH c. 1765. Carved bracket feet, pull-out leaf. 363 ENGLISH c. 1765. Serpentine, with canted console cor-
ners, ogee bracket feet.

364 DUTCH(?), mid-18th century, "in the French taste."
Ginsburg and Levy
365 BOSTON c. 1760. Kettle base with lift handles. Made for
Hancock family.
366 CONNECTICUT c. 1770. Serpentine bureau with fitted 367 NEW ENGLAND, 1770-1780. Blockfront style.
top drawer ( see also 523 ) Israel Sack, Inc. Israel Sack, Inc.
368 REGENCE. LOUIS XV, attributed to Charles Cressent, bronzes by Caffieri from Meissonier design. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
369 LOUIS XV MARQUETRY.

Doha Brothers, Inc.
s French it Co., Inc.
370LOUIS XV MARQUETRY BOMBE CHEST ON
STAND.
374 NEW ENGLAND c. 1720. Chest on stand, curly

maple. Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
372-373 PROVINCIAL FRENCH, late 18th century. Don Ruseau

5*"i ; i ..v
375 TRANSITIONAL TO RECTILINEAR STYLE OF LOUIS XVI. Stamped Saunier (JME 1752).
French b Co., Inc.
TRANSITION TO RECTILINEAR STYLE OF LOUIS XVI.
376 LOUIS XVI c. 1785. Bronze with cipher AM (Marie Antoinette?). Dalva Brothers, Inc.
CHEST 121 CHEST

. .
377 COMMODE by Jean-Henri Riesener. Height of Louis XVI style. Frick Collection
378 DIRECTOIRE, attributed to Rernard Molitor (JME 1787) c. 1795. French li? Co., Inc.
4M***>'^^m~~^r
t
%\J%
122 f$*J%
CHEST
iiJ'>
Don Ruseau
379 ITALIAN, Directoire.
EMPIRE CUCST c 1600

FRENCH

380 ITALIAN, end of the 18th century.
381 FRENCH, Late Louis XVI.

Don Roseau
123 CHEST
383 GERMAN BIEDERMEIER c. 1820.
382 FRENCH DIRECTOIRE. Don Ruseau
384 FRENCH EMPIRE. Don Ruseau
4
387 AMERICAN c. 1810. Israel Sack, Inc.
Anderson GaHerie
385 DRESSING CHEST, New England, c. 1800.
Hepplewhite bowfront with French foot.
386 NEW YORK c. 1830. Empire dressing bureau, mahogany

with gilt stencils.
Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y.
(From Fountain Elms)
CHEST OF DRAWERS 125 CHIFFONIER
CHEST OF DRAWERS. Case fitted with drawers, for
storage, usually of clothing. The drawer chest, or
commode, completely superseded the coffer chest, by
reason of its greater convenience, by the end of the
17th century. France and England led in the develop-
ment of the drawer chest. Once the type was estab-
lished, it remained to the present as the favorite piece
of storage furniture; various styles have only changed
the detail and ornamental aspects. "Highboys," "tall-
boys," "chest-on-chests" are merely one chest on top

of another, or on a tablelike base. Other chests are
used as desks, dressing tables, etc., by slight changes
in profile or drawer arrangements.
CHEST-ON-CHEST. Chests of drawers in two sec-

tions,one placed upon the other. Surmounted by elab-
orate cornices or pediments, they were often imposing
pieces of furniture. They are chiefly English and
American, 18th and 19th centuries. See also highboy.
[38, 739.]
CHESTERFIELD. Overstuffed couch or sofa with

upholstered ends. [1304.]
CHESTIVCT. Moderately soft grayish-brown wood

with coarse open grain, resembling oak but lacking
the large rays. Rather weak structurally, its principal
use now is for veneer cores.
391 CHfiVAL GLASS, Biedermeier.
389 CHIFFONIER, French, Louis XVI marquetry.

Six- or seven-drawer type called "semainier."
Dalva Brothers, Inc.
CHEVAL GLASS. Large mirror, usually full figure

length, swinging from vertical posts mounted on tres-
tles. Best examples occur in French and English work
of the second half of the 18th century. A small form,

often with a drawer between the posts, is made to
be placed upon chests or tables. [874.]
CHEVAL SCREEIV. Fire screen mounted upon two

feet. See also screen.
CHEVRON. V-shaped design for inlay and other

decoration.
CHIFFONIER. Tall narrow bureau or chest of draw-

ers. From the French chiffonier, ragpicker. See also
semainier, a seven-drawered chest for daily linen

change. [389.]
CHILDREN'S FURNITURE 126
CHILDREN'S FURNITURE. Small-scaled furniture

for children, such as tables and chairs, is found in
every style. Cradles and beds have always been made
as distinct designs rather than merely smaller models.
This tendency observed today in the design of most
is
articles for children: that is, the child's needs are not
merely those of a physically small adult, but are highly
specialized. Modern children's furniture, comprising
beds and cribs, tables, bookcases, chairs, and chests,
is planned to facilitate learning, self-help, etc.; and
colors and decoration are less quaint, less fancifully
pictorial or fairy tale than formerly. See also cradle;

high chair. [743, 955.]
CHIMERA; CHIMAERA. Mythical fire-breathing

monster, used as a motive in ornament.
CHIMNEY FURNITURE. The accessories of a fire-
place: andirons, chimney boards, coal bin or scuttle,

fenders, bellows, firebacks, forks and shovels, hob
grates, cranes, trivets, pothooks, and other utensils.
CHIIWNEYPIECE. Mantel shelf. Ornamental struc-

ture, usually of stone or marble, with molding, carving,
etc., over and around the open recess of a fireplace.
Also a picture, piece of sculpture, or tapestry placed
as an ornament over a fireplace.
CHINA. The normal furniture of rich homes in Chi-

nese cities traditionally has been largely of fine simple
design, made of choice hardwoods, beautifully fin-
ished, unornamented except for careful moldings and
important hardware. The origins of the designs are
hidden in ancient Chinese history. Japanese treasure French 6- Co., Inc.
houses contain examples of the 7th and 8th centuries. 390 CHINA CABINET, English, end of the 18th century.
Sheraton.
Drawings and documents show designs of early Sung
dynasties, but of actual relics, none are known to date
prior to theMing Dynasty, 1368-1644. Of the latter,
however, there is an appreciable body of well-pre-
served examples exhibiting a continuous or static
trend in design quite unlike the heavily ornamented
examples apparently made for the 19th-century export
trade. [105a, 174, 344, 1381.]
The range of objects includes chairs and couches,

chests, cupboards, tables of many uses and sizes, and
a variety of functional objects, indicating the activi-
ties and pursuits of a cultivated, stable people. The
woods, chiefly imported, resemble purple sandalwood,
rosewood, blackvvood, various burls, all used with
and a unique joinery. Metals pewter,
finesse, taste,
brass and copper are worked into tasteful mounts Chimeqa
and working hardware. The design and disposition of
these parts is exceptionally sophisticated. Lacquer is
less extensively employed than is generally inferred

CWMOI6ER1E
CHINA CABINET 127 CHINESE TASTE
from the European concept of chinoiserie. To a degree

there are inlays of metals and stones, faience and mar-
ble, contrasting woods and ivory, and the whole gamut
of accessory materials. It is significant that the furni-
ture maker is an artisan, not an artist; there is no name
or family or school to identify with any furniture,
which remains anonymous in place and origin as well
as in time. See also oriental. [1108.]
CHINA CABINET; CHINA CLOSET. Important cab-

inet, often with glass front and sides, for the storage
and display of fine china.
CHINESE CHIPPENDALE. 18th-century adaptation

of Chinese motives to English furniture, chiefly after
Chambers's drawings. Chippendale used these sug-
gestions freely, and the typically amalgamated style
is now associated with his name. The simple rectilinear
outlines have suggested their use in some phases of
modern design.
CHINESE FOOT. Bracket foot.
CHINESE TASTE. Europe became fantastically

aware of the Far East in the 17th century, a result of
the commercial exploitation following exploration and
colonization. Dutch, English, and French trading
companies brought over silks and lacquers, paintings
and utilitarian objects, and their curious decoration
stirred a mad craze for "chinoiserie." In varying degree
this lasted for almost two centuries. Rarely analyzed
or understood, it embraced designs from Persia, China,
India, Japan without discrimination, mixing pagodas,
monkeys, foliage, landscapes, mandarins, and abstract
designs with the greatest freedom. The result is often
quite charming. It undoubtedly inspired a large part
of Rococo design, although in the earlier Louis XIV
work it had had great popularity. The English styles
after William and Mary had constant recourse to the
Chinese, and after the publication of Chambers's
drawings the Chinese manner of Chippendale formed
a definite style. The tendency toward the Chinese
taste disappeared with the Classic revivals.

392 CHINESE CABINET, 17th to 18th century. Teakwood
decorated with jade, mother-of-pearl, lapis lazuli.
C H EST
Chines*
CMimNpiit
I01H CET
Chinese Cuihesi Table
CHINA 128 CHINA
CHINESE FURNITURE
Photographs from Chinese Household Furniture, by George Kates,
courtesy Dover Publications, New York
399
394 PAIR OF CUPBOARDS, 39 inches high.
398
395 K'ANG. A heated platform-couch device, with incidental furniture like tables, stools, and
chests, was the dominant article of furniture. This example is 10 feet long.
396 SMALL CABINET, often used by tradesmen

32 inches long. 397 K'ANG CUPBOARD, 45 inches long.
CHINA
402 SEMICIRCULAR
SIDE TABLE, 3 feet long.
393 TABLE, 33 inches high.
403 WARDROBE with top cupboard,

9 feet high.
406 K'ANG CUPBOARD, for bed-

ding storage, AVz feet long.
405 FORMAL SIDE TABLE, 86

inches long.
401 ICE CHEST with pewter lining,

brass and copper bands.
130 CHIPPENDALE
CHINOISERIE (French). Referring to things Chi-
nese, the Chinese taste or manner. [14, 108, 409, 444,
582, 1038.]
CHINTZ. Inexpensive thin cotton cloth, fast printed

with designs of flowers, etc., in a number of columns,
and usually glazed. It is useful for minor draping and
slip covers.
CHIP CARVING. Simple carved ornament executed

with chisel or gouge in medieval furniture.
CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS, 1718-1779. Chippen-

dale published The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's
Director in 1754. Other editions followed in 1759 and
1762. Europe had seen publications on design for two
hundred years, but never before one so specialized on
furniture, so thorough a catalogue of the prevailing
types and styles. Its influence spread everywhere; the
Continent and the colonies used it as a guide to style,
design, and construction. Hence the freedom with
which so much furniture of this school is labeled Chip-
pendale. Chippendale himself executed few of these
designs. Most were Late Baroque-Rococo man-
in the
ner, adaptions of Louis XV and Georgian shapes with
bits of Chinese and Gothic detail. [33, 37, 108, 144,
274, 275, 290, 581, 1086.]
Chippendale's shop was relatively small, at a time
when there existed much greater establishments. He
appears never to have worked for royalty, but his
productions for noble and
wealthy patrons com-
manded high prices. Much of his work was executed
from designs by architects, chiefly Robert Adam, but
he was a master designer in his own right, and his
understanding and attention to detail and construc-
tionwere masterful.
As a designer Chippendale was open to every chang-
ing whim or influence; with little personal conviction
he adapted, amalgamated, modified every caprice of
style. But he did this with such mastery that almost
French <b Co., Inc.
407 CHINOISERIE: black lacquer decorated to imi-
uniformly his designs hold together, artistically and
tate Chinese work. French, transitional Louis XVI.
131
structurally. He added style and distinction to what-

ever he borrowed. His furniture is solid yet graceful;
it looks and is firm, at no sacrifice of grace or refine-
ment.
Chippendale's early work shows a refinement of the
solid Georgian style, richly decorated and rather
heavy, using a rich claw-and-ball foot, complex Ro- CHISEL. Cutting tool, usually with flat edge, but also
coco scrolls with the typical natural forms. He later made in curves and shapes for carving, cutting mold-
borrowed freely from Chambers's Chinese designs ings, etc.
and also took over literally the prevailing French
shapes. Chairs of Chippendale design are most char- CHOP INLAY. Primitive form of inlaying by fitting
acteristic, particularly the types in which the solid
pieces into a solid surface.
splat is made lighter by being pierced into graceful
openwork convolutions of ribbons and scrolls. Book- CHURN MOLDING. Zigzag molding occurring in
cases and cabinets are remarkably well proportioned; Norman architecture.
sideboards and chests, cabinets, tables show the same
mastery. Chippendale died in 1779. His son succeeded C ill icitK.l l iu soil. Spanish Baroque
style, 17th
to the partnership with Thomas Haig, which lasted century, so called after the architect Churriguera. See
until 1822. See also England.
also SPAIN.
408 PLATE XX FROM CHIPPENDALE'S "DIRECTOR," showing "French chairs." None

of the legs is alike, in the manner of pattern books suggesting alternatives.
132
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Kennedy Fund, 1918. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of John L. Cadwalader, 1914
409 THE "CHINESE MANNER," 1750-1770. English ex-

ample with pagoda top rail, fretted back posts, splayed arms,
and clustered legs.
410 CHIPPENDALE'S "GOTHIC TASTE," hoop back, scoop

seat; the arms have a fine Rococo sweep. Back legs chamfered.
CHlPPENDAJ_e " THE FR.ENCH (vÂNNER."
412 Left. SQUARE BACK WITH MIXED DETAILS. Open-

work vase-shaped splat with Gothic, Chinese, and acanthus
carving; Chinese cresting and fretwork on posts; dolphin feet.
C. 1755.
CHIPPENDALE
411 OVERMANTEL MIRROR in Chippendale Rococo manner. Needham's Antiques, Inc.

414 NEW YORK CHIPPENDALE, inscription under
413DETAIL OF PHILADELPHIA CARD seat reads "1757 Philena Rarnes." Gadrooned square
TARLE by Thomas Affleck. Gothic and apron in laggard style. Carved tassel and ruffle in
Chinese fretwork. pierced vase-shaped splat, somewhat crude.
CINNAMON WOOD 134 CLEAT
CINNAMON WOOD. Camphorwood. and misunderstood, inspired all the arts; classicism
alone was beautiful. The Romanesque and Gothic of
CINQLECENTO. Italian period 1500-1600. The High the prior six centuries were regarded as crude, bar-
Renaissance. See also italy. baric. The ancient ruins were excavated and studied
for the secrets of classic beauty. Architecture, painting,
CINQLEFOIL. Gothic foliated ornament of five points, and sculpture were freshly inspired in imitation of an-
used in some furniture of the Gothic revivals. tiquity. Furniture followed; the shapes and ornaments
were taken directly from ancient architecture, since no
CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI, 1727-1785. Florentine furniture remained from of old. This mistaken use of
artist who worked in England, painting the decora- architectural details identifies Renaissance furniture,
tion of many houses and public buildings. His style and all subsequent styles in which architectural
inspired much of the painted decoration of furniture sources are so used are called "classic revivals." Such
of the period. are the great periods of the late 18th and early 19th
centuries. The classic style of Louis XVI was princi-
CIRCASSIAN WALNUT. Extravagantly figured wal- pally derived from the archaeological studies of Her-
nut of southeastern Europe, with irregular dark strip- culaneum and Pompeii. This inspired the style of the
ings on a light-yellow ground. Brothers Adam in England, and it became the fashion-
able gentleman's duty to extend the researches into
CISELEUR (French). Engraver or maker of metal antiquity. Italy and the Mediterranean islands, north-
ornaments. ern Africa and Greece were dug over for ruins. The
publication of splendid folios produced source books
CISTERN. See wine cooler. for furniture designers. After the Adam and the Louis
XVI styles came Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and the Di-
CLASSIC. The ancient styles of Greece and Rome, rectoire, animated by the Greco-Roman discoveries.
called classic or classic antiquity,were the inspiration About the turn of the 19th century research into an-
of the Renaissance. The Middle Ages had descended tiquity extended toEgypt and Greece. These inspired
so low in the scale of culture that the early humanists, the Empire and its many offshoots Regency,
style
looking backward over twenty centuries, saw in an- Biedermeier, and the local Empire versions of Italy,
cient history a Golden Age of art, literature, philos- Spain, Sweden, Russia, and America. See also adam;
ophy, and government. The antique, often confused ENGLAND; FRANCE; ITALY; ORDERS; ORNAMENT.
CLAVICHORD. Early keyboard musical instrument,

forerunner of the modern piano.
CLAW AND RALL. Foot carved in the form of a

bird's foot gripping a ball. Its earliest form in Chinese
bronze shows a dragon claw holding a jewel; the
cabriole leg terminating in the ball and claw was a
favorite motive in Chippendale's earlier work, but it
ceased to be fashionable after 1765. [27, 183, 1282.]
CLEAT. Strip of wood fastened to a flat surface to

brace or strengthen or to prevent warping.
CLAW- AND 6ALL

CI ASSICISM
NORTHERN EUBOPE
EARLY 19m CEhtuB/
CLOCK 135
CLOCK; CLOCK CASE. Wood cases for clocks ap-

peared late in the 17th century, earlier clocks being
encased in brass or metal. [415.] The tall clock, now
called "grandfather," was a development of the Louis
XIV style, where it attained great magnificence. Caro-
lean English oak cases remain from about 1680; wal-
nut soon took the lead, and in the Queen Anne style
the chinoiserie-lacquered cabinet is common. [573.]
Clock cases in England tended toward narrowness
and smaller size [42]; on the Continent, clocks in Ro-
coco style had bombe cases, often monumental in size
and heavily ornamented [636. 644]. Decoratively
carved and painted clock cases are found in most
peasant styles German, French, and Swiss styles be-
ing most familiar.
Wooden clock cases flourished in America. Fine
mahogany tall cases were made in Boston about 1725
by Bagnell. The Willards helped New England main-

tain leadership in clock production for most of the
18th century. About 1800, Simon Willard designed
the banjo clock. Shelf clocks of Sheraton character
were made by Eli Terry. These types were developed
by Seth Thomas and other New Englanders to the
extent that clockmaking was a major industry, with
many makers known for decorative cases. [42, 51, 60.]
415 SHELF CLOCK, German, 16th century. Gilt, brass.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Simon Guggenheim, 1929
416 ROCOCO,
m
by Robin. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
417 CHIPPENDALE C. 1770. Needham's Antiques, Inc.

CLOCK 136 CLOCK

418 QUEEN ANNE, walnut, c. 1705.
By Sawtell.

419 CHIPPENDALE c.1775.
French <b Co., Inc.

420 REGENCE STYLE, 1740-1750, in
Palais de Versailles. Ebony and brass. By
LaLoutre.
CLOCK 137 CLOCK
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich. Israel Sack, Inc. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
424-425 AMERICAN c. 1830. 426 AMERICAN c. 1780. 427 EMPIRE REGULATOR, France, c. 1815.
COCK BEAD

421 LOUIS XV c. 1770. Marquetry
clock and bracket.

422 NEW YORK c. 1775 423 AMERICAN c. 1844. Gothic steeple clock.
By Charles Geckles.
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich
CLOTH OF ESTATE. Medieval decorative cloth work, particularly by Chippendale and

in 18th-century
draped over the throne or chair of persons of exalted Ince, showing Gothic influence in their work. [409.]
rank.
COASTER. English tray fitted with small rollers, used
CLOTHESPRESS. Wardrobe; cabinet for storing for circulating food and bottles on a dining table, 18th
clothes, with or without drawers. [804, 1335.] century. They took many fanciful forms, such as can-
non or kegs, but the later ones were simple cylindrical
CLOTHS OF GOLD, SILVER. Textile consisting of shapes handsomely chased or engraved.
threads of gold or silver interwoven with silk or wool.
Used for tapestry and upholstery, and draped in COCK BEAD; COCKED BEADING. Small half-
ornate styles. round projecting molding applied to the edges of
drawers. First appears in English work after 1730,
CLOVEN FOOT. Table leg or chair leg ending in the and American work somewhat later. Sheraton and
form of an animal's cleft foot, English and Continental many French designers sometimes used strips of brass
work, chiefly 18th century. for this purpose.
CLUB FOOT. Stubby foot of a furniture leg resem-

CU/JTEBED
bling the head of a club, the leg swelling out to a
knot with a thick flat base; 18th century.
CLUSTERED COLUMNS. Three or more small

wooden columns clustered together to form a single
support used as bedposts, table legs, chair legs, etc.,
CLOVEN POOJ
L
COCKFIGHT CHAIR 139 COLUMN

COCKFIGHT CHAIR. Special chair having a narrow COLONIAL. American period from the earliest set-
back with wings, shaped seat. English, 18th century. tlements to the Revolution. Improperly applied to
At cockfights the gentleman straddled the seat, fac- most American furniture up to 1850. See also
ing the narrow back, and kept his score on an ad- AMERICA.
justable easel. [277.] Other Colonial types developed from current styles
in the mother countries wherever explorers and col-
COCKLESHELL. See shell motif. onists extended the spheres of England, France,
Spain, Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia. For ex-
COCK'S-HEAD HINGE. Hinges with the leaves cut amples, South Africa has a distinct English style; the
to resemble the shape of a cock's head. They occur Spanish roots in South and Central America pro-
in wide variety in English cabinets of the 16th, 17th, duced a brilliant provincial churriguerresque.
and 18th centuries, and are generally made of brass.
See also hardware. COLONNETTE. Miniature columns used ornamen-
tally on furniture. [1061, 1336.]
COCOROLO. Dark purple-brown wood from Bengal
and Burma, very dense and heavy. COLUMN. In architecture, a pillar or post, usually
round and associated with pedestal, base, capital,
COFFEE TARLE. Low, wide table now used be- and entablature to form an "order" or conventional
There is no historical precedent,
fore a sofa or couch. style. (See orders.) Its use in furniture consists of
but the shape permits the adaptation of low tables the ornamental treatment, to simulate an accepted
or bench forms of every style. style of a pedestal or supporting member, or as a
purely ornamental feature applied to a case or simi-
lar structure to suggest support. [1162.]
ffitgg&rasgSggai | IfiT^JTfi^^^^
ART NOUVBAU
AM EeiCAtJ
COLOU A I
MODERN AMERICAN
MAK6LE AMP IPOM
COFFER. Chest that served as seat, table, trunk,

or for storage of valuables; one of the earliest forms
of furniture in Europe, when unsettled conditions
made it imperative that furniture and contents be
readily transported together.
COFFERED PANEL. Deeply sunk panel.
COIN. Eighteenth-century English corner cupboard.

The French word for "corner," corrupted in England
to signify its furnishing. See also encoignure.
COIN CARINET. (French, medaillier) . Collector's
cabinet with shallow trays or drawers, late 18th, 19th

centuries. [539.]
COLLAR. Horizontal molding on a leg.
COLLARED TOE. Foot with a wide band.

COMB BACK 140 COMMODE
COMB BACK. Windsor chairback in which several The Classic Revival brought to the commode a con-
spindles extend above the main back, resembling an sistent architectural form, pilasters or colonnettes
old-fashioned high comb. American, 18th century. forming the corners. In the Empire style this was
[319.] exaggerated, the actual casework being subordinated
to the architectural frame. [428-438, 791, 1337.]
COMMODE. The commode is a loosely defined type
of chest or cabinet, usually low, and used against a COMMODE, BEDBOOM. Enclosed "chamber boxes"
wall as a receptacle, bureau, chest, console, etc. It or "close stools" of the 17th and 18th centuries were
may have doors or drawers; on the Continent the developed into decorative pieces of furniture, later
word applies generally to the English chest or chest being combined with washstands. The term "night-
of drawers. It evolved out of the earliest coffers or stand" was applied to them after Chippendale. See
chests, mounted on legs, but the name appears only also POT TABLE.
about 1708, connected with a Regence type by
Berain. Its development was rapid in the early 18th 428 FRENCH "POT TABLE," bedroom commode, early 19th
century. Don Ruseau
century, and it became a favorite ornament for draw-
ing rooms. Some references mention them as "tables
with deep drawers," but the more common type, the
COMB 6ACK CHAIE
429 "CLOSESTOOL," or bedroom commode.

Italianate Tudor, 17th century. Cavallo
CLOU STOOL
commode en tombeau, describes Boulle's sarcoph-

agus-like idea. The English borrowed the idea; early
Georgian commodes, especially by Kent, were lav-
ishly decorated but lacked the unity of the French
designs. Chippendale produced many fine designs

and probably was the first to plan the commode for
the bedroom and clothing storage. Bombe and other
shapes were common; Chinese motives were favored,
and no resource of cabinetmaking and decorations
was overlooked. German console-commodes were
elaborately carved and metal-trimmed.
COMMODE 141 COMMODE
y ^vavm \urrr/m7777J/JJWh
430 CABINET TABLE, Tuscan, 16th century. Prototype of com-

mode form.
COMMOPE FOKrv\
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1929

COMMODE, English, 1760-1770, in the French manner. Inlaid satinwood.
431
432 COMMODE, English, 1770-
^80, in the French manner of
the HeppJewhite
school.
^^ """ *'*" Uu ~m -
Cr wn Copyright
433 COMMODE, English, late 18th

century; Italian
infl "ence in
inlaid decoration.
Victoria and Albert Museum,

Crown Copyright
COMMODE 143
THE CHEST WITH DOORS DEVELOPED SIMULTANE-

OUSLY WITH THE DRAWER CHEST. THE NAME "COM-
MODE" IS NOT DEFINITIVE. ACCORDING TO SIZE,
USE, AND LOCALE THE SAME TYPE MAY RE CALLED
A CHEST, CARINET, SIDEROARD, ETC. IN THE 18TH
CENTURY IT RECAME CHIEFLY AN IMPORTANT
ORNAMENT.
434 DEMILUNE COMMODE,

tulipwood with marble top.
English(?) c. 1800.
Anderson Calleries
435 QUEBEC, 1800-1850. Sacristy cupboard in provincial Musee de la Province, Quebec

style of Louis XV. Doors simulate drawers.
436 FRENCH PROVINCIAL,

late 18th century, style of
Louis XV.
Don Ruseau
- ..- .
437 FRANCE, NAPOLEONIC ERA. Dul'va Brother^.

made for Lucien Commode byV Jacob
J b n
and TLouis u v
Bonaparte. > believed to have been
438 FRANCE, late 18th century.

Burl panels with ormolu mounts.
COMMONWEALTH 145 CONSTITUTION MIRROR
*%X^ COMMOWnJEALTH <*

FACTHIAGAIE
CE6MIUELUAVI
rU/JIP
TABLE CUA1C
BED KU5U UIGT HOLDEE
COMMONWEALTH. Puritan or Cromwellian period

in English history (1649-1660). Austere forms re-
placed the ornate Stuart styles. See also cromwel-
lian; ENGLAND.
comsoj-e BEActErs
COMPO; COMPOSITION (carton-pierre). Molded chests and oak chests with various decorative motives
substitute for wood carving. Whiting, resin, and size survive to illustrate the artistic abilities of the col-
are kneaded and molded in carved shapes, which are onists. [11.]
then attached to wood furniture for decoration.
CONSOLE. Architectural term for a bracket of any
COMPOSITE. Architectural order of columns combin- kind used to support cornices or shelves. The bracket
ing the Corinthian and Ionic capitals. See also orders. is usually of scroll form. The word "console" is also
applied, incorrectly, to tables fixed to the wall and
CONCERTINA MOVEMENT. Folding mechanism supported only at the front by legs, a carved eagle,
used in card tables and dining tables for expansion. or other figure. Currently, almost any type of wall
The back half of the frame or apron is cut and hinged table. [88, 124, 649, 755, 1232, 1279 et seq.]
two or more times under the extended top leaf, to
fold in upon itself. [1213.] CONSTITUTION MIRROR. American mirror of about
the period of the adoption of the Constitution, 1791
CONFESSIONAL. Large, high, upholstered easy chair or after. The head or cornice of the frame usually has
with wings. French, 18th century. [261, 634.] a series of balls as decoration. [869.]
CONFIDENTE
CONFIDANTE; CONFIDENTE. Sofa or settee with

separate seats at each end.
CONNECTICUT CHEST. New England chest, 17th or

18th century, ornamented by three carved panels and
split spindles. They were extensively used throughout
the northern colonies as dower chests and for storage
generally, and many fine examples remain. Sunflower Constitution Mittor
CONSOLE
FRONT VIEW OF
SCROLL ON ARM. 146 CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION. In the making of wood furniture
the commercial factory process still follows the basic
steps of the hand process, but at every stage the quan-
tity-production procedure depends on machines and
equipment for economy and quality control.
scientific
From the cutting and seasoning of timber, the con-
version into dimension stock, veneers and plywoods;
the machining of moldings, rabbet, and dadoes,
shaping, turning, carving, boring, etc.; the assembly
of machined parts; and the final finishing and as-
sembling, all possible handwork is eliminated for pre-
cision as well as for economy. Nevertheless, the suc-
cession of steps still follows the handicraft sequence.
TOP RAIL
CkHINQ
>acjc po/r
j)/?At Stomp
C.<lo//ail
FRONT VTEW OF CHAIR.
NOtE ALL DETAILS EXERTING
PLAN OF CHAIR ARE T i'niiii r fjOt&AlL
DRAWN FULL 3IZE.
.11114-
FURNITURE.
CHAIR IN DINING-ROOM.
440 SCALE DRAWING with details, Louis XVI chair from

the Petit Trianon, Versailles.
SPLINED
CONSTRUCTION 147 CONSTRUCTION
1. The pictorial sketch of the designer is projected
into working-scale drawings. From this the "full-size
detail" or pattern is made and usually transferred to
wooden full-size sections called the "rod." From this
is taken the "stock list," or schedule of dimensioned
parts.
2. Preparation of Wood. Air- and kiln-drying are
highly technical procedures. Similarly, the cutting of
veneers and making of plywoods rely on scientific
techniques and apparatus, many of which are separate
productions outside the furniture factory, which re- Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
ceives such laboratory specification products as 441 DOVETAILED DRAWER, 18th-century
its
American chest.
raw material.
Assembly. The handmade, or custom, product is
3.
largely put togetherby one man working at a bench.

The factory product may move down a production line
with many hands, each applying his specialized opera-
tion. This is the part that occasions the greatest cost
handwork is scarce and
variation. Skilled costly and
can almost be replaced by intelligently disciplined
assembly-line procedures.
4. Finish. Production methods in finishing have ad-
vanced tremendously with the advent of new syn-

thetic materials, replacing traditional shellac, varnish,
and paint, and with the advent of processes involving
heat, chemistry, spraying, electronics, etc. (See also
finish.) Again, the result of a completely mechanical
process never quite looks like that of a hand-finished
process. Efforts to synthesize patinas and to achieve
the effects of great age or skilled individual labor are
usually obvious.
The construction of framework furniture (like

chairs) and of case furniture falls into different cate-
gories that were specialized trades in much of furni-
ture history. Material and skills vary widely. Chairs
are frameworks designed primarily to withstand such
stress as weight and twisting. They basically follow
an arbitrary shape in which the articulation of mem-
bers is as important as the proportions, which are
governed by the human body and by a particular
manner of sitting. Thus, styles of design and construc- Ginsburg and Levy
tion of chairs continually revert to factors of strength, 442 DRAWER SLIDE, English chest c. 1755-1760.
"-C- DOVETAIL
EE BATED JOINT
MOQTISE -AMD-TENON TONGUE- AND-GPOOl/E

CONSTRUCTION 148
MAT e K I A LS
lightness in handling, and body comfort for sitting.
A L6CS I'-S" *\%' I
%'
The simple stool, legs attached to a board, was given 2 Aprow-s \-t/2 ' *.5</i" * I"
2 Apaois <o" * 3/2" * I*
a back, and the final products are as varied as Chip-
2 5reFr cH * E,; A
7' "* tW'i'/*
pendale chairs and the Windsor. In both cases the Jop 2'-o * V-o"
excellence of construction grew out of artistic per-
3 9
ceptions of the strength of materials and the possible
ways of making the assembly rigidand capable of
resisting stress.By the strategic arrangement of the
JKITCU SHOWING CONSTRUCTION
parts, the members brace one another. Adhesives at
the joints prevent the parts from moving and allow- their balance by the form and position of structural
ing the framework to dissolve. A good chair is a great parts; joinery isconcerned with the strength of joints.
engineering achievement. There are a number of primary joints: (1) plain butt,
The molded chair models a matrix-form for the (2) rabbeted, (3) doweled, (4) mortise-and-tenoned,
body. Beginning with a shaped wooden seat, it evolves (5) splined, (6) dovetailed. There are also infinite
into a single shell comprising back, arms, and seat. variations of these joints, developed for special pur-
The effect was originally obtained through upholster- poses or through the joiners' ingenuity.
ing. Modern materials and techniques achieve such Rabbeted joints are known as dadoed, housed, or
forms in plastics, molded plywood, etc. These may be grooved, with many combinations. Doweled joints,
surface-softened, as was the original framework chair, the most generally used today, are in effect secured
with upholstery materials. butt joints. Splined joints are known as tongue-and-
A table is essentially an engineering problem. It is grooved when the edges of the boards are shaped to
a flat plane that carries weight, and the framework is
go together, instead of a strip being inserted in iden-
designed to resist this stress, as well as the strain of tical meeting grooves. Dovetailing, now used to join
lateral and lifting movements. drawer sides, occurs in older casework at the meeting
Casework furniture includes receptacles or storage of sides and top.
devices such as chests-of-drawers and cabinets. The All rules for joinery are qualified by position and
drawer is essentially a mechanical device. Its inven- material.
tion after the Gothic period really marks the begin- Virtually all joints require glue, or would be im-
ning of modern furniture. The box idea began with a proved by it. Glueing is an art and science in itself.
hollowed-out log; then came the joining of planks. Its See also glue.
first breakthrough came with the framed panel, achiev- Nails are rafely used, except for temporary setting
ing relative lightness, dimensional stability and rigid- until glue takes hold. Screws or clip fasteners are often
ity necessary for the movable box-in-a-box or drawer. used to allow movement of the wood in some planes.
Methods of fastening together the various flat parts Frameworks, such as chairs, tables, etc., depend for
progressed from simple butt-joining, braced strategic- rigidity on the strength of the joint, plus scientific
ally, to complicated dovetailing, both of carcass and cross bracing. Doweled joints are most commonly
drawer. Nothing in Western work approaches the used, with braces arranged to distribute the strains
complex jointing of Chinese cabinetry, but their case- into other planes. Such are stretchers, which, being
work is independent of glue, and therefore never at- visible, may not be used in some styles; corner blocks
tains the rigidity and tight fitting of modern Western are universally used in the concealed structure of up-
work. holstered chairs and under the tops of tables.
The heavier posts andwere grooved to
crossrails See also finish; upholstery.
hold the lighter inner panel (later of plywood), the
feet being part of the posts. In late-18th-century work CONSULATE. Napoleon's term as First Consul, 1799-
there was a recurrence of flush sides, both in solid and 1804. The continued the Directoire manner up
style
in veneered panels. With the advent of plywood it
to the development of the Empire. See also France.
became more feasible to use flush sides. Drawer cases [212.]
are held together by horizontal partitions, or dust pan-
els, between the drawers. Flush doors in cabinets are CONTEMPORARY. Current style, presently specific
best made with framed cores. modern or less adapted from
to eclectic work, more
Joinery, better known as cabinetmaking, differs historical styles, with modern overtones.
from carpentry in that it requires greater precision and
a different understanding of strains and materials. CONTRE-PARTIE. Boulle work in which the brass
Carpentry is concerned with weight and strains and predominates.
CONVERSATION CHAIR 149 CORNER CUPBOARD
CONVERSATION CHAIR. Loose term for comfort- CORNER ARMCHAIR. Armchair with the back on
able chairs, not quite so low or so deep as lounge two sides based on three legs, the fourth leg being in
chairs, but more comfortable than straight chairs. the middle of the front. See also roundarout chair.
[268.]
CONVOLUTE. In the form of a scroll.
CORNER RLOCK. Triangula i blocks set in the cor-
COPY. Reproduction, replica. Furniture copies are ners of chair frames, etc., as reinforcement. See also
usually made of old pieces having historic or antiquar- CONSTRUCTION.
ian interest, with more or less fidelity. The patina
of old pieces, with their wear marks, are sometimes CORNER CUPBOARD. Cupboard designed to fit a
so skillfully duplicated that they are carelessly or in- corner, the front being diagonal or curved. Smaller
tentionally sold as originals. See also antiques. ones were made to hang; very important ones were
built integral with the room. Paneling lines often carry
COQUILLAGE. Shell motive in ornamental design through in the architectural forms. They were com-
for frames and other carved surfaces, after the French mon throughout the 18th century in England and
coquille, a shell. It is Rococo, and occurs in French America, and in France as encoignure. [443 et seq.]
work of the early 18th century and in French-influ-
enced English work. Chippendale's school used it
extensively as the central ornament surrounding a
cabochon on seat rails of chairs.
446 CORNER CUPROARD, New England c. 1810.
CORBEL. Rracket or brace to carry weight, deriving
from the architectural term "to corbel out," in which
one or more bricks or stones project to carry a weight.
Common decorative theme in 17th- and 18th-century
furniture.
CORDOVA LEATHER. Leatherworking in Europe

derived most of its inspiration from the technique of
decorating leather evolved in Cordova, Spain, during

the Middle Ages. By the time the Renaissance spread
over Europe, all leatherwork came to be known as
Cordova leather. Flanders inherited the method from
the conquerors of the Lowlands, whence it was popu-
larized in French and English decoration. Much of
the leather was stamped with ornate, rather Oriental,
designs, gilt and polished. [1151.]
CORE. Internal part of plywood, usually poplar,

chestnut, or similar porous woods, upon which the
crossed layers of veneer are applied. See also plywood.
CORINTHIAN. Architectural order of column, with

scrollsgrowing out of acanthus leaves. The most
ornate Greek form, it was adapted and highly devel-
oped by the Romans. See also orders.
Corinthian Cwjm
CORNER CUPROARD 150

443 Rogers Fund, 1925

Rogers Fund, 1918
443 AMERICAN, walnut, c. 1745.
444 ENGLISH, 1725-1730. Black lacquer with Chinese deco-

ration.
445 CONNECTICUT VALLEY, 1730-1750.
444
Metropolitan Museum of Art,-
Bequest of John L. Cadwalader, 1914
-r"* 151 CORNER CUPROARD
448 GENOA, parquetry in Louis XIV style. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
449 FRANCE, Early Provincial style of Louis XV. Don Ruscau
452 CORNER GATELEG TABLE,

English, early 18th century.
Sijmons Galleries, Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc.
453 BALTIMORE c. 1780. Mahogany corner table,
marble top.
447 ITALIAN, painted,

late 18th century.
Olivieri
152 COUNTERSINK
CORNICE (CORNISH) . Horizontal top or finish mold-
ing or group of moldings of a piece of furniture or
Detached boxes or frames from

architectural unit.
which curtains hung were also so called in the 18th
century. See also molding; orders.
CORNUCOPIA. The horn of plenty, overflowing with

fruits and flowers. A motif in decoration of many
styles, from the Renaissance to the present. Favorite
stencil motif, American 19th century.
CORNUCOPIA SOFA. American Empire type with

carved cornucopia designs on arms, back, and legs.
COROMANDEL. Bombay ebony from the Coroman-

del coast; blackish rosewood in texture, with light
Philadelphia Museum of Art stripes. [647.]
450 PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN, mid-
18th-century corner hanging cupboard, pine.
COSTUMIER. Stand or frame with pegs or hooks, for
hanging clothing. (Recent.) [1095a.]
451 QUEBEC, 19th century. Pine corner COT. Light, portable bedstead.
cupboard in two parts.
Musee dc la Province, Quebec
COTTAGE FURNITURE. Specifically English simpli-
fied types originating in functional demands rather
than in display. Corresponds to provincial styles gen-
erally in superimposing echoes of fashionable details
on basic functional articles. Good 18th- and 19th-
century work is scantily ornamented, unlike provincial
work of France. Late-19th-century English reform
movements worked largely with country models.
[1324.]
COTTONWOOD. Soft-textured light wood of poplar

family; use in furniture confined to plywood cores.
COUCH. Sofa that has a half-back and head end only.

See also rest reds; sofa.
COUNTER-ROULLE. Brass groundwork with tortoise-

shell inlay. See also contre-partie.
COUNTERPANE. Coverlet for a bed, originally

woven in squares or figures.From the French contre-
point, a fabric woven on both sides. Mentioned in
most early furnishings inventories.
COUNTERS. Originally tables or chests whose top

surfaces are marked off for either measuring or count-
ing. They originated in Flanders in the 15th century.
COUNTERSINK. Conical boring in wood to receive

a screwhead so that the surface of the screw is lower
than the wood surface.
153 CRADLE
CRADLE. bed of ancient type, mounted on
Child's
rockers or some swinging arrangement. Every style
has produced a variety of types, from simple boxes
.to the great draped state cradles of 18th-century
France. Renaissance forms are unbridled imaginative

designs; similar complex forms appear in Sheraton's
drawings; and a notably elaborate cradle is that of
Napoleon's son, in the Empire style. Peasant styles
bear much painted and carved ornament, especially in
rural Germany, Switzerland, and France. The cradle
is now almost obsolete in favor of the more functional
crib. [3, 455, 888, 956.]
455 CRADLE, American 17th century. Panels recall Late

Gothic-Jacobean influence.
Stair ir Company, Inc.

454 COURT CUPBOARD, Jacobean, melon-bulb turnings,
Italianate carving.
COURT CLIPBOARD. English buffet form of Tudor

origin, probably suggested by Italian or French cre-
dence forms. Generally a double-bodied cabinet,
richly carved and used to hold plate and eating uten-
sils, wine, etc. Highest development in Early Jacobean
times. Similar forms appear in American work of the
same period. [4, 461, 548.]
COURTING CHAIR. Two-chair-back settee or sofa.
COURTING MIRROR. Small wood-framed mirror,

usually pine, with a picture over the glass; a conven-
tional courting gift. American, 18th century. [838.]
COVE. Large concave or hollow molding.
COVED CUPROARD. Early American cupboard 456 AMERICAN PINE, early 18th century Israel Sack, Inc.
whose top is swept forward like a hood.
COX, JOSEPH. Upholsterer and cabinetmaker, had

a shop in Dock Street, New York, in mid-18th century.
Settee with his label now in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art.
COZY CORNER. Mid-19th-century interest in the

Near East led by
to draped, cushioned constructions;
the 1880's these were reduced by lower-class com-
mercial interpretation to a species of hooded corner
settee compositions with fancy frameworks; middle
class in England and America.
CREDENCE 154 CROSSRAIL
CREDENCE. Important side table of Gothic style, of simple ball profiles are the chief ornament. See also
usually oak. Origin probably religious, from credere, ENGLAND. [473.]

to believe. Later used as sideboard for carving meat,
displaying plate, etc. Prevalent in northern Europe, CROSS FIRE. Regular mottled figure across the grain
it evolved into the buffet-sideboard type. [719, 723] of wood, yielding a brilliant transparency, particularly
in some mahogany, walnut, satinwood, and other trop-
CREDENZA. Credence, Italian form. An important ical woods. See woods.
production of the 15th and 16th centuries. See also

ITALY. [719.] CROSS STRETCHER. Intersecting X-stretcher,
straight or curved, on tables, lowboys, and chairs.
CRESCENT STRETCHER. Bowed or concave Baroque Italian inspiration developed by the French
stretcher on Windsor chair, American, English, 18th Renaissance designers and employed in England in
century. the William and Mary productions and later. [1196.]
CRESSENT, CHARLES, 1685-1768. French furni- CROSSRANDING. Border bands of veneer in which
ture maker and ciseleur, pupil of Boulle and leading the grain runs across the band. Treatment is character-
figure in Regence and Rococo design. [653.] istic of walnut furniture after Charles II, and follows
throughout the 18th century in England and on the
CRESTING. Carved decoration on top rail of chairs, Continent.
daybeds, mirrors, etc.

CROSSRAIL. Horizontal bar or rail in a chairback.
CREWELWORK. Embroidery of fine worsted on

linen. English, 16th and 17th centuries.
CRIR. Child's bed with enclosed sides. 457 CUPBOARD GABLE-ROOFED ROMANESQUE FORM,
Austrian, 15th century. Cabinet, of pine, is 76 inches high, 45
inches wide.
CRICKET. Old English wooden footstool, usually
low. Also, simple versions in American work.
CRICKET TARLE. Small Jacobean three-legged

table, generally round. [17.]
CRINOLINE STRETCHER. Stretcher on Windsor

chairs, the two front legs joined by a semicircular
curve, with short stretchers to the back legs. See also
CRESCENT STRETCHER.
CRISSCROSSED WORK. Latticework.
CROCKET. Gothic architectural ornament consisting

of moldings terminating in a curve or roll. Used on
medieval woodwork, and again in work of the 18th
century.
CROMWELLIAN. The brief period, 1649-1660, of

Puritan domination in England is named after its
central figure, Oliver Cromwell. The furniture of this

time is a severe, undecorated version of the Jacobean,
out of which it grew. These Puritan influences were
naturally those carried across the sea by the Puritan
settlers of the New
England colonies; consequently,
the early gateleg tables, Welsh dressers, square-backed
chairs, and other furniture of the colonies exhibit the
same qualities. The wood was chiefly oak; turnings

Cloisters Collection, Purchase, 1949
CROTCH 155
CROTCH. The wood from the intersection of a branch

with the trunk of the tree has an unusual V-shaped
figure when cut into veneers. The matching of these
veneers produces striking patterns much favored by
cabinetmakers. See also woods.
CRUSHED BALL FOOT. Furniture foot similar to

club foot.
CROWN. Motive in decoration. In carving it is found

in Italian, French, Flemish, and English work after
Charles II. It occurs also as painting, as in medieval
wall decorations. Its use as a motif in weaving dates
from the Early Saracenic textiles and the Sicilian
weavers of the 12th century. [470.]
CUP-AND-COVER TURNING. Turned ornament

consisting of a bulb, topped by a lid or cover. Jaco-
bean and later. See also turning.

458 OAK AMBRY, English c. 1475.
C - 5CB.OLL
C-SCROLL. Carved C-shaped design found in much

late-16th- and 17th-century French and Flemish work
and later in England.
CUP-TURNING. Cup-shaped bulge in turned legs.
CUPBOARD. Cabinet or box with doors, for storage.

The special types and names are numerous, springing
from special uses and locations. Sometimes a cupboard
isconsidered an architectural feature only, the free-
standing equivalent being a cabinet. See also cabinet;
CHEST; CORNER CUPBOARD; COURT CUPBOARD. [457 et
seq.]
EARLY CUPBOARDS WERE KNOWN IN ENGLAND

UNDER VARIOUS NAMES SUGGESTING USE FOR FOOD
STORAGE: ALMONER, AMBRY, DOLE, LIVERY (FOR
DELIVERY). THE EARLY FORMS HAD ONLY ONE
DOOR AND USUALLY SOME DEVICE FOR VENTILA-
TION. THE CABINET FORMS DEVELOPED SIMULTANE-
OUSLY FOR ALL OTHER STORAGE USES, FINALLY
REACHING A CLIMAX IN THE GREAT DECORATIVE
CABINETS OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
459 ENGLISH LIVERY CUPBOARD c. 1500.

Crown Copyright
CUPBOARD 156 CUPBOARD
"CUP-BOARD" LITERALLY WAS ANOTHER SOURCE OF
THE CUPBOARD CABINET IDEA. FILLING IN THE
OPEN SECTION PRODUCED THE COURT-CUPBOARD
TYPE.
i^ ,,,,,,.,,.., ,,, .. j
, u .
, , u
GOTHIC MolDinJG PtriiL
460 ENGLISH, early 17th century. Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.
461 ENGLISH COURT CUPBOARD,

mixed Gothic-Italianate ornamentation, 1630-1640.

462 ENGLISH, mid-17th century.
Court-cupboard shape with simplified Italianate detail.
V
^lSl/?ii
*nj
\ m
INvS Â
ELIZABETHAN
CABiWETivoee
DET4I S 1-
STRAP*/ O R.K
157 CUPBOARD
463 ENGLISH c. 1620. Stair i? Company, Inc.
Anderson Galleries
465 MASSACHUSETTS, early 18th century. Fluted
decoration reminiscent of linenfold paneling.
466 BAVARIA or Austria, dated 1811. High painted

cupboard.
Heboid Wallach
464 SWISS, early 18th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1907
CUPID'S BOW 1S8 DAVENPORT DESK
CUPID'S BOW. Double ogee curve, bow shaped, DAIS. Raised platform at one end of medieval rooms,
such as favored by Chippendale for top rails of chairs. upon which was the table for the master, while the
retainers sat below. Also occurs in Empire style for
CURLED FIGURE. Feathered appearance in the use with beds.
grain ofsome woods when cut across the grain. Maple,
birch, walnut, and others show distinct cross-grain DAMASK. Silk figured fabric used for draperies and
markings in parts of some logs. This figure is prized upholstery, named after Damascus, where it appears
for special veneerings, inlays, etc. See also woods. to have been made before the 12th century. The man-
[374.] ufacture of damask began in Italy very early, and
until the end of the 17th century Venice and Genoa
CURLED HAIR. Upholstery filling made principally supplied most of Europe. The French weavers took
from the mane and tail hair of horses, valued for its over the process with the Renaissance, while Dutch
resiliency and long staple. Less valuable is the curled and Flemish weavers carried it to England about 1570.
hair of cattle and hogs.
DANISH. See Scandinavia.
CURLY RIRCH, MAPLE, etc. Occasional variants
markings in some woods show strong parallel
in grain DANTE CHAIR (Dantesca). X-chair of the kalian
waves or curls. Curly maple was favored in Early Renaissance, having four heavy legs curving up to
American work. See also woods. [374.] arms, with leather or fabric seat. Spanish type rather
top-heavy; French, English, and Teutonic versions
CURRICULE CHAIR. Sheraton's term for a classical more ornate. See also chair; curule chair. [214.]
type having semicircular back and elongated seat. See
also CURULE CHAIR. DARRY AND JOAN SETTEE. Two-chairback settee,
English. [1078.]
CURULE CHAIR. X-shaped chair, the sella curule
of the Romans. [788.] DARLY, MATTHIAS. 18th-century English designer
and engraver, published books on design.
CUSP. Gothic ornamental knob or point projecting
from the intersections of two curves. [622, 1017, 1144.] DAVENPORT. Small writing desk. In current Amer-
ican use, an upholstered sofa.
CUSPED ARCH. Gothic detail of pointed arch with
pointed break into the curve. [1144.] DAVENPORT RED. Couch that may be unfolded to
form a bed.
CUTWORK. Fretwork.
DAVENPORT DESK. Small writing desk, chiefly
CYLINDER FRONT. Quarter-round fall front of a mid-19th-century English. Characteristically, there are
desk. Also the name of the desks having such rolltops, drawers that pull out sideways, and a lift lid, with or
made during the late 18th century in France and without gallery. [467.]
England. [483.]
CYMA. From the Greek for wave a simple double

curve.
CYMA RECTA. The ogee molding.
CYMA REVERSA. The cyma recta reversed.
CYPRESS (Cupressus semperoneus). Dark red-

dish wood of very hard texture, valued for its dur-
ability. Cypress chests were made as early as the 14th
century.
cuspEf aizch iivi woopwaek

467
DAVENPORT TABLE 159 DAYBED
DAVENPORT TABLE. Long narrow table used be-

hind a sofa when placed in the center of a room.
DAVID (David Roentgen). French designer and

cabinetmaker, 1743-1807. See also roentgen.
DAYREDS. Rest beds, chaise longues, and other

elongated seating forms may be called daybeds; these
usually have a raised pillowlike end. They are pictured
in ancient Greek and Roman remains, and occur in
France after the Louis XIV era. They appear in Eng-
land with the Restoration. The commoner reference
in America is to a true bed form with both ends the
same height and placed lengthwise to the wall. This Anderson Galleries
470 DAYRED c. 1680. Charles II, walnut and cane, scroll leg
form grew from the alcove bed of 18th-century France, and stretcher with crown.
which evolved through the Louis XVI and Empire
styles into the familiar shape of the current style. See
also CHAISE LONGUE; rest beds. [468, 471, 506, 598.]
GREEK SCULPTURE 1st century. 468
469 AMERICAN QUEEN ANNE. Israel Sack, Inc.
471 DAYRED, English, 1780-1790. Late style of the Adams. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1910
DEAL 160 DESK
DEAL. English term for pine, particularly the Scotch DENTILS. Equally spaced rectangular blocks in a
pine. Sheraton explains the name as the Dutch term cornice molding, resembling teeth.
for "a part," signifying the division of boards when
used as the core for veneering. DERRYSHIRE CHAIR. English country chair. Jac-
obean period.
DECALCOMANIA. Picture applied in reverse to
paper, then transferred to furniture by sticking and DESK. The original desk was a writing box, a small
removing the paper. As a substitute for painted dec- chest with sloping lid. Inside were kept writing ma-
oration, it appeared in the late 18th century, but terialsand valuables. This form was known in ancient
became popular only in the early 1800's, chiefly in China and Egypt; it is the monastic scriptorium of
America. Hitchcock and similar chairs were sometimes the Middle Ages. These Gothic forms, growing larger,
decorated with such transfer patterns. came to be mounted on stands [474], and presently
the hinging of the lid was reversed so that the inner
DECANTER STANDS. See coaster. side formed a writing surface when opened [476].
Hence the slant-front and fall-front types that are
DECORATED QUEEN ANNE. English style, approxi- known today. The desk box survived into the 18th
mately 1710-1730; Early Georgian. Such essential de- century. From the French practice of covering it with
tails of Queen Anne style as cabriole legs, round-back a woolen cloth (French bure) comes the word "bu-
chairs with fiddle splats, claw-and-ball feet, and gen- reau," later signifying any desk compartment, and
curved forms were enriched
erally in scale and heavily corrupted in America to mean chest of drawers.
adorned with carving. [266.] The filling in of the desk frame with drawers to the
floor came in the late 17th century with the appear-
ance of the chest of drawers [485]. In England and
later in America this type became a leading article
of furniture. The addition of the bookcase top made
the tall The name is derived from scrutoire
secretary.
or scriptoire. Italy, Austria, and Germany produced
elaborate secretaries in Baroque complexity. The late-
18th-century types of England and America are su-
perb architectural compositions. In the Empire period
the slant front almost disappeared, and the straight
one front plane, was a rectangu-
fall-front cabinet, in
lar mass of superimposed architectural motives.
Biedermeier secretaries carried this even further;
tall compositions, sometimes of three architectural
facades, complete with columns and cornices and pedi-

ments, were made in light woods. American desks of
the same period favored a debased Sheraton form
with slightly slanted fold-over leaf and turned legs.
In the Victorian era the tall slant front came back; it
PtCOCATCP QVM ANNE was very large, with softened contours.
Smaller desks, the type known as "ladies' desks,"
appeared about 1680 in England. An epidemic of
letter writing and memoirs raged in France during
DEMI-DOME. Half dome, such as the shell-top niche Louis XV's reign and, with its counterpart in England,
in a cupboard. made desks essential in every room. These were dainty
tablelike affairs with small enclosed top sections, clos-
DEMILUNE. Half round in plan, as in a console or ing with lids, doors, tambours, or cylinders that rolled
commode. [434, 1066.] back. From the cylinder type came many important
variations; through the Empire they were popular,
DEMOISELLE. Early French pedestal table fitted and begat the 19th-century rolltop, the "Carlton desk,"
with the form of a woman's head, and used to hold and numerous other table forms flourishing in Eng-
headdresses. land.
DESK 161 DESK BOX
Table desks developed naturally from the simple
writing table; banks of drawers were added below, ONE ROOT IS IN THE PORTABLE DESK BOX SET ON A
TABLE OR FRAME. ANOTHER IS IN THE READING
and often a small block of drawers sat loosely on STAND OR LECTERN, FILLED IN UNDER THE SLANT-
top. A form of kneehole arrangement occurs fre- ING TOP.
quently, often identical with dressing-table forms. In
American work a practical workdesk, sometimes called
"George Washington," set precedent for modern utili-
tarian pieces. These types are called "library tables"
in England. See also library table; writing desk.
[437 et seq., 1095, 1374 et seq.}

473 MASSACHUSETTS, Jacobean, 1680-1700.

472 DESK BOX, probably Pennsylvania, 18th century.
DESK BOX. Portable box for writing materials and

valuable papers; usually with hinged slant top for
writing. In earliest furniture history they were small;
as they grew larger they were equipped with stands,
to which they finallybecame attached and so were
the ancestor of the modern desk. See also desk. [472.]
474 SCANDINAVIAN, 17th century. 475 ITALIAN, 16th century, ironbound olivewood.
DESK 162 DESK
THE DESK-ON-FRAME EVOLVED INTO THE

GRACEFUL DESIGN KNOWN IN LATER PERIODS
AS "LADIES' DESKS."
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn. 477 PENNSYLVANIA c. 1710. Box stretcher desk-on-frame.
476 AMERICAN, 1690-1700, walnut, cross stretcher.
479 LOUIS XV, height of Rococo. French it Co., Inc.
478 ENGLISH c. 1700. Queen Anne, walnut.

Fully developed type, cabriole leg.
DESK 163 DESK

481 FRENCH, Directoire,
480 AMERICAN, 1710-1725, Queen Anne influence.
with Revolutionary emblems.
Detachable desk box on lowboy.
DESK 164 DESK
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MASTERPIECES REPLACED

THE FALL FRONT WITH A ROTATING CYLINDER
THAT ROLLED RACK. A FLAT WRITING BED COULD
THEN BE DRAWN FORWARD. COMPLICATED MECHAN-
ICAL CONTRIVANCES CAME FROM ROENTGEN, SHER-
ATON, ETC.
--T7T*
.1.11, .:imuiultM
484 LOUIS XVI MAHOGANY ROLLTOP DESK by David Roentgen, Gautier bronze-dore French ir Co., Inc.
plaque.
165 DESK
Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright Needham's Antiques, Inc.

482 FRENCH ROCOCO, elaborate marquetry. 483 ENGLISH, late 18th century.
THE ADDITION OF THE SLANT-FRONT DESK ROX TO A CHEST OR

CARINET FOLLOWED LOGICALLY AFTER 1650. THE FORM CONTINUES
TO DEVELOP THROUGH CURRENT STYLES.
Anderson Galleries
ITALIAN Needham's Antiques, Inc.
485 (Florence), mid- 17th century. Walnut desk
with closed-in base section. 486 ENGLISH c. 1710. Queen Anne, walnut, slope front.
DESK 166 DESK
Metrovolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909

488 VIRGINIA, 1700-1710. Walnut slant top.
DESK 167 DESK

490 CONNECTICUT c. 1780; the use of mahogany is unusual.
Don Ruseau
492 FRENCH, Provincial style of Louis XV,
probably late 18th century. Hoof foot.
491 GEORGE I, WALNUT KNEEHOLE DESK. Needham's Antiques, Inc.

DESK 168 DESK
- .^.-'i.
Needham's Antiques, Inc. French ir Co., Inc.

493 ENGLISH c. 1795. Directoire influence. 494 FRENCH, Louis XVI, stamped Saunier. Wedgwood
plaques in satinwood panels, brass ornamentation.
495 AMERICAN, 1810-1820. Mahogany bureau desk, fall 496 FRENCH c. 1785. Stamped N Lannuier. Drop-front sec-
front. retary, satinwood, Sevres plaque, marble top.
New-York Historical Society, New York City French <b Co., Inc.
3TC J^^^d(i^^^^:î ; *$&.

DESK 169 DESK
Mrtropolitan Museum of Art, Israel Sack, Inc.

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Andrew Varick Stout, 1935 498 AMERICAN, 1790-1800. Tambour front, fold-over writing bed.
497 AMERICAN, Sheraton style made in New York
about 1800.
499 LOUIS XVI, signed Piret, 1785. Bronze-dore by

Gautier, drop front. 500 MASSACHUSETTS c. 1800. 501 FRENCH c. 1925. Macassar ebony.
French ir Co., Inc. Figured mahogany. Designed by Ruhlmann.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Kennedy Fund, 1918 Edward C. Moore, Jr., Gift Fund, 1932
Needham's Antiques, Inc
503 ENGLISH c. 1835. Georgian style, leather top.
504 DESK DRAWER in campaign chest, English c. 1830.
iiittiMtanMMI IH"
l'-PSTM
LATE QEOCOIAN DECORATED 1

H
'
ii
7srae( Sack, Inc.

E4RLV VICfOeiAlJ
CLOSED DESKS
505 DESK ROX, Salem, Massachusetts, c. 1730, walnut.
171 DIRECTOIRE
LAPlCs' DB3K ; SWV)SH Q.OCOCO
DIAMOND-MATCHED VENEER. Straight-grained

woods cut diagonally and put together in quarters so Diamond- point
Panels (wvo*mJ
as to produce a diamond pattern. See also woods.
DIAMOND POINT. Lozenge;

a geometric-shaped
panel in casework, typical of early-17th-century work
in France, Flanders, and England. [466, 633.]
DIAPER. Design in regular repeats, usually small,

spaced to form a diagonal pattern. Probably first
woven in Ypres in the 16th century, it took its name
from d'Ypre. Also, a basic pattern in conventional wall
painting, wallpapers, inlays, etc. [377, 516.]
Don Ruseau
DINING TABLES. See table.
510 DIRECTOIRE PEDESTAL
with bronze candelabrum.
DIAPCfc PATTERl!
DIRECTOIRE. The French Revolution ended the

reign of Louis XVI, but his classic style adjusted well
to Republicanism. The new government of the Di-
rectory encouraged most of the great craftsmen to
discard the sumptuous regality, to reduce scale and
Sivubuck Table McenirenEcfeopr, l/-*u~
ostentation of materials, and to emphasize Greco-
Roman forms. Percier and Fontaine emerged in this
brief period, and the artist David was effective.
Napoleon extinguished the Directory in November,
1799, and in his Consulate laid the foundation for the
Empire, coinciding with the transition to full autoc-
racy in 1804. The hasty transition in stylewas less
marked in other countries, where the retardataire
Louis XVI-Directoire style created the Early Regency
CAT&L<S manner in England, the elegance of Duncan Phyfe
and Lannuier in America, a capricious Directoire in
Italy, and a coldly sober classicism in Scandinavia. See
also empire; France. [378, 481, 662 et seq., 789.]
Prop leaf
PSM&R.OKB
Revolution.
XVI with reeding, insert diamonds, typical of
506 DAYBED, Early Direetoi.e. Basically Louis
Don Ruseau
1795. Matched mahogany
*ns TRANSITION LOUIS XVI TO DIRECTOIRE. Commode c.
DETAIL, DIRECTOIRE CHEST POST.
veneer! presage EmJ"flat surfaces. 509
Don Ruseau
512 DIRECTOIRE DAYBED c. 1805.
173 DIRECTOIRE
513 FRENCH DIRECTOIRE c. 1800. Daybed of simple style.
507 ITALIAN DIRECTOIRE DonRuseau

CHEST AND MIRROR.
ITALIAN DIECC1DIK
514 ITALIAN DIRECTOIRE COMMODE c. 1810. Inlaid walnut. Anderson Calleries
Don Ruseau
511 DETAIL, FOOTBOARD.
Provincial Directoire.
DISC FOOT 174 DOWER CHEST
DISC FOOT. Flat, rounded foot in Queen Anne work. DOLPHIN HINGE. English hardware used in secre-
taries, name suggested by its dolphin-like shape. See
DISHED. Hollowed out, often by turning. also hardware.
"f DOME BED. Canopy bed with tester in either full
dome or arched shape.
DOME TOP. Half-round pediments of cabinets, etc.,
DRAKE FOOT especially Queen Anne period; similar to hooded top.

PHILADELPHIA DISC
FOOT [1060.]
DISHED CORNER. In card tables, a hollowed-out DORIC. The primary Greek order of architecture.
space in each corner for holding money. [1267.] Heavy arrissed columns with simple details yield a
sense of structural value. Roman Doric, lighter and
DIVAN. Upholstered couch without arms or back, more refined, retains much of Greek simplicity. See
originating in Turkish form of pile of rugs for reclin- also ORDERS.
ing. See also upholstery. [506.]
DOSSER. Prior to the 15th century, a fabric cover or
DOCUMENT DRAWER. In desk cabinets, the small hanging on walls or behind the seats.
vertical drawers, usually found one on each side of
the central compartment in the interior or writing DOUBLE CHEST. Two sets of drawers, the lower
section. Often ornamented with carved colonnettes, usually slightly larger than the upper; chest-on-chest;
etc. [477.] tallboy.
DOVETAIL. Method of joining boards at the ends,

as in a drawer or a case, made of interlocking tenons
suggesting the form of a dovetail. Also, a butterfly-
shaped inset used to join boards lengthwise in table-
tops, floors, etc. See construction. [441, 476, 1169.1
DOG-EAR. Projecting rectangular ornament at the

head of a door frame or paneling, found in Early
DOVETAIL
Georgian work. 5ECRET J>OVF rA/L.
MTE2BD JOINT IN CARCASE
Boards Joiwgd
DOGTOOTH. Ornamental detail, chiefly Gothic, in B* FLUSM DOVETAIL
the form of repeated cones, like pyramidal dentils. DOWEL. Round wooden pin or peg fitted into holes
in two adjacent pieces of wood, with glue to hold
DOLE CUPBOARD. Ecclesiastical cupboard for food them together. See also construction.
for the poor; disappeared after the Middle Ages. See
also AMBRY; ENGLAND; HVERY CUPBOARD. [545.]
DOWER CHEST. The custom of providing a chest
DOLPHIN. for the plenishing of a prospective bride, a hope chest,

Sea animal used more or less realistically
in carving and painting on furniture, bronze and stone appears universally in most civilizations. The romantic
in architecture. [192, 199.] aspects have inspired fanciful efforts in every style,
but in some the production carries special interest.
In the Italian work not easy to distinguish be-
it is
tween the ordinary chest and those planned as dower.

In later styles the intention as a bride's chest is plainly
T>Ol.PHIM Foot deduced from the initials, the inscription, or the forms
Enclisk &GENC/ of ornamentation. Two distinct types are found in
America the Connecticut chest, and the marriage
chest of Pennsylvania. [353.]
DOWN 175 DRESSING TADLE
DOWN. The underplumage of fowl, used in upholster- balance the extended table. First appears in Italy,
ing for the filling of soft cushions. France, and England in the sixteenth century; its
highest development is in the Jacobean oak refectory
DRAFT CHAIR. Large English wing-backed chair; tables of the 17th century. [627, 1201, 1209.]
wholly wood in Tudor, upholstered in later styles.
DRESSER. L A low chest of drawers, with a mirror
DRAGON. Legendary beast used in more or less de- over it, for clothing, storage, and dressing (American
tail Scaly feet and claws, fierce heads,
in furniture. usage). See also commode.
serpentine coils, etc., are motives drawn from the 2. Sideboard or buffet chiefly for the storage and
dragon, being generally derived from Oriental art. display of eating utensils. European usage derived
Free renderings occur in Baroque carvings in Italy, from dressoir.
France, and Germany.
DRESSING MIRROR. Small mirror on standards,
DRAKE FOOT. Three-toed foot occurring in 18th- used in connection with table, lowboy, or chest for
century furniture. [28, 32.] dressing. Also, cheval glass. [874.]
DRAPERY. In all historic styles the hanging of fab- DRESSING TARLE. Almost any form of table may
rics has been a prime device in decoration. Origina- be used as a dressing table when it is equipped with
ting in utilitarian need, the technique has invariably the customary mirror, drawers, etc. The use of types
run away with the object, making drapery an end in has varied considerably with the mode, eras of greater
itself. The draping of cold stone walls by means of luxury producing more complex solutions for this
arras or tapestries fostered the triumph of European function. Dressing tables appeared commonly about
weaving of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. Win- the end of the 17th century. The luxury of the period
dows and doorways, thrones, canopies, beds, and in England and France encouraged their develop-
chairs likewise inspired weaving and tailoring that too ment in many varieties. Men made much of dressing
often subordinated the object to the form. Yet the tables in England and France, and for over a century
manipulation of rich folds of handsome fabrics does much ingenuity was expended on arrangements of
produce effects of luxury not attainable by other mirrors, lighting, etc. The "Beau Brummels" of
means. Like good structural architecture reduced to England and the poudreuses of France are outstand-
ornament, this has led to the simulation of the effect ing types. See also beau bbummel; powdeb table;
of drapery in painting and wallpaper, carving and table. [515 et seq.]
plasterwork. Witness linenfold paneling; the painting
of swags and festoons, and the painting of textile
forms and styles as wall decoration.
DRAW RUNNER; DRAW SLIP. Small piece of wood

freely inserted into a slot just under a fall front, drop
lid, or slant flap, as on a desk or secretary. When the
lid is dropped, the draw slip is pulled forward to
support it.
DRAW TARLE; Drawer, Drawing, Draw-out, or

Draw-top Table. Refectory-type table with a double
top, the lower of which is in two sections which pull
out at the ends to increase the length of the table.
The original base must therefore be quite heavy to
omAMj our i-e+p- jr/xe o 7or
Israel Sack, Inc.

DRAW JOP TABLE
SECTION 515 AMERICAN DRESSING TABLE, Queen Anne style c. 1750.
SHou/lJ<S C>(tE LEAF
EXJ-SK10ED
DRESSING TABLE 176
517 Dalva Brothers, Inc.
Frick Collection
516
riq Symons Galleries, Inc.
518 Don Ruseau
516 POUDREUSE, Louis XVI. 517 LOUIS XV MARQUE-

TRY. 518 LOUIS XV PARQUETRY. 519 LATE-18TH-
CENTURY ENGLISH. 520 BEAU BRUMMEL TAMBOUR
CUPBOARD, English c. 1790.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of John L. Cadwalader, 1911
521 DRESSING TABLE folds into simple rectangle. Style of

Sheraton c. 1780. 522 ENGLISH c. 1780. Style of Sheraton.
523 CONNECTICUT c. 1770. Fitted dressing drawer in
serpentine chest. 524 OPEN AND CLOSED DRESSING
TABLE, satinwood, English c. 1800.

DRESSOIR DRUNKARDS CHAIR
mmm t mm .
526 ENGLISH, Victorian c. 1870. -*
"WWWfe
T T
527 AFTER EASTLAKE c. 1880.
525 MASSACHUSETTS Japanese influence in panels.
c. 1800. Bird's-eye maple and mahogany.
DRESSOIR. Buffet-cupboard-sideboard, usually with DRUNKARD'S CHAIR. Deep, rather low armchair;
open shelves or racks for china. Late Gothic develop- 18th-century England. [528.]
ment of credence in France, Flanders, and Germanic
countries. The type became chiefly rural in England in 528 DRUNKARD'S CHAIR. English Windsor, mid-18th cen-
the 18th century. Now identified as dresser. [1109.] tuf y- Stair & Company, ine.
DRINKING TABLE. See wine table. [1239.]
DROP. Pendant ornament, either turned and hanging

free, half turned and applied, inlaid, or carved into the
surface, as the husk ornament in 18th-century classical
work.
DROP FRONT. Desk front or leaf that falls forward

for use.
DROP HANDLES. Handles that hang in pendant fash-

ion. See also hardware. [393 et seq.]
DROP LEAF. Hinged flap or leaf on a table that when

raised enlarges the top. [87, 1212.]
DROPPED SEAT. Concave seat, in which the sides

are slightly higher than the middle of the front and
back. Also called scoop seat.
DRUM TARLE; DRUM TOP. Round library or center

table with adeep apron, sometimes with drawers. The
shape suggests a drum. See rent table. [606, 1384.]
DRY SINK 179
DRY SINK. Cabinet with open tray top, usually zinc

lined; cupboard below. American, 19th century. See
also RUSTIC FURNITURE; WATER RENCH.
DUCHESSE. French chaise longue, or large uphol-

stered chair and stool designed together to form a
couch. Hepplewhite's version had two armchairs fac-
ing each other, with a stool or ottoman of the same
level between.
DUCHESSE RED. French canopy bed with full tester,

fixed to the wall instead of to posts, the drapery hang-
ing down to the bedding and floor.
DUCKFOOT. Incorrectly used term for Dutch foot;

sometimes a three-toed foot or webfoot.
DUMBWAITER. Generally three or four circular

trays graduated in size from the largest at the bottom,
revolving about a central shaft; originated in England
in the early 18th century; spread to France and Ger-
many. They were generally placed near the hostess'
end of the table, and carried additional plates and
silver, dessert and cheese and, later, liquor bottles
and glasses. An American version for use upon the

table developed as the "lazy Susan," a revolving tray
for condiments, etc. [154, 529, 1255, 1342.]

DUMMY ROARD FIGURES. Boards cut out with 529 DUMBWAITER, Chippendale c. 1760.
the silhouetteand painted figure of humans, animals,
and objects of furniture. They appear throughout the
17th and 18th centuries in England and the Low some rude carving, but paint was a more common
Countries. Since no use seems plausibly ascribable to decorative medium. Distinctive are large cupboards
them, it is assumed that they were made and used called "Kas," usually painted. [799.]
merely as whimsical decoration.
DUTCH CUPROARD. Large cabinet or buffet with
DUNLAP, SAMUEL, 2nd. New Hampshire joiner, open shelves above for display of plates, etc. [82.]
made furniture in the late 18th century; notably deep
carved shells. [27.] DUTCH FOOT. Generally, a club foot. Variations are
the angular foot, the elongated foot (forming a point),
DUST ROARD, DUST ROTTOM, DUST PROOFING. and the grooved foot.
Thin wood panel used between drawers to exclude
dust and hinder access. See also construction. DUTCH FURNITURE. See Netherlands.
DUTCH COLONIAL. Period of Dutch colonization in DUTCH INFLUENCE. In English furniture, the influ-
North America, 17th century. Long Island, New York, ence of the Dutch was so apparent as to give its name
and the Hudson Valley up to Albany were occupied to the work of the William and Mary and Queen Anne
by the Dutch long enough to leave a permanent char- periods; in fact, to most of the walnut styles between
acter in houses and furniture. This is simplified Ba- 1690 and 1735. The Dutch settlements in New York
roque; massive, stolid, unpretentious. Local woods and the Hudson Valley established a persistent strain
were used almost exclusively; turning is common, usu- modifying Colonial and Federal work. [269, 364.]
ally deeply cut and with feet often eccentrically turned
to produce a rudimentary cabriole foot called Dutch DUTCH SETTLE. 18th- to 19th-century settle with
foot, spoon foot, pad foot, or duckfoot. There was back pivoted to form a table. See also box settle.
180
EARLY GOTHIC-SOLID BOARDS AND SIMPLE PANELING, PRIMITIVE HARDWARE
AND CARPENTER ORNAMENT-REPRESENTED TO CHARLES EASTLAKE THE
RETURN TO BASIC CRAFTSMANSHIP, LOST TO THE MACHINE. THE WINDSOR
CHAIR, PRETTIFIED, SHOWS AN "APPRECIATION OF THE COUNTRY CART-
WRIGHT, UNCONTAMINATED. ." . .
CHAIR-'country ciaftsman." Drawings from Hints on Household Taste, 1872.

530 WINDSOR
UPHOLSTERED CHAIR, model for much American and English work after 1870.
531
EAGLE 181
EAGLE. Its use as a decorative motive goes back to

farthest antiquity, but its revival from Roman and
Byzantine designers in the Renaissance was sparing at
first. From heraldry it was adapted to painting and
carving; conventionalization brought out the familiar

decorative uses. The eagle's head, wings, and claws,
in conjunction with mythological forms, became ramp-
ant in Baroque and Rococo 18th-century work. Em-
pire style, deriving from Napoleon's imperialistic art,
employed the eagle widely in carving, bronzes, paint-
ing, and fabrics. [72, 574, 805, 1223.]
EAR. In upholstery, the frame of the wing of a wing Brooklyn Museum

chair; also, the ends of the top rail crestings in Chip- 535A AFTER EASTLAKE: AMERICAN ROCKING CHAIR
c. 1881. Simple framework ornamented only with machined
pendale chairs.
grooves and spindles.
EARLY AMERICAN. See AMERICA.

mock encouraged a new vocabulary of
simplicity. It
EARLY CHRISTIAN. Byzantine art became per- ornament derived from the things a machine tool can
meated with Christian symbolism, and remains of do. English work in oak and ash, and American de-
this period show wide use of Church emblems, such sign, mostly in cherry, bear incised lines, chip carving,
as the circle, cross, crown, vine, dove, peacock, and stuck-on bits of molding and turning, falsely archi-
biblical figures. They survive in fabrics, mosaics, carv- tectural excrescences, and pseudoutilitarian hardware.
ings in stone and wood, painting and metalwork. Further crossbreeding came with a craze for things
[186.] Japanese, producing the mock-Oriental panel decora-
tions, and insertions of tiles decorated with medieval
EARPIECE. Scroll across a cabriole leg. themes. The philosophy found a ready ear in Ger-
many. As a turning point the logic and exposition of
EAST AKI. CHARLES LOCK, 1836-1906.
I
In an Eastlake must not be underappreciated. See also
effort to introduce a more conscious method of design ENGLAND; MODERN FURNITURE; MORRIS, WILLIAM; NINE-
into furniture, Eastlake originated a style of furniture TEENTH CENTURY. [530.]
compounded of medieval outlines with ornament freely
adapted from the Gothic, the Japanese, and the spe- EASY CHAIR. Any large chair, so padded or up-
cial abilities of the machine. His book Hints on House- holstered as to be suitable for lounging. The spring
hold Taste was published in many editions after 1868 and cushion chair is an invention of the 19th
distinctly
in England and United States. With Ruskin he
in the century, although the essential form may be patterned
deplores "speedy fashion changes due to machine after chairs of the preceding century. The French
facility." He holds "that publick taste is corrupt fash- bergere is probably the prototype of all our easy
ion rules, and few are shocked by sham and preten- chairs, although some variation came by way of the
sion" and that "cheap and easy method of workman- English wing chairs and deep armchair of the 18th
ship in an endeavor to produce a show of finish with century. See also upholstery.
the least possible labor, as well as an unhealthy spirit
of competition in regard to price, has continued to I ItlMSTI (EROIVIST). Ebonyworker; French for
cause the value of our ordinary mechanic's work to "cabinetmaker." The craze for ebony in the early 17th
deteriorate." century led master craftsmen, then called huchiers,
This return to pre-Renaissance inspired William to advertise their ability to work wood.
in this difficult
Morris and his coterie. It also inspired the very The name lingered to denote a cabinetmaker of mas-
machine-wrights it deplored to go on to design a terful skill.
EBONIZE 182
EBONIZE. The staining of native hardwood to re-
semble ebony.
EBONY (Diospyros). Tropical wood of general

black color, heavy and dense in texture. Of those in
current use, the blackest is the Gaboon ebony; the

Macassar has stripes of light brownish orange and
black-brown.
appears a rich catalogue of chests and sarcophagi,
ECBINCS. Greek egg-and-dart molding. tables and stands, stools, chairs and folding seats, in-
genious in design, sound in workmanship, and with
ECLECTICISM. In design, the practice of using and a superior sense of construction.
adapting at will the forms and motives of any previ- Folding seats had X-crossed legs with leather seats.
ous period. It permits their modification or combina- Low stools with rush seats survive, as well as low
tion with other styles as freely as the designer's whim chairs with stiff backs flowing easily into the seat
dictates, or it may follow rigidly the complete formula line. The more or less conventionalized animal
legs are
of an earlier style. Thus all modern copying or utiliza-
feet, bull hooves and lion paws supplying motives.
tion of period styles is eclectic. Periods of eclecticism Some beds were piles of quilts on frames; others, fold-
seem always to follow great periods of constructive ing-chair arrangements, but always with a yoke-shaped
designing. The major effort of the 19th century was arrangement as pillow. Tables were commonly simple
eclectic, following the great burst of artistic energy four-legged structures, well braced. Decoration was
of the 18th century. Yet, in retrospect it appears that,
to a degree, even eclecticism takes on an original,
constructive, and unique aspect when viewed in the
light of interpretation and adaptation to current needs
and techniques. The various 18th-century revivals
were, in their day, eclectic in their use of ancient
forms; yet today they appear as well-integrated, dis-
tinctive schools. See also nineteenth centuby.
EDGING. Thin strip of solid wood at the edge of a

veneered panel, to protect the veneering.
EGG-AND-DART (EGG-AND-TONGEE) (EGG-

AND- ANCHOR). Carved enrichment of an ovolo
molding suggesting alternately eggs and darts. An
ancient architectural ornament, it is one of the most
frequent in carved woodwork of all lands after the
early 16th century. [1031.]
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE: 536 footstool; 537

ivory bull's feet, from couch; 538 folding couch or bed with
ivummj. turned feet. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
EGYPTIAN. Ancient Egypt left a fairly complete

record of its daily life in the contents as well as the
!
decoration of tombs, thanks to the custom of sup-
its
plying the dead with mundane articles planned to

remind the soul of its former associations. From these
we may conclude that Egyptian inventiveness sup-

plied the shapes and models for most articles of furni-
ture in ancient times. Subsequent to 1500 b.c. there
EGYPTIAN TASTE 183 EMBRASURE
were often plain white, while
usually in paint; chairs sance work, with Gothic elements dominant; the
chests and sarcophagi were painted in strong colors Jacobean includes the period during which the Renais-
with bands of geometrical decoration. The motives sance spirit was wholly absorbed into English art. At
were largely animal forms; the various lion paws, Elizabeth's accession in 1558, the dominant Tudor
heads, and other details persisted in all subsequent forms of furniture were based on the perpendicular
decoration. Gothic architecture; the arts as a whole possessed a
Wood being scarce in Egypt, the character of the homogeneity of spirit and design never after ap-
wood was often made a feature, and there is evidence proached. Oak was almost universally used. Outlines
of the use of varnishes and natural finishes on syca- were large, straight, and severe, as in the Gothic, with
more, olive wood, yew, and cedar. Inlaying and ve- an elaborate use of Italian Renaissance carving. Flem-
neering were also known, employing for the former ish craftsmen at this time came as refugees and
pieces of faience, semiprecious stones, ivory, mother- brought French and other versions of the basic Italian
of-pearl, gold, and other metals. Renaissance designs, and with them a host of novel-
The substance of Egyptian furniture is the basis of ties inthe way of fabrics, metal treatment, intarsia,
most subsequent style. [206, 536, 1071, 1190.] new woods, and uses for furniture, as well as the new
decorative details. This process continued until, at
EGYPTIAN TASTE. A brief attempt was made to Elizabeth's death in 1603, the style had assumed a
naturalize Egyptian forms and decoration around the Continental appearance, but one that was plainly im-
turn of the 18th century. Napoleon's African campaign posed upon older forms. The melon-bulbous leg, the
in 1798 brought it to France, where it was systemati- Tudor rose, and decoration by channeling are the
cally organized and offered as a style, and the English most easily identified characteristics. See also Eng-
designers took it over to some degree. As a feature of land. [105, 549, 1201.]
the Empire style, some details persisted. See also
empire. [793, 988.] ELLIOTT, JOHN. Philadelphia cabinetmaker known
to have made dressing cases and wall mirrors. He
died in 1791.
ELM (iilmiis). The wood of this family has generally

a very light-brown color and a porous, oaklike texture.
It appears to have been used for furniture by the
Romans, and there are surviving Gothic examples. It
appears occasionally in English and a few Continental
styles, but principally in provincial work. English
chairs of elm, particularly with elm seats, are common
survivors of Georgian times. Elms are used extensively
today as decorative veneers. The odd figures of the
American and English elms, and more particularly the
burl of the Carpathian elm, make beautiful veneered
surfaces.
EMBLEM. Symbolic and heraldic ornaments passed

from their original connotation to a conventionalized,
purely decorative, use. Thus, coats of arms, personal
insignia and monograms, ciphers and religious sym-
bols are used ornamentally only, with no significance
1926
other than the association with the traditional form
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Collis P. Hunttngton,
539 EGYPTIAN DESIGN: French Empire coin on which they first appeared.
cabinet c. 1810. The use of emblems is particularly characteristic of
Elizabethan embroidery.
ELIZABETHAN. Loosely used, the term denotes the EMBBASLRE. The splay, or reveal, of a window,
particularly where deep enough for a piece of furni-
culture of England during the 16th century. The
Tudor period is generally limited to the earlier Renais- ture, such as a stool.
EMBROIDERY 184
EMBROIDERY. Decorative needlework; enrichment

of fabric by informal design appliqued or stitched on;
one of the oldest arts, it was more or less practiced
in every style, both as a trade and as an artistic avo-
cation. See also needlework. [1150.]
EMRROIDERY FRAME. Elaborate, often decorative

frame used by dilettantes in the art of embroidery in
France, England, and elsewhere, 17th century and
after.
EMPIRE. The neoclassic style of architecture and

decoration created practically by edict of Napoleon.
A committee of artists headed by David in the early
years of the 19th century eclectically proposed a com-
on the imperial forms of ancient
plete style based
Greece, Rome, and Egypt. Architects Percier and
Fontaine formulated a full set of designs in 1801.
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign force included archae-
ologistsand artists. On their return they added the
Egyptian details that so intrigued English Regency
designers.
The furniture is rectangular, architecturally massive

and excessively sumptuous, rich woods and metal
mountings offsetting the rectilinear simplicity. Ma-
hogany, rosewood, and ebony were the rule, with
brass or gilt mounts in the forms of swags and fes-
540 EMPIRE STYLE, France, 1804-1815. Revolving desk
toons, wreaths and laurel branches, torches, mytho- chair, mahogany and ormolu.
logical figures, and the Napoleonic emblems of the
bee, the crown and the letter N; later, sphinxes and EMPIRE
other Egyptian figures were used. The tripod table
and other Pompeiian details are common. Fabrics 541 FRENCH EMPIRE ORNAMENT, bed foot.
bore the same ornaments and were executed chiefly in French 6- Co., Inc.
hard textures and strong shades of green, yellow, blue,

and red.
The style spread over Europe along with the wave
of classical knowledge, and most European and Amer-
ican work is strongly flavored with the Empire es-
sence. It influenced in England men like Sheraton and
Thomas Hope; in America, Duncan Phyfe's later work
is all in the Empire manner. In Germany it grew into
a rusticized version popularly known as Biedermeier.
In short, whatever Napoleon's motive in inspiring the
step, the fact remains that its spirit suited excellently
the rising classicism, and its persistence for more than
a generation indicates that it was generallv accept-
able. [86, 88, 121, 149, 307, 383, 427, 540, 1060, 1270.]
ENAMEL. On wood furniture, a hard glossy finish

applied by brushing, then rubbed with pumice stone
and oil to a satiny finish. On metal, enamels are
baked on.
ENCOH.MUF. Small French corner cabinet. [449.]

Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute, Utica, N.Y.
540A AMERICAN EMPIRE DINING TABLE, New York c. 1830. One of two dropleaf sec-
tions with pillar-and-claw pedestal, stenciled decoration.
EMPIRE
END TABLE. General current term for any small

table used in relation to a couch, chair, etc. Small
tables of all periods and original purposes are used
now as end tables.
E1VDIVE. Carved decorative motif, a variation on

several acanthus leaves combined. Originally favored
in work of the Louis XIV period, it was extensively
used by Chippendale.
Yale University Art Gallery, Mabel Brady Garvan Collection
542 CHILD'S SOFA, New York c. 1825. Scroll arm; mahogany
and black horsehair. ENGLAND. The period distinctions of English furni-
ture are somewhat indefinite owing to the variety
543 CENTER TABLE, New York, 1825-1830. Rosewood grain-
of labels according to monarchs, designers, typical
ing, gilt inlay, stencil and freehand decoration.
Cooper Union Museum, New York City woods, external influences, etc. Political and economic
changes were so rapid after the 16th century that
styles are known by their influencing sources as well
as by their mature characteristics. More than any other
detail, the use of specific woods establishes boundaries
of English styles, and a most convenient classification
is Macquoid's separation of the ages of Oak, Walnut,
Mahogany, and Satinwood.
Age of Oak, most typically native, includes all the
Gothic development from French sources after the
Norman Conquest, through the reigns of the Tudors
and the Stuarts. Thus furniture up to 1660 is reason-
ably consecutive in style; the basic Gothic forms per-
sist, with a growing use of Renaissance details. British
sailors and traders, encouraged by Henry VIII and

Elizabeth to expand England's sphere of influence,
186 ENGLAND
Mahogany, an imported wood, symbolizes the
growth of wealth and world power under an imported
dynasty, the German Georges of the house of Han-
over. The distinctions of the Georgian styles are
purely chronological; the real classifications follow
the names of the great architects, cabinetmakers, de-
signers, and artists. Their printed works and executed
furniture tell us of the Anglicized interpretations of
the Dutch Baroque, the French Rococo, the revived
waves
classicism of the dilettante archaeologists, the
of chinoiserie. Chippendale, the Brothers Adam, Hep-
plewhite, and Sheraton are only a few of the many
great talents that made 18th-century furniture synony-
mous with great design.
Age of Satinwood is least distinct, chronolog-
ically or as a school of furniture style. It represents
the flowering of luxury and refinement; exotic, over-
Philadelphia Museum of Art
delicate, and self-consciously sophisticated, it is more
545 LIVERY CUPBOARD, English, 15th century. truly the transition from the great age to the debased
eclecticism of the 19th century. It foreshadows all the
groping of the Regency and Victorian periods.
MEDIEVAL AND GOTHIC

Medieval furniture in England, as elsewhere, was
crude and sparse, typical of the dormant state of the
arts everywhere.
The Gothic Age established a fairly universal sys-
tem of furniture, solid and angular in outline, archi-
tectural in form and ornament. The development of
furniture is marked principally by the passage from
the hands of the carpenter to the specialized joiner
or cofferer. The former employed solid boards; the
latter made framed panels. The coffer and its descend-
antsambries, hutches, cupboards [684], and side-
boards represented most of the furniture; there were
thronelike chairs, forms, joint stools, benches, and
trestle tables, and little else. A small amount of beech
and elm was used, besides the ubiquitous oak, whose
hardness set limits on the style of carving. Gothic
544 READING DESK, English Gothic, 14th century. Primitive structural elements, like arches, tracery, bosses, and
plank construction. deep moldings, were favored carved motives, as were
linenfold panels and zigzags. The wood was either
painted in colors or left raw. Wrought-iron locks and
went everywhere, bringing home ideas and riches.
keys, hinges and straps were conspicuous.
Under the less sure hand of the Stuart kings, there
were confusion and revolt. James I and Charles I,
Cromwell and the Puritan Commonwealth, Charles
II and James II are lumped as Jacobean or Stuart or
distinguished as Early Jacobean, Cromwellian or Com-

monwealth, Restoration, Carolean, Late Jacobean. The
latter, a transitional period, saw the rise to dominance
of foreign forms.
Age of Walnut one of foreign rulers as well as
is
of foreign furniture styles, but

it utilizes a domestic
wood. Dutch Baroque came with William and Mary

and flowered during Queen Anne's reign.
|AbLC &ASE tCflc
Tvook Gothic (/*,

187 ENGLAND
Charles of London
546 CHEST, 16th century. Panel construction, Renaissance
detail.
TUDOR-ELIZABETHAN
The reign of the Tudors, 1485-1603, covers the last
phase of the Gothic style and the beginning of the
Renaissance [549]. In the reign of Henry VIII the
secular power displaced that of the Church, and do-
mestic furniture began a robust development. Italian
548 COURT CUPBOARD, dated 1659. Stair & Company, Inc.
influences came with Italian architects; but only in
details of ornamentation did furniture styles deviate
from the established Gothic. Romayne work, scrolls
INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN DETAIL.
and dolphins were added to the Tudor roses, pal-
metted bands and zigzags of the carvers' vocabulary.
Intricate encouraged some use of walnut,
carving
EARLY JACOBEAN
more worked. Under Elizabeth this Renaissance-
easily
Gothic combination attained its height, distinct from Under James I and Charles I, 1603-1649, the Renais-
any Continental styles. Massive and large-scaled, the sance continued to submerge the Gothic styles. The
structural principles are simple and effective; joints straightforward structure and simple outlines persist,
are at right angles, well braced. The huge bulbous- but furniture grows smaller, lighter, less ornamented.
melon turning appears on members;
all upright Flatter carving used the Renaissance motives, includ-
stretchers are square and low. Paneled chairs, drawing Ionic capitals, weak acanthus leaves, the guilloche
top tables, court cupboards, colossal beds with heavy and intertwined circles, palmettes, etc. The melon-
wooden canopies are prodigally ornamented with gro- bulb turning is conspicuously lighter. The gateleg
tesques, caryatids, foliated scrolls, strapwork, gadroon- table appeared, and upholstery improved some chairs.
ing, inlaying, and other Italian exuberances. Inigo The Italian X-chair, footstools, highly carved mirror
Jones brought Italian architecture; Italian workmen frames, and turned chairs were common.
followed. Religious freedom and commercial advan-
tages attracted French, Flemish, German, and Dutch
craftsmen, but their output appears strangely homo-
geneous. 547 TABLE, mid-17th century. Stair 4r Company, Inc.
ENGLAND 188
Charles of London
552 Anderson Galleries

549 BED, Late Elizabethan. Gift of Irwin Untermyer, 1953
h
551 ENGLISH c. 1550. Wall cupboard with seat and arms attached. 552 ENGLISH, Crom-
wellian c. 1660. Lid, drawers, and doors. Oak, mother-of-pearl inlay; Italian influence. 553
Left. WAINSCOT CHAIR, Cromwellian. 554 Right. JOINT STOOL, Jacobean c. 1625.
553-554 Anderson Galleries
SETTLE c. 1680. Rope seat frame with loose cushion. Arthur S. Vemay, inc
189 ENGLAND
fi m
Charles of London
555 Early-17th-century ENGLISH OAK TABLE with fine
melon bulb turning with acanthus carving, gadrooning, and
Charles of London
Ionic caps. 557 Above. ENGLISH OAK GATELEG c. 1620.
CKM/Ll.l*U
558 TBESTLE-FOOT GATELEG c. 1660. Stair ir Company, Inc.
CROMWELLIAN OR COMMONWEALTH
The Civil War, 1642-1660, a Puritan revolt, substi-
tuted austere undecorated furniture for the ornate
luxuries favored by the Cavaliers. Simplified turnings
followed spool or sausage profiles. Ball- or bun-turned
feet came from the Dutch. Carving, inlays, moldings
Charles of London were simplified. Padding appears on the backs as well
556 LATE JACOBEAN CABINET. Strong influence of France
and Italy appears in the strong geometric panel shapes and as on the seats of chairs, and leather decorated in the
the arched perspective. Spanish manner is used.
190
560
559 STATE CHAIR with royal cipher of James II. Restoration

style c. 1685-1689. 560 SPIRAL-TURNED WALNUT
CHAIR, English or Flemish. Period of Charles II. 561
CHEST-ON-STAND c. 1685. Walnut base with Spanish foot.
562WILLIAM AND MARY SCROLL-LEG TABLE. Walnut

burl c. 1690.
559 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Kennedy Fund, 1918
RESTORATION
Charles II returned in 1660 and ruled until 1685.
From his refuge in Flanders he returned with Conti-
nental elegances and ideas of luxury, and a train of
French, Flemish, and Italian craftsmen who preferred
to work in walnut. The court of Louis XIV shed some
of its brilliance on the revived English court, and the
rising Baroque lushness appeared. Restoration lines
are everywhere lines of movement, instead of the
static squareness of Early Jacobean work.
Distinctive are spiral turnings, double-curved legs,
scrolled feet, large free curves, the Flemish scroll,
deep carving with the oft-repeated crown motive,
caning and upholstering with fine silks, velvets, bro-
cades, embroideries, stamped leather. Veneering is a
new feature, displaying large surfaces of selected
grain with inlaid floral patterns marquetry. Oystering
veneering with cross sections of small branches was
a unique development. Lacquer and painted decora-
tion after Indian and Chinese examples, known since
Elizabeth, became a rage: Oriental themes and de-
tails were colorfully executed in inlay, paint, and carv-
ing. Gesso, silvered or gilded in the Italian manner,

also provided brilliant, showy surfaces. Even solid-
silver furniture was made for the court.
The demand for luxury created new species of fur-
niture. Rest beds or daybeds, bureaus or desks, sofas,
drawer-chests, wing chairs, mirrors, small tables and
stands, and great draped beds were accepted by the
upper by the French standard of
classes as required
ENGLAND 191
splendid living. The huge bed, hung with fabrics of

absurd costliness and grandeur, reached its zenith
during this period. Grinling Gibbons's style of carv-
ing set the precedent for most decorative treatment
during the ensuing half century.
LATE JACOBEAN
Late Jacobean, often used to limit this period, is
named for James His three-year reign ended with

II.
the Bloodless Bevolution of 1688. The entire period,

more properly called "Carolean," after Charles II, is
typically transitional; oak gave way to walnut, the in-
nate structural simplicity to excesses of Baroque tech-
nique, native directness to foreign brilliance.
565
Anderson Galleries
WILLIAM AND MARY

The full-blownBaroque style was brought from
Holland Continuing the tradition of importa-
in 1688.
tion, the French architect Marot brought the rich
style of Louis XIV; Christopher Wren worked in a
chaste Italian manner; Dutch and English traders con-
tinued their Oriental importing; religious tolerance
attracted weavers, painters, carvers, joiners. New
types and processes produced a revolution in furnish-
ing, and the swing away from excessive grandeur to
a simpler domesticity changed the scale and style.
Smaller,more intimate rooms had lighter chairs, tables,
chests. Chairswere comfortably padded and covered
with needlework; legs were mostly turned and braced
with serpentine stretchers. The Dutch club foot and
the scroll leg inspired the rudimentary cabriole leg;
but trumpet, bell, cup, and bun turnings are more
typical.
Surface treatment became vital in this epoch, partly
due need of protecting the delicate veneers,
to the
partly to the love of fine finish.High polishes empha-
sized the carefully matched veneers. Lacquer and
japanning still rose in popularity. Seaweed marquetry
suggests the minute intricacies of French Boulle work.
Walnut is predominant, but many other woods appear
as veneers and for contrast in inlays.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Annie C. Kane, 1926
563 CLOCK, Charles II, London, 1680. 564 MARQUETRY CABINET, late 17th century.
565 MARQUETRY CHEST-ON-CHEST. Early bracket base.
192 ENGLAND
END OF THE AGE OF WALNUT SHOWS
TRANSITION TO DOMESTIC SCALE.
MASTERY OF CABRIOLE FORM
FORESHADOWS GEORGIAN.
^T L_ 1
^
1
-
1
Hjj '
III
^? _y
^ wl
%D
570 SECRETARY, 1705-1710. Walnut, glazing of later date.

566 WALNUT AND INLAY.
QUEEN ANNE
The reign of Anne, 1702-1714, carries on the Dutch
inspiration, developing the elements of comfort, grace,
elegance. There is little positive differentiation in the
work of the years 1690-1720, but the tendency is to-
ward a more English interpretation of the flowing
Baroque outlines. Sleek and sophisticated, there is
generally a unity of curved lines in Queen Anne fur-
niture, as well as a restraint of ornament and a better
technical understanding of design. The cabriole leg
is the outstanding detail, and its skillful association
with other curves, as of seat outlines and back mem-
bers of chairs, produces superb, distinctive designs.
Improved technique made stretchers unnecessary after
1710, and pierced back splats became more decorative.
Marquetry was subordinated to fine walnut surfaces.
Carved motives were the scallop shell, broken and
C-curves, and acanthus leaves. New habits introduced
new furniture; tea drinking called for hosts of small
tables. A craze for collecting china produced the china
cabinet. Secretaries, bookcases, fire screens, mirrors,
tallboys, love seats, etc., were moderate in size, beau-
tifully proportioned, and ornamented with restraint
and charm.
193 ENGLAND
Ml
SI v
M etropolitan Museum of Art

568 SMALL CHEST c. 1710. Type
now called "bachelor's chest."
GEORGIAN
The furniture produced in the earlier part of George
I's reign shows an orderly progression of the Queen
Anne style, but two rising factors could not long be
withstood: first, the coming of mahogany, and, second,
Arthur S. Vernay, Inc. the trend toward magnificence bred by the new pros-
567 CHEST-ON-STAND, walnut and burr elm. Unusual foot perity. Untilabout 1725 walnut was undisputed. More
typical of wide experimentation with cabriole form.
ornate features began to elaborate suave lines. Cab-
riole legs ended in animal details, such as ball-and-
569 WING CHAIR, 1710-1714. Carved walnut, cabriole legs
with stretchers. claw or hoof feet. Lion masks, foliated scrolls, complex
rock-and-shell ornaments, satyr and other mythological
forms were symptoms of the Rococo offshoot of the
Raroque style.
The architecture of the great houses after 1725 was
classic Italian in the Raroque manner, and the archi-
tects did not hesitate to design furniture in the same
manner. Thus the classification of "architects' fur-
niture" pompous, florid, magnificent, denying the
simple elegance of the earlier work. Full-bodied archi-
tectural pediments, columns, and statuary distinguish
the work Vanbrugh, Ware. Gilding
of Kent, Langley,
was favored, while lacquerwork declined. Rracket and
pedestal bases and applied architectural details are
typical.
Mahogany had been in some use before this time,
but removal of import taxes in 1733 let it compete
with walnut. As it excelled walnut in strength, ease
of carving, and resistance to decay, its popularity vir-
tually drove walnut out of use.
Most significant about Early Georgian furniture is
its completely English quality. The foreign elements,
flowing into England for more than a century, had

become completely fused into a distinct national style.
Ry 1730, the furniture was English, more so than the
Dutch and German rulers. Style and nomenclature no
longer followed the monarchs.
ENGLAND 194
>\. -v
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Louis J. Boury, 1937
REACTION AGAINST BAROQUE TOWARD RESTRAINT AND GOOD PROPORTION,

REFINEMENT OF SCALE AND DETAIL; GRADUAL SUPPLANTING
OF WALNUT BY MAHOGANY.
571 GEORGE I ARMCHAIR c. 1725. Walnut with burl veneers. 572 CHAIR c. 1730.
Label of "Grendey." Chinoiserie lacquer. Late date for such stretcher and undeveloped cabriole.
573 WALNUT CLOCK c. 1730. By William Lambert. 574 CARVED PINE CONSOLE c.
1730. Naturalistic carving of eagle and dolphins recalls Baroque.
574 Stair and Company, Inc.
MOMM
ENGLAND 195
575 MIRROR c. 1715. Frank Partridge, Inc.
577 MAHOGANY DESK c. 1745. Revived Palladian influence

through architects William Kent is suggested in composi-
like
tion and detail; carving recalls Grinling Gibbons. Tastefully
restrained composition foreshadows quality of developing 18th-
century style.
Ginsburg and Levy
576 CABINET, George II. Cream chinois- French i? Co

erie lacquer on gilded stand. Interior gold-
powdered scarlet lacquer.
ENGLAND 196 ENGLAND
is most evident in the manner
Chippendale's genius
in which he amalgamates the various details of Ro-
coco, Gothic, Chinese, and other styles without sacri-
ficing the unity of the design. With all the intricacy
of rock-and-shell, fretwork or ribbons, there is always
a strong outline and a dominating wood-structural
sense that permits great vitality even to renditions
or copies by men. Consequently, there are vig-
lesser
orous schools of Chippendale in America (see Phila-
delphia Chippendale); Scotland, where most literal
copies were made; and Ireland, where the style was
so liberally modified as to be recognizable as a dis-
tinct manner. ( See irish Chippendale. )
The Rococo taste came from France as the style of
Louis XV, was greatly restrained in English work,
but attained special splendor in gilt mirrors and com-
modes. The eclecticism of the period also led to an
abortive Gothic revival. Interest in chinoiserie and
CHIPPENDALE
Oriental themes came in periodic waves. All these
The name of Thomas Chippendale has become a details, surprisingly welded together, found their way
convenient tag for the entire style of the Middle into mahogany.
Georgian period. The reason for this widespread in-
The Brothers Adam are notable for their preoccu-
fluence lies in his publication in 1754 of The Gentle-
pation with the refined classicism of Pompeii, to the
man and Cabinet-Maker's Far from being
Director.
exclusion of the Baroque-Rococo influence that had
the first book of this type, it had prototypes in works
prevailed. They stopped at no detail as unworthy of
by the Langleys, Swan, Lock, Jones, Copeland, John-
their designing, so that furniture and all other interior
son, the Halfpennys, etc.; but the Director alone was
fittings came under their sway. Classic symmetry was
confined to furniture. It illustrated practically every
a revolutionary substitute for the naturalism of the
type known, showing the average Early Georgian
older style; this, more than any other characteristic,
basis with variations after the more fleeting whims:
typifies the influence of the "antique." Scale became
French, Rococo, Gothic, Chinese. The book was so
fine, sometimes painfully, unstructurally, so. The
enthusiastically received everywhere that its patterns
square line framed everything. Ornaments comprised
became the current style of English furniture.
swags and ribbons, and paterae, rams' heads,
fluting
Of furniture in the style of the Director, Chippen-
sphinxes, griffins, Greek key and honey-
chimeras,
dale himself produced a minimum. Some of the de-
suckle and Vitruvian scrolls. Painting was used for
signs are technically poor, while Chippendale's known
whole surfaces as well as for ornaments. Marble and
work is invariably of superb craftsmanship as well as
scagliola, metal mounts and gilding, all contributed
design. Furthermore, much of work appears to
his
to the effect of rich elegance and refinement.
have been done in collaboration with Robert Adam,
Satinwood appears about 1760, and is coincidental
whose classicism made the Director designs appear
with the refining influence inaugurated by the Adams.
old-fashioned.
Hepplewhite is credited with modifying the classic
influences into furniture of great charm and elegance.
Cold angularity was softened into subtle curves.
$ Chairs are his best designs, but there are excellent
lF" r"Tv
k
and commodes, sideboards, desks with cylinder
p? R?^ chests
K f n ft
tops, tall secretaries, sofasand settees, etc.
TjK)
:
197 ENGLAND
Sheraton is known and publisher of
as a designer
several books on furniture more than as a working
cabinetmaker. His book The Cabinet Maker and Up-
holsterer's Drawing Book (1791-1793) purports to
'
show the "present taste in furniture" probably indi-
cating that many of the designs were not his own.
However, the designs shown are so good and so well
thought out as to the details of construction that, like
Chippendale forty years before, Sheraton served as
master to the whole cabinetmaking industry, and his
drawings epitomize the contemporary style.
The earlier designs follow generally the same classic

antique forms as the Louis XVI style. Rectangular
forms are nevertheless graceful; segmental curves are
preferred to Hepplewhite's serpentines; many flat
areas afford surfaces for inlay and, later, porcelain

The Rococo influence shows in Hepplewhite's earlier plaques. Sheraton liked complicated mechanical ar-
work, but his major work is in straight lines. Tapered rangementsfolding tables and disappearing drawers
legs end in spade feet. Chairbacks were in five shapes and secret compartments, all ingeniously devised and
oval, wheel, heart, shield, camel, always filled with workably delineated. He covered the entire field of
pierced splats in delicate designs, sometimes lightly
furniture then known, and in tremendous variety.
carved. Typical motifs are the three-feathered crest
The French Revolution and the chaotic sequence of
of the Prince of Wales, wheat, ribbons, fine swags,
styles that followed were' too much for Sheraton, as
paterae, etc. Hepplewhite employed decorative paint-
for everyone else. After some brilliant work on Direc-
ing extensively, and sponsored the use of satinwood
toire models, the Early Empire style confused him,
and fine inlaying.
and his designs appear weak, overornamental, de-
In 1788, two years after Hepplewhite's death, his
based. He died in 1806.
widow published his book The Cabinet Maker and
must be remembered that Chippendale, Hepple-
It
Upholsterer's Guide, which had much the same effect
white, and Sheraton, outstanding though they were,
on his reputation as the Director had had on Chippen-
held no monopoly sufficient to name the period for
dale'sthat is, the whole style is sometimes ascribed
them. They were the great lights of a vigorous style,
to him.
but there were lesser lights and there were cabinet-
Shearer collaborated Hepplewhite and is
with
makers with the craft and grace to execute the de-
credited with the familiar sideboard design. His draw-
signs offered. The production of books on furniture
ings appear in Designs for Household Furniture
was a thriving industry; and part of every gentleman's
(1788).
education was in architecture, the classics, and design.
Among the contributors must be listed Chambers,
Manwaring, Ince and Mayhew, Lock and Copeland,
and innumerable others.
The tremendous furniture output of the mahogany
period can be largely lumped into two types: the
Baroque-Rococo, through 1755, and the Classic Re-
vival, after that time. The former, known by fuller
proportions, solidity, robust ornamentation, is exempli-
fied in Chippendale's earlier work. The classic work
is piously symmetrical, fine-scaled, graceful to a fault,
with a tendency toward the finicky. After that, the
Age of Stainwood lays the ground for the decline. In
the quest for lightness, structure is lost; fine scale be-
comes mere thinness, novelty leads to the bizarre and

eccentric. This is the trend of early-19th-century fur-
niture, the post-Sheraton period as laid down by
Sheraton.
ENGLAND
KEK1T TABLE C \J(oS
K/BBAND* BACK.
578 BREAKFRONT BOOKCASE with secretary

drawer c. 1760. Free use of varied ornamental detail
well composed. Stair i> Company, Inc.
CHINESE Arthur Vernay, Inc. 580 Arthur S. Vernay, Inc. 581 GOTHIC.
579 S.
199 ENGLAND
THE CHIPPENDALE STYLE

COVERS A LARGE FIELD OF FURNITURE DESIGNS INSPIRED BY THE PUBLICA-
TION IN 1754 OF THE GENTLEMAN AND CABINET-MAKERS DIRECTOR. VERY
LITTLE ACTUAL WORK IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO CHIPPENDALE HIMSELF, BUT
HIS PRINTED SUMMARY OF CURRENT STYLE BECAME THE MOST INFLUENTIAL
BOOK ON FURNITURE PUBLISHED IN ENGLISH.

582CARVED, GILDED ROCOCO
MIRROR c. 1765.
WPiCnTJCii' wen 17CK Metropolitan Museum of Art.

5JCARD ABLE, 1760-1765.
I Rogers Fund, 1924 584 CHAIR "IN THE FRENCH TASTE." Needham's Antiques, inc.
586 SOFA c. 1765. Arthur S. Vernau, Inc.

585 FRETWORK URN TABLE.
ENGLAND 200
Arthur S. Vernay, Inc. Anderson Galleries

587 ADAM DESIGN WINE TABLE (plan view above 588 SECRETARY BOOKCASE 1785.
c. Mahogany and
shows drop leaves ) satinwood with typical painted panels. From the col-
lection of Lord Leverhulme.
589 ADAM DESIGN CARVED WOOD SOFA c. 1795. Symons Galleries, Inc.
,***
ft t
! *U fi
lllllllr:^;-. Â'M.'.'MIIIIU"
ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE LAST DECADE OF THE 18TH CENTURY
SHOWED HEIGHT OF CLASSICISM IN ADAM AND SHERATON IN-
201 ENGLAND
FLUENCES, INCREASINGLY FINE-SCALED ORNAMENT, SATIN-
WOOD, AND DECORATED PAINT SURFACES.
590-591 Arthur S. Vcrnay, Inc.
590-591 DRUM TABLE, HEPPLEWHITE CHAIR with

Prince of Wales feather carving. 592 DRESSING TABLE c.
1795 by Seddon, Sons and Shackleton. 593 HEPPLEWHITE
CABINET c. 1780. 594 SHERATON ARMCHAIR, 1780-
1790.
Classic
TOKCJ4jFR
A d a/v\
Symons Galleries, Inc. 593
Pe destal
Adam Armchair
OARP
ENGLAND 202
595 MIRROR C. 1810, gilded carving. Sumons Galleries, Inc.
Sumons Galleries, Inc.
597 CHINA CARINET c. 1810. Rosewood with metal inlays
Arthur S. Vernau, Inc. and fittings.
596 SHERATON COMMODE, 1780-1790. Satinwood, tulip-

wood banding.
Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1929

598 PAINTED SYCAMORE DAYRED c. 1800. Metropolitan
piiiwiniiniiiiiiiii;;i;
r
'
ENGLAND 203 ENGLAND

English Furniture at the End of the
18th Century
FAVORED SIMPLEST SURFACES AND GEOMETRIC ^WWPPWHI ! W II '
TT1 IIIlIIItTTT

"-1
LINES, DELICATE PROPORTION AND REFINED DE-

TAIL IN PAINT AND INLAY, AND SELECT WOOD
GRAINS.
7
J

~*
\CC Gift of Alexander Smith Cochran, 1911
60 INLAID SATINW OOD COMMODE, 1780-1790.
DETAIL
Arthur S. Vcrnay, Inc.

599 SHERATON CHAIR c. 1790.
601 MIRROR, gilded.

602 DRESSING TABLE, harewood
with painted decorations.
H3
603 CHEST c. 1780. Hepplewhite style, yellow

lacquer with Chinese decoration.
604 DESK WITH OVAL PEDESTALS; sycamore, painted

decorations in classical style of Pergolesi.
ENGLAND 204 ENGLAND
English Pre-Victorian
DURING THE REGENCY PERIOD A CERTAIN STOLID-
ITY DEVELOPED FROM THE LATE SHERATON, AS
TYPICAL OF ONE LEVEL AS THE OVERSTYLIZED
CLASSICISM USUALLY CALLED REGENCY WAS OF
THE COURT LEVEL.
Wood and Hogan

605 DRESSING TABLE c. 1840.
606 DRUM TABLE, 1825-1840. Symons Galleries, Inc.
St. James Gallery

607 MAHOGANY FALL-FRONT BUREAU c. 1810.
French Directoire style, but detail and
workmanship are unmistakably English.
608 SIDEBOARD c. 1830. Heavier Sheraton

detail in inlay and reeding.
609 REGENCY BOOKCASE c. 1810. Marble
top, brass moldings on rosewood.
ENGLAND 205 ENGLAND
ENGLISH REGENCY
The name is applied roughly to the period 1800-
1837, although these dates do not exactly cover the
period during which George, Prince of Wales, acted
as Regent. The declining influence of Robert Adam
gaveway to an intensely literal archaeological spirit.
Roman types were reproduced wherever possible after
the French Directoire and Empire models, or from
the ancient sources. For such articles as ancient Rome
provided no precedent, an assortment of Roman orna-
ments was combined or adapted. Bookcases like tem-
ple facades, couches after Roman beds, sideboards as
bits of architecture were all so literally architectural

that both scale and comfort were often lost, the art-
ist's sense of Tightness being sacrificed to the ar-
chaeologist's enthusiasm. The Adams' typical compo
ornaments and painting were discarded for metal in-
lays and applications; the ornamental features were
directly Roman and Egyptian, bronzed or gilded, com-
paratively sparse,and accepting large surfaces of
unembellished wood.
Thomas Hope and Sir John Soane were the foremost
exponents of this English version of the French Em-
pire style, but the taste was general enough to leave
us drawings and work by Sheraton, Thomas Chip-
ENGLISH COUNTRY FURNITURE
pendale, John Nash, George Smith, and others, many Foreign influences usually came in through the
illustrated in Ackermann's Repository of the Arts. The court and the aristocracy in the capital, and slowly
earlier phases of the style are solid and scholarly in seeped down through the country aristocracy to the
an extension of the great 18th-century classicism. Its middle classes (where such existed) or the artisans
orderly development collided with the expansive pres- and tradespeople. In England this saturation process
sures of the Industrial Revolution. Burgeoning wealth was slow. The lower classes were wedded to the sim-
created vast new markets, and in striving for original- ple forms, and the provincial gentry were conserva-
ity and variety, designers and furniture makers verged tive. Thus, oak furniture prevailed throughout the
on the grotesque. Walnut Age, and many characteristics of Good Queen

Queen Victoria gave her name to a style cover- Bess's time lived on in furniture of the following cen-
ing two-thirds of a century, incorporating new tech- tury. Stronger individuality and deficiencies in tech-
niques and materials into a hodgepodge of eclecticism, nique gave novelty to the styles when they did come.
reform and counterreform. (See also nineteenth cen- The dates of much unascribable furniture are there-
tury; VICTORIAN.) fore in doubt. Sideboards of essentially country type
615 SIDEBOARD, 18th century, oak in Queen Anne Style.

ENGLAND
ENGLISH
COUNTRY
FURNITURE
Needham's Antiques, Inc

610 SIMPLE WINDSOR.
Stair and Company, Inc.

Arthur S. Vemay, Inc.
611 RUSH SEAT. Turner's work.
612 COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE.
use oak for details of walnut style; retaining some
Jacobean details, some Queen Anne, they may date
613 WINDSOR, elm.
from the late 18th century. Needham's Antiques, Inc.
The Windsor chair is a unique country develop-

ment. Chairs, stools, and tables with turned members,
and many other articles of utility furniture reveal an
innate respect for wood and pride of craftsmanship.
[314, 315, 1347.]
ENGRAVING. Method of cutting designs into metal,

glass, etc. In some marquetry, fine lines are engraved
into the veneers, then filled with a composition to
make them contrast with the background.
ENTABLATURE. The horizontal section borne by a

column. Each order of architecture has its distinctive
entablature made up of architrave, frieze, and cornice.
See also orders.
ENTASIS. 207 EVOLUTE
ENTASIS. Slight swelling of a column at the middle
designed to overcome the optical illusion of hollow-
ness that appears in a perfectly straight column. See
also ORDERS.
ESCALLOP SHELL. Cockleshell. See also shell

MOTIF.
617 ETAGERE, English, Mid-Victorian.
Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence
616 ESCRITOIRE, English, 1850-1860. Papier-mache.
ESCRITOIRE (SCRUTOIRE, SECRETARY) . Writ-

ing desk with drawers, pigeonholes, etc. [495, 616.]
ESCUTCHEON. Armorial term for a shield-shaped

surface bearing coat-of-arms, monogram, etc. In fur-
niture, fitting over a keyhole or the back plate of a
handle. They are usually of metal, but are sometimes
ivory, bone, inlaid veneers, etc. See also cartouche;
HARDWARE.
ESPAGNOLETTE. Female busts used as terminal

ornaments on posts of cabinets, etc., usually arranged
on the upper curves of volutes. Frequent in styles of
Louis XIV, the Regence, and Louis XV.
ETAGERE. Whatnot; a series of shelves supported

by columns, used chiefly for the display of curios.
rSPAOMOLETTE
Commonest in the 19th century, although graceful
examples in exotic woods survive from the time of
Louis XVI. [617, 618, 1341.]
EVOLUTE. Recurrent wave scroll used to decorate

friezes and bands.
618 FRENCH ETAGERE c. 1790.
Style of Louis XVI.
Acajou, brass gallery.
EVOLUfE ( \V A V ) _ C n o L. L
FABRICS 208 FEATHER EBGE
FABRICS. See textiles.

FAN INLAy
FACADE. FEDERAL
Front, using the word in the architectural AAEEICAC*
sense. The faces of chests, etc., were often treated to
resemble architectural facades, particularly in the FAN. Radiating design suggesting a fan, used in chair-
classic revivals. [151, 175.] backs (18th-century English), a fan-shaped filling,
upright or reversed. Windsor chairs with flaring spin-

FACING. An economical, technically incorrect method dles and curved top rails are called "fanbacks." The
of veneering by covering a thick common wood with fan motif is used in inlaid and painted decoration on
a thin layer of better or more decorative wood on one 18th-century furniture.
face only.
FANLIGHT. Elliptical or half-round window over a
FAKES AND FAKING. The fine art of counterfeit- window or over a door, with radiating design of mun-
ing antiques flowered with the recent craze for them. tins or leading.
The problem would be a simple one if there were
some criteria of the genuineness of antiques, but FANCY CHAIRS. Early-19th-century American chairs
unfortunately the trade is permeated with practices designed or decorated in imitation of imported mod-
varying from the faintly unethical to the completely els. These often have a charming and revealing style,
fraudulent. The technique of faking has a partly legit- such as the Sheraton-inspired work of Hitchcock. [78,
imate parentage in the art of restoration. New parts 324 et seq.]
are used to replace old or missing ones in old pieces
and are then treated to present the same superficial FANCY FURNITURE. Tables, chairs, etc., usually
aspect as the old parts. This is legitimate enough, but small, intended more for ornamental purposes than
the seller must state that parts are replaced or refor utility.
stored. A good craftsman who knows the methods of
restoration could take an entirely new piece of furni- FARTHINGALE CHAIR. English chair, period of
ture and make it look antique. Honor alone can deter Elizabeth and James I. It was without arms in order
him from this fraud and compel him to start, at least, to permit the then fashionable wide dresses, called
with a truly old original piece. "farthingales," to spread in all directions.
Some of the tricks are admirable in their ingenuity:
fine birdshot makes wormholes; a heavy chain wears FASCES. Roman decorative motif depicting a bun-
off edges; acids and rusty nails stain wood; and bury- dle of rods with a projecting ax. Recurs in most clas-
ing a board in a barnyard for three months ages it a sical revivals, such as Louis XIV and the Empire.
century. See also antiques; copy; reproduction; res-
toration. FASCIA. A broad flat molding; a facing band.
FALDSTOOL. Portable folding seat, like a camp stool. FAUN. Mythological demigod, half man, half goat,
In religious use, a litany desk. [216.] used instead of a caryatid. Italian and French Renais-
sance; Adam.
FALL FRONT. Drop lid or drop front, as in a cabinet-
desk or piano. Sometimes "slant front." [74, 496.] FAUTEUIL. French upholstered armchair. The sides
are open, while the sides of the bergere are uphol-
FALL-LEAF TARLE. Drop leaf or flap table. [87.] stered solidly.
FAUX-SATINE (False Satinwood). Cypress crotch,

which yields very beautiful veneers similar in color
and texture to satinwood crotch.
FAVAS. Honeycomb-like detail characteristic of

Louis XVI decoration.
FEATHER BANDING. Herringbone inlay.
FEATHER EDGE. Edge of a board thinned off, as in

paneling.
FANCy'cMAlK
fiMSEICAM xftcEUT
FEATHERED 209 FEDERAL
FEATHERED. Certain grains, particularly of ma- curly maple was used to imitate the satinwood of
hogany and satinwood, are referred to as feathered European models. Cherry and other fruitwoods are
when they are cut to show a plumelike figure. common in less splendid furniture; rosewood was used
in more costly work after 1820. Maple and pine were
FEATHERS. Feathers, plumes, and bird wings are stained to imitate rosewood, notably in the chairs of
used as ornamental details in Egyptian work, in the Lambert Hitchcock. Veneering is general. Brass feet
period of Louis XIV, Hepplewhite, and in subsequent and casters, brass ring handles and, to a lesser extent,
styles. brass applied ornaments were used. Of the latter, the
commonest form was the eagle; the national bird is
FEDERAL. American period, coincidental with the almost symbolically Federal. China and glass knobs
early years of the Republic, 1780-1830. Beginning were later used as drawer pulls.
marked by the Revolution or end of the Colonial Feet and legs were mostly turned, reeding being
period; it declined by the deterioration in taste after more typical than fluting. Lions' paws were carved on
the early stages of the Empire influence. The style is feet, lion heads on handles; lyres, swags, festoons,
completely classical, traces of antique Pompeiian and delicate acanthus leaves suggest the Directoire. The
Greco-Roman design coming through Adam, Hepple- Empire style favored cornucopias, pineapples, spiral
white, Sheraton, and Regency influences from Eng- carved turnings, with leaves, and mostly heavy scrolls
land; Louis XIV, Directoire, and Empire influences employed as brackets, tables, and mirrors, supports,
from France. bed ends, etc.
The Federal period is the period of Duncan Phyfe. The Federal Era was marked by great interest in
His earliest work echoes the English masters; after architecture and archaeology; leading citizens like
1800, stronger French qualities bring his work to its Thomas Jefferson brought this enthusiasm to a high
highest distinction. The Directoire-classic influence so pitch. Interiorsand furniture reflect in pure outlines
evident in late Sheraton and English Regency is also and refined detail the classic stateliness of Palladio
the basis of Phyfe's best style. Samuel Mclntire ex- and Vignola and their European followers. See also
celled in Adam interpretations. The Directoire influ- AMERICA; PHYFE, DUNCAN; LANNUIER. [619, 828, 869,
ence was followed by the heavier Empire. By 1830, 1134, 1212.]
the decline had set in; furniture was heavy and coarse.
Federal furniture is predominantly mahogany. Some
620 FEDERAL DESK, Hepplewhite style, 1780-1800. Tambour doors,

fold-over top. Mahogany with satinwood inlay.
DUNCAN PHYfE
Weil
619 CHAIR, Sheraton influence.
Federal C ieif
W/A"3tf -
STAMP
FERRULE 210 FINISH
FERRULE. Metal ring or cup, turned or square, fit-

ting the foot of a leg for strength and ornament.
Sometimes with caster [1134] in 18th- and 19th-cen-
tury work. See also shoe.
FESTOON. Scalloplike series of loops, such as a rope,

chain of flowers, drapery, etc., painted or carved for
decoration; swag. [1030, 1226.]
FIRER. In furniture, specifically, an African fiber is AIAEEICAN
sometimes used in cheap furniture as a filling for up- F EDEBAL

FIHIAL5
holstery in place of hair.
FIDDLE RRACE RACK. Windsor chair with two

spindles radiating from a projection back of the seat
up to the top bar. [318, 321.] FINIAL. Decorative terminal, placed vertically to ac-
centuate a point or the ending of a structural feature,
FIDDLERACK. Chairback whose splat resembles a such as a post, pediment, or intersection.
violin. Queen Anne. [572.]
FINISH. Generally refers to the process of polishing

FIDDLERACK (Veneer). Parallel curly grain in
or preserving the wood in furniture. It originates in
wood such as maple, mahogany, walnut, koa, and two needs; first, the desire to embellish and decorate;
others, like the finely marked sycamore selected for
second, the need of protection of the perishable ma-
violin backs. See also wood. terial from the ravages of use and time.
The decorative impulse seems the older. The an-
FIELD RED. Canopy bed of smaller proportions.
cient Egyptians, Chinese, Mesopotamians, and Ro-
Planned in the 17th century as one to be carried mans used color and design on most of their furniture.
about, the name came to signify the less monumental The Chinese perfected their lacquer at a very early
types with curved canopy and comparatively low date. This is an opaque shellac process with many
turned posts. rubbed coats yielding a surface of great depth and
durability. The Egyptians used pigment and poly-
FIELDED PANEL. Panel formed by molding, groov- chromy more as we know it, and their methods, to-
ing, or beveling around a plain surface. Also a panel
gether with gold and bronze leafing, were handed
made up of smaller panels.
down through the Roman and Ryzantine artists to the
Renaissance decorators.
FIGURE. In wood, certain characteristic
markings
Less elaborate work in the Early and Middle Ages
other than the customary straight grain. These are
appears to have been untreated; apparently common
spoken of as crotches, burls, butts, curls, mottles,
usage suggested polishing with oil or wax, which
feathers, waves, crossfire, etc. See also woods.
method continued in use until the end of the 17th
century. Woods were exposed to the light until they
FIGURE DECORATION. Human, animal, and mytho-
darkened somewhat; then were rubbed with oil and
logical figures are used in most styles of decoration,
beeswax.
more or less conventionalized. They are adapted to
Varnishing had been known to the Egyptians, but
the embellishment of structural parts, such as brackets,
disappeared until the early 18th century. Martin, a
columns, legs and arms of tables and chairs. They are
French carriage painter, made a transparent varnish
also used as motifs in every form of flat decoration.
about 1740. This vernis Martin so brought out the
See also ornament.
beauty of the wood that more exotic woods were
sought in order to display the beauty of the treatment.
FILIGREE. Wire work in delicate ornamental pat-
The English finishers relied on their oil and wax
terns.
process and on shellac, which, rubbed smooth, pro-
duces a satiny finish, and very little English furniture
FILLET. Small band, or fascia, used for separating before the end of the 18th century was given the
moldings; also, a small cleat or ledge for supporting "French polish," or high gloss, produced by rubbing
loose shelves. and polishing gums.
FIR 211 FLOWER BOXES
It seems probable that varnish as we know it did
not appear until American finishers dissolved resins
in hot oils, about 1848. In cheaper work these var-
nishes were applied without rubbing, producing a
cheap, sticky-looking effect.
Finishing has enjoyed much study in recent years.

Synthetic lacquers (having nothing in common with
Chinese lacquer) developed out of nitrocellulose com-
pounds. They make a tight skin, or film, and yield
beautiful finishes. The object most furniture finishes
in
today is to emphasize the beauty of the wood and to

protect the surface with the minimum of gloss, the
greatest transparency, and the most resistance to
wood's enemies: moisture, dirt, abrasion.
FIR. Family of coniferous trees. American varieties

most used for furniture and construction grow on the
West Coast in tremendous trees yielding long, wide
boards. The wood is very soft, highly resinous, and
not susceptible to good finish; its use in furniture is
therefore limited to interior parts.
FIRE SCREEN. Metal spark guard. Also, a panel on FLEMISM C46INET. ITALIAUATE DETAILS Co 1600
a pole adjustable to any height to ward off the direct
heat of the fire. See also screen.
FLEMISH SCROLL. Baroque double on chair
scroll
FISHTAIL. Carving on the top rail of a banister-back legs, etc. The lower curve is a C-scroll separated from
chair. the upper, a reversed C-scroll, by a right angle.
FITMENTS. Articles made up and fitted to the walls FLIP-TOP TARLE. Double-top dining or card table
of a room, such as cabinets, bookcases, paneling, fire- that unfolds like a book, supported either by pivoting
places, and built-in work in general (British usage). about to the opposite axis, by a swing leg, or by a
runner. [452.]
FITTINGS. Metal mounts, handles, etc., applied to
the completed piece of furniture. See also hardware. FLITCH. Part of a log that is sawed into veneers; the
bundle of consecutive sheets of veneers when cut.
FLAG (FLAGG). Rushes used for weaving seats of
chairs. [324.] FLOWER ROXES. Ornamental boxes for the grow-
ing and display of plants. During the reign of Charles
FLAMBEAU. Flaming torch used as decoration. II, a craze for horticulture came to England from
Holland. This prompted the design of handsome boxes
FLAMROYANT. Brilliant, sometimes overdecorated. inwhich the bulbs and roots were grown indoors, and
Specifically, the Late Gothic of northern Europe, which for two centuries fine examples were produced in
tended to excessive decoration. See also gothic. [170, veneer wood and japanned decoration. See also plant
720.] STAND; PLANTER.
FLAME CARVING. Finial of a vase, spirally or nat-

uralistically carved to represent a flame; from the
Italian Renaissance. [738.]
FLAP: FLAP TARLE. English term for drop leaf.
FLEMISH. See NETHERLANDS.

FLEMISH FOOT
Englahp c \cqo
FLOWER 60V
ITALIAN IKON
FLUSH BEAD 212 FRANCE
FLUSH BEAD. Bead molding sunk into the surface. FOOT WARMER. Box-shaped footstool with holes for
radiating heat from a hot brick placed within. Some-
FLUTES; FLUTING. Hollows or channels cut per- times decoratively carved in Early American work.
pendicularly in columns. In furniture, flutings are
applied to pilasters, legs, friezes, aprons, etc., particu- FOOTBOARD. p ane l in the lower end of a bed, or
larly after the 16th century. Good flutes are close to- the entire end.
gether and deep, with a sharply scooped curve for the
ending. The ridge between the flutes is a fillet. FORM. Old English term for bench or seat, usually
long and backless.
FLY RAIL. Swinging bracket that supports a flap or
drop leaf. FOUR-POSTER; FOUR-POST RED. American term

for beds with the corner posts elongated. Probably
FOIL. Point at the intersection of two arcs. Gothic the field bed or low canopy bed descended to the
decorative detail was used in the trefoil, quatrefoil, four-poster simply by omitting the canopy. [39, 109.]
cinquefoil, etc.
FRAME. Border or case for pictures, mirrors, etc.;
FOLDING FURNITURE was made from earliest also, the wood skeleton of an upholstered chair [1302].
times, folding chairs and couches being found in Also, in case joinery, the use of framing parts as a
Egyptian tombs. Their mechanical aspects always ex- skeleton in place of merely joining the panels of a car-
cite more enthusiasm in the mechanic than in the cass together. [1.]
artist, as few folding pieces present a very attractive
appearance. Sheraton's special ingenuity led him into

very complex designs, but generally speaking the me-
chanical demands preclude the possibility of a coher-
ent substantial design. [213, 538, 994, 1074, 1242.]
FOLIATED. Leaf ornaments.
FOLIO STANDS. Folio-size books being more com-

mon prior to the 19th century than since, provision
was made for their storage in deep cases. The top sur-
face was generally tilted, and adjustable for the ac-
commodation of folios.
FOLD OVER. Desk leaf that doubles over to a table FPENCM dOTMIC CHEST d WOO
surface. Found in French table desks, Sheraton desks,
and American secretaries.
FOOTRAIL. Front stretcher of a chair. FRANCE. GOTHIC, approximately 1100-1500. Up to

1400, French furniture was indistinct from the whole
FOOTSTOOL. Low footrest related to a chair. [621, Gothic style of northern Europe. This was essentially
901, 1094.] and architecture were in the
ecclesiastical. Secular art
minority, and domestic work the smaller part of that.
Gothic art had the quality of uniformity: architecture,
woodworking, the metal crafts, etc., were homogene-
ous, designed directly from the same impulse, using
the same ornaments and motives; a local, nonimported
product, scarcely susceptible to outside influence.
Social conditions were unsettled; people of high estate
lived a seminomadic life, while the submerged classes
were too poor to afford or require furniture.
The nomadic, unsettled life established the chest
or coffer as the preeminent article of furniture. A port-
able catchall for bedding, clothing, valuables, it also
Sleepy Hollow Restorations served as a bench, a serving table, a bed for retainers,
621 FOOTSTOOL, mahogany frame in the form of a "Grecian
scroll" with applied rosette turnings, c. 1835-1845.
FRANCE 213 FRANCE
and other extemporaneous uses. At first mere planks huge boxes with wooden panels. Seatings are de-
with heavy iron reinforcements, its weight was the scribed as of three types: the faudesteuil, the banc,
measure of strength. About the 14th century, some and the chair e. The faudesteuil (English faldstool)
genius invented the framed-in panel, a stout frame was an X-type conceivably deriving from the Roman
with thin filler panels that lightened and strengthened curule chair, and seems to have had implications of
the whole structure. There were armoires, cabinets or royalty. The most important banc was the ponderous
cupboards; stools and forms, rude tables, chiefly de- archebanc, a coffer set either immovably before the
mountable trestles and elementary seat structures. Oak fire or as an integral part of the bed, backed onto the
predominated. Carving developed with the style, util- side to serve as clothes closet and bed steps. Lesser
izing architectural details, conventionalized flora, gro- bancs were the bancelle, the escabeau, the selle, and
tesques. Painting was
undoubtedly resorted to for the simple forme or fourme. The chaire, never quite
decoration; polychromy was used for picking out the same as the English chair, was quite immovable,
moldings and ornaments and representational painting and mercilessly uncomfortable.
in panels. The cabinet appeared as an extension of the wain-
scoting. The various cupboards, armoires, etc., were
fundamentally the same in their ancestry, and evolved
by regional and personal distinctions into the en-
tire family of closet forms. It is just as reasonable to
ascribe their origin to the coffer equipped with doors
in front in place of a top lid.
Besides oak, other native woods were either slightly
used or did not survive so well; these may have been
beech, chestnut, maple, pine, or elm. Walnut came
into extensive use in the 15th century. Pieces with
ebony and ivory inlays are known after this date, but
may have been imported. Iron hinges, locks, and straps
were essential and highly decorative features of the
designs.
Gothic architecture about the year 1500 was still
CEEPENCE
evidenced by such structures as the Hotel de
vital,
ClSbo Cluny in Paris, the Palais de Justice at Rouen, the
chateaus of Amboise, Blois, and many others. Yet in
all occurs a suggestion of classic Italian decoration.
Woodwork followed closely with the adoption of
With the rise of a semblance of political organiza- antique vases and candelabra, acanthus and rinceau
tion in the 14th century, there arose in France a few motifs.
individuals capable of dominating or subduing their
neighbors and rivals. They acquired wealth and satel-
lites. To their rude courts they imported from Italy
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE:
and Spain artists, materials, methods, and motives and,
FRANQOIS I, 1515-1547
at a later date, rulers. Thus a fairly well-defined During these years, the Renaissance rolled into
France was ruled between 1461 and 1515 by Louis France in great waves of Italian influence that were
XI, Charles VIII, and Louis XII. Their arts and archi- assimilated and then merged into a coherent style.
tecture were persistently Gothic, but with decorative There were incidental influences: Spanish marquetry
details of Italian flavor. (derived from the Moors); German and Flemish de-
The chest, now more sedentary, became larger to tails transmitted through craftsmen brought to the
serve as buffet or sideboard, and acquired a perma- court from the North. Walnut waxed and rubbed to
nent base. With sides raised, became the bench and
it a deep finish became the dominant wood; polychromy
then the sofa; fabrics and cushions were piled upon grew rarer. Surface carving covered everything, and
it. Permanent tables were still unknown, except minor high-relief carving of plastic character was carried to
specialized forms such as the "lectern" for reading, the point of distorting the outlines. Ebony was so
the pupitre for writing, the demoiselle, a kind of dress- prized that a cabinetmaker became and still is an
ing table, and the basset, a very small square or round ebenistea worker in ebony. Hardware disappeared
stand, like a tall stool. Beds were merely rough frames, as part of the design. The homely Gothic vegetable
upon which were hung the many draperies; or lit clos, ornament yielded to the olive, the laurel, and the
FRANCE 214 FRANCE
French Renaissance
GOTHIC FURNITURE RELICS 622 FOLDING-TOP TABLE dated 1506, oak and linden. Front panel pivots to support
ARE MOSTLY ECCLESIASTICAL, opened top. Developed from trestle type that could be taken apart.
AND HARD TO FIX 623 MARRIAGE CHEST, Late Gothic. Painted paneled sides; style of carved tracers sug-
GEOGRAPHICALLY OR BY DATE. gests late 15th century.
624 WALNUT CHAIR with box seat, simple linenfold panels. Developed from wall paneling.
625 CHOIR STALL, 16th century. Renaissance carving in back contrasts with Gothic details,
typical of Early Renaissance Italian influence.
622 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941
624 Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters Collection, 1947

FRANCE 215 FRANCE

627 DRAW-TOP TABLE, 1610-1643. Italian style.
628 CABINET, style of Henri IV. Don Ruscait

Provincial character.
630 WALNUT CHAIR with

medallion c. 1600.
629 CABINET, early 17th century. Architectural details of clear

Italian inspiration.
FRANCE 216 FRANCE
631 BURGUNDIAN TABLE, walnut, late 16th

century.
634 "CONFESSIONAL" ARMCHAIR, late 17th cen-

tury. Experimentation with scroll members approaching
the cabriole.
632 CABINET dated 1580, Burgundy.
Monumental style of Hugues Sambin. Duveen Brothers, Inc.
633 DIAMOND PANELS typically

G-.U " W Burgundian; Provincial,
early 17th century.
. - .
3 \v ,'.'!
r '.-
'
t
;
-. ! v'f' < '*
.-'
1
\*% i
<^S
1
* 1|
11
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Beo ftiT-
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RCMA.//*uCt
FRANCE 217 FRANCE
acanthus, although the latter became the endive,
never to disappear.
THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
The use, of the architectural orders as decoration on The style of Francois I prevailed with variations
furniture was formulated in a work dated at Lyons, through the reigns of Henri II, Catherine de Medicis
1572, by Hugues Sambin, carver of Dijon. Sambin's -and Francois II, Charles IX, Henri III, and Henri IV
plates were the model for a great school of huchiers. of Navarre. Fierce religious wars upset the logical se-
This guild brought cabinets to their highest develop- quence of furniture evolution and accelerated changes
ment in France. These were architectural compositions by the in-and-out movement of courtiers, craftsmen,
in bulk, but with irregular, jagged outlines and Ba- and architects. It was a violent period. The Gothic
roque architectural embellishment. Pilasters were root withered and died at least in the capitals. In the
commonly used as decoration, often with circular or provinces it persisted because of the rise of a power-
lozenge panels. The diamond shape, elaborated into ful middle class. Wealth and security seeped down
starsand other geometric forms, remained a favorite through the classes. Merchants, artisans, and peasants
ornament for nearly a century, and persisted in the enriched their houses with furniture inspired by that
provinces after that. of the local nobles. In adapting these luxuries to their
The catalogue ornaments of this period is most
of needs, they omitted much of the ornamentation, sub-
extensive. Grotesque figures growing out of almost stituted available woods and fabrics, scaled the gigan-
equally grotesque foliage spread over everything: tic pieces down to their rooms, and tempered the
swans and dolphins, sphinxes, chimeras, griffins, masks designs to their skill. The result is the school of French
and mascarons, caryatids and Atlantes all were Provincial Furniture, known in France as Mobilier
carved in high relief. rustique, as distinguished from Meubles de luxe.
The table is conspicuously new during the period The height of the Renaissance in France may be
of Francois I. From a disappearing utilitarian device judged from the work executed in Paris between 1550
it became an architectural entity. The bases, vigor- and 1610. The engravings of Jacques du Cerceau
ously carved after Italian models, had greater license reveal the supreme development of the cabinet. The
inornament and scale. Smaller tables appeared. The armoire a deux corps, or double-bodied cupboard, had
bed assumed a more recognizable form in the struc- the upper section narrower than the lower; pilasters,
ture of four posts that carried the various draperies paneled and decorated with flat carving, framed the
and curtains.The sheer carpentry of the bed became, doors, which were often paneled geometrically, as
in the reign of Francois I, a monumental affair of with stars and diamonds in bold relief. Broken pedi-
pillars and canopy. The wood posts were extrava- ments crowned many of these structures. Cartouches
gantly carved. and flat strapwork carving prevailed over the purer
Chairs were scaled down from the monumental, Italian decoration.Table bases were involved compo-
and were even designed to yield some comfort to sitions of columns,balusters, caryatids, and scrolls.
women. The exaggerated costume of the time sug- Chairs were architectural in scale, except the unim-
gested the caqueteuse, a light armless chair similar to portant types, which remained stiff and uncomfortable.
the farthingale chair of England. About 1580, straw- This phase is sometimes labeled the style of Henri
seated chairs were in use. The flat squab cushions, or IV, but it cannot be precisely distinguished from the
carreaux, indicate the trend toward comfort. work executed under Louis XIII. [175, 1210.]
LOUIS XIII, 1610-1643
Gaudily splendid, monumental, overpowering, the

furniture of this epoch reflected a rich parvenu im-
perialism. The names of the period are of the great
in their fields: Mazarin, Moliere, Corneille, Rubens,
Descartes, Pascal. A period of great power, it brought
the High Renaissance to a vivid climax. Walnut and
ebony were the principal woods. Panels, columns, and
pilasters of semiprecious stones or molded stucco pan-
els were introduced into cabinets. Marquetry came
from the Low Countries. Tortoiseshell and gilt bronze

contributed to the lavish air. Carving was in the Flem-
ish style, rich and turgid. Turning was used not only
but also for applied
for legs of all types of furniture
ornament. Turnings with complex profiles were dis-
FRANCE 218
tinctive of the style, but not so much so as the elab-

orate geometric panels and deep moldings. This
vigorous paneling, likely of Flemish origin, is prob-
ably the outstanding clue to Louis XIII furniture.
Cabinets were the piece de resistance. They cov-
ered the whole range from little coffers covered with
embroidered velvet to colossal structures carried on

twelve ornate supports. They were now no longer
necessarily vertical; the buffet form as we know it
appeared in Guyenne and Gascony with drawers
below. The bureau was new, evidently adapted from
the cabinet by the addition of a fall front, although
the name derives from the cloth used to cover earlier
writing tables. Tables with expanding tops for dining
were another novelty of the period of Louis XIII.
These either were hinged flaps or telescoping types;
the bases were commonly turned legs with elaborate
detail, although the classic vase or slab shapes were
frequently used. The H-stretcher is typical. There
was a great variety of small tables, some oval, round,
or octagonal, but chiefly oblong. Beds were still great
masses of fabric covering the rough wooden structure.
640 CABINET, mid- 17th-century, beginning of

reign of Louis XIV. Symons Galleries, Inc.
639 The regal style of Louis XIV. ARMCHAIR
carved and gilded.
Chairs are generally low, possibly due to the cur-

rent headdress and ruffs. The word fauteuils appears
in inventories, but uncertainty exists as to whether it
indicates the type so called after the period of Louis

XIV. The most important change in seatings occurs
under Louis XIII in the permanent nailing-down to
seats of fixed upholstery. Leather was commonly used
for upholstery, and silver or gilt nail-heads were deco-
ratively applied, either close together or in the daisy
pattern.
LOUIS XIV-1643-1715-BAROQUE
Louis XIV came to the throne of a self-consciously
powerful France, and with deliberation proceeded to
focus it into the center of the world. The Gobelin
tapestry factory was transformed into the "Manufac-
ture Royale des Meubles de la Couronne." Under Le
Brun's direction Jean and Daniel Marot, Berain, Le
Pautre, Leclere, Andrau, engraved designs for furni-
ture. The outstanding cabinetmakers of this period
were Boulle, Oppenord, Cucci, Caffieri, Peter Golle.
It is significant French names but
that these are not
Italian, Flemish, Dutch. Yet the product was French,
clearly welded into a positive style, for all its foreign
roots.
FRANCE 219
The style of Louis XIV was distinctly Baroque, the

robustly exaggeratedmanner emanating from the
Jesuit architecture of Italy. It was sumptuous, large
in scale, masculine for all its lavish decoration, and
completely symmetrical. The straight line predomi-
nated; curves were restrained within severe outlines,
lending formal dignity. Panels were simple rectangles,
occasionally hollowed at the corners or with semi-
circular tops, or inset circles and ovals. They were
always defined with strong moldings of classic quality.
Carving was rich and plentiful, employing animal
forms of nature and mythology to express the current
635 CONSOLE TABLE in natural oak. Square baluster legs.
love of allegory: masks, satyrs, lions' paws and heads, Changed manners affected the forms and variety of
sphinxes, griffins, dolphins. There were acanthus in furniture. The coffer had completely disappeared, and
endless variety, water lilies, oak, laurel, olive leaves; the monumental cabinet of Louis XIII declined. Out-
weapons, musical instruments, agricultural imple- side Paris, cupboards, while developing in the general
ments, ribbons, festoons, swags, knots. Architectural form, were ornamented in the old style of Louis XIII.
details were sparingly used for small furniture prior In fact, the entire ornamental system retained much
to 1680. from the earlier 17th century. In Normandy a narrow,
Woods were and varied. The simple oak and
rich graceful form for the storage of bonnets is known as
walnut and even ebony lacked magnificence; elaborate bonnetiere [142]. "Bookcase cupboards" had doors
marquetry panels formed large surfaces. Almond, fitted with iron wire grilles. The most important piece
holly, box, pear, and other woods were toned by fire; of receptacle furniture after the period of Louis XIV
but this did not suffice, and Boulle perfected mar- is the commode, stemming either from the table with
quetry of tortoiseshell, brass, horn, pewter, tin, ivory drawers or the coffer on legs, fitted with drawers.
and bone and mother-of-pearl in intricate detail. Boulle's name is attached to some famous commodes,
Bronze appliques were imposed upon the whole. and pretentious [159]. Others exhibit the
irrational
Painting was liberally resorted to, strong colors such curved leg and doe's foot destined to become the
as red and green being favored. Gilded and silvered cabriole leg.
furniture was substituted where real gold and silver Beds achieved new heights, literally and figura-
were prohibitive although an incredible amount of tively. The woodwork was still a skeleton for manifold
metal was used for small furniture prior to 1680. The many as thirty-three dis-
draperies consisting of as
gilding was exceptionally fine, and further distin- Some arrangements of suspended testers
tinct parts.
guished massive armchairs and tables. The "Chinese were known as "duchess beds" and "angel beds." The
taste" became a rage, first with the collection of porce- canopy of the first hung completely from the ceiling,
lains and finally in the effort to duplicate the lustrous while the tester of the angel bed was shorter than the
depth of Oriental lacquer. The Brothers Martin per-
fected the process of varnishing known as vernis
Martin, of great brilliancy and solidity.
636 CLOCK by Boulle. 638 BOULLE CABINET. 637 GILT PEDESTAL

FRANCE 220 FRANCE
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Picrpont Morgan, 1906

641 CARVED OAK OVER-MIRROR PANEL. Combination
of straight and curved lines in simple architectural outline is
typical of Regency work.

642 ARMCHAIR after design by Berain. Late
stretcher from Beauvais tapestry cover. 644 CLOCK, mid-18th century.
French ir Co., Inc.
j! j
French Regence
THE TRANSITION AFTER LOUIS XIV TO A
SOFTER STYLE MARKED BY THE ASCEND-
ANCY OF THE CURVED LINE.
643 STOOL, of sinuous plan,

vigorous carving in walnut.
645 DESK, mahogany and ormolu. Strong early cabriole leg.

FRANCE 221 FRANCE
REGENCE MERGES INTO THE FULL
ROCOCO STYLE OF LOUIS XV.

646 CARVED DETAIL of fruitwood chair top rail.
648 CORNER CHAIR

650 CONSOLE BRACKET,

transitional
Louis XVI-Regency. 649 REGENCE CONSOLE. Oak. French 6- Co., Inc.
222 FRANCE
chairs, called chaises a la capucine, were used in the
palaces as well as in peasant homes.
Louis XIV died in 1715, but long before this a
modification of his style set in. The transitional period
was marked politically by the regency of Philippe
d'Orleans from 1715 to 1723, when the young Louis
XV became king. The term Regence loosely describes
the transition from the high style of Louis XIV to the
feminine style of Louis XV. The massive square gran-
deur of Louis XIV relaxed into softer outlines and
freer ornament. Curves at first only modified the rec-
tangular forms in corners and ornamental details; later,
bed, and had side curtains looped to the wall. In these
structuralmembers, such as legs and stretchers, were
types, the actual bed frame or stead was a detached
shaped into flowing lines.
unit handsomely treated in its own right. The rest
The craze was responsible for much
for chinoiserie
bed, or chaise longue, was a logical product of this
Regence and Louis
of the ornamental character of the
age of luxury.
XV styles. Louis XIV's explorations and commercial
Of newest form under Louis XIV is the
tables, the
exploitation of the Far East brought to Europe
console type. Decorative tables having become im-
Chinese porcelains, jade, and decorations depicting
movable owing to the great weight of the stone tops,
formalized landscapes and figures. The technique
elaborate bases were set permanently against the
somehow suggested the use of natural forms in dec-
wall, with the hidden side left undecorated. The
orations; and shells, flowers, and birds be-
rocks,
architectural console became common as a base.
came manner dubbed "rock and shell"
the basis of a
Free-standing tables with the double console were
rocaille et coquille; years later, this was unsympa-
developed. Table legs were also turned or flattened
thetically contracted into Rococo, by which name we
balusters.Important types such as these were gilded,
characterize furniture and manners emanating from
but natural or painted woods were used for much
this age, having a florid, gaily absurd manner.
smaller tables that were suitable for holding trays,
The cabriole leg pied de biche, or doe's foot was
coffee, candelabra, or writing stands; there were toilet
no novelty, but in the Regence it became the char-
tables and night tables and specialized game tables
acteristic shape. It was so curved as to make the
and desks of various types.
vertical line flow evenly into the horizontal of the
Seats. The etiquette of seating was in this period
apron.The typical curve was that of the crossbow.
the philosophy of royalty. Thus, in order of importance
Ornament was less classical, discarding mythology
ranged the armchair, chairs with backs, joint stools,
for nature,though ribbons, foliage, shells, and scrolls
folding stools, hassocks with gold gimp, hassocks with
were usually symmetrically arranged. Chairbacks have
silk edging. The Louis XIV throne chair was majestic
pierced carved splats. In general, the wider range of
indeed; high, wide, and handsome, it stood upon a
ornament had delicate movement austerely restrained
dais with several steps. It was solid silver, draped
within clear architectural outlines. The lighter touch
with crimson velvet. The back was eight feet high,
also applied to materials; ebony and walnut were too
draped with full gold embroidery carried by caryatids
somber, and yielded to fine veneers of polished rose-
fifteen feet high. This was the model for important
wood and lighter colors.
armchairs. They always had stretchers, first H-shaped,
Robert de Cotte, Rerain, Marot, Mansart, Boulle,
and later the serpentine X.
Legs were scrolled or flat
and others carried over the grand tradition; younger
or turned balusters; the arms were well molded and
men then in their early phases created novelties des-
swung into the back with great curves. The "confes-
tined to be the elements of the Louis XV style. But
sional" was the first of the bergere type, or fully up-
the style of the Regence was epitomized in the work
holstered easy chair. The armless chairs follow the
of Charles Cressent. His supreme creations were com-
caqueteuses of Louis XIII. The sofa was the most
modes, whose cabinetwork was most important as a
important seating invention of the period. The first
base for superbly chased bronze appliques.
was a bed or canape, almost bed in shape and
rest
upholstery; the word "sofa" appears about 1680, and
the later sofas were less fully upholstered. Caning for
chairs grew in popularity, and straw-seated turned
FRANCE
THE FULLY DEVELOPED STYLE OF LOUIS

XV AVOIDED THE STRAIGHT LINE IN ANY
PLANE.
Mum
652 MARQUETRY CYLINDER TOP DESK. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
651 FAUTEUIL, tapestry cover

Dalva Brothers, Inc. I
653 COMMODE in kingwood and tulipwood. Manner of

Delorme. Ormolu mounts by Charles Cressent. Duveen Brothers, Inc.
FRANCE 224 FRANCE
LOUIS XV-ROCOCO ing dining tables "of the English kind" came from
England about 1770; other types were developed ear-
The ultimate in decorative furniture is, to many lier. Small tables, or ambulant es, had great variety.
critics, which was produced in France between
that
Console tables were architectural fixtures, the most
1700 and 1760. Louis Quinze furniture avoided like typical having legs that came together to a point at
a plague the appearance of symmetry and the right
the base. Special tables were designed for every game.
angle. Every device was employed to alleviate the
Dressing tables of wide variety, writing tables (bu-
rectangle. In plan or elevation no piece of furniture reaux), worVtables, etc., made a long list of table shapes.
was permitted straight lines only flowing lines;
. . .
Comfortable chairs, chaise longues, and sofas were
everything was rounded so that the eye might follow dimensioned to the human frame and shaped for lux-
any line without perceiving the junction of planes. urious ease. Chairbacks and seats were low, modified
Ornaments were drawn from shells, flowers, musical to current costumes and habits. The bergere was made
instruments, pastoral objects like shepherd's crooks with solid sides and loose down cushions. Armless
and and unconventionally ren-
baskets, all naturally chairs, designed for voluminous skirts, were as popu-
dered. Chinese themes were capriciously misinter- lar as they had been a century earlier. Cane chairs
preted. Architecture alone was rejected as a source were important, and often had loose cushions of lemon
of ornament. or red morocco. Straw or rush chairs appeared in great
Marquetry and inlaying assumed primary impor- variety and imagination.
tance.For large veneer surfaces, rosewood, satinwood,
Chaise longues were significant at this luxurious
amaranth, and tulipwood were used, while marquetry
time. Ladies received en deshabille in their boudoirs,
was made up of most of the exotic varieties known
and the furniture designed to accommodate this pose
today. Mahogany rose to great popularity, and the
varied between a small bed and a large chair. Turkish
native fruitwoods, notably cherry and plum, were
inspiration provided types of "sophas," or full-length
used in Paris as well as in the provinces.
and a large "ottoman."
beds, with backs on three sides
Painted furniture grew in demand through the mid-
Beds developed along more modern concepts, since
dle years of the reign, the brightest reds, greens, yel-
specialized bedrooms were smaller and warmer. This
lows, and black being emphasized with fillets painted
permitted the diminution of the completely enclosed
in gold and contrasting colors. Lacquering processes
bed. Though the canopy and draperies were retained,
were studied, although much woodwork was actually
they were minor or decorative, and were generally
sent to the Orient to be decorated. The delays inci-
supported on four posts. The duchesse bed had a flat
dental to this procedure encouraged the development
canopy as long as the bed, with the counterpane fall-
of varnishes whose depth rivaled that of the Oriental
ing to the floor at the foot. There were straight side
lacquers. The Brothers Martin with their vernis
draperies. The "angel bed" had equal headboard and
Martin were phenomenally successful. Gilding, only
footboard, while the half-length canopy hung from
slightly less popular than during the Louis XIV period,
the ceiling and had two looped-back draperies at the
covered console tables and mirrors, chairs, and small
head [113]. The "Polish bed" had a headboard and
tables.
footboard, but instead of the high tester a curving
Metal appliques were universal. The costliest pieces
dome was carried on four iron rods, with four curtains
were chiefly decorated by this means. But in more
looped up at the corners [111].
modest furniture the bronzes were more functional,
Of the cabinetmakers of the period, Jean Francois
being handles, lock escutcheons, keys, feet, or fillets
Oeben was supreme, particularly for his marquetry.
to protect weak veneers. That both Meissonier and
Philippe Caffieri, Meissonier, Oppenord, Oudry, and
the Caffieris were metalworkers before they made
many others developed superb techniques to meet the
furniture is evidence of the importance of this decora-
demands of a style essentially unstructural.
tion to the style.
Marble of many colors made tops for commodes
and tables: onyx and alabaster were used for small
pieces. Imitations of stone were variously successful.
Small China plaques were let into tabletops and inlaid
in mahogany panels. Mirrors also were set into panels.
The types of furniture follow closely those described
previously as originating during the Regence. The
commode type was expanded into many forms, among
them slant-front desk types. Tables for every purpose
shared a common feature the cabriole leg. Expand-
FRANCE 225 FRANCE
LOUIS XVI,. 1774-1793 -THE CLASSIC REVIVAL

The inevitable revolt from the curved line came
long before Louis XVI. But here again the old king
outlived the taste he fostered. Some time after 1760,.
the curve-weary pointedly demanded a return to
simple forms and straight lines. The answer came
from an intellectual
Italy in movement not unlike the
early Renaissance the imitation of antiquity. [117,
141, 375.]
Excavations in Greek and Roman ruins had been
in progress for many years, but the unearthing of
Pompeii and Herculaneum set off a new spark. An-
cient architectural formsbecame the basis of furniture
design even as they had been in the Renaissance.
Because the architectural spirit demanded recognition
of supports, legs were truthfully expressed as sheer
vertical members, forming right angles with the
aprons, etc. The vertical was emphasized by fluting
and grooving; architecture suggested bases and cap-
itals in the form of moldings and feet. Curves, where
they were used, were cut-off segments of ellipses or

circles; legs were straightened out entirely. Panels
were important in their flatness and absence of decor-

ation, being set off by exquisitely studied moldings.
Ornament was classic, mathematically symmetrica],
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of }. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
and recalled all the forms of Louis XIV: laurel and
655 DESK CHAIR in green morocco.
acanthus, egg-and-dart, oak leaves and Greek palm
leaves, fretwork, rinceaux, ribbons, etc. Fluting was
partially filled in ( cannellated ) , the filling ending in
small vase turnings or torch effects. Bound arrows, THE CLASSIC REVIVAL OF LOUIS XVI, 1760 1790,
RROUGHT STRAIGHT LINES AND SIMPLE SILHOU-
lyres, swans, urns, wreaths, festoons, fanciful animals, ETTES, ORNAMENT AFTER THE ANTIQUE, ALL DE-
etc., were adapted from Greco-Roman sources. Brass CREASING IN ELABORATENESS AS THE REVOLUTION
APPROACHED.
654 PAINTED ARMCHAIR by Brizard, 657 Center. CONSOLE, carved oak, marble top.
1780-1790. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of }. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
ggg WALNUT ARMCHAIR
1^^*^^*fBSQ_| IBHHIHBHIMHHIHHHPIiMi 1780-1790.
11 ii Ik
Metropolitan
r Museum of Art, Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941 Gift of
Metropolitan
Ann Payne
Museum of Art,
Blumenthal, 1943
FRANCE
Duveen Brothers, Inc.
658 COMMODE, 1773,

c. by Riesener. Marquetry, floral decorations. Ormolu moldings and
ornamentation by Duplessis.
galleries were applied to tables, commodes, and book- mode, called the "vitrine," for the display of curios.
cases: delicate brass or gilt moldings framed drawers. Beds were smaller, following the styles set earlier,
Ornament varied from the earlier style in its delicate with the angel bed the dominant type. Fabrics were
scale, its tactful proportion, and the complete denial of small-patterned silks, (small-patterned) tapestries,
of the sinuous line. and the whole range of Louis XV materials. The vogue
Mahogany was the preeminent wood. Rosewood, and linen created the toiles de Jouy.
for printing cotton
tulipwood, and others were combined in geometric
DIRECTOIRE, 1795-1799; CONSULATE, 1799-1804
marquetry, arranged as diamond and lozenge patterns.
Ebony returned to favor. Black-and-gold lacquer was The period of the Revolution, 1789-1795, was chaos.
popular, and much painted furniture of grayish-white, A somewhat authoritative government, the Directory,
gray-green, and similar soft tones was used. Sevres assumed control in 1795. Directoire was essentially
China plaques were inset into desks, cabinets, etc. simpler Louis XVI adorned with the symbolism of
Jean Francois Riesener was the great master of the the Revolution the Phrygian caps, arrows, pikes, tri-
era. Oeben's pupil, he later married his widow. David angles, wreaths, clasped hands, the fascesand lictor
Roentgen, known only as David; Georges Jacob, and of Rome, There were "Patriotic Beds." It is im-
etc.
his son, called Jacob-Desmalter after the Revolution; probable that any considerable quantity of furniture
Etienne Avril, Martin Carlin, Leleu, Saunier, Schwerd- was produced during this troubled era, short at best,
feger, Lalonde, Aubert, and innumerable others cre- so that it is difficult to construe a full style out of the
ated masterful designs. A few, such as Montigny, Le- few scattered remains. Simplicity, grace, directness,
vasseur,and Severin, copied or adapted the style of charm; straight lines with restrained classic double
Louis XIV and the technique of Boulle. Others, like curves; the swan, lyre, stars, in addition to the antique
Beneman and Weisweiler, worked so closely to the and Revolutionary symbols, were the index of decora-
antique architectural ideal that they actually created tive motives. Woods were more often native fruit-
the later Empire style. wood, walnut, oak, than mahogany, now that foreign
The character and function of the individual pieces trade was difficult. For the most part the old cabinet-
scarcely varied from the lines established under Louis makers continued in their work: Riesener, David,
Quinze. Commodes, chairs and sofas, desks and tables Jacob, Beneman. Two young unknown designers, Per-
merely assumed straight lines. A few new shapes ap- cier and Fontaine, worked under Jacob, and in their
pear in chairs by Aubert, excessively classical; such hands lay the evolution of the developing style.
were the curule chairs and seats and sofas with roll-
backs, Roman tripods for tables, and a glazed com-
FRANCE 227 FRANCE

659 MEDAL CABINET with stone inlays.
SECRETABY, 1784, by Riesener, with cipher of Marie
660
By Weisweiler.
Antoinette. Ebony, gold, and ormolu, black marble top.
661 DESK, satinwood and mahogany, with ormolu

ornaments and moldings. Stamped "Muller."
French 6- Co., Inc.
FRANCE 228
The Directoire Style
A BRIEF PERIOD OF TRANSITION FROM LOUIS XVI TO SIMPLIFIED
DETAIL, DISCARDING REGAL CHARACTERISTICS.
664 PAINTED ARMCHAIR. DonRuseau
662 667 LATE LOUIS XVI SECRETARY

(acajou). Late style of Riesener.
668 ALCOVE BED, end of 18th century. Turned,

fluted carved posts on one side only. Don Ruseau
665 DROP-FRONT SECRETARY,

Mahogany with Revolutionary symbols
in brass inlay.
662-663 CARVED GILT MIRRORS,

late 18th century.
FRANCE 229 FRANCE
,
EMPIRE, 1804-1815
The classic Revolution became Imperial under Na-

poleon in 1804. His absolutism reached into the arts,
and the wavering Directoire style was galvanized by m
edict into a solid formulated manner. Percier and

Fontaine's first work, issued in 1801, expressed a sys-
tem of archaeological copying and adaptation in the
grand manner.
The Empire differs from the Louis XVI in the de-
gree to which it absorbs classic forms whole and
undigested. It took the few vestiges of ancient furni-
ture literally, and tried to stretch them over the whole
field of furniture without modification. The discrimi-
nating scale of Louis Seize was lost completely; archi-
tectural forms were taken whole rather than as motives
for decoration. Absolute symmetry, cubic rectangu-
lar or geometric shapes, and heavy solid proportions
characterized all pieces. Large surfaces were flat and
plain, free of moldings or paneling, to emphasize the
highly polished wood grain. The ornamentation con-
sisted almost exclusively of bronze or flat gilt appli-
ques (the invention of Gouthiere in the preceding era)
molded into stiffly formalized relief, and tacked on.
These motives included military symbols such as the
sword and shield, arrows and wreaths and winged
figures, torches, and the whole catalogue of ancient
symbolism, all coldly archaeological and precise.
Napoleon invented a few of his own symbols: the bee
and the letter N. Cornucopias, palm leaves and laurels
First Empire Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1920

in France, 1804-1815 670 CHEVAL GLASS (Psyche), mahogany; ormolu
candelabra and mountings.
669 CHEST OF DRAWERS, mahogany and ormolu, marble

top.
Don Ruseau

671 CONSOLE with sphinx-head capitals.
FRANCE 230 FRANCE
were stiffened and added to the list; in fact, nothing
available to the Greco-Roman researchers was over-
looked. Carving was entirely avoided except for the
arms and posts of chairs and table legs where they
could be transformed into lions or griffins or caryatids.
Mahogany was the overwhelming favorite. The rich
deep-red color was favored, along with rosewood and
ebony, and other woods were stained in imitation.
Knot elm, thuja, and similarly burled veneers were
equally rich. Marble, being classic, was therefore ac-
ceptable. Fabrics were always deep and rich in color,
primary reds, greens, and yellows, deep browns; all
were in hard textures, with large imperial patterns or
diaper patterns with the usual stars, etc.
Tables were invariably round, generally on a ped-

estal or tripod base.Tops were often thick marble or
porphyry slabs. All cabinet furniture was designed as
miniature architecture. Desks varied from table types
with superimposed banks of drawers in temple-facade
form to the large cabinet type, almost flat with fall
front. The drop-front type evolved under Louis XVI

as bonheur du jour was popular. Beds of the "angel"
type were first favored, but the typical Empire bed
was the boat style, with richly scrolled ends of the
same height.
Chairs and sofas were stiff and clumsy and su-
premely uncomfortable. The shapes were forced copies
of the Greek and Roman ceremonial seats, unwillingly
rendered in wood instead of in the original stone and
bronze. The chaise longue developed a rather new
673 "BONHEUR DU JOUR,' mahogany secretary with flat
type the Recamier type and the mcridicnne. With the gilt bronze ornaments.
eclipse of Napoleon, the impetus and the style dis-
appeared together. See also empire. [123.]
672 NAPOLEONIC MONOGRAM

in Beauvais tapestry.
Gift of Mrs. S. E. Minton, 1899
674 EMPIRE BED with mirrored ends French 6- Co., Inc.

FRANCE 231 FRANCE
PROVINCIAL FRENCH
The foregoing classification of French styles is essen-
The great body of people in the prov-
tially Parisian.
inces was only partly aware of or interested in these,

developments. The local styles were of course con-
stantly modified by the new influences, but the degree
of acceptance was always subject to local conditions.
These included degrees of wealth, climate, available
materials and skill, and local custom and prejudices.
As a whole, the provincial furniture is honestly de-
signed for family life, as distinct from the meubles de
luxe of the capital, and in its restrained scale, con-
structional quality, and charm forms a distinct body
of styles.
The bourgeoisie and peasantry of the 17th century
acquired wealth but continued to live simply. Their
furniture comprised only the essentials: a closed bed,
675 "CHAUFFEUSE," walnut.
a few straw-bottomed stools, a cupboard or hutch. 676 DRESSER-BUFFET from
The few additional pieces of the 17th century were Gascony; diamond-point panels
receptacles: wardrobes, cabinets, various forms of buf- of Louis XIII style may indicate
date c. 1650.
fets. In Flanders the Gothic forms persisted. The
Anderson Galleries
wealthier provinces,Burgundy and Gascony,
like
adopted the style of Louis XIII enthusiastically and
Above. EARLY-17th CENTURY INSPIRATION.
have clung to it ever since. The long reign of Louis
XIV witnessed in the provinces little more than a 677 REGENCE-STYLE MIRROR. 678 COMMODE. Carved
development of Louis XIII but the style of Louis XV
;
into the solid walnut are details of early Louis XV style, freely
interpreted.
struck so responsive a chord that the 18th century
became known as le siecle de Louis Quinze. In many
sections they continued to make furniture in this mode
until the end of the nineteenth century. Louis XVI
was only partially accepted, the classic details being
imposed upon the curved Louis XV forms. The Em-
pire style simply passed the provinces by.
The buffet and cupboard forms are the most im-
portant provincial types. They evolved out of sheer
utility and had characteristic shapes and names in
different regions. The armoire developed in va-
also
riety according to local usage. Beds were more or
less closed in, according to the climate; those in
Provence were open at an early date, while the moun-
tainous sections of the Vosges, Auvergne, and Savoie
retain thelit clos, a room within a room. Straw-seated
chairswere treated with innate distinction everywhere;

some distinctly minor forms are interesting. The pane-
tiere, or breadbox, is universal, as are wall shelves
and knife boxes.
Local types of decoration often survived even when
the design books from Paris suggested new ideas.
Normandy long exhibited traces of her Viking an-
cestry. Alsace showed Germanic or Swiss traces in
painting; the metalworkers of Provence and Limousin
developed handsome steel mounts as hinges and han-
dles. The available woods made for variations; oak
PKoviUccOL fRtWCH iTUpBoAftp Top

FRANCE
681 KNEADING TROUGH, Aries. Nat-

uralistic carving mixed outlines
fitted into
of Louis XV and Henri IV turnings.
679 SETTEE with straw seat and loose cushions; details of

early style.
682 SMALL MIRROR of Louis XVI inspiration. Gilt on white.
680 WALNUT CHEST Signed "Ohneberg EB

dated 1780.
684 CREDENCE SIDEBOARD, Aries,Rococo inspiration with
1773." (Bordeaux?). Mixed details of Louis XV and Louis XVI
earlier and local details in carving and hardware.
styles in functional design. Putting Antiques
685 Rustic type of DOE'S FOOT LEG,

suggested by cabriole. Similar adapta-
tions are seen in 19th-century American
work.
FRANCE 233 FRANCE
in Normandy with brass fittings; walnut and the fruit-

woods trimmed with polished steel in Lorraine; walnut
MODERN FRANCE
in Savoie; even the imported tropical woods in the France's liberal approach to design has been a spur
Saintonge region; all tend to differentiate not only toadvanced thought the world over. After World
the technique of carving but also the whole style of War I, work in the decorative arts was summarized
the piece. [91, 92, 226, 371, 492.] in an International Exposition of Decorative Art in
1925. Many divergent currents of thought appeared
FRENCH FURNITURE AFTER THE EMPIRE
here the constructivists and functionalists of Ger-
The nineteenth century was in France as elsewhere many and Holland, the romantics of France and Italy
a period of esthetic indetermination. Styles floun- trailing Art Nouveau and Directoire grace [501]. For
dered from outright copying or eclecticism to mis- once, the French with their Art Moderne took no clear
begotten attempts at conscious organization. After stand. It fell largely to Germany emigres to lay the
Napoleon there was a tepid Restoration, no more suc- foundations of the International Style. See also modern
cessful in art than in politics. An abortive Gothic FURNITURE.
revival, a heterogeneous Louis-Philippe manner, and
various resurgences of the classic spirit followed, and
finally a burst of Renaissance revivalism the second
empire, 1852-1870. France accepted leadership in the
arts at this time, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts was

its spokesman. Classicism was eroded by a current of
Oriental faddishness that elevated the upholsterer
above the cabinetmaker. No substantial change in
viewpoint came until the very end of the century
when the Art Nouveau attained a vogue and a mild
success in accessory arts. But its furniture, as illogical
but not so charming as Louis Quinze, was less appre-
ciated, and faded out before 1910. See also art nou-
VEAU; NINETEENTH CENTURY; UPHOLSTERY.
683 SMALL TABLE, REGENCE SPIRIT, much simplified in

the copying probably end of the 18th century.
Anderson Galleries
Don Ruseau
Anderson Galleries
686 FRUITWOOD CHAIR, Directoire influence. 687 DIREC-
TOIRE COMMODE from Provence. Revolutionary symbols carved
into the solid walnut. 688 LOUIS XVI ORNAMENTAL DETAIL
applied to country-style armchair.
FRANCIS (Francois) I 234 FURNITURE
FRANCIS ( l -Vim vols)

King of France 1515-1547.
I. FRUIT MOTIF. Motif in Italian and Tudor carving;
Builder of chateaus of Blois, Chambord, and Fon- also used in Grinling Gibbons's work.
tainebleau. In them the Renaissance had its first great
French expression. It was really a mingling of flam- FRUITWOOD. The woods of the various fruit trees
boyant Gothic and Italian Renaissance ornament, more have always been used for small furniture, especially
Italian than French. Walnut was favored in the South, in provincial work. These woods are usually hard and
oak in the North. Cabinets, tables, and chairs were durable, and polish well. Pear, apple, and cherry are
rich, and profusely carved and inlaid. the most used woods of this class.
FRENCH RED. Roll-end bedstead without posts. FUNCTIONAL. In general use as applied to furni-
ture, serviceable, utilitarian, designed primarily for
FRENCH FOOT. Scrolled or spiraled foot, ornamented use rather than for decoration. Specifically, in modern
as with a dolphin. Also, a slightly outswept foot as design the school that eschews the decorative nature
used by Hepplewhite. [50, 72.] of furniture in order to emphasize its special utility.
It is the outgrowth of Louis Sullivan's edict that "form
FRENCH POLISH. Process of finishing wood with follows function." Only those factors that directly con-
a high gloss by applying successive films of shellac in cern function may be accepted as elements of the
spirits. See also vernis martin. design. Analyzed appear that pure
closely, it will
functional design tends to restrict the outward ex-
FRET (FRETWORK, FRETTING, or LATTICE- pression of functional forms within the narrowest
WORK). Interlaced ornamental work, either perfo- bounds, resulting in abject poverty of aesthetic inter-
rated or cut in low relief on a solid ground, usually in est. On the other hand, the scope of total room com-
geometric patterns; also the tracery of glazed doors position is emphasized.
and windows. A Chinese importation, itwas sparingly Owing to the conflict between functional and dec-
used on the Continent but taken up avidly by orative approaches, pseudofunctionalism in furniture
the Georgian masters. Particularly characteristic of is rampant. Fake structural forms and construction
Chippendale's Chinese manner, it was also adapted to methods lack both straightforward functional design
his Gothic designs. [108, 409, 579, 1052.] and the intrinsic beauty of traditional forms. See also
Flat fretwork, as painted and inlaid, comes down INTERNATIONAL STYLE; MODERN FURNITURE.
from the Greek and is also a feature of Arabian and
Moorish design. FURNITURE. American word to
usage limits the
movable articles, equivalent to the French meuble
FRIESIAN; FRIESLAND. Scratch carving in simple or German mobel. In England the term is more in-
geometric designs, such as the wheel. In Pennsylvania clusive, embracing every type of equipment, whether
Dutch work it is found as decoration on rude pine portable or built in. Thus "chimney furniture" in-
Bible boxes, spoon racks, etc. cludes the accessory furnishings of the fireplace:
fenders, andirons, tools, etc. The room paneling and
FRIESLAND CUPROARDS. Important cabinets with built-in fittings are also furniture.
rich carved cornices in the Baroque style, made in Decorative Furniture includes all types of more
Friesland (Netherlands) in the 17th century. Proto- or less utilitarian pieces to which is applied some
type of kas. [798.] effort at beautification. In former times every article
of use was treated ornamentally except the crudest
FRIEZE. Central part of the entablature, between utilitarian objects. Modern practice has discarded
the architrave and cornice. A flat member, it is usu- much of this decoration, and even furniture has been
ally the surface most decoratively treated with formal exempted from the erstwhile need of elaboration; the
ornament, inscriptions, painted or inlaid detail. See decorative aspect of rooms is conceived to be a matter
also ORDERS. of composition of abstract elements rather than an
association of many objects of individual ornamental
FRINGE. Ornamental edging used in upholstering claims. Most furniture today is designed in terms of
furniture; made of twisted threads, yarns, tassels, etc., modern utility, but with the decorative aspects of
of silk or other materials, often with metal. See also former periods. This cannot be correctly called "period
UPHOLSTERY. furniture," since it modifies proportions, woods, fin-
ishes, structural methods, purpose, or other features

FRISE (FRIEZE). Heavy woolen or linen and cotton that in a true period copy should follow the example
upholstery cloth with uncut nap. of the original.
GABLE 235 GEORGIAN
GABLE. Triangular-peaked, like a roof. The shape
occurs in European cupboards of the Romanesque Era
[457] and in Gothic coffers. Decoratively, it appears
as Renaissance pediments, and persists through the

19th century. [804, 1056.]
GABOON. ( a ) Ebony of the blackest variety, which
comes from the Gabon region of Africa, (b) A light,

inferior mahogany from the Gabon region, known in
Europe merely by this name.
Jacohan (uriLfO
GAOROOIV. Ornament carved on edges either of flat
areas or of turnings resembling short convex or con-
cave flutes or ruffles. It is common in Elizabethan
work, Italian Renaissance work and all styles influ-
enced by Italy. A characteristic decoration of bulbous ing the 17th century. In the nineteenth century the
supports in Elizabethan carving. Chippendale used it gateleg table retreated to provincial use, its place be-
extensively for borders and top edges. [226, 810, 1035.] ing taken by swing-leg types in the more advanced
style centers. [13, 558, 622.]
GEOMETBIC PATTEBN. Abstract design based on

simple mechanical lines, such as squares, triangles,
circles, etc.
GALLERY. Small railing of metal or wood, or a
raised rim, around the tops of tables, cabinets, buffets, GEOBGIAN. In England within the period of George
etc. Various works had pierced brass galleries. Chip- I,George II, George III 1714-1795. The first three
pendale style shows pierced wooden fretwork gal- Georges ruled an England of swelling importance,
leries. [153, 1256.] though their personal influence was not great. The
interchange of ideas with the rest of the world, the
GALLOON (GALON). Narrow tape used as gimp in wealth and growing leisure and fine living promoted
the finishing of upholstery. the adoption of modes and manners from abroad, as
well as the products of the ingenuity of native design-
GAME TABLE. One of the earliest specialized types ers and craftsmen. The rising importance of individual
of tables developed for games, such as dice, cards, designers made their personal styles the fashion, so
chess or draughts, backgammon etc. Sixteenth-century that, unlike the period of Louis XIV, we think of a
examples have needlework tops in patterns required given period as that of Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
for the various games; the ultimate development oc- Sheraton, or the Adam brothers. Naturally, much of
curred in 18th-century England. See also card table. their material overlapped, was interchanged with or
[158, 1277.] borrowed from the same sources, so that we are at a
loss to find an adequate name for the whole period.
GABGOYLE. Grotesque figure originally used in For that reason they are often lumped as Georgian.
architecture as decorative rainspout. Rest known in Early Georgian usually begins with the passing of
Gothic examples, was adapted for purely ornamen-
it Queen Anne, 1714, and includes the style up to the
tal purposes in some medieval and Renaissance wood- ascendancy of Chippendale, about 1745. The style is
work. a heavier, richer Queen Anne, substantial, and not
excessively Rococo. There are much gilding and lavish
GABLAND. Floral decoration, freely arranged. upholstery. Chairs and tables have brass casters.
Decorative details include the scallop shell on cabriole
GATELEG TABLE. The whole classification of tables legs, eagles' heads on chair arms, satyrs' heads, lions'
in which one or more drop leaves are supported by a and ball-and-claw feet; cabinets were of solid archi-
leg or gate that swings away from a central fixed tectural proportions. Mahogany was used, but some
structure. According to Nutting, the gateleg must have walnut work was still done.
a stretcher; if the stretcher is lacking, the type is Later Georgian styles are better known by the
known as "swing leg." Gatelegs were made with as names of designers such as Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
many as .twelve legs, and appeared in every style dur- Sheraton, etc. See also England.
GERMANY 236
GERMANY. The Teutonic peoples derived their first

ideas of furniture from Rome, there being evidence of
turned members of chairs and tools drawn from
Roman models. Scandinavian elements of rich open-
work carving, dragons and intertwined floral decora-
tions occur on earlier medieval coffers. Chests on high
legs, with sloping lids like a gable roof, display both
Celtic and Ryzantine ornamentation. Other chests are
embellished with many iron bands. Construction and
decoration are crude and elementary Romanesque.
689 BENCH with reversible back, 15th century German.
Gothic vine carving.
690 BAVARIA(?), dated 1693. Armoire with painted

decoration of Gothic design.
Liebhold Wallach
The Gothic architectural influence reached domes-

tic furniture early in the 15th century, but the Roman-
esque tradition remains in peasant work for several
mingled Romanesque
centuries. Chests decorated with
and Gothic motives occur in low Saxony, in Holstein,
in the Hartz Mountains, and elsewhere sufficiently to
indicate that the type was general in the Netherlands,
northern France, Scandinavia, England, and Alpine
lands.
The later Gothic stage saw the evolution of chests
with doors, variations known as credences dressoirs,
etc., in the lower Rhine district, parallel to the various
cupboards of Flanders, France, and England. Linen-
fold decoration was universal. The post-and-panel
method of constructionwas the great contribution of
thisage to cabinetwork, and from it developed all the
drawer and cabinet forms.
There is a distinct line of demarcation between
North German and South German types, due both to
the nature of the accessible woods and the exposure
to outside influence. North German work employs oak
and follows the intricate ornament of the Scandinavian
691 SOUTH GERMAN, dated 1772. Medieval form persists
with inlaid decoration suggesting Rococo.
countries. South German work is in fir and pine, and Liebhold Walliich
exhibits North Ralian influences coming both from

the Alpine countries and from Flanders.
237 GERMANY
693 ROUND TABLE from Liibeck, early 18th century. Turn-

ings are native characteristics;the whole form has a rich
Baroque quality.
In South German work occurs a wide range of cof-

fers and cupboards in all stages of evolution, with the
carved ornament freely Gothic of the flamboyant
school. Green and red paint emphasized the planes.
Box settles, common in Eng-

turned chairs of a type
692 SOUTH GERMAN (Augsburg), 16th century. land two centuries and trestle tables are of well-
later,
developed type. A distinct form of bedstead has square
posts and side pieces and a short wooden canopy at
694 SACRISTAN CHEST, Salzburg, mid-18th century. Dou-
the head. See also gothic. [93, 102, 178, 221, 343, 346,
ble-bodied buffet type of fine Baroque outline. Walnut, inlaid.
457,466,484.]
THE RENAISSANCE
The free cities of southern Germany had a flourish-
ing trade with northern Italy, and the first signs of
the Renaissance appeared there. Woodcuts of furni-
ture by Peter Flotner of Nuremberg appeared about
1542, showing Italian Renaissance details, and there
are cupboards extant, probably of his workmanship,
which show a mature appreciation of the Lombard
forms. Classic ornament and intarsia are employed.
Flotner's austere style was the prevalent type for a
generation, but after 1580 the richer plastic decora-
tion, with a larger vocabulary of ornaments, becomes
the rule. Pilasters taper toward the base; heavily pro-
jecting consoles, lion motifs, scrollwork, and car-
touches appear, and the trend toward the exuberant
richness of the Baroque has begun. Examples of about
1600 from Ulm, Frankfort-am-Main, and Augsburg are
parallel in the elaborate Late Renaissance tradition to
the work and northern France. Veneered
of Flanders
panels of walnut and ash and intarsia enrich the fir
and pine surfaces. Augsburg had a specialized cabinet
industry, and the earliest Baroque forms appeared
there about 1620. Elaborate joinery, such as mitering,
broken corners, undulating moldings, all superseded
carving. Chairs were four-legged board types, folding
chairs and, later, armchairs with square legs. Turned
GERMANY 238 GERMANY
baluster legs displaced the latter in the Late Renais-
sance. This style clung to much of the South German
work mid-17th century.
until after the
In North Germany oak furniture continued to be
made in the Gothic structural tradition through 1550.
Cologne and Miinster were centers of cabinetmaking
and carving, and there the Early Renaissance first
appears in the work of John Kupfer and Aldegraver.
In Luneberg and Schleswig-Holstein restrained Italian
ornament was merged with the Gothic. Schleswig-
Holstein early produced the more exuberantly carved
cupboards with metal ornament and scrollwork, while
other regions followed with the imposition of Late
Renaissance ornament upon Late Gothic shapes. The
corner cupboard appeared about this time in Dith-
marschen.
The bed with carved posts and canopy frame ap-
peared in North Germany about the middle of the
16th century. Chairs for state uses were inlaid with
ivory and silver. Lesser ones were elaborately carved
and turned. Cabinets were of wide variety and were
decorated with elaborate carving, architectural fea-
tures, and intarsia panels. In these particulars, the
High Renaissance remained the source of much Ger-
man cabinetwork until the later 18th century.
RAROQUE
The substitution of bold-scale moldings, surfaces,
and shapes ornament dif-
for excessive applied plastic
ferentiates the Early Raroque of Holland from the
695 ARMOIRE, Austria or Bavaria, end of 18th century.
Late Renaissance styles of Germany. This took place
Classic influence of Louis XVI style. Provincial version,
fine carving in pine, probably originally painted.
about 1660, but the austere Dutch curves were speed-
ily enriched in Nuremberg, Augsburg, Frankfort, and
696 BEDSTEAD, Louis XVI influence. other centers of German skill. Frankfort cupboards
Both photographs, Liebhold Wallach
were richly curved, lush in outline and modeling as
a whole. To the north, Hamburg walnut cupboards of
1680 were severely, vigorously architectural, with
heavy cornices and high raised panels. Pointed ovals,
base with drawers and large bun feet, with richly
carved enclosed leaf, flower, and fruit ornaments char-
acterize these excellent ornate structures.
Spiral-turned legs are universal in earlier Raroque
tables and chairs, but about 1690 the cabriole leg was
widely accepted, indicating the penetration of the
forms evolved at the court of Louis XIV. The Augs-
burg cabinetmakers followed the French lead with
both ebony and Roulle tortoiseshell. The court of
Frederick I was furnished with pure Louis XIV forms;
from this time on, all the palaces borrowed directly
from Paris, while the lesser workers lagged with the
older styles.
This is particularly true of the Regence. This transi-
tional style was readily taken up in the royal castles
GERMANY 239 GERMANY
of Germany, and inspired lower-caste furniture for
many Few new forms appear in important
years.
work; ithenceforward essentially French, with a
is
variable time lag. Burgher furniture along Regence

lines forms a fairly national style in South Germany;
inlays after Boulle, and intarsia in ribbon patterns are
characteristic. Bombe commodes and high chairbacks
with smooth wooden splats are common.
ROCOCO
The Rococo style of Louis XV permeated German
cabinetmaking through the period 1730-1790. Spread-
ing from Belgium and Lorraine, spheres of French
influence, the lavish naturalism of the French court
styles was brought into Bavaria by the architects Fran-
501sde Cuvilles and Georg Knobelsdorff; the decora-
tive sculptors Johann Hoppenhaupt and Johann
August Nahl ( 1710-1781 ) luxuriated in magnificent
carved decorations for backgrounds and furniture
alike. Consoles, mirror frames, commodes, chairs de-
luxe and canapes were embellished with birds, fruit,
and garden tools and musical instruments,

flowers,
carved, gilded, and painted in the French manner.
North German palaces vied with those of Munich.
Frederick's New Palace in Potsdam, like the Solitud
near Stuttgart; others in Munich, Wilhelmthal, and the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of John L. Cadwalader, 1914

697 TYPICALLY LATE BAROQUE CHAIR, 1725-1750,
with Rococo elements.
698 GERMAN ROCOCO. Writing table of Frederick the

Great. Chinoiserie decoration.
on the Rhine and the Main being mas-

Electors' castles
is noted, however, that most
terpieces of the style. It
of the meubles de luxe the bronze mounted com-
modes and writing tables, etc. were actually made
in Paris.
The German Rococo on its own initiative indulged

in more unrestrained fantasy than its prototype. The
bombe-shaped and loaded cornices are less airy, more
and possibly excessive in the best
solidly brilliant,
work of Wiirzburg and Mainz. Chairs bear a strong
resemblance to the simpler Dutch and English types,
although the German cabriole shape is distinctive.
Bright paint colors carved furniture of Bavaria and
Austria.
240 GERMANY
BIEDERMEIER
After 1830, the style settled down recognizably to
express easy comfort on a lightly classical foundation.
Light native woods, light birch, cherry, pear, apple,
maple, and ash were displayed to advantage, without
other ornament, in commodes and chests, tables, large
secretary-desks and cabinets. Curved chairs and sofas
were upholstered with horsehair, calico, and rep, and
bore infinite variety of graceful ornament based on
swans and griffins, cornucopias and domestic flowers
and fruits. Gothic bits were added to the ornamental
repertoire about 1840. But there was no solid Gothic
revival. This style is so dominantly middle class, so
comfortably gauche that it took its name from the
comic-paper character Papa Biedermeier, who ex-
pressed his simple political views in Fliegende Blatter.
The growing comfort and wealth of the mid-century
period undermined this simplicity and brought various
neo-Rococo and merely lavish picturesque effects. The
weakening of the genuine feeling for style is evi-
denced by the acceleration of the changes in style;
and by the end of the century pure eclecticism per-
mitted Renaissance, Turkish, and Far Eastern neo-
Dalva Brothers. Inc.
699 SMALL PEDESTAL SECRETAIRE; early 18th century.
Empire and neo-everything styles to come and go with
Pictorial inlays of ivory, mother-of-pearl, enamels. Bronzedore individual whims.
mountings.
700 CYLINDER DESK of mahogany and bronze, by David

GERMAN CLASSICISM Roentgen.
the period.
End of 18th century. Clock and candlesticks of
The classic influence arrived after 1770 through

both French and English channels. The German cab-
inetmakers made writing tables and commodes, chairs
and cupboards in the familiar proportions and some
of the austerity of the Parisian manner. The classic
straight lines were more floridly ornamented. David
Roentgen surpassed many of his French contempo-
raries with his cylinder desks, commodes, writing
tables, etc., using light mahogany, superb marquetry
and ormolu mounts. As in France, the classic contin-
ued in essence to be an urban style, the provinces
retaining the exuberant curves of the Rococo, but
about 1800 the influence of Hepplewhite and Shera-
ton had penetrated these strongholds. The middle-
class furniture of Napoleonic Germany has an
appreciable style of its own, its later phases being
known as Biedermeier [138]. The early years of the
century produced a group of designs of light graceful
form but devoid of excessive orna-
furniture, classic in
ment, executed in light mahogany, pear, ash, cherry,
and poplar. The smooth veneered surfaces of the Em-
common, but the proportions are
pire style are better
and they have a livable human quality. Painted furni-
ture was also popular.
GERMANY 241
703 SIDE TABLE c. 1810.
704 BIEDERMEIER SOFA c. 1820.

Gothic tracery detail.
701-702 R AND TABLE, Munich, c. 1820.
705 HIGH CABINET with desk drawer. Mahogany, Munich,

c. 1820.
706 BIEDERMEIER STYLE c. 1826.

Cylinder front.
242 GERMANY
appreciation of the revolutionary ideas of William
Morris led to the growth of the Jugendstil. This "Youth
Style" as a German "Art Nouveau" produced little
directly, but established a system of thought and art

training more comprehensive, and progressive
unified,
than in other countries. After World War I, the move-
ment toward functional form found its prophets in
Germany, where the Bauhaus examined the reasons
for design under the direction of Walter Gropius and
Mies van der Rohe. Other powerful personalities, like
Peter Behrens and Eric Mendelsohn, moved dynami-
cally toward other objectives. The ferment was largely
dispersed by the Hitler regime. The United States was
the principal gainer. After 1945, Germany did not at
once resume its role in design leadership. See also
MODERN FURNITURE; NINETEENTH CENTURY.
708 AUSTRIAN STOVE, 1589. Tile. Philadelphia Museum of Art
& J'
Metropolitan Museum
of Art, Rogers Fund, 1908
707 GERMAN CHAIR, 18th century. Motives famil-
iar in Scandinavian and Celtic work. Elements of
the Windsor chair appear here also.
GERMAN FOLK STYLES

As elsewhere in Europe, the fashionable styles in
northern lands reflected only the tastes and symbols
of the aristocratic class. Some of these styles filtered
down through the lesser nobility, through the rich
burghers, the merchants and the moneyed, and in the
process the styles accommodated themselves to indig-
enous skills and tastes. There was always, however, a
firm level of native or peasant taste that exhibits more
of local skill. Woodcarving is a local art where wood
is abundant and appreciated. From the Alps and the
Black Forest to the birch woods of Sweden, carvers

were skillful before outside influences were known.
German craftsmen produced unique furniture in pro-
vincial regions from earliest times right up through
the Industrial Revolution. [195.]
Not only wood but ceramics, iron, brass, glass, and
everything available went into utilitarian objects of
fine native design. The ceramic stove is a singularly
successful product of these regions. [708.]
MODERN
The essential philosophy of the modern Interna-
tional Style grew largely in Germany, where an early
GESSO 243
GESSO. Plastic preparation used for raised decoration.

In Italy it was extensively employed on furniture in
the Middle Ages and afterward. It was never very
extensively used elsewhere, although, gilded, it was

popular for a time under Charles II in England. [266,
755, 1078.]
GIBBONS, GBINLING, 1648-1721. English carver

and designer. John Evelyn brought him to the notice
of Christopher Wren, who employed him as a carver
on St. Paul's and on Windsor Castle. His work and
influence are the basis of English carving after that
time. Most typical of his work are the garlands and
festoons, birds and animals and other typically Ba-
roque details exquisitely executed in rich high relief.
The carving was usually done in pine, limewood, or

similar close-textured woods, later nailed to the panel-
ing and gilded on mantels, paneling, ceilings, over-
doors, and important furniture. He combined superb
draftsmanship, a remarkable sense of composition, and
inspired craftsmanship. See also carving.

709 GIRANDOLE, English Rococo, c. 1760, Chippendale
design. Rlack and gold.
GIBANDOLE; GIBONDOLE. Wall bracket or chan-

delier, often with a mirror back. Later in the 18th
century the mirror was made circular and convex
and was used alone. ( Sometimes called bull's-eye mir-
ror.) [72,709.]
GLAZED DOOBS. Doors fitted with glass, often with

GIBBS, JAMES, 1682-1754. English architect, fol- a lattice pattern of woodwork, or tracery.
lower of Palladio. Like many of his contemporaries,
he designed the furnishings as well as the structure. GLAZING. In painting, glazing is the application over
His Book of Architecture (1728) was one of many on the finish paint of a thin wash coat that is then wiped
the subject. off, thereby modifying or subduing the base color. It
produces a mixed, soft tone. Glazing is definitely not

GILDING. Decorating with gold, either by applica- polish, or the application of a gloss, as on chintz.
tion of gold leaf or powder in a liquid vehicle, pro-
ducing a sumptuous effect. GLOBE STAND. Wood or metal stand of pedestal,
tripod, or other shape designed to hold terrestrial or
GILLINGHAM, JAMES. Philadelphia cabinetmaker, celestial globes. Like other objects of scientific inter-
born in 1736; he produced simple furniture of fine est, they were given serious artistic treatment in the
quality. 18th century.
GILLOW, FIBM OF. English cabinetmakers, first

known about 1728, who constructed much furniture
during the 18th and 19th centuries. EMGUSH
GLOBE STC.NDS
GIMP (GEIMPE). Narrow flat tape, more or less

ornamental, used as a trimming or finish on upholstery
and drapery.
244
710PHILADELPHIA CHIPPENDALE
**: CHEST by Gostelowe, 1775-1780. Ser-
pentine front, original Adam brasses.
Jonathan G< :
e>
CABINET and CH/S R,
Lt his (hop in Church Aliey, aboul
Second and Third-ftreetsJ 711LABEL OF
JONATHAN GOSTELOWE.
BEGS leave to inform his fonnei Cviftol
Public in general, That he hath ^gain iumel
occupation at the above mentioned plac: *A. renewl_
favours will be thankfully received ; and his beft endeavc
(hall be ufed to give fatisfa&ton to thofe who pleafe to empl?
him. Both photographs Pennsylvania Museum of Art, Philadelphia
Cj o p P A R D
GLUE 245 GOTHIC
GLUE. Adhesive material of various kinds, used in GOTHIC. To the Romans, Gothic symbolized the bar-
veneering, joinery, etc. Good gluing provides the tight- barians of the North. To the Renaissance artists the
est joint of wood known. A proper glue joint will break name implied the unclassical, rudely homemade ef-
less readily than the wood it holds together, but this forts of the Dark Ages, where men had lost the classic
implies good glue, good joining, and accurate fitting. touch. Yet today the Gothic regarded as having the
is
Much study is now being given to adhesives for wood, primary greatness of a complete, spontaneous art sys-
with the object of producing waterproof joints, by a tem. The reason lies in our recognition of the under-
simpler process than the customary hot-glue method. lying impulse; the deep need of people to construct,
beautifully, the things they require out of the materi-
GOBELIN. French family of dyers, established in the als at hand. The only stable power of the time being
15th century, began to make tapestries in 1529. In the Church, the chief artistic expression was ecclesi-
1662 their factory was purchased by the government astical. The cathedral was the triumph of Gothic art.
and transformed into an upholstery manufactory un- Secular and domestic expressions lagged far behind.
der the direction of the painter Le Brun. This actually Gothic domestic furniture is therefore almost an
marks the beginning of the period XIV. Dur-
of Louis anomaly.
ing the 18th century they made chiefly tapestries, and
in 1826 they added the manufacture of carpets. The
industry is still conducted by the state.
GODDARD, JOHN. Latter half of the 18th century.

An American cabinetmaker, he worked in Newport,
R.I., with his son-in-law John Townsend. Produced
distinct form of block-front desks, cabinets, secretaries,
chests, etc., with shell carving. Bracket feet, usually
ogee in shape and finely carved or in clustered shapes
are also typical. See also rhode island school; town-
send, john. [1295.]
EMGLISW pLAUtcCSr*l fETET
GONCALO ALVES. Dense hardwood from Brazil.

Color is light tan with red-brown stripes, with some Gothic architecture grew from the Romanesque, the
curl. style of Europe between 800 and 1200.
Christian
Vestiges of ancient Rome, particularly the round arch,
GONDOLA (CONDOLE). Chair or sofa whose back were crossed with Byzantine showiness and the an-
curves downward continuously to form the arms, so cient semibarbaric themes of the Teutonic peoples,
called because of its supposed resemblance to an debased architectural forms with naturalistic and
18th-century gondola. geometric ornament. The Gothic structural system de-
veloped in stone the notion of the skeleton framework.
GOOSENECK. Double curved arch of the pediment The great pointed arches, the pillars and buttresses
of highboys and the like; also called swan-neck or are decorated with moldings and details of unique
broken arch. and logical type. These were carried through
details
into the detached wood furniture. Altars, screens, and
other ritual furniture were magnificent, and in com-
plete harmony with the architecture.
Secular Gothic art stemmed from the castles of the
feudal barons. Such governing powers as they were
able to seize and to hold were largely personal mat-
ters. The state of almost continuous warfare kept them
(jCOSENta pEPIMNI moving about; their furnishings and their material

wealth went with them from castle to castle. With
GOSTELOWE, JONATHAN, 1744-1795. Philadel- mobility as the basis, chests and coffers were the
phia cabinetmaker; produced distinguished mahog- principal articles of furniture; these carried clothing,
any furniture of Chippendale Baroque influence. A bedding, valuables; they could be used as beds and
man of property and education, he made furniture seats for the retainers. Later, chests were mounted on
of the finest type for a rich clientele. Nutting rates his feet or stands, but it was not until the 15th century
identified work ahead of that of Savery. [710.] that there appears a consistent type of furniture fore-
GOTHIC 246 GOTHIC
shadowing the various cupboards, chests, and cabi-

nets. These were invariably of oak. Earlier types were
plank boxes, heavily bound with iron straps and locks,
often with gabled tops. Later, flat-top chests had sides
ornamented with carved representations of architec-
tural forms. Finally the logic of the stone skeleton of
buildings was applied to furniture; a sturdy frame-
work held panels of thinner wood, which in itself
created an ornamental type. The panels were further
ornamented with linenfold, tracery, or painted designs.
See also chest.
712 CHEST, Alpine manner, c. 1500.
Chairs were almost a royal prerogative. Under no-
madic conditions, folding chairs were carried only for
the lord and his lady; when court was set up, a throne-
like structure of canopy and dais was literally the
court. Below sat the lesser ones, importance diminish-
ing as distance grew. Seats with hinged or pivoted
back rails developed from the practice of sitting on
chests, the back adjustable to serve from either side.
Beds were chiefly textile; curtains and canopy and
bedding were easily transportable. The framework of
exposed wood appeared after security warranted such
permanent structures. Beds retained their enclosure
character until rooms became small enough to afford
privacy and warmth. See also bed.
Tables for dining, like the refectory types, were

unknown For dining, boards were set
in secular use.
on trestles: From the monastery
hence, "set the table."
came the desk idea, originally a portable box set on
a collapsible frame. The box grew flatter, forming a
worktable with a lift lid covering writing materials.
All this furniture, usually of unpolished oak, bor-
rowed its decorative character from Church art. Carv-
ing in oak makes for large-scale, not too fine detail.
Metropolitan Museum Fund, 1930

Familiar floral forms, vines and leaves, with grotesque
of Art, Fletcher
713 NORTH ITALIAN GOTHIC CHAIR, 1450-1500, from animal and human representations were often humor-
Church of San Orso, Val d'Aosta, Piedmont. ously rendered. Simple structural embellishments, such
as grooves, moldings, and paneling, were typical; in
later Gothic work these were scaled down to represent
714 CHEST, South German. Panel construction, scratch carv-
ing, nonecclesiastical quality. 715 TABLE, Alpine, c. 1500.
247 GOTHIC
<r&iusr cescriKi*

716 OAK CHEST, France, late 15th century.
fBitlC
coftuics cove
French ir Co., Inc.

717 FRENCH CHOIR STALL, c. 1500.
Gothic Furniture
719 CREDENCE CUPBOARD, France.
718 COFFER-SEAT, Oak. Combines paneling with chest.

15th-century panel types.
720 WALNUT CHEST, France, early 16th century.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941
GOTHIC 248 GOTHIC
"
rii
III"
722 PRIMITIVE GERMAN CHAIR, plank construction.
architectural arches, tracery, facades. Cusped arches,

trefoil, quatrefoil, etc.; ogee curves and deep, full
moldings were essential in the style everywhere. Paint-
ing later became general.
721 SMALL BENCH, Late Gothic, pierced tracery. The Gothic had extremes of type accord-
as a style
ing to locale. In Italy there never was a true Gothic;
Italian Gothic was merely the imposition of a few
723 CREDENCE-BUFFET CABINET. northern motives on a persistent classic taste, diluted
Late-style Gothic carving.
with Eastern (Byzantine and Saracenic) forms and
motives. Spain was Moorish through the early Gothic
stages; even in her 15th-century Gothic a strong qual-
ity of Oriental light and shade is evident. France was
scarcely a political entity. The style centered in the
Ile-de-France types, and spread with local variations
from North and South. The Teutonic and Scandina-
vian lands worked in individual styles. The rise of
secular nationalism came with the Renaissance, when
Church influence in politics and in art waned. [126,
148, 169, 173, 225, 232, 343 et seq., 544, 753, 1017,
1144.]
LATt GOTHIC COFFER

GOTHIC REVIVALS 249 GREEK, ANCIENT
GOTHIC REVIVALS. England had a brief interest GOL'THIERE. PIERRE-JOSEPH, 1740-1806.

in the Gothic after 1740; and ornamental forms, fondly French bronze worker (ciseleur), famous for unsur-
imagined to be in the "Gothic taste," were incor- passed metal mounts for cabinets.
porated into furniture by Chippendale and others.
Cusped arches, ogee curves, and similar rudiments GRAIN. Wood fibers tend to assume characteristic
were accepted as Gothic: there was no further effort arrangements in different species. When boards are
or understanding of the whole concept of Gothic cut, the cross sections of the fibers reveal these ar-
structure. [423, 533.] rangements in patterns, which the cabinetmaker em-
Early in the 19th century another revival gained ploys in the design much as the pattern or texture of
more momentum. Architecture profited chiefly; the fabric is used in draping and tailoring. See also wood.
Gothic became the accepted style for churches and,
somewhat less, for schools. In furniture in America, GRAINING. Process of painting to resemble the color
England, and France it remained only a source of a and figure of wood.
few ornamental motives [137]. Somewhat later, East-
lake and William Morris and his school fostered an GRANDFATHER'S CLOCK. Tall clock case. [419.]
abortive attempt to reintroduce Gothic handicraft
methods to combat the machine development. [532, GRANDMOTHER'S CLOCK. Floor clock of smaller
880.] dimension than grandfather's clock.
GRECO-ROMAN. Refined decoration style of late

classical antiquity, roughly 200 b.c.-a.d. 200. Appeared
in 18th century through the excavations of Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii, and formed the basis of the
18th-century classical revivals. In itself a free mixture
and Rome,
of style in Egypt, Greece, it was liberally
misunderstood and misnamed.
NEO GOTHIC
GOTHIC REVIVAL
CABINET C. IS&O
GOUGE CARVING. Rudimentary form of decorative

carving found in cruder styles such as the Gothic in
Spain and England. Usually simple chisel marks in
rhythmic repetition. [724, 1200.] &R.EEK. CHAUUS
GREEK, ANCIENT. The Golden Age of Greece,

724 GOUGE CARVING, American box, early 17th century,
1200-300 B.C., has left scant remains of furniture, but
suggestion of Gothic work.
Wadsworth Atheneum. Hartford, Conn., The Nutting Collection vase pictures and sculpture show many well-devel-
oped types of beds and couches, chairs and tables
[205]. In literature we find references to "chests of
cedar . . . gilt and inlaid with ivory." Chairs were
gracious in outline, with sweeping curves on legs and
backs. The form often suggests bronze rather than
wood. Couches were elongated thrones, suggesting
Egyptian origin, like much other Grecian furniture.
Tables were low and portable, even as they occur in
GREEK lltll 250 GUMWOOD
Asia Minor today, and bronze animal legs and feet GUMWOOD. Three species of gumwood are used in
are found. Chests or coffers are found in an architec- furniture: sweet, tupelo, and black gum. Sweet or red
tural-roofed shape, decoratively painted. gum has a pinkish hue, especially in the sapwood.
Turning, inlaying, carving, painting, encrusting with Tupelo has a tan-gray color, while black gum is the
precious stones, gilding, etc., were widely practiced, lightest, and has the most decided figure. All gums are
and construction methods were good. The native olive susceptible to warping unless they are very carefully
and cedar, yew, box, and ebony seem to have been kiln-dried. They are commonly used for structural
employed, and upholstery with silken cushions was parts in less expensive cabinetwork, as they are strong
known before 300 b.c. and stain easily to resemble mahogany or walnut.
GREEK ERET. Greek key pattern; repeated square

hook-shaped forms as a band decoration.
GRIFFIN (GRYPHON). Mythological beast, half

eagle, half lion. Grotesque, occurring in much Late
Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance through
Louis XIV, and the work of Adam and Sheraton, and
again in the Empire style. [89.]
GRILLE. Metal or wood latticework used in book-

case doors, cabinets. They were of brass or gilt wire
in a variety of woven patterns and often had fabric
curtains behind them. [152, 1158.]
GRISAILLE. Painting in various gray tints, repre-

senting solid bodies in relief. Fashionable in furniture
decoration of the late 18th century. [588.]
f tovlKJCI I I
fucuc
GROS POINT. French coarse stitch embroidery used
*
for upholstering chairs, etc.
GROTESQUES. Fantastic figures or part figures as

decoration.
Gl I it I HON Small French table for candles and small

articles. [202.]
GL ILLOCHE. Continuous running or band ornament

of interlacing circles, found in every style
after the
Assyrian. [463.] GV LLOCMES
I
GUIMPE. Gimp.
GUINEA HOLES. Scooped out corners in 18th-century

English card tables as receptacles for coins.
[1267.]
H-STRETCHER 251 HANGING SHELVES; BOOKSHELVES: PLATE SHELVES
H-STRETCHER. Typical stretcher construction, as in HANDLE. Knobs or pulls on drawers and doors. The
some Windsor and Chippendale chairs. A stretcher types and materials have varied in all periods to such
from front to back leg on each side is connected an extent that handles constitute a sure index to the
through the middle by a third member. period of a piece of furniture. Wood, metal, glass,
.ivory, etc., have been adapted and designed in char-
HADLEY CHEST. Early American chest, first found acteristic forms; the better the designs, the more har-
in Hadley, Mass. Typical tulip carving over front rails moniously related was the hardware to the case, as
as well as the three panels. Often with a drawer. to size, spacing, shape, material. See also hardware.
[354.]
HANGING. Bed and window curtains and portable
HAIG, THOMAS. Partner of Chippendale. wall coverings are hangings. Medieval construction
provided no finish for interior walls, so that men of
HAIRCLOTH. Fabric woven of horsehair, colored or wealth carried with them to their various transient
small-figured, typical of mid-19th-century upholstery. abodes hangings that provided grace and comfort to
A mixture of horsehair and linen was used by the 18th- the harsh castle interiors. Bed curtains and window
century English upholsterers. curtains were variations of these same draperies, as
these were still architectural features. The latter were
HALE COLUMN. Engaged column against a flat sur- almost always plain fabrics, such as fustian, but the
face or rounded pilaster. wall hangings early took on highly decorative charac-
The conventionalized
ter. patterns of medieval weaves
HALE-HEADED RED. Short posted bedstead with- became tapestries, which in turn became in the hands
out canopy. of the French weavers, representations of paintings,
including the representation of a gilt frame.
HALE-TURNING (SPLIT SPINDLE). Turned mem- Leather hangings of Spanish or Saracenic origin,
bers sawn in half, lengthwise, usually applied to a flat with typical stamped embellishment and coloring,
surface as ornament, particularly in English and Amer- were popular on the Continent during the 16th and
ican Jacobean, Italian and German Renaissance. Also 17th centuries.
used as spindles in chairs ( Jacobean ) with the smooth Papers, pasted to the wall displaced textile hang-
side to the sitter's back. [11, 137, 242, 725, 873.] ings very largely in the 18th century.
HANGING SHELVES; ROOKSHELVES; PLATE

SHELVES. Oldest surviving examples of these types
are found to be of crude type, particularly in England
and France. The latter are exclusively Provincial and
are of mid-18th-century character. English oak shelves
of Early Jacobean date are carved abundantly, with
double-arch shapes. 18th-century shelves developed
with the craze for china collecting: Chippendale's
school produced jigsawed variations on Chinese
Wadsworth Athencum, Hartford, Conn. themes with Gothic accents. Hepplewhite's book illus-
725 HALF TURNINGS (split spindles) as decoration on
trates simple types, some with turned uprights. Many
American oak chest dated 1694.
of these typeshave survived, made of mahogany or
satinwood with inlay and painted decoration. Amer-
HALFPENNY, W. AND J. 18th-century English ar-
chitects and designers.
HALL CHAIRS. Formal, ornamental chairs, originally

named by Manwaring.
HALL CLOCK. Grandfather's, or any tall, clock case.
HALL TREE. Stand or framework, wood or metal,

for coats and hats, etc. [1299.]
HALVING-IN. Method of joinery. See also construc-

tion. Hanging 5hclf
V
HARDWARE 252 HAREWOOD

728 ROCOCO MANNER,
726 YEW WOOD c. 1765. late 18th century.
ENGLISH
HANGING SHELVES,
LATE 18th CENTURY.
727 MAHOGANY C. 1770. Ncedham's Antiques, Inc.
ican hanging shelves after 1750 are of similar style, silver extensively. [15, 359.]
The country types
usually plainer. of pine are rarely The Rococo style revived interest in metalwork.
decorated, but show inventiveness in decorative out- Bronze appliques were a mainstay of the ornamental-
lines. [450, 726, 1332.] ist, and much of the effect of Rococo furniture derives
from the contrast of exquisitely chased bronze and

HARDWARE. Fittings of metal were originally in- gilt metal against the background offine veneer. Han-
tended to strengthen the heavy board construction of dles, key plates, were particularly
etc., fine. Chip-
chests, etc., and early became decorative features as pendale's handles were ornate Baroque-Rococo com-
well. Earliest Gothic chests have beautifully wrought positions, and form an essential contrast with the
iron straps and corners, hinges and locks, hasps and mahogany.
keys. As stronger joinery became the rule the metal The classic revivals brought new hardware designs,
fittings were allowed to lapse into decorative desue- severe in outline and fine in scale. Ring handles were
tude. Renaissance furniture relegated hardware to an general in Regency and all Empire styles, and decora-
inferior place; brass and bronze replaced iron, and tive metal appliques of classical themes were uni-
mounts virtually disappeared. Functional details such versal. Mirrors were metal ornamented, and galleries
as hinges and locks were subdued, largely through and headings of brass were common.
technical improvements. Gothic hinges had exposed Late-18th-century handles began to utilize glass,
leaves that were fashioned into such decorative shapes ivory, and porcelain. These remained throughout the
as the dolphin, cock's head, loop, and H-hinges. These 19th century. The turn of the century featured copper
designs persisted, especially in ironwork and in rural and leather, and modern styles added chromium, alu-
districts, but sophisticated Renaissance work used butt minum, and the plastic materials.
hinges, concealed like the countersunk locks, etc. This
leftonly keys and key plates and handles as decorative HAREWOOD. Greenish-gray wood, actually sycamore
members; these were fine in scale and delicately or, inAmerica, curly maple, stained or dyed to a thin
wrought, often chased. Handles or pulls were either gray tone. Originating in England in the 18th century,
knobs or drop handles. Pear, tear, and ball shapes were it was used chiefly for inlays and decorative veneer-
common drops, while bails were gracefully formed ing.Widely favored in early modern work in France,
and fitted with ornate escutcheons or back plates. England, and America, in spite of its tendency to lose
Later Baroque and Early Georgian work employed the dye and to assume a greenish cast.
HARDWARE 253 HARDWARE
bABOqUE STYLES- (Bra^)
ROCOCO ~~ brass c Ormolu
CLA55IC REVIVALS (brass;
CHINESE B.R.ASSES
SABOT K.NEE J.0UI5 XVI

HARLEQUIN TABLE 254 HEPPLEWHITE
II A AC K. Nineteenth-century hall furniture, rang-
l It
ing from wall rack with hooks or pegs to freestanding

structure with box bench, mirror, etc. See also cos-
TUMER; UMBRELLA STAND. [1299.]
HEADROARD. The entire head section of a bed; or

the boards within the head framework.
HEART AND CROWN. Raluster-back chair whose

cresting has cutouts of these shapes.
HEART-RACK. Shield-back chair, Hepplewhite type.
HENRY II; HENRY III. Medici kings of France

whose Italian preferences imposed Italian forms upon
the French Renaissance-Gothic of Francis I. Their
style was completely Raroque Italian, but more highly
carved and decorated, featuring interlaced strapwork,
delicate reliefs, cartouches, etc. See also France.
Israel Sack, Inc.
731 HARLEQUIN TABLE. Pigeonholes and writing bed rise
when top leaf is unfolded. American Hepplewhite c. 1790.
HENRY VIII. The first English monarch to look
away from England's insularity, Henry VIII literally
HARLEQUIN TABLE. Table invented by Sheraton imported the Renaissance into England. The lessening
in which the center part rises automatically when of Church influence affected the design of furniture,
the leaves are raised, revealing fittings and compart-

and the influx of Italian motives enriched the heavy,
severe furniture of earlier days. For the most part
ments for toilet articles or writing materials. Recently
bar and cellarette uses. [731, 1386.] shapes remained Gothic, but unquestionably Italian
adapted to
ornamentation appeared. See also England. [106.]
HABVABD CHAIR. Three-cornered chair with all
turned members; Early American (17th-century) ver-

sion of a Gothic type found throughout the Continent
in Late Gothic and Early Renaissance stages. [732.]
HASP. Hinged part of a hinge lock, used decoratively

in Gothic and Spanish cabinets.
HASSOCK. Thickly stuffed upholstered footstool

HEPFLEIVUITC
showing no wood. Wl W DO W JEiy
HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE. Died 1786. It is known

that he worked for the firm of Gillow and that he
began to make furniture in London about 1760. He
collaborated with the Adam brothers much as did
Chippendale, and produced furniture in a more ra-
tional, simple version of their taste. Some of his work
modifies the earlier French styles; his later output
develops the classic outlines. Two years after his death
his widow, The Cabinet Maker and
Alice, published
Upholsterer's Guide "from drawings by A. Hepple-
white and Co., Cabinet Makers." As only ten of the
drawings are signed "Hepplewhite," it is assumed that
this work illustrates the prevailing fashions inter-
732 "HARVARD" CHAIR,
English Cromwellian.
preted by many contributors. See also England. [43,
French 6- Co., Inc. 46, 453, 593, 733, 734.]
HEPPLEWHITE 255 HERRINGBONE
733HEPPLEWHITE DESIGNS FOR CHAIRBACKS, "CONFIDANTE," TURNED AND

SQUARE FEET. From the 1794 The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Guide.
HERALDIC FORMS. Early furniture being a noble
prerogative, it often carried the arms or other heraldic
marks of the noble owner. Thus, reproductions of such
furniture, mainly of theMiddle Ages, Tudor English,
Renaissance, Italian, German, French, and Spanish,
are emblazoned with symbols which in themselves are
no more decorative or significant than a monogram.
HERCELANEEM. The excavation of the Roman city

of this name after 1719 revived interest in the decora-
tive arts of the Romans. This persisted throughout the
18th century, particularly as the inspiration of the
classic styles of Louis XVI and the Adams.
The name specifically was applied by Sheraton to a
type of upholstered chair in the antique style.
HERRERA, JEAN DE. Spanish architect, reign of

Philip 111556-1598; his name applied to the style of
Israel Sack, Inc. the period, noted for austere, harsh design. A reaction
734 HEPPLEWHITE MAHOGANY CARD TABLE, Massa- to the brilliant plateresque style preceding it, it was
chusetts, c. 1812.
followed by the even more exuberant Baroque called
churrigueresque. See also spain.
HERALDIC
EMBLEM HERRINGBONE. Inlay banding in which the alter-
nately slanting grain produces a chevron or herring-
bone effect. Louis XIV and Queen Anne particularly.
[1030.]
ii-HiM.i: 256 HIGHBOY

735 HIGHBOY, English, c. 1690. William and Mary, recalls contemporary styles in France,
including suggestion of Boulle design in seaweed marquetry.
H-HINGE. One with exposed, long flat leaves that HIGHBOY. Tall chest of drawers, usually in two sec-
when opened resemble the letter H. See also hard- tions, the upper chest being carried on a tablelike
ware. [443, 1035.]
structure or lowboy with long legs. The form is essen-
tially English, the earlier chests on turned stands ap-
HICKORY. Strong, tough, elasticAmerican wood, pearing in the early 17th century. Transported to the
good for bent parts, or parts where thinness and
American colonies, it developed with William and
strength are required, as in Windsor chairs. Oak color
Mary and Queen Anne influences into the unique and
and texture; it is too hard to work easily.
characteristic highboy of Colonial America of the 18th
century. See also chest; tallboy. [26, 735.]
HIGHBOY 257 HIGHBOY

736 William and Mary manner in AMERICAN HIGHBOY
of burl walnut. Early 18th century.
HIGHBOY 258 HIGHBOY
Anderson Galleries
738 NEW YORK HIGHBOY c. 1800 (linen press), attributed
to Michael Allison.
<>
Israel Sack, Inc.
739 CONNECTICUT CHIPPENDALE CHEST-ON-CHEST

c. 1760. Cherry.
r
HIGHBOY 359 HIGHBOY
Anderson Galleries
740 ENGLISH TALLBOY c. 1760. Secretary drawer.
*< *
:
'
6
>.~i
*
9
ti --A

742 FRENCH EMPIRE SECRETARY of highboy type, am-
boyna wood with ormolu mounts.
741 SWEDISH, mid-18th century.

Influence of English forms.
HIGH CHAIR 260
HOCKL66
Hitchcock
"fancy" chair, and has a typical "pillow back," or oval-
turned top rail, straight-turned front legs, a rush or
caned seat enclosed in thin wood strips. Most often
these were painted to simulate rosewood, with a
unique powdered-gold stencil of fruit and flowers. See
also chair. [78, 325.]

HOCK LEG. Cabriole leg with a curve and angle
under the knee.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1921 HOGARTH CHAIR. English chair, early 18th cen-
tury, of the decorated Queen Anne style. Has hoop
back and pierced splat, with a heavy-kneed straight
cabriole leg.
743 HIGH CHAIR, Ohio, 1840-1850. Made by Shakers.
744 CHILD'S CHAIR, English, c. 1650.

HOLLAND, HENRY. English architect, 1746-1806,
fostered the use of Greco-Roman details.
HOLLY (Ilex). Hard grayish-white wood, among

HIGH CHAIR. This special long-legged seat for young the whitest of woods, with small flecked grain.
all
children has been given affectionate attention to de- Used primarily for inlays, it has been favored in mod-
sign since earliest chair history. [743, 744.] ern work for larger surfaces.
HIGH RELIEF. Deep surface carving. See also carv- HONEYSUCKLE. Basis of conventional ornament;
ing. the anthemion of Greek origin, it was revived with
other classicism in the Renaissance in every form of
HINGE. Simple mechanism that permits doors, lids,
decoration. See also ornament.
etc., toswing on a pivot center. Decorative forms are
characteristic of the various styles-. See also hardware. HOOD (HOODED TOP). Shaped top, usually curved,
on a highboy, clock case, etc. See also honnet top.
HIP. Same as knee, in speaking of the part of a chair
or table leg of cabriole shape. More exactly, the hori- HOOF FOOT. Hoof-shaped base of a leg, represent-
zontally elongated part of a cabriole leg above the line
ing principally the goat hoof on a cabriole leg. See
of the seat rail as found on English chairs from 1700
also cabriole. [1222.]
to 1760. [262.]
HOOP BACK. Chairback whose uprights and top rail

HISPANO-MORESOIJE. Spanish style with Moorish
form a continuous curve. Bow back in Windsor chairs.
influence. See also spain.
HITCHCOCK. The Hitchcock chair an American

is
type, 1820-1850, named after Lambert Hitchcock of

Connecticut. The typical form derives from a Sheraton
HoNcyjuau
HOPE, THOMAS 261 HUTCH
HOPE, THOMAS, 1769-1831. English writer, archi-
tectural dilettante, who was influenced by the Empire
designs of Percier and Fontaine. His book Household
Furniture and Interior Decoration (1807) formulated
an archaeological classicism for furniture that was not'
well received but nevertheless epitomizes the classical
massiveness of the period. See also England; nine-
teenth century. [312, 745.]
HOPE CHEST. Dower chest; traditional form of fur-

niture for storage of trousseaus. See also chest.
HORSE. Primitive trestle or stand to support table-

top or board.
HORSEHAIR. See haircloth. [1138.]
HORSESHOE ARCH. Arch whose curvature is more

than half-circle. Occurs in Moorish decoration. fcixfa-Hrirnkczi
745 THOMAS HOPE, drawings from Household Furniture . . . (1807).
or other expansion. English, late 18th, 19th centuries.

HORSESHOE RACK. In Windsor chairs, outward See a i so WINE TABLE 587) 1239
[ ]
sweep at the base of the bow of the back.
HUNTING CHAIR. Sheraton design with a slide in
HORSESHOE TARLE. English wine table, 18th cen- front upon whic h to rest the feet,
tury. See also hunt table; wine table.
HUSK. Drop ornament, such as the cornflower or
HOUSING. In joinery, grooving of one piece of wood ca tkins of shrubs, arranged in diminishing series,
into another.
From classical times down.
HUCHIER (French). Cabinetmaker, chiefly one who HUTCH. From the French huche. A chest or cabinet
makes fine cabinets by the panel method of con- with doors, usually on legs. An early form descending
struction.
from the Gothic and disappearing after the 17th cen-
tury. Its principal interest is as progenitor of the chest
HUNT TARLE. Semicircular table with an open mid- court-cupboard sideboard. The type was common in
dle fitted with pivoted device for bringing bottles to France and Italy and particularly in Early Jacobean
any point of the radius; sometimes with drop leaves England, whence it came to America.
IMBRICATION INTAGLIO
IMBRICATION. Decoration resembling fish scales,
adapted from the antique Roman in the Italian Ren-

aissance.
IN THE WHITE. Any cabinetwork or woodwork in

the raw state, before the wood is finished.
INCE AND MAYHEW. English firm of cabinetmakers

and upholsterers published The Universal System of
Household Furniture (1762) illustrating their designs.
Many of them were based on Chippendale's work, and
much of the actual furniture is in a lesser Chippendale
manner.
INCISED LACQUER. Decoration carved into lacquer

that has been built up in layers of sufficient thickness.
INCISED ORNAMENT. Deeply cut engraved or IM&K.ICATION

carved work, the entire being cut into the surface
rather than raised from it. [1144.]
INDIAN GOODS. All Oriental objects imported into

Europe from the latter 16th century to the middle
18th century were called Indian goods.
746-747 INTARSIA PANELS

INITIAL. monograms, etc., were favorite
Initials, in Louis XVI cabinets.
decorative devices from ancient times. Conventional-
ized letters of monarchs' names, up to Napoleon, were OHIO
frequent in State furniture. Personal furniture, such
as dower chests, toilet cases, writing boxes, etc., were
often monogrammed.
INLAY. Designs formed in wood through the contrast

of grains, colors, and textures of wood, metal, ivory,
tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, etc., inserted flush into ST Z2
the wood. The process is one of the oldest of the arts,
the Egyptians surpassing many later peoples in their

skill. Ancient records indicate that this was the most
prized of the woodworkers' arts. In the Renaissance
the earlier work appears to have been inlaid into the
solid wood; only later reappears the ancient method
of assembling the small pieces comprising the whole
design in veneers, and laying and gluing them to the
background wood. [159, 174, 699, 791.]
INTAGLIO. Carved design cut into the surface; differs

from cameo cut on which the design is raised from
the surface. [32.]
I flip ALS
INTARSIA 263 IRON
INTARSIA. Form of wood inlay, especially of other siderable furniture was exported to Britain and the
materials, such as ivory and metal, derived from Ori- colonies. The style was identical with contemporary
ental ivory inlays. It first appeared in European work English work, and there appear to be "no decisive
in Siena, in the 13th century. [360, 746, 791.] criteria for discriminating what is Irish and what
. . .
is English" (Hinckley). Superficially, certain heavy
INTERNATIONAL STYLE. Modern functional man- aprons and exaggerated carving in masks seem dis-
ner, so called from freedom from nationalistic
its tinctive. Much of this work, dating 1730-1750, is called
traditions of decorationand its development along Irish Chippendale.
similar lines in many countries. Inspired purely by
material and purpose, which today vary only slightly IRISH CHIPPENDALE. Type of mahogany furni-
in different lands, furniture tends to assume a similar ture probably made in Ireland by local craftsmen in
appearance everywhere. See also functional; modern the mid-18th century after designs in Chippendale's
FURNITURE. published works. It is solid, rather heavy in form,
and ornamented with disconnected flat carving. Lion

INTERRUPTED ARCH. Arched pediment, the center masks and paw feet are characteristic. [748.]
or top part of which is cut away. [1041.]
IRON: Iron figures both cast and
in furniture in
INTERRUPTED PEDIMENT. See BROKEN pediment. wrought form. Earliest wood construction relied on
iron reinforcement more than on joinery, as in the
INVERTED CUP. Turning profile of cup shape typi- hinges and straps of Romanesque and Gothic work
cal of Jacobean and later work. See also turning. [341, 544]. Spanish design made extensive use of such
elaborate wrought-iron features as stretchers [1205]
IONIC. Greek and Roman order of architecture, dis- and beds, as well as applied ornaments. Iron casting
tinguished by double voluted capital. See also orders. produced important furniture components in the 19th
[1208.] century, finally reaching a considerable repertory of
furniture designs clearly conceived in terms of that
IRISH. Early in the 18th century a cabinetmaking in- material. Outdoor furniture of Victorian vintage is
dustry developed in Ireland to the extent that con- most familiar. Cheapness and ease of mass produc-
748 IRISH CHIPPENDALE, 1730-1750, mahogany side table. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of John L. Cadwalader, 1914
ITALIANATE; IN THE ITALIAN MANNER. ITALY
%_
751 IRON BED, 19th century. Tubing bars, cast

ornaments, and spring-steel strapping. Crystal
Palace, 1851. ,
749-750 CAST-IRON STOVES, New York State,

1843-1845.
SPAMISH WROUGHT IRON
752 FLORENTINE WROUGHT-IRON

TORCHERE, 16th century.
Anderson Galleries
ITALY. If we divide man's history into the ancient

era, the Middle Ages, and modern times, we must look
to Italy for the source of the arts of the modern world.
Geography made Italy the heir of the Roman Empire;
it also gave it the seat of the Church, and dominance
of trade operations through the Middle Ages. The
feudal system and its Gothic church art never flour-
ished in the lively trading cities of Italy, Venice, Genoa,
Rome, Milan, Florence. [133, 176, 191, 198, 211, 217,
253.]
Exploration and commerce engendered a spirit of
free inquiry, and the Renaissance was born. Estab-

lished dogma, pat, static ideology quivered before the
heretic questionings of mathematicians, geographers,
artists, and philosophers. These rediscovered
poets,
the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans and
tion was second only to the attraction of its plasticity fostered the cult of Humanism, the glory of individual
and durability. Utilitarian articles, like stoves, sewing- man. This was the Renaissance, a rebirth, a new con-
machine stands, table bases, small receptacles, and ception of the exploring mind. At first the Church
ornaments, are a considerable legacy of Victorian opposed it as revived paganism; then turned toward
design. [749.] it gradually. The material blessings were accepted
most readily. The classic pagan arts were less difficult
ITALIANATE; IN THE ITALIAN MANNER. In to Christianize than the philosophy. Italianchurch art,
design, refers to Renaissance details asimposed upon never truly Gothic, vied with secular art to reproduce
regional styles in northern Europe and England in and interpret the glories of Greece and the grandeur
the late 16th century and after. [164, 462, 551.] of Rome.
ITALY 265 ITALY
The chronology of Italian furniture is therefore heavy boards long after the superior framed-panel
based on the unfolding of the Renaissance. For con- construction was the rule in France. In the Piedmont
venience the following distinctions of period may be and other localities touched by the Alpine styles ap-
observed. pear evidences of Gothic details, such as pointed
arches, etc., but their Gothicism is superficial. Venice
1. Pre-Renaissance period, 1100-1400. Insincere,-
has pierced tracery carving, with Persian overtones.
misunderstood Gothic on a base of classic Ro-
Flat surfaces were painted with landscapes or textile
manesque, Byzantine, and Saracenic art.
patterns, sometimes raised with gesso and sometimes
2. Quattbocento, 1400-1500. The Early Renais-
inlaid with mosaic and marble (Cosmatesque work)
sance, a style of classical purity, simplicity.
or with ivory or bone in fine geometrical patterns
3. Cinouecento, 1500-1600. The High Renaissance.
(certosina) in Moorish style.
The first half was the great period of the Renais-
The Italian climate discouraged the enclosed bed,
sance.
in place of which Oriental fabrics and rugs were used,
4. Baroque, 1560-1700. The Counter Reformation in
probably with light four-post frames. [119.]
art, a Jesuit movement.
5. Settocento Rococo, 1700-1750. Secular prettifi- QUATTROCENTO

cation of the Baroque.
Renewed interest in ancient art endowed all furni-
6. Foreign Influence, 1750-1900. All the eclectic
ture of the Early Renaissance with an architectonic
revivals; the impulses originating chiefly in France
outline. Chests and cupboards, heretofore box forms,
and England and including the classic styles of
had bases, pilasters, and cornices, scaled down from
Louis XVI, Hepplewhite, Adam, etc.; Directoire,
architecture; the architectural profile is a distinguish-
Empire, mid-19th-century, etc., in freely modified
ing Renaissance feature. Their bases were pedestals,
versions.
solid to the floor, rather than feet. The chest type was
PRE-RENAISSANCE modified into new shapes for specialized purposes.
The cassapanca was a cassone with back and sides to
Italian Middle Ages, unlike the
furniture of the
form a settee; cushions were added for comfort.
homogeneous Gothic style, shows the classic-Roman-
The "credenza" was a low sideboard with doors and
esque basis, enriched with Byzantine and Saracenic
drawers. [430, 475.]
motives. Crusaders, sailors, merchants, and explorers
Chairs were principally straight rectangular struc-
brought influences from the Near and Far East and
tures (sedia) large and dignified and uncomfortable,
Africa. Wealth and power were largely in the hands with flat arms at right angles to the backpost; the
of the rich merchant families; their palaces displayed
seats were padded at an early date. The X-chair shows
a cosmopolitan, secular style; but only a minimum of
many variations; from the Moorish folding chair came
furniture was needed. [341, 713, 753.]
the Savonarola chair [214] interlacing curved slats
The chest (Italian cassone), as elsewhere, was all-
with carved wooden back and arms [215], often with
important, but continued to be made of planks and
certosina ornament. The Dante chair had four curved
legs continuing into arms, with a fabric or leather seat
753 ITALIAN and back. Sgabelli were wooden side chairs; some had
GOTHIC ARMCHAIR, 14th century. three legs doweled into the seat, with a flat board
back; others had bases of two carved slabs. [217.]
Tables derived largely from the long trestle type,
with turned baluster legs or shaped slabs, but four-
leg types with box stretchers appeared early. There
are many incidental table forms. [1198, 1204.]
Austerely restrained surfaces in the early phase be-
came highly decorated as the period waxed. Orna-
ment was purely classic in character, with pilasters
and scrolled volutes, fine moldings enriched with egg-
and-dart, dentils, etc.; panels, with foliated scrolls,
were delicately carved. Gilding and polychromy in
strong colors, landscapes, and conventional painting
decorated flat areas and moldings.
ITALIAN GOTHIC
ITALY 266 ITALY
DURING THE 15th CENTURY THE MEMORY OF ANCIENT ROME INSPIRED THE
ARTS OF THE RENAISSANCE AT THE SAME TIME THAT THE GOTHIC OF
THE NORTH REACHED ITS ZENITH. NEVER TRULY UNDERSTOOD OR DEVEL-
OPED, GOTHIC IN ITALY FADED OUT AS CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE ROSE TO
UNIVERSAL DOMINANCE IN THE 15th AND 16th CENTURIES.
754 "STIPO" walnut writing

cabinet, 16th century.
Anderson Galleries
755 FLORENCE c. 1475. Cassone of the Strozzi family.

Fruitwood, polychromed and gilt.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Kennedy Fund, 1913
756 TUSCAN CARVED

WALNUT PRIE-DIEU,
16th century.
757 SACRISTY CABINET, painted on walnut, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1945
late 15th century.
ITALY 267 ITALY
760 CASSONE, 16th century. Walnut, gilt carving. Frick Collection
\i
k
s:
761
Anderson Galleries
FLORENTINE
759 SAVONAROLA-folding chair-Venice, after 1550.
^
758 UMBRIAN CABINET,
m
Anderson Galleries
16th century.
IRON TORCHERE. Carved walnut, red velvet cushions.
762 REFECTORY TABLE, Bologna, 16th century French 6- Co., Inc.

ITALY 268 ITALY
763 CARVED WALNUT CABINET, end of 15th century.

Di Salvo
764 MIRROR, carved polychromed wood. Venice.

Anderson Galleries
765 PANELED WALNUT CABINET. Tuscany, early 17th

century.
Anderson Galleries
766 TABLE in two semicircular parts, walnut.

French ir Co., Inc.
767 VENETIAN BAROQUE ARMCHAIR, walnut; 17th

century.
Anderson Galleries
ITALY 269 ITALY
768 SILVERED WOOD TORCHERE, 17th century.

769 FLORENCE, 16th century.
770 VENETIAN TORCHERE, silvered wood; 17th century.
771 BED, carved walnut and wrought iron; 17th century.

773 BAROQUE CABINET c. 1700. Anderson Galleries
772 OCTAGONAL CENTER TABLE, walnut, Tuscany,

16th century.
Anderson Galleries
ITALY 270
BY 1700, ITALY HAD CEASED TO EXPORT THE

BAROQUE RENAISSANCE, WHICH BEGAN TO FLOW
BACK IN THE FRENCH FORMS OF REGENCE AND
ROCOCO.
All photographs, Olivotti
French 6- Co., Inc.

774 ARMCHAIR of French Regence inspiration; Venice
c. 1700.
BAROQUE SHAPES SHOW TECHNICAL VIRTUOS-

ITY, TASTE FOR EXTRAVAGANT OUTLINE.
775 SECRETARY-CABINET.
Fanciful shape in dramatic veneers.
'Ad i. * i *v^
M\v>n. mw. km
ijr
776 BOMBE CHEST.

1 777 ITALIAN ROCOCO DESK, walnut veneers.
ITALY 271 ITALY
FRENCH ROCOCO IDEAS WERE ENTHUSI-
ASTICALLY TAKEN UP IN 18th -CENTURY
ITALIAN FURNITURE.
779 SOFA, Louis XV influence.
781 CABINET, mid-18th century.

Rococo, distinctly Italian.
French ir Co., Inc.
Olhotli
778 PAINTED SEDAN CHAIR c. 1775.
780 CHAIR in Louis XV manner.

Olivotti
782 POLYCHROME BEDSTEAD,

Baroque, early 18th century.
Olivotti
THE CLASSIC REVIVAL IN ITALY FOLLOWED
THE MANNER OF LOUIS XVI AND ENGLISH 272
INTERPRETATIONS BUT MAINTAINED A DIS-
TINCTLY ITALIAN IDIOM.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941

783 ARMCHAIR, classic Italianized Louis XVI;
painted and gilded; 1770-1785.
iiiiiMiimiiitoMiMTriTHTITtTlTITI
MM
784 LOMBARDY, 1770-1780. Painted and gilded console and

mirror in the manner of Albertolli.
785 CONSOLE TABLE AND MIRROR c. 1800.

Brunovan, Inc.
791 INLAID COMMODE, end of 18th century.

French ir Co., Inc.
[
jjl -LLÛ I
I
I t I i
'
ill i
788 NEOCLASSIC CHAIR c. 1835 Brunovan, Inc.
792 TRUMEAU, Directoire

simplification.
793 CHEST
Don Roseau
Italian Neoclassic,
1800-1835
789 TRUMEAU. Brunovan, Inc.
[
790 EMPIRE COMMODE,
Egyptian detail.
786 REDSTEAD, late 18th century. French 6 Co., Inc

ITALY 274 ITALY
A few general characteristics run through almost all although lavish carving is typical. So is unorthodox
Italian furniture of the 15th and 16th centuries. treatment of accepted Renaissance features, such as
1. The wood is universally walnut, oiled or waxed ornate broken pediments, tremendous scrolls, profuse
to a deep, rich tone. sculpture, deep moldings, theatrical effects of light
2. Ornament is sparing, but increases progressively and shade. Twisted turnings, broken and reversed
from the simplest early style to a highly decorative curves, inlays and appliques of brilliant materials-
character later. Paint and gesso, even inlay, are less marble, ivory, gilt, bronze all contribute to the rich
common in later work, while carving becomes the effect, but the classic architectural silhouette vanishes.
principal resource for decoration. The style is a logical outgrowth of the High and
3. Proportion is architecturally large and stately, Late Renaissance. Its exaggerations are character-
proper to large rooms; even chairs were larger than istically the aftermath of a good mature style in its
in modern usage, so that most Renaissance furniture decadence. (The period 1560-1800 is often called in
is overlarge and uncomfortable by current standards. Italy "Decadenza.") The great architects Vignola,
Italian furniture is distinguishable by local styles. Palladio, and Michelangelo witnessed and promoted
Tuscany, centering in Florence, led in the Early the transition; among their successors Bernini most
Renaissance. Her style was refined and nobly re- crystallized the change. The architects' part in the
strained. Siena is noted for painted and gilt furniture, evolution of the Baroque was stimulated by the Coun-
while in Lombardy the certosina inlay was favored. ter Reformation, the movement by the Jesuits
fostered
Venice produced inlays in varicolored woods (in- to win back the Catholics wavering toward the Protes-
and later turned
tarsia), to highly decorative painted tant movement. The means was partially this showy,
work of capricious form. Genoa and Liguria are known theatrical dramatization of the power and wealth of
for distinctive four-door cupboards. Rome developed the Church. Paradoxically, the effect on furniture was
the rich style of carving that came to dominate all most pronounced in the secular product, and most
Cinquecento furniture. sustained in the northern lands from which the Refor-
mation flowed.
The distinctive features of Baroque furniture are
CINQUECENTO apparent after 1580, and as such set a fashion for state
High Renaissance furniture developed consistently apartments and meubles de luxe in France and Eng-
out of the early style, adding, embellishing, expand- land and the Germanic countries. Its splendor ren-
ing types and decoration. Dignified formal richness dered it incapable of being scaled down or simplified;
is achieved by bold carving, free and brilliant, utiliz- itfurthermore was usually a group design, so that
ing the whole vocabulary of classical decoration. The the individual pieces are often either downright ugly
acanthus leaf has infinite variety; likewise guilloche, or meaningless or unbalanced by themselves. A de-
rinceaux, flutings, animal forms, gargoyles, caryatids, sign was studied, not as a unit of furniture, but as a
and volutes, imbrications, gadrooning, paterae,
scrolls composition of wall and ceiling, with architectural
molded panels, pilasters, and architectural cornices, features and chairs, mirrors and candelabra and con-
intarsia, etc. Newer are cartouches, strapwork, turned soles all one indissoluble picture. The detached fur-
rosettes, broken pediments. Paint appears less fre- niture elements are therefore apt to be illogical, even
quently; gesso is rare; carving in positive relief is absurd.
abundant. The earlier Baroque, 1560-1650, is a purely Italian
The large, formally bare room of the Quattrocento outgrowth of the Late Renaissance; the later phases
became richer, fuller, more sparkling; though in simi- show French, Flemish, Spanish, Dutch, and English
lar scale, chairs were made more comfortable by traits. Italian Baroque foreshadows the style of Louis
cushions, tables were used in greater variety, beds XIV, and later echoes it. Wall furniture flourished in
were built as four-post frames, chests had animal feet, this formal atmosphere; tall cabinets, console tables,
sideboards appeared in divers shapes, and the whole and wall seats superseded the cassone. The dominat-
catalogue of furniture grew. Carving was universally ing cabinet, a great architectural structure, came from
The period was indeed one of the
rich but judicious. France. Sculptured bases, with cherubim, mermaids,
golden ages of furniture. lions, eagles,and Negroes in composition with scrolls,
shells, and leaves were gilded and polychromed. The
BAROQUE middle sections had small panels veneered or molded

or carved within restrained outlines; the top features
The Baroque style consists chiefly of an exagger- again burst forth in a glory of pediments, involved
ated, emphasized fullness of size, scale, and propor- in profile and loaded with carved ornament.
tion. It is not necessarily overrich in ornament, Table bases in the same style carried tops of marble,
ITALY 375 JACOBEAN
pietra dura, scagliola, or painted imitations. Chairs Italian Directoire. Northern Italy was essentially
with flowing outlines, excessively carved and gilded, French, but untroubled by Revolution as the 18th
were upholstered with large-patterned velvets, silks, century ended. The Directoire style lent itself to
and stamped leathers; nailheads were arranged in prettification, and was so accepted. Greco-Roman de-
decorative patterns. Mirrors were larger, particularly tailsfrom Pompeii and Herculaneum were revived in
as to frames, which were most intricately carved. their native province. Swans, lyres, scrolls, and fine
Beds of the earlier styles were still four-posters, detail were liberally naturalized, more exuberantly
light and graceful. As the style wore on, the panels than in French furniture. Carving, gilding, painting,
were made larger to permit more painting area for inlaying, and veneering reached new heights of tech-
landscapes and robust floral compositions. nical virtuosity. Much of the Directoire outlived the
succeeding Empire style. [329, 379, 447, 514.]
SETTECENTO ROCOCO Empire. The Empire style substituted the heavier

Roman, Greek, and Egyptian forms for Greco-Roman
Italy's declining commerce reduced wealth, and airiness. This style, engendered by imperial command,
the declining quality of craftsmanship and materials
had less national distinction than any prior to it; the
in this period is significant. The best craftsmen found
applies as well to the
general description of its traits
profitable occupation in France, Germany, and Eng- Italian as to the French. More walnut was used, and
land. The movement was not one way; to Italy
less ormolu. The Imperial manner lingered long after
flowed the technique and ideas of the expanding was, in fact, the accepted formal
Napoleon's fall; it
nations. The later Baroque, and more particularly
style for much of the 19th century. In less important
the Rococo, are cosmopolitan, Italianized. By 1675,
work Italy followed the swiftly successive eclecticisms
the general scale of furniture was smaller, prettier;
of France and England during the 19th century.
gracefulness supplanted grandeur. Still lavishly dec-
orated, the motives favor foliage and ribbons, rocks
and shells, Chinese forms, all increasingly natural- IVORY. Elephant tusks, and less properly the tusks
istic. Asymmetry and the curved line were the rule. ofsome other animals, have been used for decorative
Capricious gaiety is the tradition of the early 18th and small utilitarian articles since prehistoric times.
century. and Louis XV influences from
Regence Egyptian sculptures in ivory are among the finest re-
France, William and Mary and Queen Anne from mains of their art, and Early Christian, Mohammedan,
England were exaggerated, distorted, often badly and Far Eastern and Gothic ivories also reveal the skill
designed and unsuitably adapted. The effect was lavished on this material.
theatrical, romantic, superficial, and charming. Its use in furniture is ancient, but size limits it to
Venice alone retained some of her prestige and decorative features. Inlays, mounts, ornamental
wealth, and therefore led in the production of fur- plaques, small caskets, etc., were used by the Egyp-
niture; consequently, most Italian Rococo work is tians,Romans, and Byzantines, among others. In the
described as Venetian. Painting over inferior wood 18th century its use for ornamental details was re-
and joinery achieved effects cheaply; using not only vived, and again it appears in details of some modern
formal motives but landscapes and marble and even work, notably the designs of the more elegant French
wood imitation. Bombe commodes and fancifully school. [215, 501, 930.]
wavering outlines in chairs and mirrors, sofas and

beds are recognized as vulgarized Louis XV. JACOB, GEORGES, 1 735-18 14. Cabinetmaker of
the Louis XVI period. Father of Georges and Fran-
cois-Honore, recorded as Jacob-Freres, also known as
THE CLASSIC REVIVAL Jacob-Desmalter, who refurnished the royal residences
The came well after the excavations
Classical Revival for Napoleon after designs by Percier and Fontaine.
in Pompeii and Herculaneum had stirred the revolt to- See also france. [190, 287, 292, 438.]
ward ancient simplicity in France and England. Al-
most end of the 18th century, Italian classicism
at the JACOBEAN, from the Latin Jacobus (James). Gen-
was able to borrow from the mature Louis XVI, eral term for English styles up to 1688. Early Jacobean
Adam, and Hepplewhite styles. Rejecting the cold comprises reigns of James I, 1603-1625; Charles I,
formalism, it achieved symmetry and brilliance with 1625-1649; and the Commonwealth, 1649-1660. Late
paint, marquetry, marble, and gilding. Louis Seize Jacobean covers the Restoration period, including
was interpreted in designs by Piranesi, Pergolesi, Al- Charles II, 1660-1685, and James II, 1685-1688. The
bertolli. Milanese commodes inlaid with light wood period represents the growth of foreign influence and
are typical. the passing of the oak styles. Furniture becomes
JAPAN 276 JAPANESE INFLUENCE
lighter and more adaptable, with ornament changing

from Early Renaissance types to Baroque. See also
ENGLAND. [454, 551.] . 1
ty..:.:-.
/APANlSt SIAND - \<oSJ
? cim ;mmst
JAPAN. Japanese domestic usage requires but little

furniture. Chests and cupboards are invariably built
in, with sliding panels as doors. For sleeping, mats
are unrolled on the floor, and seating is similarly on

mats. Tables are rare, being extremely low and port-
able. Such furniture as appears is usually lacquered
and highly polished. Japanese lacquer is flecked with
gold and decorated with fine-scaled flower, animal,
and landscape motives.
JAPANESE INFLUENCE. I n Western furniture it
appeared after 1870 as part of the fad for Orientalia.

With little precedent in actual utility, the influence
794 JACOBEAN INFLUENCE, Massachusetts, c. 1680. Chest
with typical paneling.
Gt'nsburg 6- Leuy
795 JAPANESE CHEST.
796 JAPANESE TABLE FOB GAMES.
*-******* ^ =^ T
- -
JAPANNING 277 JOINT STOOL
took the form of irrelevantly applied details on East-
lake and Arts and Crafts bodies. Incised black lacquer
panels and bamboo turnings are most easily identified.
The bamboo forms flourished for several decades,
from 1880 to 1910 in minor furniture; it was naive and
sometimes charming in an unsubstantial way. Since
1945 the Western world has become interested in the
applicable aspects of Japanese culture, and there is
now much borrowing of general ideas if not of actual

The sparse Japanese
details. interior is reflected in
some modern American work, as in the clean, direct
taste of utilitarian objects. [335.]
JAPANNING. The art of coating surfaces of wood,

metal, etc., with various varnishes, dried in heated
chambers. The process dates from remote antiquity
in the East, but reached Europe only about 1600. In
France it attained remarkable excellence under Louis
XIV, who installed in the Gobelin factory Lemoyne
and other artists to imitate the Oriental styles, which
they called laquage. The Dutch traders developed a
considerable commerce in lacquered work, even carry-
ing European furniture to China to be decorated.
They also tried both taking Dutch "joyners" to China
and bringing Chinese artists to Holland. The latter
move seems to have been more successful. The ex-
tensive traffic between the Dutch and the English, as
well as that between the courts of Charles II and
Louis XIV, created a vogue for "Japanned work" in
England, and the years of Charles II's reign and later
produced quantities of cabinets, mirrors, screens, etc.
The earlier work in both France and England was in
high relief, which gave way to flatter decoration of
flowers and foliage in Georgian times. It was also
called "bantam work," and was incised as well as flat.
The technique declined toward the last part of the
18th century, such work as was designed by Robert
Adam for this medium being inferior to the Queen 797 BLACK JAPANNED CABINET, French, French <b Co., Inc.
Anne and earlier Georgian work. See also lacquer. 1767, by Levasseur.
[14, 1038.] towhich power was applied. As a consequence, jig-

sawed detail is typical of the earlier machine age of
JARDINIERE. Ornamented box or jar or stand, in- the 19th century. Inevitably it ran away with its de-
tended to hold flowers. signers and an easy characterization of the period
,
1830-1890 is by this lacy wood ornament. Not only
JEWEL ROX. Early coffers were specially made for furniture but facades of houses were draped with
storage and transportation of jewels [342]. Cabinets better or worse decoration of this type.
in more permanent households became objects of fur-
niture virtuosity in the High Renaissance. [178, 180, JOINERY. The technique or mechanics of furniture
629.] and woodwork. Joinery is to the interior designer what
masonry is to the architect. It is the oldest term for
JEWELING. Surface carving to simulate jewels. the craft, and literally means the joining together of
pieces of wood. See also construction.
JIGSAW. Saw for cutting interior work, such as
pierced work, fretwork, latticework, etc. Originally JOINT STOOL. Jacobean stool with turned legs, orig-
operated by a treadle, it was one of the first machines inally with mortise-and-tenon joints. [797, 1177, 1245.]
JONES, INIGO 278
JONES, INIGO, 1573-1652. Leading architect of the
Early English Renaissance. Apprenticed to a joiner

and sent to Italy to study, he was imbued with the
spirit of classical architecture as exemplified by Pal-
ladio. On his return to England, he inspired the use
of these forms, under the patronage of Charles I. He
designed furniture in the current Baroque Italian style.
Joint Stool
Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1908

Metropolitan
STVLE OF IH\CO JONES 798 DUTCH CABINET (Friesland), 17th century. Carvings
in architectural panels suggest origins similar to Grinling Gib-
bons's work.
799 NEW YORK DUTCH KAS of pine and oak planking, early
18th century. The shape and motives of the painting indicate
JOEY. Printed fabrics, usually on fine cotton, pro- ancestry in Dutch prototypes.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Miss Sarah Elizabeth Jones, 1923
duced Jouy near Paris by Philippe Oberkampf, from
at
1760 to 1815. The patterns were most commonly real-
istic designs on classic themes, with charming compo-
sitions of all classical ornaments, fruit and flowers with

plaques and landscapes. These prints are extensively
reproduced today, and also serve as models for fabrics
printed with subjects of timely interest. See also ober-
kampf.
JEGENDSTIL (Youth Style). Decorative style in

Germany roughly contemporary with L'Art Nouveau
in France about 1895-1912. Rebellious and self-con-
scious, it failed to materialize as a substantial or ma-
ture style in furniture. See also nineteenth century.
KAS. Dutch cabinet or sideboard; appears in the

Dutch-American colonies of New York and the Dela-
ware Valley; sometimes carved walnut, also pine,
cherry, or maple; paneled and painted with rather
primitive ornaments of vases and flowers. See also
armoire. [172, 798.]
KAUFFMA1V1V, ANGELICA, 1741-1807. Swiss 1
painter and decorative artist. Came to London in work or actually painted by her being uncertain. Her
1766, where she executed murals and ceilings, many husband was Antonio Zucchi, likewise a painter of
designed by Robert Adam. Her classical compositions murals and decorations under the auspices of the
appear as decoration on much painted furniture of Rrothers Adam. Their influence on the work of Hep-
the last third of the century, whether inspired by her plewhite, Sheraton, and others is unmistakable.
KENT, WILLIAM 279 KNIFE BOX-KNIFE CASE
KENT, WILLIAM, 1684-1748. English architect and KILN DRIED. Lumber dried by artificial means in
furniture designer of the Golden Age. Probably the warm chambers. The heat is regulated to prevent the
first English architect to make a practice of design- too sudden loss of moisture to avoid checking, warp-
ing the movable as well as fixed furniture of his rooms. ing, and other defects. Besides speed, kiln drying is
His work is employing col-

insistently architectural, superior to air drying because the remaining moisture
umns, entablature, and pediments on cabinets and content can be precisely controlled.
bookcases; his side tables and desks and most smaller
pieces become heavy and massive as a result of this KINGWOOD. Conspicuously marked dark reddish-
ornamentation. brown wood similar to rosewood, used for inlays and
veneers in flatwork, periods of Louis XV, Queen Anne,
KERF. A saw Sometimes on curved work a series
cut. Late Georgian.
of saw cuts against the grain, not quite through the
board, permitting the bending of the wood into KLISMOS. Ancient Greek chair, prototype for Classic
curved shapes. Revival. See empire. [305.]
KETTLE RASE, FRONT. Bombe-shaped case, with KNEADING TARLE. Utilitarian furniture of the
swelling or bulging front and/or sides. Of Baroque provinces of Europe, now used as tables and side
inspiration in the early-18th-century Continental work, tables. Provincial French ones are particularly dec-
it occurs in fine American Late Colonial. [36, 365.] orative. [1248.]
KEY and KEY PLATES. Decorative keys and back

plates were features of Gothic cabinets; in Spanish
and Italian work in iron; in brass and gilt in French
cabinetwork. See also hardware.
KEY PATTERN (Greek fret). Ancient Greek band

ornament of interlacing lines at right angles. Carved
on Mid-Georgian and inlaid or painted on English
Regency furniture. See also ornament.
KIDNEY TARLE, RENCH, DESK, etc. Oval shaped

with concave front, applied to dressing tables or writ-
ing tables, etc. Appears in 18th-century furniture of
France and England. Especially favored by Sheraton.
[503, 800.]
KNEE. The upper, convex curve or bulge of a cab-

riole leg, sometimes called "hip."
KNEEHOLE. Desks, chests, or bureaus are sometimes

built with an opening in the center, between the two
banks of drawers; so called because they make room
for the sitter's knees. Sometimes this space is filled
partway from the back with a door compartment [35,
491, 577, 1380.]
KNIFE ROX KNIFE CASE. Box cases for table sil-

on buffets or side tables in
ver, usually in pairs, stood
18th-century English dining rooms. They first appear
at the end of the 17th century, made of walnut with
sloping lids and curved fronts. The later ones of ma-
Symons Galleries, Inc. hogany were often inlaid and mounted with silver. In
800 KIDNEY DESK with arcaded gallery, early-19th-century the late 18th century a vase form appears, often of
English. satinwood. 1113.]
[1070,
KNOB 280 LADDER BACK
KNOB. Handle of wood, metal, glass, etc., usually LABELS are one of the most reliable proofs of an-
turned always with a single stem, distinctive to the tiquity. The practice of burning in or carving names
various styles. Elaborately chased metal gilt knobs or initials, dates, etc., began with the ebenistes of
feature Louis XVI furniture. Small wooden and ivory 17th-century France. Paper labels are common in 18th-
ones were used in fine 18th-century English work, century English work, and the practice carried to
and large glass and china knobs were used on 19th- America. The best-preserved labels are in almost
century work in the United States. See also hardware, secret places in the interiors of cabinets, etc. [ 1300. ]
LABUBNUPtt. Hardwood, moderately durable, yel-

pUPNlTURE lowish in color with brown streaks. It takes a high
Knobs polish. In ancient Rome it was known as Corsican
ebony. It appears on veneered surfaces in the furni-
ture of the Louis XV period and in English post-
Restoration furniture. In the latter the branches or
saplings were cut transversely and matched to pro-
duce the concentric markings known as "oyster shell."
See also oyster pieces.
5 syCAMOR.6
HEf>pt.BWHiT6
oak-Jacobean eass Sutt^roU Jacobean
LACEWOOD. Australianoak having fine regularly
spaced flakes yielding a lacelike appearance; light
KNOB TURNING. Turning of knobs in series, used mahogany color.
on some 17th-century work.

LACQUEB. Oriental lacquer is a high dense finish
KNOCKED DOWN. Constructed in sections to be acquired by tedious padding up and rubbing down
easily assembled after shipping. ofmany coats of spirit shellac. This has nothing in
common with modern lacquer, which is a compound
KNOLE. House in Kent, England, repository of quan- of cellulose derivatives. These dry so rapidly that
tity of Tudor and Stuart furniture, including earliest they must be sprayed by compressed air. Such lac-
upholstered work. Specifically, sofa having cushioned quers now possess many qualities not found in varnish
headrests hinged to the arms and held by ratchets; or shellac finishes, such as resistance to heat, moisture,
original, circa 1610. and acids. It can be rubbed to a clear satiny finish
that emphasizes the beauty of the wood; it is also
KNOP. Bunch of leaves or flowers. Also the old spell- made opaque, like paint, and tinted to any shade. In
ing for knobs, occurring as a swelling or vase shape speed, ease of handling, and resistance to wear it is
on a turned shaft. more economical and more efficacious than older ma-
terials such as varnish and shellac. See also finish.
KNOTTY PINE. In good old work the knotty parts [407, 1330.]
of pinewere scrupulously avoided, only the clear wood

being used except where painted. The removal of LADDEB BACK. Chairback with horizontal slats or
paint revealing these in renovated paneling and fur- rails resembling a ladder. Common types in Pilgrim
furniture and in the simpler Chippendale work. [247.]
niture, it is mistakenly assumed that the knots were
purposefully chosen. Wide advertising has created a
vogue for knotty pine, but it does not follow that this
is historically correct or good.
KNUCKLE. Carving on the outside end of chairs,

principally of Chippendale and Windsors.
KNUCKLE JOINT. Joint, as at separable leaves of a

drop-leaf table, resembling a finger joint.
KOA. Dense, dark-brown hardv/ood from the Philip-

pines, having pronounced stripes and cross stripes
like curly maple.
LADDER. BASICS
LADIES' DESKS 381 LATHE
LADIES' DESKS. Lighter and smaller desks on legs, LANGLEY, BATTY AND THOMAS. English archi-
developed in France and England after 1690. tects, early 18th century. Their published early de-
signswere after the grandiose French manner. Batty
LAMBREQUIN. Drapery around the top of a bed. Langley was one of the leaders of the earliest Gothic
revival.
LAMINATE. The binding up of layers; in wood pan-
els three, five, or more layers are laid alternately LANNLTER, CHARLES-HONORE. Cabinetmaker,
across the grains for strength and durability. See also born 1779, arrived in New York 1803. Working in a
PLYWOOD; VENEER. skillful Directoire manner, he had wealthy patrons in
the entire Hudson Valley and down to Maryland. His

LAMINATE MATERIALS in modern work are style encompassed Empire as his popularity grew. His
chiefly synthetic sheet surfacings such as Formica, label on many fine pieces has come to light, and he
etc., designed primarily to provide more durable or is regarded as the peer of Phyfe. He died in 1819.
cheaper finished surfaces by bonding to a plywood See also federal. [210, 1268, 1275, 1346.]
panel.
LANTERN CLOCK. Shelf clock suggesting the shape
LAMPADAIRE. Pedestal in the classic manner, de- of a lantern; late-17th-century English, often in brass.
signed to hold a lamp or candles; French Empire. Also called "birdcage clock." See also clock.
LANCET. English pointed Gothic arch. LATHE. Machine for shaping turned parts by the ap-
plication of cutting edges against the revolving wood.
LANDSCAPE PANEL. Wood panel with the grain See also turning.
running horizontally.

801 Bed labeled Charles-Honore Lannuier c. 1817. Mahogany, satinwood, gilt bronze.
282
",
jss9M v ^- ^^*^DP^^^ |
BB3* if
Bf ,r
9

t
j
Israel Sack, Inc.
804A LABEL OF CHARLES-HONORE LANNUIER.
804 WARDROBE signed "H. Lannuier, New York." Select

crotch-mahogany veneers. New-York Historical Society, New York City
Cinsburg and Levy

802 LANNUIER WORKTABLE, New York, 1815. Maple with
gilt bronze.
803 MARBLE-TOP SIDE TABLE c. 1810. Ginsburg and Levy

LATTICE 283 LEG
LATTICE. Carved crisscross pattern in cutout work, cows, etc. which are too thick for upholstering, are
found in chairbacks, highboy pediments, etc. Metal is split into several thicknesses. The topmost, or buff,
sometimes used for lattice chairbacks. extremely thin, is reserved for choicest small articles.
The following layer, or top grain, is the choicest for

LAUREL. Hardwood of deep brown color. Best upholstery, accepting the flaws and irregularities, the
known for furniture is East Indian laurel, having a vestiges of bruises and scratches on the living animal,
pronounced wavy grain. as part of the beauty of the material. The succeeding
layers, having no such natural surface, are treated
LAURELING. Decorative banding of laurel leaves, with imitations of top grain or of the characteristic
usually on a half-round molding. surfaces of other hides, such as pig, ostrich, walrus, or
snake, or with pebbling, glosses, etc. Such mechanical
treatment is superficially more perfect, or more regu-
lar, than the natural hide. In such leathers the fiber
is and therefore weaker. Skins, sometimes not
looser
tanned and with the hair not removed, were used" in
the most ancient periods, before weaving was known;
Lattice Gallery and afterward for its strength and availability. There
iLJBCLLING seems never to have been a time that it was not used
for seats, but it comes into special favor in styles of
the masculine character. All the earlier Renaissance
LAVARO. Washstand. [1338.] types, particularly the Spanish and English, especially
favored leather upholstery. Special processes of em-
LAZY SUSAN. Revolving tray for condiments, Amer- bossing, tooling, painting, and gilding leather were
ican. See also dumbwaiter. disseminated by Spanish craftsmen in the 16th and
17th centuries. Everywhere, chests, coffers, chairs,
LE RRUN, CHARLES, 1619-1690. French architect, screens, etc., were covered with leather and studded
painter, designer; first director of the State Gobelin with nailheads arranged in decorative patterns. Table
factory. A great organizer as well as a great artist, his tops and desk tops have been covered with leather
personality is the dominant force in the vigorous style since Renaissance times, as have been decorative
of Louis XIV. He
brought together French, Flemish, features and accessories, such as handles. Oxhide and
and Italian artists and coordinated their work and calf were supplemented in the Late Louis XIV work
styles. His mastery is reflected in the magnificent royal by Morocco, a fine goat leather that was also favored
works of the age. by Chippendale and subsequent designers, but cattle
leather has always maintained its preeminence by
LEAF. (A) Conventionalized or naturalistic leaves are reason of its strength and size. Today the many
among the earliest and most continuously used decora- methods of surfacing leather for texture and color
tive forms. The acanthus leaf is the basic floral decora- make it more desirable than ever. [213, 250, 254, 479,
tion; it lends itself to infinite shapes and variations. 1150, 1277.]
The laurel leaf, water leaf, and other shapes occur
constantly in decoration. LEATHERETTE. Artificial leather made of cellu-
(B) Drop leaf is the hinged part of a table, desk, etc. lose-coated cloth embossed with familiar leather
(C) Loose leaf is inserted into the opening of an textures.
extension table to provide additional surface.
LECTERN. Reading desk Of wood, metal, or stone.
LEAF SCROLL FOOT. Base of a leg with foliated [805, 983.]
design.
LECTUS. Roman beds or couches. The lectus lucubra-
LEATHER. The tanned skins of animals. Furniture torius and lectus cubicularius were respectively fitted
uses chiefly those of cattle, calves, sheep, goats, and with and without incidental conveniences as reading
pigs. These are treated in many ways for strength, desks, receptacles for things at hand, etc. The lectus
permanence, and decorative interest. Dyeing and sur- triclinarius was a lower couch, used when dining.
face coating yield an unlimited palette, and a great

variety of textures are a product of manufacture as LEG. In the various styles, legs of furniture are among
well as of nature. The heavier skins of cattle steers, the most distinctive features as guides in determining
806 LECTERN, German Tyrol, late
15th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Rogers Fundi 1944
805 SPEAKER'S DESK, 1789. Possibly by

Major Pierre L'Enfant for use in Federal Hall.
time and place of origin. A few general types have 807 SHERATON c. 1790. Steps fold
into low table.
their individual styles and imitations, such as the
cabriole, turned, tapered, fluted, concave, animal, etc. LIRRARY TARLE. Large table with drawers usually
See also style headings such as chippendale; tudor. in pedestal form. English name for any flattop desk,
usually known in America as pedestal or kneehole
LEP AUTRE, JEAN, 1617-1682. French designer,
desk, often provided with space for books. See also
School of Louis XIV; published Livre de Miroirs,
KNEEHOLE; WRITING DESK.
Tables de Gueridons, and other works on furniture,
which influenced design in Flanders and England. 809 LIBRARY STEPS in table, English
Regency, 1830-1840. Symons Galleries, Inc.
LEPPEL SORTIE. Pennsylvania Dutch spoon rack

of wood. [82, 1110.]
LIRRARY STEPS. Various devices for providing

access to the higher shelves in libraries. They appear
frequently in England, and during the last half of the
18th century in many forms, chiefly combined with
benches, chairs, tables, etc. The ladder part unfolds,
sometimes providing a handrail. [807.]
808 ENGLISH REGENCY CHAIR

unfolds into steps. Oak, 1810.
OB Sfcl
c.
LIGNUM VITAE 285 LOSING
LIGNUM VITAE. West Indian wood, the heaviest
known. It was used for veneering in the Late Stuart
period.
LIME-WHITENED. Sixteenth-century painted furni-

ture was first bleached with a solution of lime. The re-
moval of the painted surface at later dates exposed
this whitened surface, which is sometimes referred to
as "pickled finish."
L i h ti
foLo Panel
LIMEWOOD. Light-colored, close-grained wood that
Ll VERY CUP60AI?D
cuts as well across as with the grain, rendering it
excellent for carving. Favored by Grinling Gibbons.

It is invariably executed in oak, in panels of seats,
LINEN PRESS. Two boards closed together by pres- armoires, cupboards, chests, etc. It appears that a spe-
sure of a large wooden screw. Linen placed between cial molding plane with profiled knife was used for
the boards and pressed down while damp came out tooling out the long ridges. [169, 173, 345, 465, 624,
smooth. Linen presses appear in Dutch interior pic- 970, 1072.]
and some survive from the
tures of the 17th century,
period of Charles I. Some 18th-century types were LION MOTIF. One of the most ancient decorative
made part of the chest of drawers planned to hold symbols, probably typifying the royal nature of the
linens. See also press. [386, 810.] furniture of early peoples. In Egypt, lion paws and
heads, alone, were terminal decorations, rather natu-
ralistic. In Gothic representation they appear more as
grotesques or in heraldic shapes, the symbolism of
lion couchant and rampant being represented in the
carving and painting of furniture. Renaissance work
employs the lion sporadically, although the paw and
head were almost uninterruptedly used. The Empire
style revived its use to a great extent, probably as
much for symbolic as for historical or decorative
interest. Brass castings of heads and paws appear fre-
quently; handles of the lion-and-ring form are typical.
LIP MOLDING. Small convex molding around

drawers, originally intended as a dust stop in Queen
Anne and Early Chippendale casework.
Metropolitan Museum of Art LISTEL. Same as "fillet," a flat, plain molding.

810 LINEN OR CARD PRESS, Italian, 16th century.
LIT CLOS. French "closed bed"; paneled enclosure of

LINENFOLD. Gothicornamental panel treatment wood around a bed, sometimes free standing, some-
representing the folds of linen, probably originally times in a corner. Chiefly provincial French, 17th- 19th
after the folded napkin on the chalice in the Catholic centuries.
ritual. It appears to be exclusively a North European
motif, abundant in Gothic 14th-, 15th-, and 16th- LIVERY CUPROARD. Early English food cupboard.
century remains from Gothic France, the Netherlands, Livery probably a contraction of "delivery." Food
is
and the Teutonic countries. In England it survived was stored here and distributed to the household and
another century along with the persistent Gothic to the poor. Ventilation was a necessity, often pro-
quality of the Tudor, Elizabethan, and Jacobean styles. vided by grilles of wooden spindles, or tracery. See
also AMBRY; CUPBOARD; ENGLAND.
aer* :
\ LORE. Section or profile in rounded form.
*
<4
r
V
*
LORING. Gadrooning.
LINEN FOLD
LOCK, MATTHIAS 286 LOUNGE
LOCK, MATTHIAS. English carver and furniture

designer. In collaboration with Copeland, published
on ornament between 1752 and 1769.
several books
Early work a flamboyant Rococo character, later
almost exact copies of the Adam style.
LONG CLOCK. Grandfather's, hall, or tall clock.
LOO TABLE. Oval table designed for the old game

of loo. English 18th century.
LOOP-BACK. Oval chairback; also Windsor bow

back, without arms.
LOOP HINGE. Early type of hinge consisting of two

intersecting loops.
LOOSE SEAT. Same as slip seat; separate wood

frame, upholstered and let into the framing of the
chair seat.
French
LOPEB. Sliding arms that support the fall or drop
6- Co., Inc.
811 LOUIS XV WRITING TABLE, parquetry.
front or lid of a desk. Also the sliding runners of an
extending table. [442, 498.]
LOTUS. Ancient flower ornament. The principal

Egyptian floral motive, it appears in more or less
ornamental uses in all ancient work, and may have
been the basis for many later flower decorations.
LOUIS-PHILIPPE. King of France, 1830-1848, era

of transition from declining Empire style to exuber-
ance of mid-19th-century Industrial Revolution ex-
perimentation. Economic rise of bourgeoisie plus
romanticism fostered by growing interest in Orient
opened the field for uninhibited novelties. Generally,
decorative taste reverted to Rococo and Renaissance,
aggravated by the freedom in duplication and compli-
cation offered by early machine processes. See also
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
LOUIS QUATOBZE. Louis XIV, King of France,

1643-1715. Greatest period French achievement;
of Frick Collection
812 LOUIS XVI WRITING TABLE, octagonal legs.
furniture style is marked by Raroque magnificence.
Masculine character declined after 1680; proportions
reduced, lines softened. Latter part was the Regence. LOUIS SEIZE. Period of Louis XVI, King of France,
See also France. 1774-1792, marked by revival of ancient classicism;
severe rectangular lines, architectural ornament. See
LOUIS QUINZE. Period of Louis XV, King of France, also FRANCE.
1715-1774, marked by culmination of feminine Rococo
style; dainty scale, free naturalistic ornament, rounded LOUNGE. Type of couch in late-19th-century work,
surfaces and flowing lines. See also France. often with one end high as a pillow.
LOVE CHEST 287 LOZENGE
813 LOVE SEAT, Italian Directoire, c. 1810. Brunovan, Inc.
815 ENGLISH LOWBOY, William and Mary oystered veneers.
French h Co., Inc.

814 LOVE SEAT, Irish(?), Late Georgian with satyr and lion
masks.
LOVE CHEST. 18th-century Pennsylvania Dutch

chest, with the initials of the bride and groom. 816 AMERICAN LOWBOY, William and Mary, c. 1700.
Walnut.
LOVE SEAT. Double chair or small sofa. Queen Anne
and later. Also, "courting chair." See also settee. [813,
1310.]
LOW RELIEF. Carving or built-up work, not highly

raised from or sunk into the ground. See also carving.
LOWBOY. English low chest or table with drawers.

Beginning Jacobean times by raising a chest on a
in
stand, it through English and American
continues
work of the 18th century in various forms as dressing
tables, side tables, etc. [23, 815.]
LOZENGE. Diamond-shaped. Panels, overlays, inserts,

etc., of this shape occur in Renaissance work of all
descriptions. [216, 463.]
817 LOWBOY, Massachusetts c. 1700. Slate top. Ginsburg and Lecy
LUNETTE 2811 LYRE MOTIVE
Israel Sack, Inc.

818 LOWBOY, Philadelphia c. 1750. Queen Anne, stocking
Albany Institute of History and Art drake feet. Walnut.
819 LOWBOY, Albany, New York, third quarter 18th century.
Probably base of a high chest.
Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich. Ginsburg and Levt,

820 LOWBOY, Philadelphia Chippendale, walnut c. 1750. 821 LOWBOY, Philadelphia c. 1760. Mahogany. The rich
Beginning of the lavish style. manner of Savery.
LUNETTE. Semicircular space. In furniture, a half- Louis XVI it occurs in symmetrical form, and in com-
moon shape filled with carving, inlay, or painting. In parative forms in England. Sheraton employed it con-
Gothic oak furinture, lunettes were carved, while in spicuously, as did the entire school of the Empire
English Late Georgian work they were often inlaid or and Empire influence in England and America.
painted with fan-shaped designs. Duncan Phyfe designed table supports, chairbacks,
mirror standards, etc., with this motif, delicately
LYRE MOTIVE. A naturalistic representation of the executed, with brass wires representing the strings.
lyre figures in Greek decoration that was adapted by It is also found in Biedermeier work in Germany and
the Renaissance artists. It appears sporadically in all in Italian furniture of the early 19th century. [76, 296,
design,and was featured strongly in a free form in 822, 1264.]
Louis XIV and Louis XV decoration. In the style of
MACASSAR 289 MAHOGANY
slower to use Queen Elizabeth is said to have been

it.
interested in some mahogany brought by Sir Walter

Raleigh, but no headway was made in England
against the domestic oak and walnut until the 18th
century. In 1721, the heavy tariff against mahogany
was modified, and it rapidly supplanted other wood in
fine work, retaining its ascendancy for many years.
The Cuban and San Domingan varieties were pre-
ferred; these had a hard firm texture that nevertheless
carved well. Its original light color changed gradually
to a deep rich lustrous tone, and the various figures,
such as crotch, rope mottle, fiddleback, etc., stimulated
the designers' imaginations. Later, Mexican and South
American mahoganies came into the market, each
with special characteristics. The African varieties were
accepted as true mahogany in the later 19th century.
They are lighter in weight and softer in texture, with
rarer appearance of the beautiful eccentric figures, but
they have distinct features, such as fine stripings and
cross-firemarkings that recommend them. Philippine
trees such as the tanguile and lauan are not recog-
nized as true mahogany, although referred to as
"Philippine mahogany."
Mahogany is the essential ingredient of the great
Albany Institute of History and Art 18th-century school, which Macquoid calls the Age
822 LYRE DETAIL, CARD TABLE c. 1815. Attributed to of Mahogany. Not alone England, but France, Spain,
Duncan Phyfe. and Italy have used the wood more or less continu-
ously since that time. The Empire period featured it
MACASSAR. Dutch East India port from which is
extensively; the Federal period in American work is
shipped the striped ebony called Macassar. essentially a mahogany style.
MADRONE. Brown-red burl of sound, regular texture 823 ENGLISH MAGAZINE RACK, early 19th century.
and figure, from the Pacific coast. Israel Sack, Inc.
MAGAZINE STAND. Portable racks for magazines

developed in Victorian England in a type called
Canterbury; there were endless variations as maga-
zines proliferated. [185, 823.]
MAGNOLIA. American tulip tree: wood is light straw

color with slight figure. Suitable for exposed parts of
furniture and face veneers.
MAHOGANY. Reddish-brown wood of medium hard-

ness, great strength, and among the most beautiful for
texture, ease of polishing, variety of grain and figure.
Today mahogany includes several botanical species,
chiefly the Swietenia of the West Indies, South and
Central America, and the Khaya of Africa. The Amer-
ican mahoganies were the first known. The Spanish
explorers were quick to appreciate its splendid prop-
erties, and its early importation and use in cabinet-
work is attested by the 16th-century date of some fine

Spanish Renaissance remains. Other countries were
MAIDOU 290 MARRLEIZING; MARBLING
Each developed a special treatment of mahog-

style
any that is significant. Georgian England had a light
red-brown tone, the result of polishing with beeswax,
slightly red-tinted. Empire mahogany was rich red,
highly polished. Until very late years a popular mis-
conception in America held mahogany to be a blackish-
red wood, the result of universal dark staining and
overvarnishing in American furniture practice. [90,
386, 508, 1264, 1354.]
824 OFFERING TABLE, ancient Egyptian marble.
MAIDOU. East Indian wood prized for decorative The Romans undoubtedly used the highly colored
veneers, both in the long grain and the fine, with even Italian marbles as well as the classic white, while
burls resembling amboyna. Ryzantine remains show a preference for these colors.
The Italian Renaissance revived the use of marble,
MANWARING, ROBERT. English designer and fur- neglected by the Gothic designers, and the process of
niture maker, The Cabinet and Chair
published inlaying marbles into wood or stone surfaces was
Makers Real Friend and Companion in 1765. Heavy either revived or rediscovered. Baroque Italian and,
and highly ornamented chairs, resembling those of to a greater degree, French work of the 16th and 17th
Chippendale, are shown. Few surviving pieces with centuries favored marbles, and in the magnificent
his mark are known. furniture of Louis XIV and XV it appears most fre-
quently as tops of buffets, commodes, tables, and side
MAPLE. The Acer family is the distinctly American tables. The Italian precedent did not reach England
wood. While known in Europe in a few varieties, its to any considerable degree until the 18th century;
preeminence in the Western Hemisphere is due to its after 1720, however, the vogue for marble grew. At
prevalence, its fine structural properties, and its deco- first only white marble was imported, and it became
rative interest. The early colonists were quick to customary to stain this to imitate the costlier varie-
recognize and use maple, and we have the example ties. About 1738, colored marbles native to England
of much Early American maple furniture as a guide were employed in furniture, and the search abroad
to its use. There are hard and soft maples, with varied was for still more exotically hued stone. After 1750,
figures and textures, such as curly, bird's-eye, wavy, porphyry, lapis lazuli, alabaster, and other semi-
blister, and quilted figures, usable in the solid lumber precious stones were used as tops. With the dimin-
or as veneers. It varies from very hard to medium, ishing scale of furniture toward the end of the century,
with a high ratio of strength and resistance to shock the use of marble tops waned; the decline was also
and splitting; it works well and can be polished very hastened by the new skill in coloring and veining of
smooth. scagliolaa composition. The Adams used these imi-
The texture of maple is very hard and smooth, the tations extensively.
fibers and pores being exceptionally small. It is almost Italy, with a declining aristocracy, carried marble
white in color in the harder varieties, the softer maples effects so far that whole rooms and their furniture
being light tan or yellow-brown. Recent furniture were painted to simulate highly figured marble.
practice has been to stain or glaze maple to a red- The Empire style revived the classic use of marble.
brown shade that purports to be the color of Early It survived the style and was probably most character-
American antiques; this is neither accurate nor beauti- used in the furniture of the 19th century
istically
ful and it is to be hoped that commercial producers throughout Europe and America. The styles of Louis-
will soon abandon it and utilize the true light beauty Philippe, Victoria, and the marble-topped era in the
of the wood. United States favored the dull tone of gray-and-white
marble. Dressers, washstands, tables, and commodes
MARBLE. Remains of marble furniture from Egypt, were generously covered with the stone, the habit
Greece, and Rome are not uncommon, whether result- persisting almost to the end of the century. [88, 1071,
ing from a considerable use or its ability to survive 1224, 1231, 1284.]
being conjectural. Ceremonial chairs, or "thronos,"
from Greek times are known, and inspired the
classic MARBLEIZING; MARBLIIVG. Wood painted to
"curule" chair of the classic revivals. The type was simulate marble was probably used in all times, but
copied by the Romans in elaborately sculptured chairs we have examples surviving from the 17th
actual
of state. Remaining Roman table bases indicate that century in France, and England, and later
Italy,
these likewise were handsomely adorned and com- throughout Europe. Painted columns, commodes, and
bined with bronze, used as supports for marble tops. tables were often combined with real marble.
MAROT, DANIEL 291 MARTHA WASHINGTON
MAROT, DANIEL. Architect and designer of furni- they were executed is not known. Much detail of
ture, born about 1660, died in Holland about
in Paris Hampton Court Palace bears his characteristic form,
1720. Studied under Lepautre and Boulle; went to whether it was his actual design or not. Marot's style
Holland to escape religious persecution; under patron- is the quintessence of the Baroque style of Louis XIV.
age of the Prince of Orange he designed important His designs for Boulle typify his ability to compose
public and residential work. As architect to William III extravagant detail into an architectural whole. His
of England he issued many designs, but to what extent fireplaces and wall treatments also incorporate the
richest assortment of motives into sound compositions.
In lesser hands the effects are garish, but Marot's de-
signs, employing all manner of rinceaux and festoons,
animal and geometric forms, with every color and
texture, are firmly held together. His talent inspired
Dutch, French, and English artists for almost a cen-
tury; Chippendale, Kent, and most other designers
of the age appear to have profited by his work in no
small measure.
MARQUETRY. Inlay of contrasting wood into a

background of veneer. See also inlay; parquetry.
[82, 369, 482.]
MARQUISE CHAIR (French). Wide bergere arm-

chair, completely upholstered. [666, 827.]
MARRIAGE CHEST, COFFER. See DOWER CHEST.

[755.]
MARTHA WASHINGTON. (1) Chair. Simple lined

high-back narrow chair with open wood arms. Hepple-
white or Sheraton feeling in American work, late 18th
and early 19th century. [70, 828.]

(2) Sewing cabinet. Small worktable with wood
receptacle or cabinet for materials, American, 1780-
1850.
825-826 MARQUETRY DESK AND COMMODE, late Louis 827 MARQUISE CHAIR, English, c. 1730. Arthur S. Vcrnay, Inc.
XV style. The geometric design is parquetry'.
292 MECHANICAL FURNITURE
MECHANICAL FURNITURE. Beginning with Gothic
benches fittedwith reversible backs, some approaches
to design have always favored devices that give an
object more than a single or fixed use. Sheraton
brought to a peak many such devices and mechanisms,
but he had a great body of Continental ingenuity to
draw on. German cabinetmakers in particular had
delighted in complex mechanisms directed at compact-
ness, security, secrecy, or simple gadgetry. In 19th-
century work new processes and materials met new
demands with a torrent of inventions, as demonstrated
in the records of the United States Patent Office.
Inspired variously by health fads, transportation
methods, space realignments dictated by new indus-
triesand economies, new mechanical operations, new
machine potentials, or the amusement of simple novel-
ties, metal spring seats and mattresses, adjustable
chairs and beds, furniture that folded or opened or
that disappeared or became something else was re-
garded with respect. Some achieved real usefulness
and even esthetic interest. Swivel chairs, sofa beds,
expanding tables, lighting adjuncts are contemporarily
acceptable. Fitted receptacles like television cabinets
and refrigerated bars are, like musical instruments,
variably successful in furniture terms. On the other
hand, furniture designed for specific technical use,
Israel Sack, Inc.
including transportation seating, office furniture and
828 MARTHA WASHINGTON ARMCHAIR, Massachusetts,
c. 1800. Sheraton style.
equipment, mechanical objects such as barber and
MASK. Decorative motive of great antiquity, repre-

829 SEWING TARLE, Salem, Massachusetts, 1800-1810, by
senting a human or animal face, distorted, conven- Nathaniel Appleton; carving attributed to SAMUEL McINTYRE.
tionalized, or naturalistic. Found in practically all John S. Walton. Inc.
European styles. [1179.]
MATTRESS. Thick pad or cushion, filled with feath-

ers,down, and placed
spring, hair, wool, cotton, etc.,
upon the springs of a bed. The loose cushion of an
upholstered chair (squab or carreau) is sometimes
called mattress in old writing.
MAYHEW, THOMAS. English Georgian designer.

See also ince and mayhew.
McINTIRE, SAMUEL, 1757-1811. Woodcarver of

Salem, Mass. Distinctive style and superb craftsman-
ship distinguish his mantelpieces, overdoors, and other
carvings for furniture and architectural embellish-
ment. [54, 1260.]
MEANDER PATTERN. Same as greek fret. See also

ORNAMENT.
5op Top Ro.,i

STVLE a/ c InTIHE-
293
MERIDIENNE. Short sofa unique to the French

Empire period. It had one arm higher than the other.
METAL FURNITURE. The ancients left remains of

much furniture in bronze and
though its greater
iron,
durability than favor may account for the
rather
excess of metal relics over wood. Egypt, Assyria,
Greece, and Rome used bronze in a magnificent way,
and among the best evidences of their styles and
1
craftsmanship are table bases, chairs, torcheres, etc. In

India, China, and Japan, likewise, brass, bronze, and
iron articles of great antiquity are found, and yield
a clue to the artistic power of dead ages.
Ironworkers in the Middle Ages attained superb
skill, and in this medium executed almost every article
of furniture then known. In addition, wood pieces
were both ornamented and reinforced with a pro-
digious amount of wrought-iron straps and bands,
hinges, locks, and handles.
830 WROUGHT-IRON TARLE RASE, Florentine 16th cen-

tury. 831 CAST-IRON RED, Spanish, shown at the Crystal
Palace, 1851.
Brooklyn Museum Anderson Galleries
829A PATENT OSCILLATING ROCKING CHAIR, 1869.
dentist chairs, are highly successful in their directness

of design and suitability of materials and appearance.
[521.]
MEDALLION. Circular, oval, square, or octagonal

plaque painted or carved with decorative figures,
ornament, etc. French Renaissance and Italian work

used medallions of stone set into the wood; the Adams
brothers used cameolike medallions of pottery or
painted wood. See also romayne work. [625, 659.]
MEDIEVAL. See Gothic.
>lIISSOMFK. JUSTE AURELE, 1693-1750.

French designer; developed Rococo style to greatest
extravagance. Introduced Italian features, such as
broken shell-shape curves. Published Le Livre d'Orne-
ments.
MELON BILK. Thick bulbous turning, typical of

Elizabethan and Jacobean furniture. Thicker, more
ornate types are early; later forms were smaller and
not carved. Found less typically in Continental styles.
[1201.]
MENUISIER. French word for cabinetmaker or joiner.

294 MIRROR
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Morris K. Jesup Fund, 1954

833 METAL MOUNTS ON KNIFE BOX c. 1770, by Lewis
Fueter, New York, silversmith.
MEURLES DE LUXE. The luxurious furniture that set

the standards of most great styles. The extremely
832 CAST-IRON GARDEN CHAIR, American Victorian,
decorative furniture in the great rooms of Continental
19th century. palaces was really built more for show than for use;
its large scale, profuse ornamentation, and extreme
In the earliest phases of the Renaissance in the cost render it unsuitable as inspiration for the design
Mediterranean countries, the skill of the medieval of average modern furniture.
ironworkers survived, and in Spain and Italy there
are iron chairs, bedframes, torcheres, table structures, MIDDLE AGES. See GOTHIC.
etc., of superb design and technique. Wholly metal
furniture declined during the later Renaissance, but MIRROR. Looking glasses of polished metal were
the use of metal details as accessory to wood increased known in ancient times, but the mirror of silvered
to the point where in the late 18th century it repre- glass appears in the Early Renaissance. It was costly
sented the principal means of ornamentation. Modern and available in small sizes, so that the important
times and machine processes have rendered us essen- frame both exaggerated and emphasized its
its size
tially metal-minded, and the quest for a metal furni- value. In Italy the typical form was a rich architec-
ture technique is as old as the movement to create tural profile, of simple shape; in the North the frame
furniture in current moods. The metal bed, both brass was elaborately outlined and richly carved. Jacobean
and iron, of the late 19th century is the example par mirrors, the earliest English types, were small, and
excellence of the trend and its success. It seems en- heavily framed in the Italian manner. Some were
tirely logical and proper to make such structural framed in smaller bits of mirror leaded together. The
frameworks of metal. Chairs of tubular steel answer carved wooden frame predominated with the advent
supremely the contemporary cry for forms readily of the Grinling Gibbons type of carving. The Louis
adapted to cheap machine production. Their shapes XIV style inspired large mirrors with firm architectural
are peculiarly expressive of the material and the outlines, richly carved and gilded or silvered. Under
process.They are exceedingly comfortable, easy to Louis XV these assumed irregular shapes in lighter
handle and to keep in good condition. Many other frames. English mirrors of the Chippendale School
articles of furniture may also be made wholly or in were in the Rococo manner, with a constant tendency
part of this strong light material, but ingenuity of toward greater size; these were often pieced together
design and public demand are still far behind the in intricate frames. The classic types, like the charac-
technical possibilities. teristic Adam were very large and of simple
mirrors,
Sheet-metal work is likewise in a tentative state. shape, outlined in thin gilt frames of Pompeiian in-
Excellent utilitarian cabinets, chests of drawers, book- spiration. Trumeaus, of this time, were mirrors set into
cases, etc., are possible technically, but timid taste the paneling of rooms, as overmantels, etc. Smaller
and the exigencies of commercial production have mirrors were in general use for dressing; these were
retarded the development of other than office furniture. frequently mounted on stands. In America the elabo-
rate Rococo mirrors were simulated in jigsawed
METAL MOUNT. See hardware; ormolu. [833.] outline. The later classic revivals produced mirrors
of strong architectural feeling. See also cheval glass;
MEL ISLES. French for movable furniture. TRUMEAU.
MIRROR 295 MIRROR
r
wCT>r.
'A
$5
W' ^Mt
** V
'11 \ J
Ginsburg and Levy

835 ENGLISH, 17th century Jaco-
bean. Small pieces of glass leaded
together. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Bequest of George Blumenthal, 1941
836 ITALY, 16th century.
'
in
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Theodore M. Davis Collection,

Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915
837 ITALY, late 17th century.
EARLY MIRRORS HAD SMALL GLASS IN

LARGE ORNATE FRAMES. 834 ITALY, late 15th century.
THREE AMERICAN
838, 839, 840
COURTING MIRRORS, 1780-1800.

MIRROR 296 MIRROR

841 GERMAN, 17th century. Carved
wood, gilded.
BAROQUE MIRRORS WERE LARGE AND

ORNAMENTALLY COMPLEX.
French s> Co., Inc.

843 R&GENCE.
844 REGENCE, Louis XV. 845 ENGLISH, Mid-Georgian,

pre-Chippendale.QUEEN ANNE,
846 1700-1720. 847 ENG-
842 REGENCE c. 1700.
Don Ruseau LISH OR AMERICAN c. 1740?

Israel Sack, Inc. Israel Sack, Inc
850 AMERICAN, 1740-1760. Israel Sack, Inc.
851 ENGLISH ROCOCO, symmetrical, c. 1770.

French ir Co., Inc.
848 ENGLISH, Early Georgian. Needham's Antiques, Inc.
849 PRE-CHIPPENDALE c. 1745. Early

ROCOCO influence. Symons Galleries, Inc.
853 BALANCED ROCOCO, English c. 1760.
ENGLISH ROCOCO MIRRORS.
852 ENGLISH ROCOCO, asymmetry less accom-

plished than the French equivalent.
Symons Galleries, Inc
MIRROR 300 MIRROR
Don Ruseau
857 TRUMEAU, style of Louis XVI. Painted and
French ~Co., Inc. gilded.
856 LOUIS XVI, painted and gilded.
858 NORTH ITALIAN c. 1780.
Style of Louis XVI.
859 TRUMEAU, painted russet on gold

ground.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of }. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
860 TRUMEAU, painted and gilded. Di Salvo

MIRROR 301 MIRROR
Needham'a Antiques, Inc.

862 ENGLISH, Adam inspiration.
Brunovan, Inc.
861 VENETIAN, Louis XVI derivation.
864 ADAM, late 18th century. Symons Galleries, Inc. 863 ITALIAN DIRECTOIRE. Olivieri
302
865-866 TWO GEORGIAN

CONVEX MIRRORS
c. 1800.
Symotis Galleries, Inc.
868 LOUIS XVI design framed in engraved glass

and ormolu.
t^ffc*) French ir Co., Inc.
* -i
867 VENETIAN BAROQUE, mid-18th century.

All glass framing, cut, etched, and colored.
MIRROR 303 MIRROR

870 ENGLISH c. 1780. Late Adam design.
871 NEW ENGLAND HEPPLEWHITE c. 1800.
Ginsburg and Levy

869 AMERICAN c. 1810. Shows view of New
York from Weehawken.
ITALIAN EMPIRE CHEVAL MICeoE

872 FRENCH EMPIRE c. 1810.
Console or pier glass. Mahogany,
gilt mounts.
MIRROR

Gift of Mrs. J. Dudley Blair, 1947
873 AMERICAN c. 1830. Gilt
half-turnings on black wood.
874 LACQUERED WOOD DRESSING MIRROR made

in China c. 1790 for the English trade.
Photograph, Newark Museum

877 NEW YORK c. 1815, made for the Livingston
family. Now in Museum of the City of New York.
875 VICTORIAN SHAVING

STAND.
876 ENGLISH VICTORIAN.

MISSION 305 MODERN FURNITURE
MISSION. Spanish missions in southwestern North idea, not new by 1830, hastened the growth of the
America (California, Mexico, etc.) were built by industry, paced in turn by a mushrooming market.
missionaries and Indians of native materials in a Population growth and new opulence followed the
crude, substantial style. The furniture was heavy and opening of new lands, but even in old countries the
square. In the early 1900's the Arts and Crafts Move- industrial Revolution created new furniture buyers.
ment, reaching America from England, appropriated Most of these new customers wanted only furniture
the heavy, homemade air of the missions, using heavy designs that had become fixed in their minds as status
square oak, with crudely obvious mortise-and-tenon symbols, handed down from the courts and the
jointing (usually faked) and finished with a smoky nobility to the lesser strata, and particularly to the
or fumed dark stain. Upholstery was of leather, for enriched bourgeoisie. The bulk of design, therefore,
ornament appliques of hand-hammered copper, large was commercial adaptation of the great old themes.
nailheads, or simple cutout patterns were popular. The fashion cycle was accelerated by the frantic
The style lacked charm or subtlety; its clumsy weight eclecticism of the designer-decorators, who were hard
and decorative poverty quickly condemned it and by put to keep ahead of the latest overpopularized re-
1913 it was extinct. [927.] searches and revivals. In the metropolitan fashion
centers, such designers, aided by skilled craftsmen-
artisans, kept the wheel of style turning. Their in-
novations, inventions, and researches inspired the
commercial factories that flooded the market with each
new wave.
Even the reform movements were smothered by
acceptance and mechanization. Resurgences of classi-
cism and Rococo and Renaissance, reform movements
MISSION
like those initiated by Henry Cole, William Morris,
and thePre-Raphaelites, Eastlake and the cottage style,
Secession, Jugendstil, Mission, and Art Nouveau [94]
were eagerly seized upon and hybridized. Salesmen
MITER (MITRE). Joint in a molding where it exploited the "story"; machinists worked out compro-
changes direction, usually at 90 degrees. mises; popular interest rose and fell. The market
became so big that most movements made only a
MIXING TARLE. Side or serving table arranged with slight dent here and there. Significant innovations
compartments for bottles, etc., and a flat work space were usually of very small personal proportions, barely
for mixing drinks. See also wine table. [1241.] noticed at the time. Now recognized as turning points
are the few clear cases of design coming to terms with
MODERN FURNITURE. Viewed in terms of design, the limitations and potentials, when recognized, of
modern furniture may be considered as the product the machine.
of development following World War I. Its roots, The London Crystal Palace Exhibition of 1851 sum-
however, go back into the early phases of the Indus- marized the tendencies of the new potential: mostly
trial Revolution. Continuing processes of invention, bombast, novelty, excess in line, and overloaded
retrogressionand adaptation have been led by an ornament; loss of functional expression and scale.
expanding style-conscious economy. During the whole There was much substitution of materials, showing
century following the application to tools of power- the effort to use machine products to solve problems
water, steam, internal-combustion engine, and elec- of cost or structural weakness in handicraft. Welding
tricityfurniture making remained essentially a handi- metal into tubes and joining them by the same process
craft. With few exceptions, changes were confined to appears in a French chair by Gandillot in 1844.
organization of production methods as opposed to Although painted and shaped to imitate a wooden
technologicaladvances in the product itself. Also chair, its slender members and joints reveal its true
remaining from past ages was the vocabulary of his- material. By 1840 in Vienna, Michael Thonet had
toric furniture design. [878 et seq.] rendered a Regency-chair design in curved veneer
Mass production buried the artisan-designer. The strips. At the Crystal Palace he showed the same idea
designer became a detached anonymity, more sales- in wood rods. The full strength of the
steam-bent
man than artist, sternly governed by the production continuous grain made joints so located and con-
director, the mechanic. Often the designer and the structed as to reinforce rather than weaken the struc-
production man were the same person. The factory ture. Millions of chairs cheap, light, strong, and
MODERN FURNITURE 306 MODERN FURNITURE
handsome were produced through this technique.
Another technique dating from mid-19th century
that was to have far-reaching effects was the notion
of laminating thin layers of wood plaidwise, the cross
grains balancing strengths and stresses plywood. The
first general notice of extensive application was in
chairbacks designed by Belter. Glued layers of rose-

wood and walnut, pierced and shaped, gave effects of
openwork carving in curved planes, but with a cross-
grain strength impossible in solid wood. New ma-
chines made veneer cutting cheap, and thin woods
were extensively used in industrial packing, etc. Glued
together in cross grains, early veneer panels were only
as good as their adhesives. The idea of large surfaces
with fancy-faced veneers spread rapidly, however.
878 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Edward C. Moore, Gift Fund, 1926 About maple
Jr.,
1900, bird's-eye [928], Circassian walnut,
crotch mahogany, and other exotic cuts of wood dis-
tinguished much commercial furniture.
878 L'ARTNOUVEAU TABLE c. 1899, designed by Ed- The upholsterer's work changed significantly in
ward Colonna.878A, B, C, D SIDE CHAIR (1912), DESK mid-19th century. Development of springs permitted
CHAIR (1905), BRONZE UMBRELLA STAND (1902),
DESK (1903), designed by Hector Guimard. soft, bulky shapes. The Oriental craze was expressed
878E SIDE
CHAIR c. 1899. in cushiony overstuffed effects merging with excessive
drapery and permitting a show of rich fabrics and
878A, B trimmings. Originating in France after 1830 are the
Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York, Gifts of Mme. Hector Guimard divan, the confortable, the confidante, the pouf, the
borne, the ottoman, etc. See also upholstery.
While Great Britain spawned the philosophical views
of design, America was preoccupied with mechanical
aspects. An enormous catalogue of "Patent Furniture"
appeared in the half century up to 1900. Unheard-of
combinations of furniture functions occupied one
species of designer. Others developed such specialized
furniture as barber chairs and dentist chairs, while
whole schools attacked the techniques of sitting and
lying, working and resting. Unconcerned with visual
effect, these products were essentially machines to
which were added applied decorations of no relevance
whatever.
878E
878 D
878 C
Thus the 19th-century concept of furniture lost itself theorizing. If the effects in furniture were transitory,
in mechanical practicality on one hand, in visionary the impact on interior decoration was positive in
esthetics on the other, while the bulk of the enormous sweeping away the cluttered effects of 19th-century
production met neither the mechanical nor the esthetic rooms and encouraging a sense of scale and quiet
problems directly. Where advances did take
real orderliness in room design.
place, their true significance was obscured for decades. These influences did not stem the antiquarian im-
Architects and painters figured largely in the philo- pulses that had come to dominate furniture thinking
sophical discussions, as they had in ages past; and, as by 1910. After the Eastlake influence of the 1880's,
in the past, they proved that furniture design is best England and America reverted to the great classics-
done by furniture designers. This is not to under- Rome and the Renaissance. On the Continent the
estimate the vital impulse of the parent art and allied Biedermeier influence had never lapsed, and the reign
arts and crafts. Robert Adam, as the greatest of archi- of Napoleon III revived interest in Empire. An awak-
tect-designers, probably occupies that niche through ened Palladianism restored attention to the 18th cen-
his dependence on Thomas Chippendale. Palladio, tury in England, while its counterpart in the United
Berain, Marot, Percier and Fontaine, Inigo Jones, States launched the preoccupation with Americana,
Gibbs, Kent, Thomas Hope, Brunei, Baillie, and still current. The search for antiques and their com-
Mackintosh, H. H. Richardson, Stanford White, Frank mercial reproduction and inspiration began in the
Lloyd Wright all the greatest architectural innovators 1890's. Architecture, and furniture and its literature
and spokesmen achieved something less than their in this vein were and are the most favored expres-
greatest forcefulness in the design of actual furniture. sion. Early reproductions showed a curious lack of
Conversely, the trade schools and shop organiza- observation or a cavalier willingness to adapt. "Colo-
tionstended toward excellence of technique and con- nial" designs of the 1890's were wide of the mark in
servatism in design. The British Art Workers Guild detail, materials,and finish. Up to World War I there
(1883), the Deutsche Werkbund
Movement, and were essays in Empire (then called post-Colonial),
similar anticommercial organizations emphasized the and mixtures of colonial Queen Anne, Adam, Hepple-
craft approach and an educated base for designers. white, and Chippendale that were almost uniformly
In America, Gustave Stickley promoted the Craftsman negative. After 1920, the old designs came to be more
School from a simple rationale like that of the English authentically reproduced, thanks to the educational
Arts and Crafts. These were popular movements with influence of magazines, museums, and well-publicized
a businesslike view of market objectives, not precious collections, and especially to the new merchandising
878F SIDE CHAIR, 1900, by Charles Rennie Mackintosh. 878G OFFICE CHAIR 1904,
by Frank Lloyd Wright. 878H TUBULAR STEEL, 1927, by Mies van der Rohe.
Collection Museum of Modern Art, New York,
878F Gift of Glasgow School of Art 878G Gift of Edgar Kaufman, Jr. 878H Knoll Associates, Inc.
techniques of the large stores. Similar commercial
production explored Italian Renaissance (a bow to
the classic Italianism of the 1893 Chicago Fair); the
Rococo Louis Quinze after the Paris fashions of the
haut monde and the Reaux Arts School; the English
Oak Era, spurred weakly by a similar movement in
England, the aftermath of the Pre-Raphaelite quest
for sanctity in handicraft Gothic.
There was as well a separatist movement, the Art

Nouveau. Its protest against academic art was more
articulate than its realization in furniture, but its
thrust was different and aimed in the direction of new
thinking. Henri van de Velde showed his Art Nouveau
in Paris in 1895. Characteristic are the whiplash curve,
free renderings of fruits and flowers, and fine work-
manship ingood materials. The style tended to be
oversweet, and it cloyed swiftly. (See also art nou-
veau.) Van de Velde opened a school the Rauhaus
at Weimar in 1902 under the patronage of the Duke
of Weimar. Most of its significance rests in its pupils.
Groups like De Stijl, abstract theorists in all the arts,
grew out of such origins. Another school at Darmstadt
had Peter Rehrens, Hans Christiansen, and Ludwig
Habich working under Joseph Olbrich. The various
forces coalesced in the first decade of the 1900's into
the Deutsche Werkbund, aimed at consolidating the
active forces in art education and production. For the
Knoll Associates, Inc.
878J BARCELONA CHAIR, 1929, by Mies van der Rohe. most part their design was simple and unaffected,
sound in construction theory and practice. Architects
like Jacobus Oud, Walter Gropius, Rietveld, Eric Men-
delsohn, Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier came
from this background. After the war the new Rauhaus
at Dessau encouraged reexamination of the basics of
878LCHROME-PLATED STEEL TUBING, 1928, designed by Marcel Breuer. 878M OAK

AND CANE, Denmark, 1949, by Hans Wegner. 878P WIRE CHAIR, by Harry Bertola, 1952.
Frederick Lunning
MODERN FURNITURE 309 H
^^^ ^^
f
i i
furniture design. The International Style became in-
ternational largely through Hitler's dispersal of the
brains and talent of this institution.
In Vienna the Secession was organized in 1896 by
V
* -W'M f
Josef Hoffmann, Roller, Klimt, Moser, Olbrich, and

<-~ ^k
others. It pioneered in the application of the English
Arts and Crafts. In 1903 the Wiener Werkstatte ap- l> -
peared. Architects, many pupils of Otto Wagner, for-
mulated a coherent style, and by the time of World
4
War I, their thought dominated house design and
decoration in Europe.
Design in the Scandinavian world enjoyed the in-
telligent direction of artists' associations, which have
878N Designed by Charles Eames Herman I Miller
been a consistent force in the clarification of design
ideas. Passing gently from the prevailing classicism
of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Scandinavian
design followed a mannerly rationalization. Coordina-
tion of industry and commercial output with design
education has produced a complete repertory of gra-
cious furniture, soundly constructed and economically
able to compete in export with the most advanced
furniture manufactories. Among outstanding designers
may be listed Hans Wegner [334], Finn Juhl and Arne
Jacobson in Denmark, Alvar Aalto in Finland, Karl
Malmsten in Sweden.
English furniture design followed a conservative
course after William Morris. His general precepts of
honest workmanship and direct design were widely
accepted [880]. The Arts and Crafts Exhibition So-
8780 Designed by Jens Risom
878Q, 878R PEDESTAL TABLE, CHAIR, AND OTTOMAN designed by Eero Saarinen,
1948. Knoll Associates, Inc.
878K BENTWOOD by Thonet.

Vienna, 1870.
Museum of Modern Art, New York
MODERN FURNITURE 310 MOLDING
ciety, founded in 1888, set a quiet standard for a of an architecturally oriented school of furniture de-
certain level, maintained by architect-designers like signers and manufacturers. George Nelson's engineer-
Charles Rennie Mackintosh, furniture designers like ing esthetic, Charles Eames's molding techniques, Jens
Ambrose Heal, Gordon Russell, Ernest Gimson. Risom's Scandinavian wood logic, Harry Bertoia's
The 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Art brought

light metal framings, among many others, supplement
the furniture efforts of architects like Eero Saarinen
together many of the divergent currents of both pre-
war and postwar European design. Most of the ex- and Marcel Breuer.
hibits were of a plush, romantic style, descended in These influences have by no means found universal
part from Art Nouveau, with some reminiscence of application in the United States. A strong tradition-
Directoire and Empire, much influenced by advanced alist sentiment still operates, and on every level there
painting from Cubism through Abstractionism and is a great industry founded on historic styles. The un-
Dadaism. In the elegant vein was exquisite cabinet- ceasing quest for novelty by a growing affluent class
work in rare woods, metals, ivory, and glass by Ruhl- has created a debased vocabulary called "contempo-
mann, Dufrene, Leleu. There was much of bizarre rary," justifying stylistic liberties with historic themes.
rebelliousness, strident color and pattern the shapes of This has filtered down to lower commercial levels,
jazz. There was also a strain of constructivism, of both encouraging mass-production industries to ignore the
true and false functionalism, as expressed by students refinements of good reproduction. Fine design in well-
and observers of the new Bauhaus and the function- made medium-price furniture is more abundant than
alists in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. ever before, but by no means universal.
The Bauhaus influence grew steadily in Europe
during the late 1920s. Le Corbusier's Pavilion de MODILLION. Projecting brackets, usually enriched
1'Esprit Nouveau (Paris, 1925) showed plated tubing with carving, at regular intervals under the cornice
for everything but chairs, which were historic Thonet in the Roman Corinthian, Composite, and Ionic orders.
bentwood. Marcel Breuer went on with Mies van der
Rohe's tubing designs, producing the cantilevered MOHAIR. Upholstery fabric, originally made from
chair about 1928. the hair of the Angora goat. The Moors introduced
The impact of the Paris Exhibition on the United it into Spain, whence
it spread to England and north-
Stateswas earth-shaking. The country was hungry ern Europe. mentioned in English inventories of
It is
for just such motivation. A new artistic-intellectual the 17th century, but these appear to have been woven
class of Europophiles had sprung up from its war con- partly, if not entirely, of silk.
tacts. A booming economy and the burgeoning craft

of merchandising created and exploited a new art MOLDING (MOULDING) A shaped profile applied to
.
hunger. The Americans came to the Exhibition empty- a continuous member

emphasize the difference in
to
handed; they went home carrying everything they planes or to provide decorative bands of light and
saw. Until 1930, there was a riot of novelty and in- shade. Any break in a continuous flat surface may be
vention in the world of design and decoration. It was considered a molding if it is designed to catch light
the Jazz Age, and cacophony was the theme. Indis- and shade as an accent or embellishment. Certain gen-
criminately, the new was accepted as the good. Sin- eral types of moldings have been in use since the
cere European designers arrived and developed earliest architectural decoration. These are broadly
personal mannerisms men like Paul Frankl, Joseph classified as (1) flat or angular, (2) single curved,
Urban, Wolfgang Hoffmann. Their mannerisms and (3) compound curves. All types are variously embel-
interpretations created a wave of copying of all the lished. The flat or angular types include (1) the band,
diverse European schools Wiener Werkstatte, the members, raised or sunken
face, or facia, continuous flat
English rationalists, Cubism, the Bauhaus, Swedish into and main surface; (2) the fillet,
parallel with the
neoclassicism, Orientalism.Odd shapes, like the sky- listel, or regula, a narrow band, usually projecting;
scraper bookcase, and bizarre color and glorified ama- (3) the chamber or bevel, an inclined band; (4) the
teurism in line and craftsmanship flourished side by splay, a large bevel.
side with an overrefined lush French manner. The simple curved moldings are (1) the cavetto, a
A decade of economic stringency abolished much concave molding of a quarter circle, though the sec-
of this rebellious falseness, and substituted a reason- tion may be flatter or more elliptical; (2) ovolo, the
able functionalism whose
early gaucherie was subtly reverse of the cavetto, a convex quarter circle or flat-
influenced by sentiment from both Scandinavian and tened shape; (3) the flute, a semicircular groove that
Italian sources. Sensitivity to architectural thinking may be flatter; (4) the torus, a convex bulging shape
was a strong influence, and the 1940's saw the rise of approximately a half circle; (5) the astragal, a small
MOLDING 311 MORRIS, WILLIAM
the ovolo, wreath form for the torus, bead-and-reel

for the astragal; anthemion and acanthus for the cyma
recta, water leaf for cyma reversa.
The Gothic moldings were deep hollows, generally
roll moldings with fillets. The ornaments were less
often continuously than spasmodically applied, or at
the terminals of the shape.
MONEY DISHES. Scooped-out saucerlike spaces in

card tables for holding money or counters. Also called
"guinea holes." See also card table.
MONEY MOTIVE. Decoration of flat overlapping

desks, like scaling.
Cyma MONK'S BENCH. Early Gothic form possibly orig-

%% inally with refectory tables, often with carved aprons
or stretchers. Also a type of box settle or settle
Mouldings ^ (q.v. ) with top hinged to form back. [879.]
V3.V<wL<Vi N*
RkDWCj u
iriwiui Minimum
U>^-^^^
879 MONK'S BENCH, Canadian, pine. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
?L\\\\\^\%
MORESQUE. Moorish; the style of decoration left in
Spain by the Moors, in which high color, abstract

geometric patterns of fine detail, and gilding are fea-
tures. See also Spain. [350, 930.]
torus or bead; (6) the scotia, a hollow molding of
more than the quarter circle of the cavetto; (7) the MOROCCO. Goat leather, used in fine upholstering
roll molding, about three quarters of a circle. The in Louis XIV, Chippendale, and other styles.
compound moldings are (1) the cyma recta, (2) the
cymatium, and (3) the cyma reversa, or ogee, all MORRIS, WILLIAM, 1834-1896. English artist,
serpentine or double moldings; and (4) the beak architect, poet; formed in 1862 firm of Morris, Mar-
mold, with the upper part concave and the lower shall, Faulkner & Company for practice of decorative
convex. arts. Chiefly motivated by a free interpretation of
Historically, certain ornaments have been used for the medieval, Morris was a leader group of lib-
of a
specific profiles, the styles varying chiefly in tech- erals in art and politics who tried to stem the tide
nique. For example, the egg-and-dart is classical for of machine development by fostering handicraft de-
312 MUSHROOM TURNING
glass, stone, etc., conventional or pictorial in effect;

Roman and subsequent.
MOSS. Vegetable growth from the South, used as up-

holstery stuffing in cheap furniture.
MOSS EDGING. Heavy pile cording used as a decora-

tive edging in upholstery; first appeared in Italy,
France, and England late in the 17th century.
MOTHER-OF-PEARL. Hard inner layer of shells. Its
brilliant color after cutting and polishing has sug-

gested its use for inlays since the 16th century. First
applied in the East, it was adopted by the French,
Dutch, and English in the 17th century. In England
it often replaced tortoiseshell in Boulle work. Early-
19th-century work in England and America abounds
in mother-of-pearl inlays.
MOTIF (MOTIVE). Distinctive feature or element

of design or ornament; theme.
MOTTLED. Spotted, speckled, or blotchy figures in

veneers.
MOUNTS. Metal fittings or ornaments applied on fur-

niture; most important in the style of Louis XV, when
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rogers Fund, 1926 bronze appliques were responsible for most decora-
880 CABINET by William Morris, door panels by Burne- lones. tive effects. Some mounts are utilitarian, such as
handle and key plates, hinge ornaments, corner and
signing in simple naturalistic forms, producing textiles angle protection, for inscriptions, etc.
both printed and woven, wallpapers, carpets, furni-
ture, stained glass, metalwork, book printing and bind- MUDEJAR. Mixed Moorish-Christian style of Spain,
ing, etc., embracing the whole field of design. This 1250-1500, marking the transition from Mohammedan
thought was the springboard for the development of to Christian art by partial assimilation of Gothic and
subsequent European and American design philos- Renaissance forms. Some Moorish traits still persist.
ophy, which after many divergent movements culmi- See also spain. [1145.]
nated in the Modern movement. See also nineteenth
CENTURY. [880.] MUFFIN STAND. Small tier stand for plates, used
in tea service in England and America.
MORRIS CHAIR. Large easy chair of the late 19th
century with adjustable back, loose cushions form- MULE CHEST. Evolutionary type of coffer or chest
ing the seat and back rest within a wooden frame. Said with one or more drawers beneath the lid section.
to have been invented by William Morris.
MULLION. Vertical bar dividing the panes of a trac-
MORTISE. Hole or slot in wood, into which the eried window. In furniture, the tracery in glazed
tenon or tongue fits; one of the most important joints doors of bookcases, etc.
in woodworking. [622.]
MUNTIN (MUNTING). Inside vertical members of a
MORTLAKE. English tapestry mills established near door or window frame, such as the divisions between
London by James I in 1619, discontinued during the the glass or wood panels of a door.
reign of Charles I.
MUSHROOM TURNING. Shallow cup turning, either

MOSAIC. Decorative inlays of small pieces of wood, in a leg section or as a finial.
MUSIC DESK 313
MUSIC DESK; MUSIC STAND. Table with inclined

top for holding music in front of the player. Decora-
tively treated in 17th-, 18th- and 19th-century English
and Continental work. [884.]
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. The less portable instru-
ments, such as pianos, organs, have been treated

etc.,
as furniture because they could not be stored away.

From the Renaissance to the present we have ex-
amples of elaborate casework designed for these in-
struments, and in late years the phonograph, the radio,
and television have been added. The tendency is to
882 Symons Calleries, Inc.
simplify the cases for the instruments to the minimum,
avoiding the architectural or decorative cabinet idea.
In the past, however, some notable forms, such as
the spinet shape, have developed around instruments.
[881, 966.]
MYRTLE. Light tannish-yellow wood with fine burl 883

markings, excellent for fine inlays and veneered work;
from the Pacific Coast.
881 EUROPEAN WORKBOX PIANO. 882 CLAVECIN,

Paris, 1802. 883 WHATNOT OR MUSIC STAND, English
c. 1800.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby Brown Collection

881
of Musical Instruments, 1889
885 NEW JERSEY, 1824. Collection of Newark Museum
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby Brown Collection

of Musical Instruments, 1889 "IV."" Napoleon's monogram, used as a decorative
884 MUSIC STAND, Italian, 19th century.
motive in French Empire style. Occurs in bronze
mounts, and is embroidered or woven on chairbacks.
NAILS (upholstery). Nails with ornamental heads

are used for finishing in upholstery work. In some
888 NAIL-STUDDED LEATHER-COVERED CRADLE,
American, 18th century.
Israel Sack. Inc.
mam
886-887 VICTORIAN ENGLISH MUSIC STANDS.
NECKING 315 NETHERLANDS
styles they are arranged to make patterns, such as the
daisy pattern in the French period of Henry II, and
on screens,
teristic of
coffers, etc. Large nailheads are charac-
Portuguese and some Spanish work. [162,
WM I Wj& j WM
213, 254, 342, 1151.]
NECKING. Narrow molding or collar around the

upper part of a column or post.
WM MM WM
NEEDLEPOINT. Upholstery covering of woolen
threads embroidered upon canvas. \ I
NEEDLEWORK. Hand embroidery. The art is as old

as weaving. Many techniques create different textures;
these include embroidery, tapestry work, patchwork,
applique, etc.

NEOCLASSIC. Revivals of interest in the ancient 889 NETHERLANDS, 17th-century writing cabinet, Hispano-
manner, such as the Renaissance, Adam, and Empire Moresque influence in ivory inlays in rosewood and ebony.
styles. See also classic. [138, 790.]
NEO-GOTHIC. Revivals of Gothic detailing, prin- 890 DUTCH, 17th-century cabinet. Renaissance details are
cipally after 1830 in England and America; to a lesser prototypes of succeeding English and American work.
extent in Continental work in furniture. [330, 410, 533.]
NEO-GREEK (Greek Revival). Classic Greek in-

fluence in early 19th century, particularly American
work of Late Empire style, 1815-1845.
NEST OF DRAWERS. Quantity of small drawers or

boxes contained in a case; a diminutive chest of draw-
ers, chiefly English, 18th and 19th centuries.
NEST OF TARLES (Nested Tables) . Set of several

tables, graduated in size so as to fit one over another.
NETHERLANDS. The Low Countries, now Holland

and Relgium, shared the homogeneity of Gothic art.
Flanders as an entity produced only slight variations
from the typical oak styles. In the 16th century it
was under Spanish rule, and was thereby exposed
earlier than other northern lands to the Mediterranean
Renaissance. Italian influences likewise came up via
France. Thus Elizabethan England and South Ger-
many, through propinquity, felt the repercussions of
the Italian Cinquecento, and imposed upon their cur-
rent Gothic forms the lush Italian plastic and inlaid
ornamentation.
Antwerp, Brussels, and Liege had important furni-
ture makers early in the 1500's. Vredemann de Vries's
book, about 1600, shows compositions with architec-
tural pilasters, scrollwork, grotesques, and robust ap-
plied ornaments in beds and cupboards, credences and
tables and chairs.
NEWPORT SCHOOL 316 NINETEENTH CENTURY
Townsends, Job, John (father and son), and Christo-
pher, and descendants. Concave shell and block forms
in chests, secretaries, and clock cases, are among the
best work of the period. [1382.]
NIGHTSTAND; NIGHT TARLE. Bedside table.
NINETEENTH CENTLRY. The Industrial Revolution

is the story of furniture in the nineteenth century.
The factory and the machinewere not alone new;
Cabinet design concepts had new meanings, and there was a
WCEHTVay whole new class of furniture owners. Actually, the
factory was an 18th-century idea. The pattern of the
Royal Manufactory in France was repeated in Eng-
Flemish Late Renaissance cupboards are distinctive. land in private furniture manufacturing enterprises
Square panels are boldly molded and carved; table employing as many as 400 workmen, favoring special-
and chair legs are recognized by the use of blocks ization within each trade. Then came the highly spe-
interrupting the turned parts. The method of up- cialized tools and finally the application of power to
holstering betrays Spanish origin, and is reflected in the tools. All this made production of parts so cheap
English Jacobean work. and rapid that the mass market had to follow. This
The Baroque came into northern Europe through vast output was no longer conceived in terms of a
Flanders. The house of the painter Rubens, built after particular person or taste. [134, 323.]
his return from shows bold scale and a
Italy in 1613, This speedy mass production allowed no time for
rich architectonic conception. Furniture is in the same considering either the special capacities of the ma-
spirit. Four-door cupboards of oak, paneled with chine as a design factor or the changing symbolism
ebony, are square and firm, the cornices adorned with or furniture for its public. The enormous reservoir of
cartouches and leaves. Chairs become broader to ac- furniture ideas that had accumulated over the pre-
commodate the spreading costumes. Dutch Early vious centuries was tapped for every impulse and
Baroque, according to the paintings of the old masters, motif. At one time or another in the 19th century,
is simpler, quite devoid of plastic ornament, but full they were all embraced or at least those bits that
scaled and restrainedly embellished with deep mold- lent themselves to simulation by the machines and
ings. Walnut became important after 1660, and inlays technicians of the time. The key to design in this era
or exotic veneered panels enriched the surfaces. Twist- is the excess of ornament: easily produced adornment
ed turnings are universal; oval bulb legs and bun feet for its own sake, unrelated to the corpus of the furni-
are equally popular. The great "Friesland" cupboards ture object.
are unique. Portuguese influences are present in chairs Academic classicism had a deep appeal for northern
with embossed leather. The Dutch traders brought European scholars, courts, and designers. The new
bits of styles from everywhere, but the Oriental archaeology, beginning with the German Winckel-
touches are most interesting. Chinese porcelains, col- mann's work Pompeii and Herculaneum, reinforced
in
lected avidly,demanded cupboards for their display. by the explorations of Englishmen after the Brothers
Chinese lacquer was imported and imitated endlessly. Adam, took strong root in Scandinavia, Germany, and
But nothing exceeds in importance the development Austria. It was actually more correct, less derivatively
of the cabriole leg, partially inspired during this pe- inspired than the Louis Seize in France, and it flowed
riod by the Chinese. From India the Dutch borrowed more naturally into the Empire. What Giedion calls
the arcaded chairback. Dutch imports and exports of the "ruling taste" created in France the Empire, a
the latter 17th century are the real basis of English synthetic style developed by Percier and Fontaine at
Baroque furniture of the Age of Walnut. Napoleon's order ( 1801 ) . In its sweeping haste it re-
Dutch power waned early in the 18th century, and duced the bulks of furniture to their simplest shapes,
Flanders was virtually a French province after 1700. and added distinction by appliques of historically cor-
Henceforward the French style of Louis XV dominates rect ornaments. Because the simple forms and the
Dutch and Flemish furniture. [13, 160, 172, 249, 251, applied ornaments, whether metal, carved wood, or
487, 1195, 1211, 1298.] stencils, were easy and satisfying for every talent, we
see aspects of this style persisting throughout the cen-
NEWPORT SCHOOL. Mid-18th-century Rhode Island tury, from Madrid to St. Petersburg, from Stockholm
group of cabinetmakers, including John Goddard, the to Chicago.
NINETEENTH CENTURY 317 NINETEENTH CENTURY
In its phase in France, the Empire repre-

earliest
sents a retrogressive phase of the style of Louis XVI.
Led by Jacob Desmalter (who signed himself simply
"Jacob" as a revolutionary gesture), and based on
the work of the German border ebeniste-entrepreneurs
Riesener and Roentgen, the Empire was universally
popularized. Rerlin and Vienna were the outposts of
classicism at the turn of the century, and there it be-
came Riedermeier reduced from the palace styles
of Karl Schinkel in Rerlin and Franz von Klenze in
Munich to a comfortable middle-class adequacy. Thus,
most Swedish, Danish, and German work of the period
1800-1830 is more classical, cooler and better com-
posed than the prototypes in France and England. In
Italy, on the other hand, a freer taste showed up in
centers like Milan and Venice. Highly individualized
and fanciful, some of the best work of the genre is
ascribed to Giuseppe Soli and Gioconda Albertolli
[784]. The style was so assimilated as to remain the
basic idiom to the present day.
At the source in France, however, the Empire theme
swirled indecisively in the crosscurrents of politics and
taste and class struggle through the period of the
Bourbon Restoration. Ry the time of the 1830 July
Revolution, the aristocratic tradition had been sub-
stantially washed out. Louis-Philippe's decade saw
a vulgarization of curved lines, an unrestrained and
from Ackerman's Repository of the Arts,
Cooper Union Museum, New York City sometimes incoherent ornamentation, and, most sig-
891 REGENCY BED c. 1828.
nificantly, the acceptance of eclectic free choice as
a basis of design. Delacroix and other painters en-
amored of the Oriental theme set off a quest for the
picturesque. In furniture, it appears as spineless up-
holstery, a predominance of fabric over frame, soft
cushiony bulks distinguished only by rich covering
and exuberant tailoring. The debasement of furniture
design by the upholsterer is the most significant re-
vealing expression of the mid-19th century. The ar-
tisan-designer lost out to the machine. The ease of
producing applied ornament machined wood, molded,
892 REST BED, German, 1827.
stamped, embossed, electroplated, printed obscured
furniture mass and outline beneath the flood of
trimmings.
The frantic search forornament revived interest in
the Rococo, which had never really disappeared in
the provinces [975]. The neo-Rococo never caught the
finesse of the 18th century. Its curves were less re-
strained, failing of continuity and coarsened in carved
detail. This style was not without effect in Germany
and Austria, often with a special naive charm, some-
times more or less incongruously wedded to the
Riedermeier.
The English middle class, not immediately affected
by upheavals in Continental politics and manners,
came to dominate style in furniture during the first

half of the century, as they acquired wealth in the
893 BIEDERMEIER, 1800.

MID 19th CENTURY
ENGLISH FURNITURE
most expansive economy of its time. Sheraton died in

1806, leaving in his publications a total summary of
the achievements of Chippendale, Hepplewhite, the
Adams, and the 18th-century schools. Ackermann's
Repository of Art (1808) adds Thomas Hope and
George Smith to the style now labeled Regency, cov-
ering the decline of George III, George IV, and Wil-
liam IV up to the accession of Victoria in 1837. Re-
gency furniture includes a wide range of classical
motives Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and assorted hy-
brids. Designers' names disappeared, and architects
concerned themselves very little with furniture, so
894 BED c. 1870, Renaissance detail. 895 CONSOLE, Louis
the field was open for the manufacturer-designer of XIV inspiration. 896 REGENCY c. 1835. 897 LATE SHER-
commercial production, aimed at an unspecified, face- ATON, 1840 (?). 898 LOUIS XIV c. 1860 (?). 899 SCOT-
less clientele. Palace furniture and exhibition designs TISH BARONIAL c. 1880 (?). 900 BED, Neo-Gothic.
give a picture of overelaborate, strained designs that
are not representative of the mass of everyday
furniture.
NINETEENTH CENTURY
901 BIEDERMEIER, upholstery tour-de-force with Egyptian flavor. German c. 1850.
902 DETROIT c. 1865. Infinite variety in detail of parts, derived from Windsor, Empire,
and current English models. Millions of such chairs were made from 1840 to 1900.
Probably the best result of this agglomeration of

The onlyarchitects who showed any interest in fur- overblown craftsmanship was to make clear to a few
niture were proclaiming the heathenness of classicism the dishonesty of design ( 1 ) based entirely on pseudo-
and advocating a return to the Gothic. Augustus Pugin archaeology, and (2) using the machine to imitate
carried on the medievalism of his father in his work handwork. Three men Henry Cole, Owen Jones, Rich-
on the interiors of the Houses of Parliament. The ard Redgrave spurred a reform movement aimed at
Gothic Revival owes much to this impetus. But there understanding the directness of the machine process.
were conflicting arguments for such diverse styles Ruskin turned about from this point and reverted to
as the Elizabethan and the Jacobean, the Early French the Gothic of the hand and the simplest tools. His
Renaissance of Francois I, then the grandeurs of Louis circle, the Pre-Raphaelites, took in Eastlake and finally
XIV, and finally Orientalism. After 1835, the decline Morris, but this stream was an intellectual movement
in taste accelerated, reaching its climax in the Crystal that probably did not even run parallel to the main-
Palace Exhibition of 1851. stream of popular Victorian design. [532.]
AMERICAN CHAIRS, 1840-1880. Left to right: 903 BALLOON BACK, Louis XV deriva-
tion, 1850-1870. 904 LATE EMPIRE,
1840-1860, fruit and flower carving, haircloth, slip
seat. 905 PLANT STAND, marble top, 1850-1870. 906 RENAISSANCE ECHOES, round
cane seat, 1860-1875. 907 EASTLAKE INFLUENCE, 1870-1880, machined lines and carving.
The Crystal Palace Exhibition did call attention to
a widespread interest in technological experimentation
with methods and techniques as well as with ma-
chines. New materials
and new uses for materials were
examined. Metals were handled in new contexts, turn-
ing their known virtues to unfamiliar uses. Papier-
mache was at its height and was shown here with
inlays of mother-of-pearl, in the Islamic style. Michael

Thonet's bentwood technique was germinating about
this time in Vienna, his designs growing perfectly
logically from his process. His basic chairs appeared
before 1860; the technique may be considered one of
the outstanding furniture achievements of the century.
The great bulk of work of the century after 1840
was anonymous in design and commercial in produc-
tion. For several decades it remained conservatively
Renaissance [1120], stressing comfort, not overly dec-
orated (contrary to general opinion). After 1860,
Louis XIV yielded to Rococo, as in France. In the
provinces much of the Georgian of the prior half cen-
tury persisted as current style. Quite possibly much
of what is sold today as authentic antique may date
from this era of eclectic, painstaking copying of Tudor
and Queen Anne and Chippendale.
The reform influence was felt throughout the field
after 1880; but instead of turning toward better de-
sign, it sought variety. This bred stylism: probably the
superficially Oriental was strongest. As in France, the
neo-Renaissance gave way to suggestions from the
East, Near and Far, Turkish rooms, Persian and In-
dian themes. Just as Italy and Spain in the Renais-
sance had been influenced by Islam, as the Portu-
guese and Dutch in the 17th century brought home
reminiscences of India, and as the England of Queen
Anne and the early Georges reveled in chinoiserie,
Europe now exploited a mistaken idea of Oriental cul-
ture, including the Japanese. Harmless and imperma-
nent in Europe, its worst effect was to encourage
908 BENCH OR POUF for use in center of room. 909
CHAISE LONGUE. 910 BORNE OR ISLAND SEAT, no Oriental craftsmen to make "bazaar" rubbish.
wood exposed. 911 Sofa with mixed Renaissance-French de- It was France most of the changes in
that inspired
tail.
fashion as the political pendulum swung from Re-
ENGLISH UPHOLSTERY WORK, 1850-1880. public to Empire to Republic. Napoleon III and Eu-
From catalogue of Hampton and Sons, Furniture Collection of genie presided over a great revival of elegance, this
Grand Rapids Public Library
time with the upholsterer overriding the carver. A
species of Louis Quinze curvature with puffy uphol-
stering was the hallmark. There was tremendous ex-
pansion of the furniture vocabulary, as well as an
overemphasis on the furniture object in relation to
the main composition of the room.
economy and
In America, an explosively expanding
geography absorbed the French influence avidly, al-
though the Gothic Revival (roughly 1820-1850) took
more from English Pugin than from Viollet-le-Duc
[423]. Prior to that, the Federal style had merged
naturally into the Empire. After 1800, the classic of a fine business sense. Among hundreds of such enter-
Greece and Rome suited the philosophy and esthetic prises in New England after 1815, we single out Lam-
of the new Republic. Duncan Phyfe could not have bert Hitchcock in northern Connecticut for the mass
been alone in making the transition from Sheraton production of his famous "fancy" chair, the "poor
toThomas Hope; New England and the southern sea- man's Sheraton." Parts for these chairs went to Charles-
board saw the same evolution. French imports in- ton by the thousands for assembly and local sale. The
cluded not only fashion plates and furniture but also idea was too good for enterprising Yankees to leave
designer-craftsmen like Honore Lannuier. The Greek as a monopoly Drepperd is author-
to Hitchcock: Carl
Revival was the mainstream in architecture through ity for the estimate of over 8,000 American chairmak-
1850, and furniture followed closely. Neo-Gothic be- ers in1830-for 12,700,000 people.
gan to edge in after about 1830. Reacting to the The product of this far-flung industry varied by
formal symmetry of the Greek was the so-called "pic- whim. Much was derived from the Regency-Direc-
turesque." It aimed to be quaint, small-scaled, and toire shape familiarized by Phyfe and made machin-
personal. The prevalent wood construction took easily able by innumerable adapters clear to the Mississippi
to lacy cutout detail, to board-and-batten walls. In Valley. Their style ranged freely, and so did the scope
furniture, only a few details lent themselves to transfer of their production. Cabinets and case goods and
to the accepted comfortable outlines. beds came from everywhere in New England, central
Most significant here are the advent of power and New York and Pennsylvania, up the Great Lakes and
the machine. The designer-craftsmen stayed in the down the rivers. By 1870 some of these had become
eastern cities. Boston, New York, and Philadelphia set important industries serving the seaboard cities. Grand
the standards because they had the designers. Still, Rapids, Rockford, Jamestown, the factories in central
hundreds of new towns, settlements nearer the source Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and North Carolina all
of the woods, found that they could supply some of have their roots in such beginnings.
their furniture needs at home. They had wood and What they sought for design inspiration is a vague
power and a market right there. The design mattered story. There were a few itinerant designers who vis-
little; they copied in their fashion what they saw ited the plants long enough to leave a parcel of
and liked from the few pieces they had brought with sketches. How well they wrought is conjectural be-
them, and they found they could do things with their cause the product of the era generally indicates a
lathes and saws and primitive shapers that were dif- ruthless adaptation to the vicissitudes of the mechani-
ferent, which is in itself a virtue in the American cal production process. The Late Empire, Louis
ethos. Individuality was the keynote, coupled with Quinze Victorian, Eastlake and the neo-Renaissance,
Brooklyn Museum
912 BELTER CHAIR c. 1865. Back carved in laminated

rosewood.
912A, 912B DRESSER AND BED c. 1860, by Belter. Lam-

inated rosewood.

913 Left. VIENNA c. 1850. Thonet's first work simulated Late Regency design. 914 Center.
BED c. 1890 (?). Exuberant manipulation of the bending technique in beech and cane.
915 Right. Thonet's basic chair after 1860, the forecast of functional directness.
Photographs, University of California (Los Angeles) Art Department
Mission and Colonial revivals were freely adapted began to turn out miles of simple turnings, like the
and accepted with a generally specious critique. "spool,"which found its way into the spool bed about
Techniques outran design. Molding took the shapes 1850. Routing and simple carving imitated plastic
that the machine found natural, and carvings made ornament. Veneer cutting was simplified and cheap-
separately and stuck on were just as effective if made ened. Lamination may have originated with Belter,
of composition. Turning and shaping developed vir- whose highly modeled chairbacks were carved into
tuosity. Sheer bulk of wood made for grandeur, and crossbanded layers of rosewood. Laminated panels
multiplication of themes for richness. The develop- were made by former "box-and-shook" mills in New
ment of plywood permitted larger surfaces that lent England, although it was several decades before ade-
themselves to adornment with figured veneers. quate adhesives made plywood trustworthy.
If the status of the designer was ambiguous, that The inventor had his field day in the 19th century.
of the inventor or the technician never was ques- Thousands of patents were granted for mechanical
tioned. The latter improved machines and found furniture whose uselessness was second only to com-
things for them to do. Early in the power era, lathes manufacture or operation. A favorite subject
plexity of
was the bed that retreated into a piano, a bookcase,
916 GRAND RAPIDS c. 1880, by Berkey and Gay. American a or another bed, sometimes accom-
library table,
interpretation called Eastlake style. This assimilates about ev-
panied by dressing tables or a few incidental ac-
erything the reformers decried. Richly ornamented with inlay
and painting, it typifies the lavish, superior craftsmanship of cessories. There were trick chairs, desks, dressers, and
the time. 916A MAHOGANY TABLE with inlaid top. therapeutic devices. Few worked and few went past
American c. 1881. 917 GRAND RAPIDS,
c. 1898. The mass-
the patent papers, but the enthusiasm recorded for
production low-price end of the scale resorted to bulk and
machine virtuosity. them in print gave them a life of their own.
916A 917
Brooklyn Museum
916
Both photographs, Furniture Collection of Grand Rapids
Public Library
NINETEENTH CENTURY
918, 919, 920, 921 GRAND RAPIDS, 1876. Bedroom furniture by Berkey
and Gay. Craftsmanship of a very high level, comparable to the best
European work. Distance from design sources expressed in undisciplined
composition of decorative elements, restrained only when the ceiling was
reached. In wood-poor countries a good bedstead could be made out of
the lumber in one siderail. In 1876, a woman's dress may have consumed 922 ALSACE c. 1890. Jacobean theme in
40 yards of material. decoration of a cabinet. Stepped top for
display of objets d'art.
921A DESK, 1878, American. Brooklyn Museum
The large cities did not give up the premium mar- I

ket.There remained in many of the larger centers an
important cabinetmaking industry that closely fol-
lowed European fashions and maintained a high level
of craftsmanship. Most of this work reproduced the
classic French, English, and Italian antiques, more
or less faithfully. Most museum American
exhibits of
Victoriana show this phase rather than the commercial

product of the time.
923 GERMANY. Early 20th century buffet showing influence

of decorative reform movement. 924 GRAND RAPIDS, 1887.
Bedroom furniture "designed in the manner of Richardson."
925 ENGLISH, cottage style. Board construction recalls East-
lake Gothic. 926 MICHIGAN, 1892. Desk-bookcase of "golden
oak" a functional idea, with unrelated decorative elements
inexpertly composed.
Furniture Collection of Grand Rapids Public Library
Brooklyn Museum
924B
Original design in America had little success. Clos-

est to a domestic idiom was the Mission style, arising
after 1895 from two sources: (1) the crudely direct

work of the Spanish missions to the Indians in the
Southwest; 2 ) the English cottage or Arts and Crafts'
(
Movement. Dissimilar as these two may appear to be,

their reduction to basics coincided superficially with
the functional gropings of the Chicago School of archi-
tecture. The furniture efforts lacked the appeal and
stamina of the architectural philosophy that presently
blossomed in the work of Sullivan, Wright, and other
forerunners of the 20th century. The Mission with-
ered before the onset of World War
So had an abor- I.
tive neo-Colonial about 1900, the Art Nouveau, and

a cottage Louis Quinze bird's-eye maple, various adap-
tations of Jacobean and Adam and Italian Renaissance.
The tenures of such styles were brief and overlapping.
After the war there were recurrent revivals of all
these, along with a Spanish craze generated by a Flor-

ida land boom. The Early American theme in its sim-
pler versions rose to dominance, side by side with
well-studied schools of 17th- and 18th-century English
and Provincial French.
\u- and i
haiever their rclati wen
I hardly '
itry things
naturally i
. .mi- n ilion, a
927 CRAFTSMAN FURNITURE, 1898.

Utility to the point of crudeness. Mission's
lack of grace doomed it to a brief doc-
trinaire appreciation; nevertheless it attained
wide distribution.
Page from The Craftsman magazine
I 1
NONESUCH 326 ORDERS
NONESUCH; NONSUCH (English). Chest showing OGEE. molding having a cyma or double
Classical
in inlay a representation of the castle of Nonesuch curve; also, two S-shaped curves, the convex curves
built by Henry VIII. The typical picture, however, meeting at a point or fillet, as used in the sides of
appears in chests of the time from Germany and an arch. Ogee-headed panels are found in Georgian
Scandinavia. casework, and in the tracery of bookcase and cabinet
doors. See also molding. [40.]
NORMAN. Style of the French conquerors of Eng-
land after 1066; a rugged, bold, large-scaled manner OGEE BRACKET FOOT. Cabinet foot with cyma
Romanesque, employing the sparing orna-
basically reversa profile, found in American and some English
ment and hard outlines of medieval fortress archi- work, late 18th century. See also goddard. [1045.]
tecture.
OGIVE; OGIVAL. Pointed arch, distinctly Gothic.
NORMANDY. Furniture of the province of Normandy,
in France, has a simple, refined rustic character some- OLIVE WOOD. Hard, close-grained wood, greenish-
what reminiscent of the product of Colonial New yellow in color, with irregular dark markings. It takes
England. See also France; provincial. a high polish. It has been used by the Mediterranean
peoples since time immemorial, as indicated by Egyp-
NOTCHING. Simple form of decoration found in tian, Greek, and Romanremains and documents. It
primitive woodwork. is found as inlaysand veneers in furniture of the
French Renaissance, and of England after Late Stuart
NULLING. Quadrant-shaped (in section) carved or- times. English Regency and Continental Empire styles
nament, similar to gadrooning. favored the burl figures. Ash burl is often substituted
for the olive.
NURSERY. Furniture specially designed for infants
and small children, including bassinets and cribs, ONION FOOT. Oval-shaped cabinet foot.
bath tables, high chairs, diminutive chairs and tables,
toy chests and wagons, etc. ONLAY. Overlav; decorative applique, as of veneers.
[918.]
co*Mice
OPPENORD, GILLES-MARIE, 1672-1742. French

cabinetmaker and designer, Louis XV style.
OAK. Coarse-textured, hard, durable wood valuable ORDERS. The orders of architecture are the stand-
for woodworking. It occurs everywhere in the tem- ardized ornamental types of columns, with their as-
perate zones, in a wide range of varieties. The north- sociated bases, capitals, pedestals, entablatures, etc.
ern part of Europe was originally covered with oak, They are based on the Greek and Roman remains,
so that practically all Gothic work is in this wood. Its
displacement by walnut and other woods in Germany

and Europe north of central France occurred in the
17th century. It is the typical wood of all the Gothic
styles, of the Tudor and Jacobean styles in England,
and the Early Renaissance in Flanders and Germany.
ORERKAMPF, CHRISTOPHE PHILIPPE, 1738-

1815. French textile manufacturer, creator of the
de jouy.
toiles
OCCASIONAL TARLE. Small table for incidental

use, as coffee and tea tables, end tables, book tables,
lamp tables, and other less definite uses.
OEREN, JEAN-FRANCOIS (died 1765). French

ebeniste, an outstanding designer of Louis Rococo XV
style. Made celebrated "Rureau du Roi," completed
by his pupil Riesener.
ORDEE 4S
CLOCK
ORNAMENT
OMENTAL 327
having been originally by Vitruvius during

classified
the reign of Julius Caesar. He defined three Greek
orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and five
Roman orders, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
and Composite, reducing the proportions and profiles
of each surface, molding,and ornament to exact rules.
Later Roman and Ryzantine work deviated increas-
ingly from these standards until they were completely
lost, to be rediscovered and revitalized in the
Renaissance.
The significance of the orders in furniture design
lies in the application of architectural forms by Renais-
sance designers. Case furniture of all types was pro-
filed with base and cornice moldings, and increas- Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage
ingly the column form was used as applied and, later,

930 PERSIAN (SHIRAZ; JEWEL BOX, 19th century. Wood
inlaid with ivory.
free-standing ornament. Vertical members like table
legs were made into miniature columns. The whole
structural significance of the orders was lost in their
universal use as applied ornament. This idea of try-
ing to make a piece of furniture resemble a scale
model of a building reappears in every revival of
classicism. In contrast is the homogeneity of the de-
signwhose ornamentation is an essential part of the
whole structural method, exemplified in Gothic and
French Rococo furniture.
ORIENTAL. The Near East has produced relatively

little major furniture. Furnishings in the Islamic lands
depend mainly on carpets and fabrics; the small tables,
low seats, and small cabinets look portable and have
jewel-like decoration of inland ivory and pearl or of
representational painting [174]. Mosque furniture is
more commonly found, and includes reading desks

and Koran stands with fine ritual decoration of flat
delicate carving and inlay. Farther east, India and
adjacent lands show little furniture in the European
sense until the 18th century. Wood and ivory turning Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Robert W. de Forest, 1910
were old accomplishments, and Indian themes of grill- 930A SCREEN, EGYPTO-ARABIC, 14th to 15th centuries.
work of turned members entered the European ver-

nacular through trade with the Portuguese and Dutch. 931 SYRIAN (DAMASCUS) CHEST, 18th century. Walnut,
carved and inlaid with mother-of-pearl.
Where Chinese influence and taste enters, we meet Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1
a very ancient knowledge of furniture. Drawings and

clay models remaining from earliest history show
everyday use of tables and chairs and cabinets, but
remains of actual furniture in China cannot be dated
before the 14th century. (See china.) In the Japa-
nese royal treasure stores, however, there are pieces
of Chinese furniture of the 7th and 8th centuries that
are not too different from known Chinese work of
the Ming and Ching dynasties- 1368-1644 and 1644-
1912 respectively.
ORIENTALWOOD; ORIENTAL WALNLT. Austra-

lian wood of the laurel family; brown with blackish
stripes and cross figures and mottles. Polishes well and
is generally desirable for furniture. Also called
"Queensland walnut."
328 ORIENTAL
933
932 CARVED WOOD, Chinese, 18th century.

Charles Grade and Sons
933 TABLE, Chinese, 19th century. Lacquered wood inlaid
with mother-of-pearl.
934 THRONE, Chien Lung, 1736-1795. Carved lacquer.

Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright 934

*zr^jZ^"-
.
m i
^~i> -1.:
11 SL I
!
1 ,<-
-
\hjf
- -~ -. . - H
Charles Grade and Sons

936 KOREAN CHEST, 17th century. Framed burl panels
with brass butterfly hinges. Painted screen background.
935 SCREEN, carved and lacquered. Charles Grade and Sons
937 ORMOLU, French Empire. French ir Co., Inc.
ORMOLU. From the French or moulu; gilded brass

or copper mounts for furniture principally used by
the French ebenistes of the 18th century, and the
followers of their styles. [368, 417, 937.]
ORNAMENT. The term "ornament" applies to every

manner of embellishment to make one surface con-
trast with another, whether consciously applied or
intrinsic in the nature of the material or design. Orna-
ment is achieved by means of color, texture, or relief.
Certain more or less conventionalized forms used as
the basis of ornamental designs are called motifs.
Color ornament may be contrast in surfaces or it
may be applied to a surface in the form of designs.

These may be painted or inlaid; in textiles, printed,
woven, embroidered, etc. Texture of the quality of
the surface may be varied by the combination of
woods, metals, etc.; in fabrics of monotone color the
weave may be interrupted or varied; woods are inlaid
with metals or other woods for contrasting texture;
metal and glass surfaces are varied to yield contrasts.
Relief ornament is accomplished by cutting into or
building up the background surface in forms of recog-
nizable design. This implies carving in high and low
relief, scratch-and-gouge carving, molding, etc.; also
their imitations in composition, stucco, applied relief
ornaments, etc. 938 ORMOLU, Louis XVI commode. Dalva Brothers, Inc.
Motifs are produced spontaneously or borrowed

and modified by peoples at various times. The manner
of treating ornamental motifs is always characteristic
of a people or their style, and serves as an index
to the style. Certain motifs have been used since dim
antiquity, yet the individual variations are an unfail-
ing guide to the time and place. Motives are classed
as abstract or naturalistic. Abstract forms grow from
ORNAMENT 330 OYSTER PIECES; OYSTERING
simple imaginative use of lines, as circles, triangles, nation with moldings; also all-over patterns, diapers,
dots, crosses, etc., in rhythmic repetitions. Naturalistic and other rhythmic repeat designs. The Renaissance
ornament derives from the representation of visual scrapped the Gothic system and resurrected the an-
things, chiefly plants and animals. These may be real- cient patterns, but quickly changed them to their
istic or conventionalized, according to whether they means and fancy, so that Renaissance classicism is
truly pictorialize the object or merely symbolize it in usually distinguishable from the antique. The Raroque-
more or less recognizable simplification. Rococo extreme of
styles carried modification to the
The simplest structural form may be considered losing sight of the source and creating a wholly dis-
ornamental, if it is adapted in the slightest way to tinct category of ornaments. Revival after revival has
uses other than pure structure. Thus an arch is orna- only used the old as a starting point; the ornament of
mental any other than the true stone structural
if every period is finally the index to that period.
principle is employed. A column treated with bases,
capital, fluting, etc., is ornamented, but the use of OTTOMAN. Upholstered seat or bench having neither
the column itself in furniture is ornamental. All archi- back nor arms; so named after the Turkish influence
tectural forms reproduced in furniture may be con- in the early 18th century. During the English
[908.]
sidered ornament. The use on furniture of ornaments Regency period "ottoman" seems to have had a spe-
planned for the embellishment of buildings is simi- cial connotation of a divan. Ackermann's Repository
larly architectural, but the scaling-down process has of the Arts (1817) shows a form of overstuffed sofa
developed a distinct sequence of ornamental forms. with back and arms.
Certain styles, such as the Renaissance and other clas-
sic revivals that look backward to ancient times, em- OUDRY, JEAN-RAPTISTE. 18th-century French de-
ploy these architectural forms; others, like the Gothic signer; as director of Gobelin works after 1736, he
and phases of the Rococo, derive their ornamental influenced Rococo style.
character from the deft manipulation of lines, planes,
color, and organic details. OVAL RACK. Chair shape, best developed by Hep-
Ancient Egypt conventionalized its flora and fauna plewhite somewhat after French precedent. [295.]
in paint and sculpture. Animal forms, such as bulls'
feet and lions' heads and paws, and flowers like the OVERLAY. Ornamental veneer applied upon the
lotus, were used on furniture. Greece and Rome en- surface rather than inlaid into a veneer surface.
larged the list, developing the acanthus leaf, the water
leaf, lions, eagles, ox skulls, flowers and fruits in gar- OVERMANTEL (Mirror or Panel). Chimneypiece
lands and festoons, mythological or partly real animals dominating room design called for an important ele-
and figures as chimeras, grotesques, satyrs, caryatids, ment over fireplace. Trumeau was one such develop-
etc.; also compounds of lines such as flutings, dentils, ment, with mirror subordinate to carving and painted
scrolls, volutes, etc.; and repeated motives in rhythms areas. Horizontal emphasis appeared in the late 18th
like rinceaux, eggs-and-darts, guilloches, undulating century in English and American work.
vines, etc.; also breaks in planes and surfaces, such as
moldings, panels, coffers. Gothic art deviated from OVERSTUFFED FURNITURE. Chairs, sofas, etc.,
these conventionalized classes by working out at first in which the wood frame is completely covered by
hand a series of naturalistic representations of familiar the upholstery, only minor decorative woodwork being
fruits and flowers, grotesque animals, etc., in combi- exposed. See also upholstery.
OVOLO. Convex classical profile, usually the full

quarter of a circle. When enriched with the egg-and-
dart molding, it is known as "echinus." Roth the plain
and garnished types occur in much Renaissance de-
tail. See also molding.
OYSTER PIECES; OYSTERING. Veneers cut as

cross sections of roots and branches of some trees,
such as walnut and laburnum saplings, lignum vitae,
olive wood, and some fruitwoods. The irregular con-
centric rings resemble oyster shells. A favorite device
of the English designers from the end of the Jacobean
period to the end of the 17th century. [360, 815.]
PAD FOOT 331 PAINTED FURNITURE
roque Rococo ornamentation with land-
style displays
PAD FEET scapes, floral arabesques and grotesques,
panels,
elaborating on the French Rococo manners of Watteau,
Pillement, etc., with Chinese themes liberally inter-
spersed. Colors are light and bright. The Louis XVI
style brought delicate pastel shades, gray and white.
Painted furniture reached its apogee in Italy about
the end of the 18th century in the so-called Venetian
PAD FOOT. Simple flattish end of a cabriole leg, sim- style. [161, 340, 466, 781, 1043, 1055, 1073, 1163,
ilar to club foot without the disk at the base. [572.] 1327.]
In provincial work painting substituted for carving.
PADAUK; PADOUK. Vermilion, or Andaman red- The naturalistic painting in Pennsylvania Dutch work
wood; a heavy brilliant wood from Burma, having the echoes the motives carved in wood in Germany; com-
texture and polish of rosewood. Appears to have pare painted Pennsylvania chest 347 with its German
reached Europe early in the 18th century and to have prototype 346, or the two Dutch Kas 798 and 799. ( See
been used extensively by the French ebenistes. In Eng- also 22. ) Special painting techniques were invented out
land the solid wood was used for fretwork. of necessity as well as from fancy. Such were the gold-
powder stencils of Hitchcock, as well as the imitation
PAGODA. Temple or sacred tower in Burma and rosewood widely used in his time [78, 543]. Graining
China. The Chinese influence popularized their dis- in imitation of wood was practiced on and off after
tinctive sweeping roof shape as the crowning motif Gothic times, and where brushes were scarce devices
for cabinets, canopies, etc., in England and France,
18th century. [409.]
PAUVTED FURNITURE. Any opaque colored finish

on wood, hiding the actual wood grain, whether lac-
quer, enamel, or simple paint, decorated or plain. The
practice of painting furniture is very old. Most Egyp-
tian relics are painted, and much of the furniture of

the Far East is finished in lacquer. Medieval furniture
was liberally polychromed; in this age appeared the
practice of painting common woods in imitation of
rarer ones. Naturalistic motives supplemented sten-
ciled conventionalization. Florentine work of the 15th
century developed a style of pictorial decoration over
gesso [755]. Painted furniture spread from here
throughout Italy, and by the 17th century over all
Europe, lingering in provincial districts and emerging
as distinct styles. Most 17th-century work on important
Liebhold Wallach
furniture followed Chinese themes, but distinct pro-
vincial mannerisms appeared in the Alpine styles in 940 AUSTRIAN, 19th century (?). Headboard painted in Ba-
roque manner. 941 BLANKET CHEST, New York State,
Switzerland, in Alsace, and in Scandinavian lands. c. 1825. Dark green ground with polychrome floral decoration.
Settecento ( 18th-century ) work Ba-

in Italy in a free The small trunk from New Hampshire has a black ground.
939 PENNSYLVANIA, dower chest painted 941 Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
early-19th century
brown over red on pine.
v~:j:
PALISANDER 332
likesponge painting were resorted to. See also gilding,-

MARBLEIZING; POLYCHROME.
PALISANDER. French name for rosewood, particu-

larly the straight-grained varieties from India.
PALLADIO, ANDREA, 1518-1580. Italian archi-

tect;formulated a free version of the classic orders,
which he used in domestic architecture in northern
Italy. His published work most strongly influenced
England and America. Several features,
architecture in ^ _ Bruce Buttfield
such as Palladian windows and columns, perpetuate

943 PAPIER-MACHE ARTICLES of American workmanship,
1845-1870.
his name.
tides, late 17th and 18th centuries. In the early 19th
PALMATED. In Stuart oak furniture, a running band century it had a great vogue in Europe and America;
of half circles containing a crude leaf form, resem- tabletops, boxes, trays, etc., of papier-mache being
bling palmettes. decorated with Eastern designs. [328, 616, 943.]
PALMETTE. Conventional representation of the palm PARCEL GILDING. Method of applying gilt to
leaf. First known in Assyrian and Egyptian work, and carved or flat surfaces in which only parts of the de-
adapted in subsequent styles. sign are gilded. General after 15th century.
PANEL. Board held in place by a framework of rails PARCHMENT PANEL. Linenfold paneling.
and stiles that are grooved to receive it. The sunken
panel has its surface beneath that of the framework, PARQUETRY. Mosaic of woods laid over a ground
the edges of the panel not necessarily molded. The in geometric patterns, in which respectit differs from
flush panel has the same height as the frame, and is marquetry, which is in more pictorial designs. In
usually molded; the raised panel always molded.
is earlier work it was inlaid directly into the solid wood,
Modern plywood boards are spoken of as panels. Pan- especially in Italian and French work, and in England
eled effects are sometimes secured by framed moldings in Age of Walnut. In Louis XV and equivalent Eng-
or painted frames. [455.] lish and Italian work, it reached great virtuosity. [377,
448, 944.]
PANEL-RACK CHAIR. Wainscot chair.
PANETIERE. Bread box, especially decoratively ^SSZd CYUNDER ESK '

L l ' iS
'
tuUpWO d
treated. French Provincial. [942.] French 6- Co., 7nc.
PAPIER-MACHE. Molded compound

sometimes
used as a base for small japanned and lacquered ar-
942 PANETIERE, 18th century Provincial French.
Etux C. Putting
PATERA 333
PATERA. Small round or oval carved ornaments. In

the latter half of the 18th century, the classic revivals,
such as the Adam and Louis XVI styles, brought
paterae to the decoration of friezes, chair splats, mir-
ror crestings, and many other things.
PATINA; PATINE. Color and texture of the surface

produced by age and wear. In wood furniture the
varnish, shellac, or oil has a tendency to deepen, yet
retains transparency; edges wear smooth, and sharp
outlines are softened. These characteristics may be
duplicated to some extent, but a fine patine is a most
essential characteristic of good antiques.
PEAR-DROP HANDLE. Small brass pendant drawer

950, 950A VICTORIAN PEDESTALS.
pull, typical of late-17th-century English work.
PEDESTALS IN THE
PEAR-DROP ORNAMENT. Frieze decoration in
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART
Hepplewhite and Sheraton work. A series of small 946 GILDED WOOD, period of Louis XVI.
arches ending in pendant ornaments.
947 BOULLE STYLE, GAINES, ebony and
brass. 948 FRENCH GOTHIC, oak, 16th
century. 949 ITALIAN, 16th century, sga-
PEARWOOD. Hard, close-grained wood; takes a fine bello type, walnut. 951 ITALIAN RO-
polish. Found chiefly in provincial furniture, espe- COCO, 1730-1750.
cially in France, Austria, and South Germany, 18th 949 Roger* Fund, 1944 Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
and 19th centuries. The color in old pearwood furni-

ture varies from light, warm tannish pink to a medium
tobacco brown. The best furniture pearwood comes
from the Tyrol. It is also used extensively for inlaying,
often stained black to imitate ebony.
PEDESTAL. Stands for vases, candelabra, or lamps,

sculpture or other objets d'art appeared as decorative
adjunct during the Renaissance. They are found in
block form and in simple shaft types, resting on bases
of solid or branched form. In some styles they have Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan
been adapted to utilitarian purposes as the sideboard
pedestals of 18th-century England, fitted with warm-
ing chambers, provision for storage of silver, liquor,
Rogers Fund, 1948 1 '" '
etc. Banks of drawers carrying flattop desks are called
pedestals. [637, 881, 946.]

Gift of Edouard Jonas, 1922
PEDESTAL DESK.
top,
Banks of drawers carrying a
such as a writing or library table. Best develop-
flat
1
ment in England after mid- 18th century. [604, 945.]
945 PEDESTAL DESK, English c. 1750. Arthur S. Vemay, Inc.
4
1
1
PEDESTAL TABLE 334
PEDESTAL TABLE. Table, usually round or oval,

borne on a single central column or pillar with spread-
ing feet. Pedestals are also used in pairs. Ancient
Roman types were made in bronze. The type recurs
extensively in late-18th-century English designs,
chiefly by Sheraton, after whom Duncan Phyfe mod-
eled some superior designs. [952, 983, 1233, 1386,
1390.]
PEDIMENT. In classical architecture, the triangular

top over a portico or gable end. In furniture, a similar
feature at the head of cabinets or other tall pieces.
The pediment came to furniture with the rest of the

architectural repertoire. Italian furniture after the 16th
century, French after the 17th, and English furniture Museum of the City of New York
at the end of the 17th century employ this feature in 952 PEDESTAL TABLE, American Empire, c. 1825. Mahog-
any, marble inset in top.
the classical triangular and rounded forms, and as
Baroque broken pediments. In these the line stops
short before the apex, leaving a gap for an ornamental
finial. The swan-neck pediment consists of two op-
posed flat S curves.
POU&IE HOODED PEDIMENT
SWAN MBCK PfDIMStfr

Israel Sack, Inc.
953 PEMBROKE TABLE, American Chippendale, c. 1765.

Pierced cross stretcher. 954 HEPPLEVVHITE PEMBROKE
TABLE, inlaid mahogany. Baltimore, c. 1790.

PEG. Wood pin or dowel run through a hole in the
corresponding member as a fastener or joint. Peg gen-
erally implies an exposed peg; such a joint is not
necessarily better than the universal blind peg or
dowel. They are used as decorative notes in reproduc-
tions of simple sturdy furniture, such as Colonial
maple, etc.
PEMBROKE TABLE. Small rectangular drop-leaf

table with drawer, the leaves supported by brackets in
the frame. Earliest recorded, made by Chippendale for
Garrick about 1771. Named after the Earl of Pem-
broke. [953, 1235.]
PENDANT. Hanging ornament or drop. [737.]

335 PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH
PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH. Eastern Pennsylvania
was largely settled in the 18th century by German
and Swiss peasants, with a sprinkling of Swedish and
Dutch. Uninfluenced by the English styles of the sea-
board, they reproduced the homely straightforward
cabinetwork of their homelands, adapting the tradi-
tional ancient forms and methods to their slightly
changed needs and materials. Using the native pine,
maple, walnut, cherry, and other fruit trees, they sim-
plified rather than expanded the ornamental vocabu-
lary of their ancestors. Turning and shaped-outline
sawing, such as scallops and zigzags, and scratch-and-
gouge carving and simple vigorous molding were
955
employed, but most decorative effects were obtained
by painting. Clean colors were used and embellished
with naive, fanciful motives of fruits and flowers, ani-
mals, people, names and dates, etc. The usual range
of farmhouse chairs and tables, chests, cabinets, beds,
etc., occur, but there were in addition some unique
types. Bridal chests are outstanding; workboxes, knead-

ing tables, hanging cabinets and boxes for pipes,
spoons, spices, etc., are distinctive, and comparatively
unknown in settlements of other national origins. The
basic imported types were only slightly changed with
the passing of generations, and outside influences
PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH FURNITURE

956
Three photographs, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Photograph bt/ Andrew Wyatt

957
955 ROCKING HORSE,painted wood, 19th cen-
tury. 956 CRADLE, pine and walnut, mid-18th
century. 957 WALNUT CHEST OF DRAWERS,
mid- 18th century. 958 PAINTED CHAIR c.
1810. 959 MARRIAGE CHEST, dated 1784.
Painted dark red with white panels.
PERCIER, CHARLES 336 PERIOD FURNITURE
scarcely touched them for almost 150 years. This qual-

recognizable period in history, school, or time.
slow change, as well as the directness and na-
style,
ity of
ivete of the designs, is typical of all peasant or rural
The special characteristic of historical periods may be
styles.
woods or finishes; manner of inlaying, painting, carv-
corrupted from the word Deutsch, or ing; distinctive bulks or details, such as legs, posts,
The name is
German, as these Teutonic people described them- frames, hardware, or many of the details that distin-
selves, rather than from any Holland Dutch associa-

guish the style of one place or time from another. The
tion. [15, 42, 161, 320, 347, 450, 955, 1110, 1331.]
characteristic types of a place may be borrowed by
another of the same or another time, producing
PERCIER, CHARLES, 1764-1838. French architect. through its interpretation another style. Thus the
Gothic period has distinct character in separated
In collaboration with Pierre Fontaine formulated the
Empire style in their books published 1801. See also lands; the Gothics of Italy, France, Germany, Flan-
EMPIRE; FRANCE. [311, 1338.] ders, and England are separate and have
distinct, yet
certain points in common. The Renaissance as a major

PERGOLESI, MICHEL ANGELO. Italian decorative period is separable into Early, High, and Late, with
artist. He arrived in England about 1770 and worked minor separations in various countries, but it must
for Robert Adam as a painter of ceilings, walls, fur- also be classified by the country that lends its furni-
niture, etc., in the classic manner. Published a series ture distinctive traits. The Raroque, Rococo, and
of Original Designs, painting motifs. [604.] styles of classicism are large classifications of period
furniture, too comprehensive to be descriptive; there-
PERIOD FURNITURE. Furniture of a distinctly fore the further distinction of exact time and place.
jameiI casx' jAderJT / QaR6eI C&>ff GU>M-Gl Ot-Gl IV - VICTOR A I

x CAfTUl
EW-AJIN^ x MOW!
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PHILADELPHIA CHIPPENDALE
PIE CRUST TILT Top
PHILADELPHIA CmPPENPALE
960 PHILADELPHIA CHIPPENDALE HIGH-

BOY, c. 1750. Walnut, broken arch top with flame
finials. The American Rococo reached a climax
in this school.
Israel Sack, Inc.
PHILADELPHIA CHIPPENDALE. Distinct school

of mid-18th century centering in Philadelphia, then a outstanding names are Savery, Gostelowe, Randolph,
center of Colonial wealth, and following the elaborate Affleck, Tufft, Colwell, Trotter. Notable are highboys
style of Chippendale in fine mahogany, with some and lowboys and chairs of characteristic Chippendale
walnut and maple. Rich carving is characteristic: the outline. [37,278,414,738.]
PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY 338
PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY. Family of woods from

the Philippines botanically unrelated to American
Swietenia or African Khaya, so-called true mahoganies.
Philippine varieties, such as red and white lauan, tan-
guille, almon, bagtikan, have some characteristics of
mahogany, including similarity in texture and grain, V >'*y< /She,
color and coloring capacities, versatile pattern possi-

2s
bilities, strength and firmness, resistance to disease
and decay; great virtue and adaptability in themselves

9
tie****,
3f
but not subject to disguise, as the differences are ob-
vious to a moderately informed viewer. A great ply- <
./S>
wood industry has arisen in the source countries of \ 7nt6t
these woods; and the product is offered under many

names, principally for interior finish, boatbuilding, etc.
In furniture it from a denigrating com-
suffers unjustly
petition with mahogany, and could probably achieve
popularity on its own merits.
PHYFE, DUNCAN. Duncan Phyfe's earliest work was

done in Albany in the Adam-Hepplewhite style of John S. Walton, Inc.
sound but undistinguished design. Arriving in New 961 DUNCAN PHYFE'S BILL to Mr. Montgomery Living-
ston, March, 1813.
York about 1790, he built up an excellent trade with
his exquisite workmanship and designs based on the furniture, American or European, to excel in beauty
Sheraton-Directoire manner. His productions in the or technique the grace of these interpretations. After
best style cover about 20 years; there is little in any 1820, the Empire styles bore down too heavily even
on and from that date on there was a
his mastery,
steady decline in both artistry and quality. Phyfe died
in 1854.
962 PHYFE CARD TABLE, from the Rhett family, Charles- Phyfe's earlier work was almost exclusively in ma-
ton, South Carolina.
hogany, meticulously chosen. After 1830 he used much
Cinsburg and Levy
rosewood. The lyre motive commonly associated with
Phyfe appears in chairbacks and table bases. Deli-
cately carved lines were favored, with fine reedings
or flutings to accentuate lightness. Carving of leaves,
plumes, and animal motives were lightly executed
after the Pompeiian example. [63, 189, 309, 961, 1091,
1137, 1259.]
PIANO. Housing of musical instruments was an im-

portant branch of cabinetmaking from its earliest
days. During the Renaissance the development of in-
struments like the clavichord, the harpsichord, etc., was
accompanied by rising extravagance in case design,
culminating in Baroque compositions of monumental
grandeur. Typical refinement and restraint came with
the Classic Revival. Late-18th-century English work
is chaste and often superlatively appropriate, as in
the spinets of Late Georgian England and Federal

America. After 1830 recurred a tendency to Baroque
scale and ornamentation that persisted through the
19th century. Mass production and price competition
reduced the importance and quality of casework to
the contemporary view of the piano as an instrument
to be housed in an unadorned functional case. [881,
966.]
PICKLED FINISHES 339 PILASTERS
963 SHERATON-STYLE SOFA attributed to Duncan Phyfe, New York, c. 1800. Israel Sack, Inc.
PICKLED FINISHES. Cloudy white patina over light signs and highly polished for use as tabletops, etc.
wood, originally produced by the removal with vin- Italian Renaissance et seq.
egar of the plaster base of painted wood. Old English
painted furniture usually had a pine structure (for PIGEONHOLES. Manifold small compartments m
reasons of economy). The rough surfaces were desks and cabinets for papers, etc. [1386.]
smoothed out with plaster, which remained when the
top paint fell away. The effect is now widely repro- PILASTERS. Rectangular or half-round pillar or
duced on many woods. See also lime-whitened. column placed against a surface.
PICTURE FRAMES. See frame; mirror.
PIECRUST TARLE. Small table, usually round with

966 PIANO, American, 1830 John S. Walton, Inc.
edge carved or molded in scalloped outline.
PIED-DE.RICHE. French for "deer's foot"; slight

curvature applied to a leg, ending in a cloven foot.
Forerunner of the cabriole leg, occurring in Late Louis
XIV-Regence work and in contemporary English fur-
niture.
PIER GLASSES AND TARLES. Wall mirror hang-

ing between windows or in a narrow space, usually
over a table of console type. See also mirror. [872,
895, 967.]
PIERCED CARVING. Openwork carving in Gothic

tracery; Baroque and Rococo detailing, as in chair-
backs, crestings, aprons; 19th century, as in chairs.
[624.]
PIETRA DURA. Hard composition of fragments of

marble and other fine stones, usually arranged in de-
** :
'
'
.
PILGRIM 340
Needhams Antiques, Inc.

965 PLANTER, English Sheraton, c. 1790.
PILGRIM. The style of the New England Puritans,

17th century. [6, 137.]
PILLEME1VT, JEAN, 1719-1808. French decora-

tive painter known for Chinese compositions.
PILLOWR \CK. Top rail of sharp elliptical section,

distinctive in Hitchcock chairs.
PIIVE. The pine used in furniture is the soft

chiefly
pine, generally the white pine of the northeastern
states, the sugar pine of Idaho, and the soft pine of
the Pacific Coast. European pines are used locally;
Spain, Italy, the Alpine lands, the Scandinavian and
North European countries produce distinct varieties.
By reason of its availability, its ease of working, and
satisfactory performance, pine is among the first woods
chosen, especially for provincial or rustic work. This
trait is distinctive of pine; it is invariably associated
with simple country furniture, with the exception of
its use, inspiredby economy, as a base for painting
or veneering. Of the latter, 18th-century English work
is the outstanding example, since the loss of the paint
leaves an interesting whitish patina. (See lime-
whitened; pickled finishes. ) The knots were allowed
to remain where they were, to be painted over; knotty
pine was probably never deliberately used for deco-
rative effects prior to the age of reproductions. In
Spain the reddish pine of the mountainous sections
Olicicri
967 PIER GLASS AND CONSOLE, was used in inferior cabinetwork; the same holds true
Italian, end of 18th century.
in Italy. Alpine cabinetmakers traditionally used pine
PINEAPPLE 341 PLATE WARMER
PLANT STAND; PLANTER. Receptacle for potted
plants, common in Victorian work and later; often
with metal linings and in a wide diversity of shapes.
[965.]
PLAQUE. Ornamental medallion of metal, porcelain,

or other material, circular or elliptical in shape and
inserted into the woodwork of cabinets and other fur-
niture in the 18th century. Sevres and Wedgwood are
the best-known names of makers in France and Eng-
land. Bronze plaques in the antique manner were used
in Empire and Regency work.
PLASTICS. Synthetic materials, products of the

laboratory, are molded into shapes or fabricated from
sheets, bars, tubes, blocks, powders, etc., in modern
furniture because of ( 1 ) their ability to resist agencies
ordinarily destructive to finished wood, or because of
(2) relative ease of manufacture, reducing costs.
Wallace Nutting Collection, Wachworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn

There are many derivatives of resin, cellulose or pro-
964 PIPE BOXES, New England. tein, such as phenolics, ureas, cellulose, acrylics, poly-
styrenes and vinyls, which by heat or pressure, or
both, are formed into finished products as boxes and
containers, into sheets for further fabrication, such as
the laminate group (Formica, Micarta, Textolite, etc.),
for chests, cabinets, etc. It was either painted entirely into yarns for weaving (nylon, rayon, Dacron), or
or in decorative patterns. The same with local varia- solids for molding or cutting and assembling (Lucite,
tions is true ofnorthern Europe, and the style
all Plexiglas); the vinyls for every surface coating or
appears in America in the Dutch, Swedish, and Ger- molding as flooring, wall coverings, etc. They range
man settlements. New England pine was usually left from foams and fluffs for cushioning Dacron, poly-
raw, or treated to an oil finish that produced a dark urethane, etc. to materials of extreme hardness and
tone, or it was occasionally painted. durability, whose fatigue point is still unknown. There
Pine carves very easily, for which reason it was ex- are finishes for wood and metal. Adhesives, glues,
tensively used by early Georgian cabinetmakers. In bonding agents for every material and process have
other places carving still was rare, so that finely carved virtually eliminated the natural product.
pine is not common. Early-19th-century America Virtually every material in furniture manufacture is
developed many processes of painting on pine in susceptible to modification with some member of the
imitation of other woods. plastic family. Many of the properties are substan-
tially reproduced; some better, some questionable.
PUVEAPPLE. Conventionally rendered fruit motif But beyond question is the superiority of many of
used as finial, particularly early in 19th-century Ameri- these products in durability and the time-cost factor
can bedposts. [822, 962.] of production. See also laminate materials,- ply-
wood; SYNTHETIC MATERIALS.
PIPE ROXES. Folk-furniture forms serve homely
uses. Such are simple receptacles for pipes, tapers, PLATE PAIL. Receptacle for plates, pail shaped,
tobacco, etc., as well as a great variety of adjuncts to usually of wood with
a brass handle. They were ne-
everyday comfort. As artifacts they are reminders of cessitated by the long distances between dining rooms
the development of comfortable middle-class life in and kitchens in the 18th century. They were usually
Europe and America through the 18th and 19th cen- made with lattice sides to permit warming, and with
turies. [964.] a slot or open side to allow easy access to the plates.
[945.]
PLANE WOOD. Maple leafed, or London, plane tree
is the English sycamore, a very white, tough, hard- PLATE WARMER. Sideboard pedestals of George
wood used in England for painted chairs and struc- Ill's time were fitted as plate warmers by lining with
tural members subject to strain. tin and fitting with an iron heater. Later they were
PLATEAU 342 CQ0SS8AN0
\
made as separate articles of furniture. See also ped-
estal.
PLATEAU. Platform or stand on low feet used in the PL Y WOOD PLYWOOD

center of dining tables to raise the center decorations con s rR uc r ion
VENLLR CO*'WWCTI I
above the table level. They appeared toward the end
of the 18th century, and were variously made of 4. The lower cost when fine face veneers are used,
painted wood, papier-mache, glass, or metal. compared lumber in fine woods.

to solid
5. The ability match grains and make many
to
PLATEAU MIRROR. Adjustable mirror in a frame panels of a finely figured wood and to use the
attached to a platform or tier of drawers, usually set grains more freely.
on a chest for aid in dressing. [44, 386.] 6. Its superiority in curves and shaped work.
7. The possible great size of panels, for economy in

PLATERESQUE. Period 1500-1556 in Spain; reign handling and fabrication, and for structural
of Charles V marked by brilliant style, suggesting rigidity.
silversmith's work platero. See also Spain.

Technical advances since World War II have
changed plywood to a versatile product with proper-
PLINTH. Block, square or octagonal, used as base of
ties subject to scientific controls, extending its useful-
a column; also the base of a chest when solid to the
ness and beauty. Beyond its applications to industry
floor.
and construction, its scope in furniture making is
broader than ever. Cores of wood chips are actually

PLUM WOOD. Yellowish wood with deep brown-red reconstituted wood with dimensional stability and
heart, hard and heavy. Old furniture, of country ori-
economy of production. Veneers of unlimited range
gin, made of this wood is sometimes found. are bonded with special materials and processes. Ply-
woods are made in the farthest corners of the world,
PLYWOOD. Several thicknesses of plies of wood often near the source of the timber.
glued together so that the grain of any one ply is at
The plywood was perceived by early
basic idea of
right angles to the grain of the adjacent ply. Wood is
woodworkers familiar with wood grains and their
weak across the grain, strong the long way of the
properties. Sheraton specifies for light fretwork cor-
grain. Thus the alternation of grains produces the
nices over beds that they be made of three thin layers
maximum strength of the material all ways. The cross-
of wood, the center thickness running crosswide to
grain fiber weakness, the tendency to expand and
the two outer ones. Veneering in the 19th century dis-
contract from heat and moisture are counterbalanced covered that a face veneer on a thick solid base had
in the various plies, so that inch for inch of area and
to be balanced with a compensating veneer on the
thickness plywood has much greater strength than
inside. ( The lack of this produces the convex surfaces
solid wood.
with rather charming effect in Biedermeier and simi-
Plywood is made in two ways: (1) veneer con-
larly naive work, but the charm is not reproducible.
struction, in which several thicknesses of veneers are
Belter made special use of the idea to gain strength
glued together, (2) lumber core, with a thick central
for his pierced and molded chairbacks. The first
layer of semiporous wood to which are glued thin
United States patent on plywood came in 1865, and
veneers at right angles, equal in number and thick-
in the 1880's special plants for its manufacture were
nesses on both sides. Thus, a 5-ply plywood panel
built in Bussia.
3/4 inch thick might have a basswood core 1/2 inch
Later in the 19th century, veneer-cutting processes,
thick; on each sideglued a veneer crossbanding
is
molding, and laminating received extensive study, but
1/16 inch thick, at right angles to the core; then a
gluing materials and methods lagged, and plywood
face veneer on each side, about 1/16 inch thick, at
endured a period of questionable acceptance. The
right angles to the crossbanding. Odd numbers of
plastics industry plus electronic methods have brought
thicknesses are the rule.
the science of laminating veneers, plastics, metals,
The advantages of plywood over solid wood are:
etc., to a leading commercial-furniture raw material.
1. Its greater strength in every way. The molding of plywood into shapes produces, re-
2. Its comparative freedom from warping, checking, ceptacle elements like drawers and boxes, chair shells
swelling, etc. and forms, and structural members like parts of chairs
3. Its use of woods with no structural strength as and tables. Strong at bends and angles, these facilitate
face veneers for more decorative results. joining of parts.
POLE SCREEN 343 POT TARLE
POLE SCREEN. Small fire or draft screen adjustably
mounted upon an upright pole. See also screen.
POLISHES. The process of obtaining a smooth and

glossy finish on wood by means of friction and a pol-
ishing material is as old as furniture. The early meth-
ods were chiefly by applying a film of oil or wax and
rubbing it to a satisfactory surface. In the early 1700's
the French began to apply successive films of dis-
solved shellac by means of a pad, producing a hard
e mci-or- WAifr
Pole 5<reccK
glossy shine known as French polish. See also finish.
PORTUGAL. Early development collateral with
POLLARDED WOOD. Pollarding is the removal of Spain, but Portuguese exploration after 15th century
the crown or top branches of trees, leaving the main inspired a particularized point of view in the well-
stem intact. This produces a peculiar grain in the developed local cabinetmaking craft. Colonies in the
wood. In France walnut is pollarded, while in Eng- Indies sent back techniques of inlaying, wood turning
land oak, poplar, willow, and elm are so treated. in ebony and ivory, metal mounts, and intricate sur-
face patterns, resulting in a recognizable Indo-Portu-
POLYCHROME. Multicolored. Polychromy in furni- guese style. Most distinctive are bedsteads and tables
ture, or the embellishment by paint, is the most an- with composition of fine turnings closely grouped in a
cient decorative device. Egyptian remains are grill effect, clearly recalling Indian work. Otherwise,
trimmed with simple bandings, ornamental figures, Portuguese work used all familiar Spanish devices-
and representational pictures, all in strong color. The leather, wrought iron, flat carving with a Moorish feel-
practice undoubtedly was favored in other ancient ing. The South American colonies echoed and sent
styles. In medieval furniture the moldings were com- back similar variations on the same themes. By the
monly picked out with color and gold. Medieval 18th century, Portuguese furniture art, like its Spanish
Italian practice favored whole surfaces of color, often corollary, subsided into the general movement of Eu-
over raised figures of gesso [755]. Northern European ropean design. [171, 254, 1147.]
furniture was often wholly painted in red or green;
in some rural sections, such as the Alpine lands, a pic- POT TARLE. ( Pronounced poe. ) Commode stand,
turesque style of painted decoration still survives. The usually cylindrical, with a door, originally a bedroom
Renaissance made much of polychromy; in the earliest accessory and now used decoratively. Often with
phases color was sparingly used in furniture, but by
the 15th century decorative painting on cabinets, cof- 968 POT TABLE, Amer-
ican (?), 1835-1845. Ma-
was the rule. In its later phases, particularly
fers, etc.,
hogany fluted Doric col-
in the Baroque style, paint and gilding were exten- umn, marble insert in
sively used to emphasize profiles and to embellish top.

Munson-Williams-Proctor Institute,
whole areas with fantasies in the typically extrava- Utica, N.Y. (From Fountain Elms)
gant manner. See also painted furniture.
POMPEII. The buried cities of Italy preserved a

complete record of ancient Roman life. The excava-
tions at Pompeii and Herculaneum, begun in 1753,
stirred enough interest in the classic arts to terminate
the Baroque-Rococo rage and inaugurate the period
of the Classic Revival. French and English architects
studied the ruins, and from their reconstructions for-
mulated the neoclassic styles known as Louis XVI,
Adam, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, etc. See also adam;
ENGLAND; FRANCE.
POPLAR. Pale yellow, smooth-textured softwood,
light in weight and lacking in structural strength.
Used chiefly for interior parts in furniture and cores
in plywood; slightly, in imitation of better wood. In
England in Stuart times used for wall paneling.
344 PRINCE OF WALES PLUMES
Don Ruseau
969 POUDREUSE, Provincial Louis XV style in fruitwood.
marble top in a wood ring, and with a semiconcealed

door. Originally French, 19th century, hence basically
Empire in design. [428, 968, 1337.]
POUF. Large upholstered cushionlike seat, usually

round and backless, with legs the only wood showing. Israel Sack, Inc.
Appeared in France about 1845, important through 970 PRESS FOR LINENS, American, 18th century.
19th century. [908.]
POWDER TARLE; POUDREUSE. Small dressing

table, usually with folding mirror and side leaves ex-
posing compartments for cosmetics, etc. Originating
in Louis XV work. Best examples are simple provincial
types from French and Italian sources. See also dress- 971 PRIE-DIEU, Canada, late 17th century, pine.
ing table. [969.] Mu.iee dc la Province, Quebec
PRESS. Box with screw plate for pressing linens, be-

came larger in 18th century for clothes. Finally name
became "clothespress" presently "closet." Decora-
tively treated in Europe after 17th centurv. Also, linen
press. [5, 810, 970.]
PRIE-DIEU. ( 1 ) Chair with high back and very low

seat, used for kneeling in prayer. The back has a shelf
to carry the book; the seat is cushioned and is hinged
to form a receptacle for books. Italian, 14th century
and later. (2) Small cabinet with shelf for kneeling,
like a low lectern, at prayer. [756, 971.]
PRIMA VERA. White mahogany; light straw-colored

wood whose texture and working properties are simi-
lar to mahogany from Central America.
PRINCE OF WALES PLUMES. Decorative motive

of three ostrich feathers, badge of the heir apparent
of England; favored by Hepplewhite as the filler-
design of chairbacks.
PROVINCIAL 345
PROVINCIAL, Styles so labeled refer to work done

away from but after the inspiration of the style lead-
ers in the capitals. There is a time lag; and often
elements of the once accepted, persist long after
style,
the original impetus has stopped. Thus the fashions of
the courts in Paris spread gradually through the lesser
nobility of France and contiguous lands. Ideas were
freely adapted to local materials, skills, and prefer-
ences. The process creates distinctive manners, some-
times of great taste and charm, often naive, sometimes
merely inept reminiscences. [184, 195, 276, 451, 677.]
Provincial styles flourish and even transcend their
inspiration wherever there is a social or economic
hinterland with a rising standard of living. Craftsmen
isolated from metropolitan sources would neverthe-
less learn of new forms and incorporate into their
work what they could glean of such novelties. At a
time when there was no commercial furniture, all new
work had to be either imported or produced by local
craftsmen. The latter had three sources of ideas: first,
the direct example of the import; second, the sketch

or verbal description brought in by the client or his
own memory; third, books, drawings, or sketches, such
as Chippendale's Director.
bloomed most luxuriously in
Provincial furniture
France in the 18th century [91, 92]. The total body of
such work is enormous and, as exemplar of good de- Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
975
sign, of richer inspiration than any other school; this
is not to detract from English inspiration of the same
975 CUPBOARD, French Can-
era, as suggested by the many publications. The ada, late 18th century, suggests
Biedermeier style may be said to be entirely provin- Regence detail.
cial versions of the French Empire. The motivation,

formulated and followed for perhaps two decades in
Paris, spread over the Western world, and persisted 973 BANQUETTE of French EmpiTF
for most of a century. In local versions and revivals style, country origin. 974 SPANISH
CHAIR, 19th century. After French
the Empire-Biedermeier idea appears in St. Peters-
Provincial model.
burg and Stockholm, in Naples and New York in the
972
972 18th-CENTURY TABLE, Can-
ada, in Provincial style of early 17th
Century. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
Lo Mejor de Espana
1840's, the 1890's,and even the 1930's-always a little
different. The special touch of time and place is later

recognizable; and so is born a "provincial" style.
Farther than the provinces, colonies acted in the
same way to produce like-unlike types of furniture,
essentially poor-man's versions of the home product.
Improvisations in materials and skills, for special uses
as well as for exigencies, relics in Spanish, Dutch,
French, Swedish, English, and Portuguese colonies all
bespeak their origins as well as their vicissitudes.

In provincial styles are found items, originating in
utility, that had no place in higher social levels such
Liebhold Wallach
980 PINE CHEST, Austria or Bavaria, shows traces of Louis
XVI influence. Early 19th century.
are the panetiere of France [942], the cobbler's bench

and dry sink of America. See also England; France;
SPAIN. [1162.]
PUEVINATED FRIEZE. Cornice molding having a

convex face. [735.]
PURITAN. Of furniture, the 17th-century New Eng-

land style. The English Puritans revolted against the
vvorldliness of the court, and substituted simple func-
tional forms, as in the English Cromwellian style.
PURPLEHEART. Dense hardwood from Caribbean

977-978 COUNTRY-MADE TABLE AND CHAIR, Spanish
Southwest United States, 19th century, vestiges of cabriole
leg and Spanish turnings.
979 PINE CUPBOARD with diamond panels

recalling style of Henry IV, Canada.
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
976 SECRETARY, walnut. Provincial French style DonRuseau

of Louis XV.
977-978 Museum of New Mexico
347 QUIRK
South America. Violet or purplish, it is used for inlay

and ornamental purposes. Also called "amaranth,"
"violetwood."
QUADRANT. Metal device of quarter-circle shape

used to support some fall fronts in desks; English and
American, late 18th and 19th centuries, generally
brass. [495.]
QUARRIES. Small panes of glass, square or lozenge-

shaped, used in the doors of bookcases, 18th and 19th
centuries.
QUARTERED. Method of cutting the log into four

quarters through the center, and then into parallel
boards in order to produce a grain having a cross sec-
tion of the rays.
QUARTET TARLES. Nest of four tables.
QUATREFOIL. Gothic form made from the conven- Anderson Galleries

tionalized four-leaf clover, the four intersecting curves 982 QUEEN ANNE FALL-FRONT SECRETARY, early ogee
foot, pulvinated frieze, walnut veneers.
being enclosed in a circular shape.
QUATTROCENTO. Early Italian Renaissance, 1400-
981 QUEEN ANNE CHAIR, mature cabriole 1500, characterized by development of classic archi-
leg.
Ncedham's Antiques, Inc. tectural formality. Dignified, austere furniture, chiefly
in walnut. See also italy. [981.]
QUEEN ANNE. English ruler, 1702-1714, during

whose reign the Netherlands- Baroque strain imported
by William of Orange continued to develop, produc-
ing chiefly walnut furniture of excellent style. Chiefly
identified by the developed cabriole leg, the best types
are chairs, china cupboards, secretaries, etc. See also
England. [18. 32, 182, 265, 418, 478, 486, 565, 1044.]
QUIRK. Narrow groove molding, a sunken fillet or

channel.
SSI
F== u,
LTSflP
348 RANDOM JOINTS
RABBET (Bebate). Rectangular slot or groove in
joinery. Also, a recess in the meeting stiles of cabinet
doors so that one shuts against the other to form a
dust-proof joint. See also construction.
BACK. Stand or frame for various purposes, such as a

bookrack, magazine rack, hat rack, music rack. It may
be either a piece of furniture in itself or part of an-
other piece. Decorative racks for various purposes are

found in many styles,and possess charm and interest
for collectors typical of such minor furniture.
Letter Racks in England were vertical strips of
wood ornamented with fretwork, etc., with hinged
leaves to hold letters.
Spoon Racks were primitive affairs while wooden
spoons were in use; after Elizabeth, spoons of soft
metal, such as pewter, came into use, but were too
soft to be kept in a drawer. The spoon rack therefore
Museum of Art, Hewitt Fund, 1910
Metropolitan
grew in importance in lesser homes.
983 READING STAND, Japan, 1662. Gold lacquer.
984 FOLDING LECTERN, Spanish, 15th century, walnut. BADIATES. Carved or inlaid rays, as in a shell or
MetropolitanMuseum of Art, Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941 fan motif.
BAILS. Horizontal members of framed furniture. In

beds, the long sidepieces. In casework, the framing
that holds the sides together.
BAKE. The angle of a slanted or splayed member,

such as a chairback or table leg, that is not strictly
vertical.
RAMP. In chairs of Portuguese, Queen Anne, and

corresponding American types, a sudden curve end-
ing in an angle at the end of the post. Characteristic
of the type called Hogarth chair.
RAM'S READ. Classic decorative carving, borrowed

from ancient Greece and Rome and used in all styles
employing antique ornament, such as Louis XIV,
Adam, etc. Probably originally a symbolic representa-
tion on sacrificial altars.
RAM'S HORN. Voluted finial treatment, as in chair

arms. [13.]
RANDOLPH, RENJAMIN. Philadelphia cabinet-

maker of the period of the Revolution; made chairs
in the Chippendale manner as well as the typical
Philadelphia highboys.
RANDOM JOINTS. Joints in either veneer or solid

board walls or floors, in which there is no attempt at
matching either grain or width of boards.
985 Late Empire feeling. 986 19th CENTURY GADGETRY

in cast iron, brass, and wood. Flexibility at the cost of co-
herence.
RANGE TABLES 349
RANGE TABLES. Several identical small tables

planned to be used together as one long table.
RAT-CLAW FOOT. Sharp skinny claws grasping a

ball, as the decoration of a cabriole foot; English,
after 1740; also found in American work.
RAYONNANT. Middle period of the Gothic style, RECAMIER. Chaise longue shaped like ancient Ro-
about 1225-1420. Radiating lines form typical orna- man bed or reclining couch with gracefully curved
ment. high end. Directoire and Empire styles, named after
Mme. Recamier. See also mebidienne.
READING DESK; READING STAND. Small table
with top adjustable to hold a book. Found in 18th- RECESS. Niche, alcove, or any depressed or sunken
century English work chiefly, although similar book- surface.
stands, occurring in later Renaissance work on the
Continent, evolved from the medieval lectern. Known RECESS CARINET. Tall shallow cabinet designed to
in the Far East; also in Muslim regions as Koran stand. be set within a recess or niche; late-18th-century
See also bible box; lectebn. [983.] English.
RERATE (RARRET). Rectangular groove cut in RECESSED STRETCHER. Middle or cross stretcher
wood members to permit the insertion of a tongued of chair or table set back from the front legs. See also
member, in joining frameworks. h-stbetcheb.
REDWOOD. Red-brown wood from Pacific Coast, too

soft for most furniture construction. The burls are
highly decorative, and are sometimes known as
"sequoia."
REEDINGS. Two or more beads set closely in paral-
lel lines, either flush with or raised above the surface

they decorate. The reverse of fluting. Late 18th cen-
tury. [44, 1069.]
REFECTORY TARLE. Long narrow table so called

after the refectory or dining room of the monks in
ecclesiastical institutions of the Middle Ages. Heavy
stretchers are close to the floor. [547, 762, 1200.]
BEFECTOev TABLES ENGLISH ITALIAN 'SpANISlJ
987 ENGLISH REFECTORY TABLE, mid-17th century, oak. Guilloche-carved aprons,

turned baluster legs. Stair i- Company, Inc.
350

989 LATE-17th-CENTURY CARVED OAK ARMOIRE, Early Regence style. Expressed in
fine architectural scale, directness of outline, and harmonious composition of ornamental detail.
REGENCE 351 REPLICA
REGENCE. French period covering the end of Louis Roman orders in the form of colonnettes and pilas-
XIV's reign, until the accession of Louis XV, about ters were applied to furniture; these carried the full
1680-1725. It is marked by the transition from massive complement of bases and cornices, pediments, etc.,
straight lines to the gracious, curved, intimate style so that cabinets, etc., were scaled-down architectural
of Louis XV. [91, 260, 284, 361, 420, 502, 641, 843, compositions. Where the Gothic had depended on
1187.] free renditions of familiar flora, naturalistically ap-
plied, Renaissance ornament was highly convention-
REGENCY. English period, roughly 1793-1820, dur- alized. With greater variety, it was more stylized.
ring part of which George, Prince of Wales, later The great change in furniture came in the increased
George IV, acted as Regent. Furniture style is marked variety of types. Secular life in the Middle Ages had
by declining classic influence of Pompeiian studies, been, for the nobles, a rather nomadic affair; the peas-
and increasing use of Roman, Egyptian, and earlier ants led poverty-stricken and insecure lives. With
Greek styles. It coincides with the Directoire and the change in political conditions came economic
Empire styles. See also England; hope, thomas; nine- improvement, security, and a substantial middle class.
teenth century. [310, 609.] Home life improved; furniture became essential, and
developed into many new forms. Practically all types
RELIEF. Raised ornament or sculpture in which the of furniture appeared, at least in rudimentary forms,
carving is raised or cut above the background. Vari- between 1500 and 1700; older types assumed shapes
ous styles are characterized by high- or low-relief now recognizable as social conditions and customs
carving. See also carving. approached the standards of modern times. See also
individual countries.
RENAISSANCE (Renascence) . Literally a "rebirth"
of interest in the culture of ancient Greece and RENT TARLE. Eighteenth-century English round or
Rome, the Renaissance terminated the medieval octagonal pedestal table with drawers marked with
Gothic styles. Instead of continuing the Romanesque- days of the week or dates. They were used by the
Gothic development in the arts, it went directly back landlord as a sort of filing arrangement in collecting
to classic sources, and adapted the ancient architec- rents. [1385.]
tural and decorative themes. The movement began
in Italy, attaining its major momentum in the 15th REPLICA. Reproduction or copy of a piece of fur-
century; it spread to Spain and France in the 16th niture, usually old or of historic period; accurately
century largely through Church and political contacts. copied from the original in all details of material,
Flanders, a Spanish colony, imported the Renaissance technique, detail, and finish. See also reproduction.
early in the 16th century. It spread to England in a
gradual way over a period of a century, being slowly
imposed on the firmly entrenched Gothic art. The
same was true in northern Europe; Gothic art yielded
slowly to the classic forms in the Germanic countries.
988 ENGLISH REGENCY ROSEWOOD CABINET. Sphinx
Ry the middle of the 17th century deluxe furniture heads and brass wire grilles.
everywhere was clearly Italian classic; but Gothic N eedham'
's Antiques Inc.
,
traces persisted in lesser furniture for another century.

Early Renaissance Italian furniture was marked by
simplicity of outline and detail, a definitely architec-
tural profile with classic moldings and sparing orna-
ment of classic acanthus, rinceau and animal forms.
This developed by the enrichment of ornament and
outline,and by general elaboration. It was this later
phase that first reached other countries, so that the
earliest distinctly Renaissance features in France,
Flanders, and England are quite elaborate. There
never had been a true Gothic feeling in Italy, and
the classic themes were therefore purer than in the
North, where essentially Gothic shapes and moldings
remained, to be modified by more or less Italian
details.
REPOUSSE 352
REPOUSSE. Decorative sheet-metal work in which

the design is hammered forward from the back.
REPRODUCTION. "Reproductions" in furniture re-

fer to copies of old pieces of historic styles. Good
reproductions follow the original in all matters of
material, method, and detail throughout; it is a moot
point whether the finish and patina with all the marks
of wear should be duplicated. An accurate copy if Anderson Galleries
991 ENGLISH DAYBED, Charles II. Carved walnut, crewel
made in the period of the original would be a replica. embroidery cushions.
But if made later it would be a copy or reproduction,
and if sold as a genuinely old piece it would be a
fake. Commercially made pieces that merely follow
the general external form without regard to material
or the technique are copies or adaptations, more or
less accurate; they are called reproductions only by
commercial courtesy.
REST REDS. All types of chaise longues, daybeds,

lounges, and couches planned for repose during the
day hours in preference to the formal bed. Appearing
in France during the early Louis XIV period, when
beds had become excessively large and formal, it was Metropolitan Museum Fund, 1922
of Art, Rogers
992 REST BED PENNSYLVANIA 1725. All turned parts
c.
at first merely a cushioned settee or bench. Called except adjustable back; probably rush seated. Maple, painted
couches in England, they took form with one high red.
end; these were caned or rush-covered, with loose

cushions thrown over. In Regence France they were
more comfortably upholstered. England reflected
these types in Restoration and Queen Anne "daybeds,"
which uniformly were of extended chair form. The
Louis XV epoch produced the most luxurious styles,
feminine in scale and ornamental character. In the
ensuing period the chaise longue developed as a
combination of two or three pieces, sometimes two
bergeres with a footstool between, or a large ber-
gere with lengthened footstool. The daybed form was
developed from the simplified bed, and appeared in
Italy and France at the end of the 18th century. See
also CHAISE LONGUE; DAYBEDS; SOFA. L892, 990.]
Rest Beds Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.

THE GOTHIC ARCH EBANC COUCHETTE WAS THE
- 993 PHILADELPHIA QUEEN ANNE, mid - 18th century.
PRIMITIVE CHEST MADE WITH ENDS, AND LONG Mahogany, double spoon-shaped splats.
ENOUGH TO LIE DOWN ON. THIS SUGGESTED A
DELIBERATE FRAMEWORK WITH YIELDING SEAT 994 NETHERLANDS, 18th century. Folding chair-bed, flat
AND ARRANGEMENT FOR PILLOWS. upholstery in marquetry frames.
Cooner Union Museum, New York City
990 "ARCHEBANC COUCHETTE,"

- French, Late Gothic,
Renaissance detail.
** nM WU><-
995 EBENCH
M."^'"
(PEOVENCE
"T REGENCE.
CHMSE LONGUE.
h < .-
996
1922
Art, Roge;rs Fund,
Metropolis"
Mu um
, f
Beechwood.
XV.
REPOS," Louis
997
-
UT DE
French.
Painted frame
or^
of
~ gsRMSS*
PECAMIEB c. 1785. MjJ^ ***-* **
HEPPLEWHITE
/iMN*ysAv.Kr.r j
REST BEDS 354 REST BEDS
Henry Ford Museum. Dearborn, Mich.

1000 RECAMIER 1810, possibly by Duncan Phyfe. Vig-
c.
orous carving accentuates strong structural lines.
1001 MERIDIENNE, French

Empire. Mahogany with ormolu.
1002 VICTORIAN ROSEWOOD, c. 1850,

by John Belter. From the Springfield home
of Abraham Lincoln.
*j0&tkM^

RESTORATION 3S5 RESTORATION CHAIR
1003 BENTWOOD REST-BED ROCKER, Thonet, Vienna. Photograph, University of California (Los Angeles) Art Gallery
RESTORATION. Period in English history, succeed- became Louis XVIII, who was in turn replaced in
ing the Puritan Revolution, beginning in 1660 with 1820 by another brother, Charles X. Neither person-
the restoration of the monarchy of Charles II and ally had time to affect greatly the trends in design,
ending in 1688 in the Bloodless Revolution. It is the except so far as the venture into Algeria started a
first part of the Age of Walnut. Ornament is highly romantic movement marked by essays into Oriental-
decorative, gay and frivolous, lighter than the pre- ism. In 1830, Louis-Philippe ended the succession.
ceding styles but still simple and rectangular in the [313, 1303.]
main, although lesser structural members, such as
stretchers, arms, crestings, etc., are given highly curved RESTORATION CHAIR. A typical English 17th-
and scrolled ornament. Strong French influences came century form with high caned back, turned legs, and
with the immigration of craftsmen, and the Flemish richly carved scroll design on front stretcher and top
forms were brought by the returning nobles. The rail. [256.]
decorative forms include spiral molded
turnings,
geometric paneling, floral scrolls, carved crowns, and
scroll feet. Grinling Gibbons's rich deep carving is
representative. The wealth, security, and social aspira-
tions of the time are reflected in the free use of
changed forms in tables, chairs, and cabinets. They
are no longer portable, and are more decorative. Day-
beds and luxurious upholstery became common. The
Baroque influence appears in the Restoration's sweep-
ing curves and generous ornamentation, which caused
oak to be replaced by the more easily worked walnut.
The period is also referred to as "Carolean," "Late
Jacobean," "Charles II." [256.]
RESTORATION, FRENCH BOl'RRON. After the

fall of Napoleon's Empire, the brother of Louis XVI
MSJOeApCX CHA,e
RESTORATION OF ANTIQUES 356 ROCKING CHAIR
RESTORATION OF ANTIQUES. Old furniture may teristically treated in German Rococo work of the
ethically be restored to its original condition, which 18th century.
may include the addition of minor or missing parts.
The danger in buying "restored" pieces is that the RIRRON. See riband.
greater or most characteristic original sections have
been replaced around a few unimportant relics, as in RIRRON STRIPE in wood is a straight-banded grain
the use of an old tabletop upon a new base. The dis- effect, common mahogany, walnut, and similar
to
tinction becomes a fine one, and is another pitfall in woods with a long straight grain and bands of alter-
the path of the antique collector. nate soft and hard textures.
REVOLVING CHAIRS were in use in Gothic times RIESENER, JEAN-HENRI, 1734-1806. French
and reappear widely in the 18th century as part of cabinetmaker, period Louis XVI; learned craft under
the quest for comfort. It remained for the mechanical Oeben. Celebrated for his marquetry work. [377, 658,
urges of the mid-19th century to promote the idea 660,667,1004,1040.]
to common commercial use. Contemporary use in
domestic work is freer but still tentative. [201, 878 N.] RIM. Rolled-up or raised edge, as on small 18th-
century English and American tables. Dished top.
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL. 18th-century American
style centering in Newport, R.I., and chiefly in the RINCEAU. Continuous ornament of spiral or wavy
manner of John Goddard and his son-in-law, John form, sometimes called the branching scroll when in-
Townsend. The blockfront in chests, secretaries, desks, tertwined with stems and leaves. [190.]
and dressing tables is practically unique; other fea-
tures are the Rococo shell, the steep scroll pediments, RISING STRETCHER. Serpentine or X-stretchers
ogee bracket feet with fine shallow carving. Mahog- curving up toward the intersection; found in Louis
any predominates, but some maple, walnut, and XIV and allied styles.
cherry woods were used. See also goddard, john;
TOWNSEND, JOHN. ROCAILLE. Earlier term for Rococo.
RIDAND; RIRR AND. Ribbon ornament. In some ROCKING CHAIR. The rocker is a curved slat
Chippendale chairs the splats simulate elaborately fastened to the feet of a chair to permit it to be
arranged ribbons. Ribbons in bows or knots were im- rocked back and forth. It is practically peculiar to
portant in Louis XVI decoration and were charac- America and is fundamentally a rustic or inelegant
type, dating chiefly after 1800. Several unique types
1004 COMMODE by
Jean-Henri Riesener. Mo-
nogram of Marie Antoi-
nette in Sevres plaque
and in bronze-dore.
ROCOCO

Photograph, University of California (Los Angeles) Art Gallery
1005 ROCKING CHAIR, Mid-Victorian. 1006 RENTVVOOD ROCOCO 4r
ROCKER, Thonet, Vienna. Late 19th century.
were evolved in New

England, such as the Salem 1007 ENGLISH ROCOCO CHAIR, c. 1765. A 1
rocker, the Boston rocker, etc., having high comb 1008 CLOCK. MEISSEN FIGURES in frame-
work of bwnze-dore. 1009 AMERICAN GI-
backs and thick scroll seats. These were characteris- RANDOLE, c. 1775, Philadelphia.
tically painted and decorated in the fruit-and-flower
1009
manner popularized on Hitchcock's chairs a delicate 1007 Needham's Antiques, Inc.
stenciled ornament somewhat in the Biedermeier

manner. [77, 83, 136, 157, 1094.]
The Victorians made much of the rocker. Among
the "patent" designs are platform rockers, spring rock-
Dalva Brothers, Inc
ers, "jolting chairs" with wild claims for therapy as well
as for comfort or utility. The Turkish rocker was a
huge wire-frame, soft upholstery construction carried
on four helical springs on a platform, period from
1890-1915.
ROCOCO. A phase of European art of the 18th cen-

tury, reactionary to the classical spirit. In France,
Louis XIV furniture and decoration had been charac-
terized by a solid, pompous classic grandeur. The
succeeding style of the Early Regence years lightened
these forms by the introduction of curves, generally
symmetrical and exquisitely balanced, and contained
within a rectangular framework. These gave way to
an extravagantly free naturalism, accepting curved
irregular forms as their basis. Rocks (rocailles) and
shells (coquilles) provided the decorative forms in
the gardens of Versailles, and were translated into
carved and painted ornaments for interior decoration;
the name, at first "Rocaille," became "Rococo" many
years after the style had waned.
Rococo forms are most characteristically asymmet-
rical, elaborately ornamented with flora and fauna
ROENTGEN
1011 TUSCAN "CASSAPANCA,"

1010 ITALIAN (?) CONSOLE. Unrestrained freedom of late 18th century. Olivieri
scale, choice of animal and plant forms. French 6- Co., Inc.

Rococo never achieved the balanced asymmetry of.
the French. The classic revolution inspired by the
borrowed from nature. Leaves and flowers,
literally Brothers Adam swept away much of the gay freakish-
intertwined with rocks and shells, outline irregular ness, but traces of the Baroque freedom of the Rococo
shapes in which the dominant structural form is rarely remain in the most esteemed work of Chippendale,
openly expressed. Associated curves flow together Hcpplewhite, and their contemporaries. In mid-19th
with astonishing rhythms, irregular but riot restless, century a return to Rococo offset the excesses of the
delicately balanced for all their lack of symmetry. Empire, but it was rarely again handled with charac-
Inevitably these imaginative compositions are more teristic lightness and ease. In Italy, extreme liberty
successful in those pieces whose structure is less inti- prevailed, and an excessive naturalism, representative
mately associated with utility. Mirrors and small of outdoor life in grottoes, sometimes went beyond
tables, consoles and chandeliers lend themselves read- the bounds of taste.
ily to audacious outlines, but such structural forms
as chests, chairs, and important tables are founded ROENTGEN, DAVID, 1743-1807. Known as David.
on a rectangular basis. Accordingly these were treated Outstanding French cabinetmaker, period of Louis
to elaborate surface ornamentation designed to lead XVI. Born a German, his principal shop was at Neu-
the eye away from the rectangular joints. Applied wied, but he catered chiefly to the French court.
ornaments of gilt bronze, gilded carving, lines of
color or inlay were used to draw lines together in It 1.1. TO P. In desks, a tambour or flexible cylindri-
curved sequences. The earlier work in France by such cal hood drawn down as a lid.
master ebenistes as Meissonier and Caffieri is ex-
quisitely graceful, charming, and playful; after 1750 ROMAN (ancient). Etrurian bronze remains show
it declines into excessive ornamentation, glitter, and an early conventional style similar to the archaic
restlessness, which pave the way replacement
for its Greek-rigid lines and austere decoration. Later Roman
by the classical severity of the stvle of Louis XVI. work, indicated by bronze and stone remains and
[368, 416, 852, 1007.] painted and sculptured representations, shows that
Elsewhere the style persisted variably for an un- Rome in her great period borrowed and interpreted
definable period. The Germanic countries accepted all the known styles instead of creating her own.
and adopted it as the basis of most 18th-century work.
Egypt, Greece, and the East contributed basic forms
A glittering Rococo distinguishes the interiors of most that were amalgamated and enriched in infinite variety
palaces and important structures long after the classi-
cal features of the Louis XVI style were accepted.
In England, Rococo mannerisms were cheerfully ab-
sorbed by all designers and imposed upon more local
forms in degrees of ingenuity together with remi-
all
niscences of Gothic and Chinese. Notably, most English
ANCIfNT JL0M4N
ROMANESQUE 359 ROUNDABOUT CHAIR
to serve the luxurious, urbane standard of living. In using coarsely rendered animal and plant forms. Cha-
began with a severe,
general, the evolution of the style otic life encouraged little furniture making. The style
rigid, limited list of pieces, expanding in size and is most significant as the parent of the great Gothic
adding ornamentation and delicacy. The last phase, style. [231, 457.]
amply revealed in the buried cities of Pompeii and
Herculaneum, show the late Alexandrian-Greek traits, RONAYNE WORK. Ornamental form of human
referred to as Greco-Roman. heads carved upon roundels or medallions, deriving
Chairs appear in four types: curule, with square from the and occurring among the earliest
Italian
seat and legs in X shape (originally a folding stool, Renaissance ideas in English, French, and Flemish
the back was added later); bisellium, a double chair Gothic furniture. See also medallion.
or settee, the wood frame of turned members, or
carved to represent horses' or mules' heads; solium, ROPE MOLD. 18th-century decorative molding, quar-
a thronelike chair with back, for the head of the house- ter or half round, spirally channeled to simulate a
hold; cathedra, a chair for the exclusive use of women. rope. See also cable.
Skins or pillows with rich fabrics were used loosely.
[208, 209.] ROSE. The rose motif, highly conventionalized, is an
Bed and couch, lectus, had the general form of beds ancient one, and recurs in simple form in most styles.
known today, with a platform of cushions carried on The full rose was adopted Tudor badge in
as the
turned legs, often inlaid, painted, or mounted with England and frequently ap-
after the 15th century,
metals. A pillow rest at one end served as an arm- pears carved in simple form as a decoration on furni-
rest as well, for the couch was also used for dining, ture. In Louis XV and other Rococo work the natural-
which was done in a semireclining position. istic rose is common.
Chests or cupboards, known as armaria, for the
storage of arms probably were the origin of the ROSETTE. Rose-shaped patera or disk ornament.
"armoire."
Tables were of all shapes, bronze remains suggest-
ing round tripod types, and rectangular shapes resting
on carved slabs or pedestals.
There were in addition a great many styles of tri-
pods, pedestals, stools, etc., of which the forms are
conjectural. They employed many means of decora-
Q0STTS
tion and finish: carving, inlaying, turning, metal ap-
plique, painting, engraving, veneering, varnishing,
etc. It seems probable that the ancient Romans em- ROSEWOOD. Several species of tropical woods from
ployed the metals, woods, ivory, and stones known India and Brazil are grouped as rosewood, so called
then, much as we now import and utilize such prod- from the odor of the newly cut wood rather than from
ucts from the whole world. its color. It is heavy, dense, resinous and of a deep red-
brown color, richly streaked and capable of being

ROMANESQUE. European style following the fall of highly polished. It was used in fine European furniture
the Roman Empire, roughly 500-1100 c.e. Architec- of the 18th century as veneers and ornamental inlays;
ture followed debased Roman style, stiff and barbaric, in the 19th century the solid wood was used exten-
sively for furniture in Europe and America. The
French palissandre is the Indian variety. The German
Rosenholz is generally called "tulipwood" in England
and America.
ROTTEIVSTONE. Soft, finely powdered stone used

with oil in polishing wood.
ROUNDAROUT CHAIR. Chair with a leg in front,
one in back, and two on the sides. The back, rather

circular, is carried on three legs. Found in English
and Continental and American work of the 18th cen-
tury. Also called "Roundabout Conversation Chair,"
mid-Victorian free-standing seat for several persons
Soman escwe-
Brooklyn Museum
1012A ROUNDABOUT CONVERSATION CHAIR, English, c. 1850.

RUNNING DOG. Continuous ornamental band or
1012 ROUNDABOUT CHAIR, English, c. 1705. Queen wave motive, also called "Vitruvian scroll."
Anne-style club foot, walnut.
RUSH. Rush stalks were used in medieval times as

a covering over stone floors. Later they were plaited
facing in different directions. [25, 34, 245, 268, 280, into mats. These were sometimes used as beds in the
1012, 1012a.] Tudor period.
Rush seats in chairs and stools are known to have
ROUNDEL. Any ornamental disk or motive enclosed been made by the Egyptians. Probably they were
in a circular shape, such as a rosette, medallion, pa- always used after this time, but remains are scant.
tera, etc. 18th-century chairs with rush bottoms survive every-
where in Europe and America, being also known here
ROUTING. Decorative engraved lines made by a as "flag" seats. [324 et seq., 334.]
portable revolving spindle.
RUSTIC FURNITURE. ( 1 ) Utilitarian objects, usually
ROYCROFT SHOP. Establishment at East Aurora, of such direct functional design as to excite the in-
founded in 1895 by Elbert Hubbard on the ideas
N.Y., terest of specializing collectors. Almost always home-
of William Morris. Produced furniture of Mission- made or of amateur manufacture of common materials,
English Arts and Crafts type. they command antiquarian interest and may be used as
objects of atmosphere furnishing. Such are: dry sinks,
RUDDER. The rudder, butterfly, or flap is a support water benches, cobbler's benches, and other artisans'
for the leaf of a drop-leaf table, similar to a ship's fixtures; barber shelves, schoolhouse desks and
rudder in outline. benches, printer's type frames, kitchen dressers, and
cupboards. (2) Garden furniture of the 18th century
RULE JOINT. Hinged joint, as between a tabletop was decorated with details resembling the natural
and flap, which leaves no open space when the leaf growth of trees, as drawn by Chippendale, Halfpenny,
is down. and Manwaring. The last named designed chairs util-
izing the whole smaller branches, Mid-19th-century
RUNIC KNOT. Interlaced ornament typical of early furniture, picture frames, etc., made extensive use of
northern European work, such as the Celtic, Scandi- this theme. [126, 1243.]
navian, German Romanesque, etc.
RUSTICATION. Architectural treatment of masonry
RUNNER. Sometimes the rocker of a rocking chair. in which the joints are marked out as grooves. This
Also a guide strip for a drawer, either on the side effect is simulated in furniture of architectural char-
or on the bottom. [442.] acter of the 18th century.
S-SCROLL 361 SAVONAROLA CHAIR
S-SCROLL. Decorative form, carved or applied, in SASH RARS. Framework of glass doors in cabinets.
the shape of an S, either continuous or broken. Used
as corner and apron ornament in Baroque and Rococo SATIN WOOD. Light-honey - colored, hard texture,
styles.
fine-grained wood susceptible to a high polish. Best
varietiesfrom Ceylon and India, but also found in
SAROT. Metal shoe fitting bottom of cabriole leg. the West
Indies. Historically, most favored in later
[369, 811, 826.] 18th-century English work, its use marks the transition
from the Baroque solidity of Chippendale to the light-
SACK RACK. Windsor chair with double bow back. ness of Adam, Hepplewhite, and the later designers.
[596, 600.]
SACRISTY CUPBOARD. Ecclesiastical cabinet or
cupboard in which are kept vestments, sacred vessels, SATYR. Mask motif representing the head or whole
etc. [435, 757, 1104.]
figure of mythological satyr. It occurs profusely in
Greco-Roman work and in all classic revivals.
SADDLE. Chair seat scooped away to the sides and
back from a central ridge, resembling the pommel of SAUNIER, CLAUDE CHARLES. French cabinet-
a saddle. The best examples occur in Windsor chairs
maker, Late Louis XV, Early Louis XVI periods.
with thick pine seats.
SAUSAGE TURNING. Continuous turning similar to
SAFE. Strongbox, usually of metal; in old times of the spool turning, frequent in 19th-century Amer-
heavy wood with metal straps. Sometimes applied to ican furniture; similar to 17th-century rustic turnings
food cupboards of vermin-resisting construction.
in Germany and England.
SALEM ROCKER. New England rocking chair after SAVERY, WILLIAM, 1721-1787. Philadelphia cab-
1800. Has heavy and arms, a lower back
scrolled seat
inetmaker who worked in a highly ornamented Chip-
than the Boston rocker, light straight spindles, and
pendale probably the most elaborate produced
style,
a heavy top rail with scroll.
in Colonial America. His highboys and lowboys are
outstanding examples of American cabinetmaking;
SALTIRE. X-form stretcher.
some maple and mahogany chairs and serpentine
chests of drawers attributed to him are quite simple.
SAMRIN, HUGHES. 16th-century French designer, the work loosely identified
It is probable that some of
cabinetmaker, carver, engraver; his engravings show
as Savery's was made by other Philadelphians of the
the development of Renaissance forms in Burgundy,
period or later. See also Philadelphia Chippendale.
where the Italian influence had practically obliterated
[32.]
the Gothic. Much work of the rich Burgundian Italian
type is him
or his followers. His Book of
credited to
Designs was published in 1572. See also France. [632.]
SANDALWOOD. Hard yellow-brown wood from

southern India, distinguished by its fragrant odor.
Used in Oriental (chiefly Indian) woodwork and
furniture.
SAPELE. African hardwood resembling mahogany

with fine stripe and uniform red-brown color.
SARACENIC. Influence of Mohammedan design,

reaching Europe after 700 through Spain, and during
the Middle Ages through the Italian trading centers.
Saver* Lowboy
Motives are fine-scaled, abstract interlacings or geo-
metric forms and some conventionalized floral details.
5 scaoTi-
Inlaying with ivory, bone, brass, and stone is typical. SAVONAROLA CHAIR. Italian Renaissance X-
Fine fabrics were brought to Europe from Sara-
first shaped chair of interlacing curved slats and wooden
cenic sources. See also italy; oriental; spain. [930, back, carved or inlaid with certosina work. See also
1032.] CURULE CHAIR; DANTE CHAIR; ITALY. [215, 759.]
SAWBUCK 362
SAWBUCK. Table frame or base having X-shaped

supports. The type occurs in Gothic work in northern
Europe and in the Early Renaissance in Italy. By this
name is generally implied the rustic American type
common in New England, although the most decora-
tive examples appear in the Swedish- and German-
influenced furniture of the Delaware Valley.
SCAGLIOLA. Hard plaster composition containing

bits of marble, granite, alabaster, porphyry, or other
stones. It is capable of being highly polished, and
therefore is suitable for use as tops of tables, chests,
etc. It is likely that the Romans used it, but the pro-
cess was lost until the early 17th century. After that
time Italian workmen carried it over Europe and it
is common in English Georgian work. Robert Adam

employed scagliola constantly for decorative and util-
itarian purposes.
SCALE. Relative size; proportion of a piece to its
surroundings and to other pieces.
SCALING; SCALE PATTEKIV. Imbrication; a sur-

face ornament resembling the scales of a fish. Fre-
quent in 18th-century carving
throughout Europe, it
occurs often in conjunction with carved shells and
acanthus leaves.
SCALLOP. Carved ornament after the escallop

shell
shell. Typical of Spanish work where it is used alone;
also common in the Rococo style as a center of floral

ornament. See also shell motif.
SCANDINAVIA. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark sus- ,'â^. ROMiHKjXJf HO0W/
tained a unity of artistic expression through the Mid- 1013 SWEDISH CUPBOARD, c. 1600. Bold carving shows
dle Ages. From the age of the Vikings there sur- Elizabethan influence. 1014 BOX BED, Swedish, 17th to
18th centuries. Folk-art decorations and construction.
vived a system of intricately interlaced ornaments,
birdsand beasts and vines, vaguely suggesting the
Romanesque, the Celtic, and even Far Eastern de- 1015 SCANDINAVIAN ARMOIRE, late 17th century. Ba-
roque influence in the North was tamed to vigorous angularity
Gothic architecture came in French, English, and
sign.
and deep shadows.
Germanic forms, but the ornamental system of the
lesser artswas not seriously affected. In the seven-
teenth century some quality of Renaissance work
cropped out in Scandinavia, but it was a tentative ex-
ploratory gesture [474, 741]. The southern decorative
styles were accepted slowly and modified greatly to
adorn the basic native furniture of essentially rural
peoples. In the 18th century the nobility imported
extensively from Germany and England. The mixed
strains were handled with grace and artistic insight.
As the style filtered down to the lower classes, the
ornamental motives of Louis XV and Rococo England
were pleasantly adapted to the honest pine chests
SCHOOL 363
and beds and cupboards. Painting and, to a lesser ex-

tent, carving, were freely used on flat areas. The aristo-
crats followed closely the patterns of the Baroque-
Rococo-Classic Revival, but an unmistakable local
quality is present in most renditions in these manners.
The Empire style had longer
life than elsewhere, de-
veloping under the patronage of the Bernadotte fam-
ily into a gracious, refined style that lasted into the
20th century.
This style resolved itself into a school of distin-
guished reminiscent form that held sway, continually
simplifying, through the first third of this century.
Responding to the impulse of the International Style,
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland alike main-
tained an orderly progression toward a furniture ideal,
stressing wood craftsmanship and finish, restrained
experiments with form, comfort, constructlbility, and
appropriateness to new living conditions and man-
ners. Widely exported, furniture from Scandinavian
lands has been a powerful influence generally. [334.]
Metropolitan Museum J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916
of Art, Gift of
1017 FRENCH GOTHIC SCREEN, oak; early 15th century.
SCHOOL. Style, era, period, manner; type of a given
time, place, or designer. ered with leather, paper, textiles, etc., and may be
made in only one panel or of several leaves or panels
SCISSORS CHAIR. Folding X-type of chair, known hinged together. Small one-panel screens have been
in Egyptian, Roman, Byzantine, and Italian Renais- decoratively treated to serve as fire screens; these usu-
sance work. In medieval times it was actually a fold- ally stand on a pair of feet and are called "cheval
ing chair, but the type became solid as furniture screens." The type known as "pole screen" has a
ceased to follow its owner about in his rovings. See smaller panel, fixed to an upright pole upon which
also CURULE CHAIR; DANTE CHAIR; FALDSTOOL; SAVONA- it may be raised or lowered. These frequently had
ROLA CHAIR; X-CHAIR. tripod or pedestal bases.
The earliest known screens occur in China in the
SCOOP SEAT. Dipped ordropped seat, one in which 2nd century r.c. Some were made with mica
of these
the front rail is slightlv concave to fit the body. [48, or glass panels to permit a sheltered enjoyment of the
410.] view; others were carved and inlaid with jade and
metals. Screens from this time on were painted with
SCOTIA. Hollow or concave molding, approximately landscapes, texts, memorable events, or simple scenes
quarter round. See also molding. of everyday activity; others were covered with em-
broidered silks, using natural forms and inscriptions.
SCRATCH CARVING. Crude form of carving usually These were often made of many panels, some having
done with a V-chisel. [714, 1016, 1169.] as many as 40. The Japanese screens more character-
istically are of6 panels, with the landscape pattern
SCREEN. Screens as furniture are ornamental frames spread entirely across the whole, instead of each panel
or panels for protection from observation, draft, or the being framed and decorated independently, as were
heat of a fire. The framework has variously been cov- the Chinese.
In Europe the screen developed from sheer neces-
1016 SCRATCH CARVING in New England box, dated 1677. sity in and to protect against the
the drafty halls
tremendous fires Middle Ages. Records indi-
of the
cate that Edward II had screens, but of what material
we are not aware. Henry VIII's inventory lists "scrynes
of purple Taphata frynged with purple silke, standing
uppon feete of tymbre guilte silvered and painted."
Among the possessions of Charles I sold after his exe-
cution were "china skreens"; the rage of Oriental
SCREEN 364 SCREEN
screens spread until they were common throughout other textiles matching the hangings and chair cover-
England. Leather-covered screens came from the Con- ings; some were painted canvas with the fashionable
tinent and were likewise highly decorated with pas- pastoral scenes; some with Coromandel lacquer and
toral scenes, Chinese pictures and characters, birds many with "India paper" with small flower and figure
and flowers, or formal diaper patterns typical of the patterns. Mirrors were often set into the upper part.
Spanish and Flemish leatherwork. Wood, leather, tex- Under Louis XVI the classic rectangular shapes re-
tile,and Oriental screens appear on the Continent turned, with fabric panels set within carved and gilded
after theMiddle Ages. In France the period of the frames. Later, during the Directory, large panels of
Regence produced handsomely paneled and carved painted papers were used in the Japanese manner
wood screens. With the feminine character of the style but employing timely pictorial motives. Shelves were
of Louis XV, screens were often curved at the top sometimes added to screens, either fire or tall screens,
and covered entirely with tapestry, embroidery, or as aids in reading or writing. [1017.]

mis Center,
1018 r * lux?English,
left.
II ,0.1
18th century. Painted leather.
1019 Center, right. French, Louis XV. Marquetry and par-
quetry panels.
1020 JAPANESE PAINTED PAPER SCREEN, Tokugawa period, 1603-1867. The pattern is continuous over six panels.
William Rockhill Nelson Gallery, Atkins Museum (Nelson Fund); Kansas City, Mo.
7 /jf
^BJBHBB
365 SCREEN
**.* ^MHB ttMBBi

_-s_i i
SflaV V
bVbVM
BBil
--
111*
-
h |
J at r
Bwim
1021 Lo Mejor de Espaiia
|i BIBB 53 "B1B1 -:-

Bl Z^'S
fPf
Bk.
H ~z~'. HI 1
1022 C. R. Grade ir Sons
1021 SPANISH, wood panels after old door de-

IB* signs. 1022-1023 JAPANESE SHOJI PANELS
made into folding screens.
J i HUB H
J BBBB1 BBB BB'>
JE IPB"' BBBB: '"
;*jk i
1023
1024 CHINESE LACQUER, incised and colored.
. *>v
fc -""^ffrtfl
*r .., ^*fiS'
S <*, 'V I
366 SCREEN
1025 MASSACHUSETTS c. 1790. Hepple-

white. Folding candle shelf.
1026 NEWYORK, late 18th century. Print-

ed cotton facing; mahogany frame, small
drawers.
1027 FOLDING WINGS, adjustable height,

English c. 1810.
1028 FRENCH ROCOCO, 1725-1735. Silk

brocade panel.
1029 SCREEN made for Marie Antoinette,

1788, by Jean-Raptiste Claude Sene.
1026 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1941
1027
Jsrfle ' Sack, Inc.
1 025
1028

1029 Gift of Ann Payne Blumenthal, 1941

Gift of Louis J. Baury, 1935
367 SECRET DRAWER
SCRETOIRE. Enclosed desk for writing. See also
SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY.
SEAT. The whole class of seat furniture comprising

chairs, stools, sofas and settees, chaise longues, etc.
Specifically, it refers to the horizontal surface of a

chair or similar piece of furniture.
SEAWEED MARQUETRY. Delicate interlacing de-

signs in inlay suggesting marine plant life. Originating
in Italy, the type was best developed in England, late
in the 17th century. [735.]
Ginshure and Levi/

1030 SCROLL-TOP DETAIL of American secretary, late 18th SECESSION. Style in design originating in Vienna
century. Exceptional variety of ornamented moldings and about 1896. Precursor of the later "Modern" Austrian
carved detail.
style, it followed no accepted types, modifying the
SCRIBANNE. Secretary-commode made by the Dutch
French Art Nouveau and other reactions to traditional
and Flemish and imported into France, middle 18th style. More than most of its contemporaries, the Seces-
century.
sion style was generally applicable and had elements
of grace, directness, and an easy charm now identifi-
SCRIBING. Method of fitting together surfaces whose able in the Wiener Werkstatte creations. Joseph Hoff-
profiles are not identical straight lines.
man, Moser, etc., were early exponents; the influence
came to America through designers like Joseph Urban,
SCRIPTOIRE; SCRITOIRE; SCRUTOIRE. See Paul Frankl, and others. See also modern furniture;
ESCRITOIRE; SECRETAIRE.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
SCROLL. Ornament of spiral or convolute form. SECOND EMPIRE. Napoleon III,

France, under
1852-1870, a period of artistic fermentand opulence,
SCROLL ARM. Chair terminating at the hand in a
marked in furniture by an overrich mixture of Rococo
scroll.Very simple in Early Renaissance work [214,
and Renaissance detail. See also France; nineteenth
254), later Baroque treatment exaggerated the curva-
CENTURY.
ture and carving [257.] Some Windsors show sensitive
detailing.
SECRET DRAWER. Small, hidden compartments in
old chests, bureaus, desks, and the like, for private or
SCROLL FOOT. Curved foot not fully articulated valuable papers. Rarely very secret, but the old
with the block above, as in a cabriole leg. [184, 1137.] providing these
cabinetmakers delighted in difficult-
of -access places. [487, 1031, 1056.]

SCROLL LEG. Seventeenth-century Baroque work in
France shows attempts to embellish legs other than
by turning and carving; curves ending in scrolls at 1031 SECRET DRAWERS in peak of secretary. Viennese.
either end [258, 260, 562, 1282] were intermediate See 1056.
French ir Cn.. Inc.
steps in the development of the cabriole leg.
SCROLL TOP. Broken pediment formed by two S

or cyma curves; also swan-neck. [36, 1030.]
Scroll Fob-ms
Qvtsu Kutte Fmnch 1IIIWWIWI llMTirrmnn f , /

Lsaf Scroti Empiae
Foot
JfS
'
>\
*r>
SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY 368 SECRETAIRE: SECRETARY
SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY. Closed desk, usually
with drawers below and bookcase above. In Europe
sometimes called "bureau." [138, 159, 1032.]
THE SECRETARY IDEA BEGAN WITH THE

FALL-FRONT DESK BOX OR PORTABLE
FITTED CHEST SET UPON A TABLE, A
CHEST, OR A FRAME TO HOLD FIRMLY
THE WORKING SURFACE AT A COMFORT-
ABLE HEIGHT. AS THE BASE UNIT SOLID
IFIEDAND BECAME THE COMPARATIVELY
IMMOVABLE DESK, SUPERSTRUCTURES
FOR BOOKS AND DOCUMENTS WERE ADD-
ED UNTIL THE END RESULT, A VERTICAL
WALL COMPOSITION OCCUPYING LITTLE
FLOOR SPACE, BECAME ONE OF THE MOST
DECORATIVE ELEMENTS OF THE FURNI-
TURE REPERTOIRE.
1032 Spanish vargueno, 16th century. Portable chest-desk of

Moorish inlay surface upon a stand of Renaissance design.
1033 FRENCH, style of Louis XIII. Storage units and desk

box imposed on traditional "bureau."
1034 ENGLISH "SCRUTOIRE," 1690-1700, walnut.
1033
1034
SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY 369 SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Elihu Chauncey, 1930
1035 Italian, late 16th century. Walnut writing cabinet with the arms of the Strozzi family.
(The fall front is missing.) Typical animal feet, gadrooned base.
P^^f.
French 6- Co., Inc.
1036 LOUIS XV PEDESTAL SECRETARY. 1037 ENG-

LISH c. 1710, Queen Anne. Green lacquer, gold Chinese
Mirror-faced doors.
decoration. 1038 LOUIS XV TRANSI-
TIONAL. Drop-front secretary, black lacquer, chinoiserie.
1039 LOUIS XIV. Secretaire a abattant by Roulle.
1038 French i- Co., Inc.
1036 Dalva
Brothers, Inc.
1039 Dalva Brothers, Inc.
<nsaaBE***TL
.unPWBMSW
18th-century Cabinet Desks France and England
IYrW
iii m ii it ii ii ii ii
"f^j>4r%S*/ $ik*j v^y\i >( " '* M U H M M M '
Frick Collection
1040 FALL-FRONT DESK, dated 1790, by Jean-Henri Riesener. Marquetry with ormolu
mounts.
372 SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY
SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY
THE TALL SECRETARY ("BUREAU" IN ENGLAND)

DEVELOPED BY THE ADDITION OF A CABINET SEC-
TION OVER THE SLANT-FRONT DESK.
1042
1043 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1925

T
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Annie C. Kane, 1926

1041 THE BAROQUE MANNER, English c. 1700. Black
lacquer.
1042 Upper. ENGLISH, Queen Anne, walnut fall front.
1043 Lower. VENETIAN, 18th century. Applied engravings.


1044 ENGLISH c. 1720. Walnut.
1045 ENGLISH c. 1755. Mahogany. Needham's Antiques, Inc. Philadelphia Museum of Art, A. J. Wyatt, Staff Photographer
1046 PHILADELPHIA CHIPPENDALE, second
half of 18th century.
1047 MASSACHUSETTS, 1760-1775. Blockfront, fine scrolled

hood. Israel Sack, Inc.
374
Ginsburg and Levy

1049

1050 Blockfront extends over lid.
1048 BLOCKFRONT SECRETARY, New England.

Height of the Colonial period. Gin.sbur anrf Levy
INTERIORS WERE PARTICULARLY WELL DESIGNED IN THE STATELY

SECRETARIES OF THE THIRD QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY.
1051 KETTLE BASE, broken pediment,

carved ogee feet, doors ogee paneled
375 SECRETAIRE; SECRETARY
4 ?\
i&^J :
itr&
1055 ITALIAN, painted chinoiserie, 18th century.

Olivieri 1053 AMERICAN c. 1800. Sheraton style. Gimburg and Levy
1054 LOUIS XV PROVINCIAL STYLE.

Don Ruseau
Israel Sack, Inc.

1052 AMERICAN c. 1765. Fretted pediment.
1056
French ii- Co., Inc. 1057 Symons Galleries, Inc.
1056 VIENNESE, late 18th century. Complex mechanisms,

secret drawers behind clock.
1057 ENGLISH c. 1805. Sheraton, mahogany inlaid chest-
desk with breakfront bookcase.
1058 MASSACHUSETTS c. 1780. Hepplewhite style. Tambour
center, serpentine tambour below.
1059 MASSACHUSETTS, Sheraton c. 1800. Secretary book-
case.

Philadelphia Museum of Art, A. J. Wyatt, Staff Photographer

1061 PHILADELPHIA, 1825-1827, by Quervelle.
1060 FRENCH, made for Lucien Bonaparte. Decorated on
four sides to be free standing.
1063 PHILADELPHIA, 1818-1820. Attributed to Michael

Bouvier.
1062 GERMAN EMPIRE, Biedermeier. Atheneum of Philadelphia
SECRETARY DRAWER 378 SERVER; SERVING TARLE
SECRETARY DRAWER. Addition to a bookcase, SERRATED. Zigzag or sawtooth ornament of Gothic

chest, table, cabinet, etc., of a drawer with conveni- origin; a form of notched dentil.
ences for writing, usually with a fall front to make a

level bed. [165, 495, 504, 1380.] SERVER; SERVING TARLE. Side tables in dining
rooms; generally higher than an ordinary table, and
SECTIONAL FURNITURE. Furniture made in units fitted with drawers for silver. [1064.]
that complement each other, but present a finished
appearance if used separately. Bookcases, desks,
chests, cabinets, sofas, etc., are arranged to form large
units when placed together. Chiefly modern commer-
j5^^#^^m?\\vv- ^fy*yy>rty'# > r*w*
cial work.
SEDAN CHAIR. Enclosed portable chair borne on

two long poles carried by two men. They appeared in
Italy after the Middle Ages, and their use spread with
the growth of luxury during the 16th, 17th, and 18th
centuries. They were often elaborately decorated and
luxuriously upholstered. [778, 1153.]
SEDDON, THOMAS and GEORGE.

* -
^ rr.^ ';--7WPP^:
,
English cabinet-
makers, late 18th and early 19th centuries; supplied
furniture for Windsor Castle. [1386.]
SEGMENTAL ARCH. Arch made of less than half

of a circle, the curve ending sharply.
SEGMENTAL CORNERS. Panel corners broken by Charles of London

curved lines, typical of Regence work. 1064 ENGLISH TUDOR 1600. Originally each of such
c.
shelves was called a "desk." Shelves were added or subtracted

to form more complex cabinets or simple serving boards or
SEGMENTAL PEDIMENT. Unbroken curved pedi- sideboards.
ment, the arc of a circle.
SELLA. Ancient Roman name for most seat forms; 1065 LOUIS XVI, by Riesener. Frick Collection
also occurs in Early French Renaissance usage.
SEMAINIER (French). Tall narrow chest or chif-

fonier with six or seven drawers, planned for supply of
personal linen for each day of the week. [389.]
SERPENTINE. Waving or undulating surface. A ser-

pentine front, as in a commode, has the center convex
or protruding, while the ends are concave. [40, 53,
366, 390, 710.] Reversed serpentine fronts have a more
complex curve. Serpentine stretchers are X-type with
curves. [476, 816.]
StPPCNDNE reoNT
SEePENIWE STBCTGHK
SERVER
380 SEVRES
Settles
GOTHIC BENCHES SERVED AS BENCHES AND BEDS
FROM THEIR BEGINNINGS. BY THE 15TH CENTURY
ARMS OR BACKS WERE ADDED FOR COMFORT.
^^^w^J-^Wr"""*-"^^^*ptmmlttamgm0^^tnmri
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of George Blumenthal, 1941

1072 FRENCH 15th century, linenfold paneling.
1073 ITALIAN BAROQUE PAINTED CHEST with remov-

ym '.ls
C r. D r, D J-
ln ., SERVER-Enghsh l- u d "i7 ,', "f" . able back. Shows decline of portability and increasing deco-
1071 Regency in Egyptian taste. Shelves . . . , , , ,-., .
r ii. rative interest. Probably 17tn century.

Olivieri
SETTECENTO (Italian). Eighteenth century, the

1700's.
SETTEE. Light open seat about twice the width of

a chair, with low arms and back, sometimes uphol-
stered. [77, 1072 et seq.]
SETTEE. All wood settee with solid wood ends, and

wooden hood; Tudor times and later,
I
occasionally a
in England, generally of oak; in America of pine,
rarely of maple, sometimes walnut in Pennsylvania.
floor, and sometimes with a
Usually built solid to the
hinged seat over a box [1346]. See also bench; chair -
G+ UL-.H..
table. [550.]
rfc
U.-^*3
SEVRES. Porcelain objects from the manufactory at

Sevres, France, established 1756and taken over by the
government of Louis XV in 1759. Made plaques, 1074 AMERICAN, 17th century. Chest use abandoned, this
medallions, etc., which were used as decoration inserts seat opens out to form a bed.
on furniture, as desk fronts and table tops, particu-
larly favored in the highly decorative styles. [202,
1004.]
&0X SETRf
1075 ENGLISH TUDOR STYLE, early 16th century. Linen-
fold paneling. This type appears to derive from the detachment
of wainscot.
Israel Sack, Inc.
1076 NEW ENGLAND, early 18th century. Pine bench with

wings and hood.
ENGLISH 1077 TUSCAN, carved walnut, 1600-1630. Hinged seat de-

rived from cassone.
Anderson Galleries
382
1078 ENGLISH, 1720-1730. Early Geor-

gian double chair gilded and decorated,
gesso.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1924 EARLY
1079 NEW YORK, Sheraton c. 1800. Paint-

ed black with colored decoration.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of
Henrietta McCready Bang and Ida McCready Wilson,
1936, in memory of their mother, Ann Carter McCready
1080 VENETIAN, late 18th century, Louis

XVI inspiration. Carved wood, polychromed.
Bequest of Annie C. Kane, 1926
383
FULLY UPHOLSTERED SETTEES

APPEARED IN THE 17TH CENTURY.
1081 ENGLISH c. 1610.

Early Stuart settee at Knole.
1a
^/ :.**s:=va.-s *.* i i t = - *-' '--' *- '
"W :
j
r
1082 EARLY GEORGIAN c. 1725. French <b- Co., Inc.
1083 Venetian, late 17th century.
1085 Bottom, right. MASSACHUSETTS c.
1800. Sheraton style. Israel Sack, Inc.
1084 Bentwood, late 19th century. Thonet

ENGLISH
ncsyoeApotf
Israel Sack, Inc.
1086 AMERICAN CHIPPENDALE, simplified.
1087 ENGLISH c. 1780. Bamboo turnings,

marbled, with gilt decorations.
1088 AMERICAN WINDSOR, bamboo

turnings.
1088 Henry Ford Museum. Dearborn, Mich.
1089 ENGLISH SHERATON, late 18th
century, painted.
Israel Sack, Inc
1090 AMERICAN c. 1820; rush seat,

based on the Sheraton "fancy" chair.
1091 NEW YORK, Late Federal,

ascribed to Duncan Phyfe.
Ginsburg and Levy
1091
1090
SEWING TABLE 386 SHAKER FURNITURE
bases, sometimes with drawer or hinged lid, and
elaborately pierced and carved back panel. The style
persists, especially in provincial work in all European
countries. [217, 707.]
SHADED MARQUETRY. Method of shading or ton-

ing marquetry with hot sand.
SHAKER FURNITURE. The Shakers, a religious

sect, founded independent communities in the mid-
19th century. Chiefly rural and self-sustaining, they
produced their own furniture, simple and straight-
forward in design, soundly constructed and often well
proportioned and charming in detail. Almost unorna-
mented and invariably of local woods, such as pine,
walnut, maple, and fruitwoods, the Shaker produc-
1092 - 1093 ENGLISH VICTORIAN SEWING TABLES. tions are among the best of the rural American types.
[1094.]
SEWING TARLE. Small worktable, usually with 1095 DESKS AND SWIVEL CHAIRS.
drawers or lid top, fitted with spool racks, etc., and
often with a cloth bag for sewing material. They are
mentioned in 17th-century inventories, but are not
common until the mid-18th century, after which they
appear abundantly. Excellent designs by Sheraton,
Hepplewhite, Duncan Phyfe, and others are extant;
they are equally common in Louis XVI, Empire and
Biedermeier work. See also bag table; wobktable.
[68, 76, 1092.]
SGARELUE. Wooden side chair of the Italian Renais-

sance based on primitive three-cornered stools. Early
types had three legs wedged into solid seat, with
board back. Later elaborations had scroll-cut slab
1094 BUILT-IN CABINET AND CHEST, TABLE, ROCK-

ING CHAIR and FOOTSTOOL, CANDLESTAND. Note hook
strip on wall on which unused chairs hung.
SHAPED WORK 387 SHELF CLOCK
Shaker Furniture
UNAFFECTED AND EXQUISITELY FUNCTIONAL FUR-
NITURE WAS PRODUCED LARGELY BY SELF-TRAINED
CRAFTSMEN, GUIDED BY AN AUSTERE PHILOSOPHY
AND ECONOMY. LITTLE VARIATION APPEARS IN THE
PRODUCT BETWEEN 1800 AND 1900, ALTHOUGH MOST
OF THE REMAINING WORK PROBABLY IS AFTER 1860
FROM COLONIES IN NEW YORK, CONNECTICUT,
MAINE, OHIO, AND KENTUCKY.
Photographs from "Shaker Furniture" by Edward Denting Andrews and
Faith Andrews, courtesy Dover Publications, Inc., New York
1097 SHEAF-BACK CHAIR,

Provincial French, end of 18th century

1096 SHAVING STAND,
New York, c. 1825.
SHEAF RACK. Typical small chair of France, late

18th and early 19th centuries, having a delicate back
resembling a graceful bundle of rods spreading out in
fan shape.They usually had straw seats. [788, 1097.]
SHEARER, THOMAS. English cabinetmaker and de-

signer, late 18th century. No identified furniture of
his workmanship is known, but his drawings are a
1095A BED with rollers, DRESSING TABLE and LOOKING large part of The Cabinetmaker's London Book of
GLASS, CLOTHES RACK. Prices and Designs (1788). His style is light and
simple, slightly in the vein of the Brothers Adam. It
undoubtedly influenced Hepplewhite to a great
SHAPED WORK. In cabinetmaking all large surface degree, and subsequently much of the work in Amer-
flatwork made in other than flat planes is known as ica. Shearer appears to be the inventor of the side-
shaped work. Such curved swelling or serpentine board in one piece with the flanking pedestals; this
planes are made of laminated veneers in forms or cut type and his ingenious dressing tables were freely
out of the solid. The latter requires wide boards, praisedby Sheraton. No chair designs are known to
which are apt to crack. have been made by Shearer.
SHAVING STAND; SHAVING MIRROR; SHAVING SHELF CLOCK. Compact clock mechanism in 17th-
GLASS; SHAVING TABLE. Various types of stands and 18th-century England and France, decoratively
with adjustable mirrors planned as dressing or shaving fitted with harmonizing bracket or shelf. Eli Terry
stands for men. They appear on the Continent in the of Connecticut first used machinery in clockmaking
late 17th century, and most versatile forms were de- and, after 1830, developed unique designs for mass
veloped in Georgian and Victorian England. [1096.] production. See also bracket clock. [1098.]
388 SHERATON
1100 Wadstvorth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.
1098 French i? Co., Inc.

1099
1098 SHELF CLOCKS, ENGLISH mid-18th ROCOCO,

century. Ormolu and enamel with matching bracket.1099
CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS^. 1790. Hepplewhite stvle,
mahogany. 1100 RRISTOL, CONNECTICUT c. 1833. Cen-
ter part mirrored, with glass columns at sides.
SHELL MOTIF. Various shells appear as ornament in

all styles, but the scallop-shell (cockleshell) form is
most common, especially in Italian and Spanish Ren-

aissance furniture. The Rococo style is actually based
in part on the use of the shell ornament. In Queen
5HLL (LOUIS XVj
Anne furniture the shell is typically placed on the
knee of cabriole Chippendale used it as a central
legs; SHELVES. They vary from the simplest bracketed
theme in carving. Rococo shells are perforated; Louis shelf for a single object, such as a clock or a figure, to
XV style uses pierced shells as a center for two acan- wholly architectural compositions for quantities of
thus sprays. In later 18th-century work the conch- books, ornaments, objets d'art. Sometimes enclosed.
shell form is used as an inlay motive. [27, 194, 445, From delicacy of English Georgian designs [1333] to
489, 571, 1032, 1284.] vigorously ornamental compositions for their own
sake covers the evolution from 1750-1800 [724, 1341].
SHELL TOP. Cupboard of half-round recessed plan, Modern work tends toward functional flexible compo-
whose round top is a half dome carved with ribs to sitions of architectural intent [1334]. See also book-
simulate a shell. Excellent examples in middle-18th- case ; WALL SHELVES; WHATNOT.
century English work and somewhat later in America.
[445.] SHERATOIV, THOMAS, 1751-1806. English cabi-
netmaker, preacher, scholar, his fame rests on his
less
SHELLAC. Natural resin soluble in alcohol. The mix- actual work than on the style that grew from his book
ture may be brushed on or padded on, and dries The Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book,
quickly, after which it is susceptible to fine satiny published in 1790. This was a compendium of all
polish by rubbing down. The padding produces the known designs available to Sheraton, and was pub-
high-gloss brittle finish known as French polish. Shel- lished more as a catalogue or book of directions for
lac finishes alone are easily damaged by moisture and the aid of craftsmen; but the designs in it came to be
heat. accepted as Sheraton's own work and the whole style
SHEVERET 389 SIAMOISE
SHEVERET. Writing table, late 18th century, France.
SHIELD RACK. Typical chairback form of Hepple-

white, having double curved top rail and a half ellipse
below, filled with various openwork designs, such as
vase forms, three feathers, swags and ribbon,
accredited to him. He
published Designs for
also etc. [47.]
Furniture, The Cabinet Dictionary (1803) and had

begun The Cabinet -Maker, Upholsterer and General
Artists' Encyclopedia, but had only reached the
"C's"
when death overtook him in 1806.
Sheraton's designs are largely in the straight classic
manner, after Hepplewhite, Adam, and Shearer. Chair-
backs are mostly rectangular; legs are fine tapered
squares. Delicacy and grace mark most of his work;
he was influenced by the Directoire, and this influence
is transmitted to American work through Duncan
Phyfe. See also England. [44, 303, 500, 1101, 1102.]
5UIELD BACKS
5MEEATON AND HEPPLE.VUi'T.E
SHOE. On wooden turnings a small turned disk or

fillet under a a metal cup terminal for a
scroll; also
foot. Brass shoes were favored in 18th-century English
work after Chippendale, and often are part of the
caster. See also ferrule; sarot.
SHOJI. Screen panel of Japanese origin, usually fine

lattice effect with paper filler. [1022.]
1101 AMERICAN SHERATON DROP END TABLE

Israel Sack, Inc.
c. 1815.
SHOULDER. Name sometimes applied to the top or
thick section of the cabriole leg, also called "knee"
or hip.
1102 SHERATON SIDEBOARD c. 1790. SHOW WOOD. The exposed wood parts of an up-
holstered chair, such as a wood arm, post, frame,
apron, or leg.
SHOWCASES. Furniture in cabinet form but usually

with glass sides, used to display curios and collections.
English showcases after 1685 follow the general shape
of cabinets when used for larger objects, such as ship
models. The later ones, for smaller objects, resemble
more a glass box on. a stand.
* m SIAMOISE. Late-19th-century upholstered sofa or

double armchairs, with the seats facing back and
front; an S-chair; so named after the Siamese Twins
(1811-1874). Also called "tete-a-tete," "vis-a-vis."
[1310, 1329.]
Also a fabric popular during the Louis XV and
Louis XVI periods for cushions of straw chairs.
SIDE CHAIR 390 SIDEBOARD; HI I I II
SIDE CHAIR. Chair without arms, usually small.

Early types were by adding a back to
evolved either
a stool, called in Italy sgabelle, or by omitting the
arms of a more important chair. The latter type often
appeared in the 16th and the 17th centuries to accom-
modate the wearers of voluminous skirts, and are
variously known as "farthingale" chairs and caque-
teuses.
SIDE RAILS. The long narrow boards or rails that
connect the headboards and footboards of beds.
SIDE TARLES. Tables with fixed tops were used

along the walls of dining rooms to assist in the service
after 1700. Earlier types, developed from simple
frames, had carried chests with linens, silver, liquor,
utensils, etc. From these evolved the serving tables,
buffets, lowboys, etc., not identical with tables in form.
1103 SIDEBOARD, or madia, elevated-chest style. Bologna,
16th century.
SIDEROARD; RUFFET. Originally a literal "side
board" accessory board
to the large trestle table cr
Sideboards
during the service of meals. In Elizabethan England
THE SIDEBOARD-BUFFET APPEARED IN ITALY AS A
this piece acquired importance, and borrowed from DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEST-CREDENZA WALL CAB-
the Italian and French types of credence sideboards INET, AS ACCESSORY TO CEREMONIAL DINING.
1104 SACRISTY CUPBOARD, Tuscany, 1490-1500.

MetropolitanMuseum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1916
1
'
V
jg&û
SIDEBOARD; BUFFET
IN THE 17TH CENTURY THE

SIDE TABLE IDEA GREW
THROUGH THE HUTCH TABLE
TO THE LARGE BUFFET.
Tf TS ^
rxn.'oi Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Russell Cowles, 1954
1105 SPANISH, 17th century. Probably originally fitted with an iron center stretcher.
EARLY AMeftlCAN

1106 JACOBEAN OAK SIDEBOARD OR DRESSER, 1680-1690. Characteristic
molding variety, baluster legs.
Anderson Galleries
1107 OAK SIDEBOARD, West of England or Wales, early 18th century.
1108 CHINESE, polished hardwood.

From "Chinese Household Furniture" by George Kates,
courtesy Dover Publications, N.Y.
*~. o
SIDEBOARD; BUFFET 392 SIDEBOARD; BUFFET
1110 PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN ( Manheim, Pennsylvania).

Walnut dresser with spoon rack. Early 18th century.
1109 LORRAINE, sideboard dresser.
1112 FRENCH, detail of Louis XIII style.

Don Ruseau
1111 ENGLISH, oak, late 18th century, country style.
Anderson Galleries
i
1113 ADAM SIDEBOARD AND PEDES- Symons Galleries, In
TALS WITH URNS.
SHEARER,
1114 SIDEBOARD. Late- 18th-century composition in one piece. Arthur S. Vernay, Inc
Style of the Brothers Adam.
1115 ADAM STYLE c. 1780. Ten-leg sideboard, mahogany with metal mounts. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1924
1116 ENGLISH SHERATON, serpentine form, mahogany inlaid with satinwood.
1117 CONNECTICUT c. 1790, Hepplewhite-style cherry sideboard, American-eagle inlay. Israel Sack, Inc.
the partial enclosure of doors and drawers. The provided for the display of plates, spoons, tankards,
developed from the chest, was a solid
Italian version, and other vessels [1109] on open shelves. This style
cabinet, though a lighter type-madia [1103]-re- spread to rural England, where the dresser (often
sembled the hutch type of Gothic France [169]. The Welsh dresser) is still current. The American dresser
latter contributed to the court cupboard that dis- [82] flourished similarly in country houses. [53, 88,
tinguishes the Jacobean style. 90, 460.]
In 17th-century France, the Italian form reached a The true sideboard form of open shelves [1064] was
high state, particularly in the provinces. Great double- incidental to the court cupboard. Late in the 17th
bodied cabinets are characteristic. The upper part century it took on the typical long narrow shape with
SIDEBOARD PEDESTALS 396 SLIP SEAT
shallower drawers. By the mid-18th century under SIRENS. Mythological figures, half woman, half bird,
Adam and Chippendale it was almost a simple table, used as a carving motive in Renaissance furniture.
but an essential part of the sidewall composition was
the additional narrow cabinets in which were kept SIX-RACK. American ladder-back chair with six
silver, plates, liquor, and often warming devices. Upon slats, usually slightly arched. Infrequent, but chiefly
these were carried knife boxes. [1113, 1114.] from the Delaware Valley.
Shearer was probably the first to combine all these
elements into one piece. Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and SIX-LEGGED HIGHROY. The William and Mary
others of the period designed fine examples of this type of England and America. See also highboy.
shape. Sheraton favored a metal back rail, and drew
many sideboards suggesting the old three-part group- SKIRT. Apron: part of a piece of furniture. See also
ing. All designers of the period indulged in shaped CONSTRUCTION.
fronts, the simple bow and serpentine yielding to
combinations of curves. Many late-18th-century Amer-
ican sideboards show these traits. [62, 73, 1068.]
In the late 18th century the sideboard produced
many such as the wine table, the mixing
offshoots,
SLANT FRONT. Desk or secretary with writing sec-
table [1353], and various serving arrangements. [1070,
1239 et seq.]
tion enclosed by a fall lid that when closed slants
back; probably originally to rest a book or writing
Empire sideboards tended to great bulk and solid-
material upon. See also desk; secretaire; secretary.
ity, utilizing the entire available space. In addition
[19, 477.]
there were frequent superstructures for the display
of plate and china. SLAT. Crosspiece supported on side rails of bed to
carry the spring; horizontal crossbars in chairback to
SIDEBOARD PEDESTALS. See pedestal. [1113.] brace uprights and to support back of sitter.
SILVER. Silver was used in regal furniture in ancient SLAT-RACK CHAIR. Back having horizontal rails
times, and again in the great work of the 17th century or crossbars similar to ladder backs; in Early Amer-
in France and England. Louis XIV had small pieces, ican work, the slats are characteristically thin and
such as tables, mirror frames, wholly made of
etc., finely shaped.
silver, exquisitely wrought in the Baroque manner.
When the treasury was depleted, most of it was melted SLATE. Fine-textured stone, grayish or greenish-
down for bullion, disregarding the artistic value. black, used for tabletops. [817.]
Charles brought the vogue to England; much wood-
II
work was covered with thin sheets of silver. It was SLEEPY HOLLOW CHAIR. Comfortable upholstered
extensively used for handles and mounts through the chair with deeply curved back and hollowed seat and
Early Georgian period. low arms. American type, middle 19th century.
SILVERWOOD. 18th-century name for English hare- SLEIGH RED. American version of the Empire bed,
wood or stained sycamore. the scrolled ends slightly reminiscent of sleigh fronts.
They are usually used lengthwise to a wall. [122.]
SINGERIES. Rococo decoration of monkeys at play.
SLIDE, SLIDER. Sliding panel or pull-out shelf,
SINGLE-ARCH MOLDING. Small astragal or half- flush framed and fitted between the top drawer and
round molding around the drawers of chests of the top of a chest of drawers. Also, the pull-out leaves in
William and Mary period. secretaries, designed to hold candlesticks.
SINGLE CHAIR. Old name for side chair. SLIP SEAT. Same as "loose seat" separate uphol-
stered wood frame, let into the framework of the
SINGLE-GATE TARLE. Tuckaway table; one with chair seat.
gate on only one side and one leaf.
SINKAGE. Dropped or set-back surface; set-in panel

in post or pilaster or other flat member.
SLIPPER CHAIR 397 SPADE EOOT
SOFA. Long upholstered seat for two or more per-
sons. The name "sopha" is of Eastern origin and was
firstused about 1680 to designate a divan-like seat in
France; the same type had also been called canape.
It had a back and arms at each end, but was distinct
from the settee by its greater comfort. Sofas followed

the usual evolution of the succeeding styles, varying
in ornament, bulk, and comfort through the styles
,of the 18th and 19th centuries. See also couch; rest
BEDS; SETTEE; UPHOLSTERING.
1122 SLIPPER CHAIRS, English Victorian.
1123 FRENCH, mid-17th century. Heavily padded upholstery

SLIPPER CHAIR. Small side chair or armchair with On framework of spiral turnings.
low legs, designed for bedroom use. Generally up-

holstered. [1122.]
SLIPPER FOOT. Elongated club foot (similar to SOFA TARLE. Long narrow table with drop leaves
snake foot) Queen Anne. [567.] and drawers. Occurs chiefly in Late Geor-
at the ends,
gian work, in designs by Sheraton and others, but
SMITH, GEORGE. English cabinetmaker and de- prototypes appear in early-18th-century work. [66.]
signer. In 1808, his book A Collection of Designs for
Household Furniture and Interior Decoration ap- SOFFIT. Underside, as of any projecting or ceiling
peared with comment on the current revolution in member or the underside of a projecting cornice or
taste. This was the Regency taste, with archaeological wide molding that forms a shelflike projection.
correctness after the Greek, Roman, and Egyptian
models. A later book goes much further toward formu- SOMNOE. Night table or bedside table.
lating the 19th-century styles as we know them now.
Smith was employed by Thomas Hope and patronized SOUPIERE. Antique vase form or urn often used in
by George IV. The initials G.S. are occasionally found Louis XVI and Empire furniture as the central motive
on important pieces of furniture of the period. in pedimented tops of beds, chairs, cabinets, etc., and
at the intersection of stretchers. [1287.]
SNAKE FOOT. Foot of a tripod table, 18th-century
English or American, which suggests a snake shape
by its slender, swelling curve.
SNAP TARLE. Tripod table of Chippendale type

with hinged tilt top.
SOCKETING. Joining by fitting one piece of wood

into a cavity in another, such as chair legs into solid
L O S VIV COvJiOLE
seats. l
SPADE FOOT. A rectangular tapered foot suggesting

SOCLE. Plain block used as a plinth or base for a the outline of a spade; common in Hepplewhite de-
case piece, or as a pedestal of a statue. [988.] signs. [47, 57, 498.]
398
SOFAS
French i? Co., Inc.
1124 FRENCH OR NORTH ITALIAN, late 17th century.
1125 LOUIS XIV, second half of 17th century. Gilded wood frame upholstered with Beauvais
tapestry in the manner of Berain.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Beniamin Altman, 1913
t^
L^^^^^^fe^^SfeM^
.vt- ,îrh.
&.&. Mts&jm. s&jj:^ ZfiVs. ^mS&m.^^ M^ZJSMSJ^Mii
^
,f< '9
r
% ^ÂT'^
\
French ir Co., Inc.

1126 REGENCE, transition to Louis XV, canape,
Aubusson tapestry.
1127 EARLY STYLE OF LOUIS XV. Loose

cushion.
1128 LOUIS XV CANAPE, mid- 18th century. Dalca Brothers, Inc.

400
1129 ENGLISH, Mid-Georgian. Arthur S.Vemay, Inc. 1130 ENGLISH, Style of Chippendale. Arthur S.Vemay, Inc.
ft ******$**** ********* t'
1131 PHILADELPHIA c. 1770. Chippendale. Philadelphia Museum of Art
1132 LOUIS XVI, gilded wood, Aubusson tapestry. Symons Galleries, Inc.
j Hfl
*?-
/
-aaam"-if|B " 'fri Kiniminiraniii mm m ii BiiliMi ii tir irfflflpfiiY r^"
i
i
w,, "^>>
401
1133 ENGLISH OR IRISH, style of the Adams.

Carved and gilded frame.
French & Co., Inc.
1133
1134 AMERICAN FEDERAL STYLE c. 1800.

John S. Walton, Inc.
1135 AMERICAN, Last quarter 18th century.

Israel Sack, Inc.
1136 NEW ENGLAND c. 1800. Sheraton style,

mahogany with satinwood inlay.
Israel Sack, Inc.
1134
CANAPE ENGLISH LATE Ift CEHTUE/

1135
1136
402
1137 NEW YORK c. 1815, attributed to Duncan Phyfe. Israel Sack, Inc.
1138 AMERICAN EMPIRE, black mahogany,

black horsehair. Calhoun Museum, Clemson College, Clcmson, S.C.
SOFA Vn THOMAS MOPE
1139 NEW YORK, 1825-1835. Carved and painted black, gilt stencil and freehand decora-
tions. Gold morine upholstery. y alc Universitu Art Callery, Mabel Brady Carvan Collection
SPAIN 403 SPAIN
LATER 19TH-CENTURY SOFAS
1140 AMERICAN, 1850-1860. Rosewood, carved.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund. 1926
1142 ENGLISH SOFA of the eighties stressed soft

tufting to the exclusion of the visible frame.
1143 MID-VICTORIAN ENGLISH, end of the Empire style.
SPAIN. The history of Spain after the decline of 2. Plateresque: 1500-1556. The Early Renaissance.
Rome falls into three major periods: 3. Herrera, or Desornamentado, 1556-1600. Reac-
tiontoward severity.
1. Mohammedan Spain, 700-1400.
4. Raroque-Rococo, 1600-1700, including the chur-
2. The rise of Christian Spain to world dominion,
rigueresque.
1400-1600.
5. Cycle of foreign forms, 1700-1900.
3. Decline of Spanish world power, 1600-1900.
Throughout these periods runs one fact: furniture
Spanish culture, following these divisions, is defin-
always appears in foreign form, but always rendered
able into periods:
in native style. The Spanish interpretation is without
1. Mudejar; the art of Christianized Moors, 1250- exception more vigorous, more masculine, even bar-
1500. barous, than its foreign prototype.
1144.
^ffltfRgam^ PERSIST
Um fA
--ô deIslnnd f Des<
"> Providen7e
CABINET Indo . Por

g
^, ly WaJ .
1147
405 SPAIN
Metropolitan Museum of Art, RonersFund, 1911

1151 PORTUGUESE ARMCHAIR, 17th century. Embossed
leather.
1148 WALNUT CHAIR, 17th century. 1149 17TH-

CENTURY RED, Portuguese*?). 1150 ARMCHAIR,
embroidered leather and walnut. Late- 16th or early-17th
century.
Hispanic Society of America Hispanic Society of Ameri

1152 "VARGUENO," walnut and gilded iron.
French r Co., Inc.
Hispanic Society of Amen

406 SPAIN
ITALIAN AND FRENCH INFLUENCE TOOK OVER THE COURT
STYLES OF THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES.
1153 SEDAN CHAIR, Rococo, late 18th century.
1156 RRAZIER, dated 1641. Walnut cased with brass foil.
Brass tray. . , . ... . .
All photographs, Hisp/imc itocicty of America
1154 CHOIR STALL, second half of 17th century.

Cedar and mahogany. Italian Renaissance influence.
1155 ARMCHAIR, early 18th

century. Painted leather,
beech wood.
m)m ' 407
Hrp It
JPAN 13-M
1158
1157

1160
1161
CRUDER PEASANT STYLES
RETAIN A NATIVE QUAL-
ITY UP TO CONTEMPORARY
WORK.
1157 SCREEN made of old pine

panels. 1158 VENTILATED
STORAGE CUPBOARD.
1159 SMALL TABLE. 1160
BENCH, 17th century. 1161
SMALL TABLE, iron.
All photographs except
1160 courtesy of
ho Mcjor de Espaiia
SPAIN
Spanish Colonial
SPAIN WAS A STRONG COLONIAL
*:fc!l
POWER IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES.
WEALTH IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN
Yt PROVINCES ENCOURAGED AN EXTRAVA-
**A 5"i y"
- '
GANTLY BAROQUE STYLE, EXCESSIVELY
AND OFTEN INCOHERENTLY ORNAMEN-
TAL. THIS MANNER PERSISTS INTO THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY IN THE MORE
ELEGANT WORK.
,,1-j
Photos, Brooklyn Museum; Latin-American Gallery.
1164
fcnSsV
saC'^4
409 SPAIN
Spanish Colonial
AT THE OTHER END OF THE ECONOMIC SCALE, THE
EUROPEAN INFLUENCE SEEPED DOWN FEERLY
THROUGH THE MISSIONS TO THE NATIVE PEASANTS.
THEY FOUND NEED FOR A FEW ELEMENTARY AR-
TICLES OF FURNITURE, WHICH THEY DESIGNED
AND ORNAMENTED IN QUAINTLY REMINISCENT
THEMES WITH NATIVE CRAFT.
1170
1168; 1171-1173 PINE FURNITURE OF NEW MEXICO,
early- 19th-century influence.
From "Popular Arts of Colonial New Mexico" by E. Boyd,
courtesy Museum of New Mexico
1169-1170 TWO CHESTS, southwestern United States.

Seratch-and-gouge carving, 18th-century style.
1171, 1172, 1173, SPANISH COLONIAL STYLE.

1169 Museum of New Mexico
1171
1172 1173
SPAIN 410 SPAIN
Mudejar: "Moorish inspiration." The Moors were some architectural features; the flap had pierced iron
superlative woodworkers, but required little furniture. mounts with decorative hinges and hasp [1152].
Seats were merely cushions, tables only low platforms. Leather-covered chests and cabinets were studded
The Christianizing of Spain, culminating in the expul- with nails in outline designs.
sion of the Moors in 1492, brought European trends. Herrera was architect to Philip II, who succeeded
A magnificent Gothic expression in architecture Charles V in 1556. Reactionary to the prevailing rich-
showed Moorish traces; in furniture the basic forms" ness of the High Renaissance, his style produced harsh,
were handled with Moorish construction technique colorless, and bare rooms; furniture was sparse and
and ornamentation. Walnut was the best wood; pine, austere and is known as Desornamentado lacking
cedar, olive were used. Moorish inlaying with ivory, ornament.
bone, mother-of-pearl, metals, and woods remained; Churriguera, another architect, gave his name to
star patterns and minute abstract interlacing geo- the churrigueresque style: a robust explosion of Raro-
metrical forms are typical. The term "arabesque" que extravagance, under the auspices of the Jesuit
springs from these ornamental bands. Color was bril- Counter Reformation. From about 1600 to 1650, the
liant. Leather for seats, chests, etc., was tooled, Italian Raroque style was handled in bizarre Spanish
stamped, embossed, gilded, and painted. [171, 350.] fashion. After that, the French influence dominates.
Plateresque. Spain and Italy were in close touch, The furnishings of great palaces followed in general
particularly through the Pope. The Renaissance came form the current styles in Europe: there are Spanish
from Italy about 1500. Charles V ruled a vast empire, Louis XIV, Spanish Louis XV, Rococo, etc. No clear
including Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands; schools evolved after the 17th century; details were
inevitably Flemish and other northern trends were borrowed and assembled. Moorish traits persisted
exchanged. The term "plateresque" from platerois through the 18th century, in inlaying and carving;
silversmith, suggesting the preeminence of the metal- even the manner of Chippendale and Hepplewhite
work of the period. was so treated. Descending the social scale, the pro-
Even the earliest Renaissance work shows no direct vincial types adhered even longer to the old cliches.
copying; the Italian influence was only suggested. [1220.]
Craftsmanship was inferior; heavier proportions re- Even in the period of Rococo delicacy, the interpre-
sulted from uncertainty, and obvious joinery, even by tation was vigorous and exaggerated, instead of
nails, is visible. Polychrome painting helped cover daintily feminine. Walnut always was favored, but
inferior workmanship. Turned profiles are repetitious painting was popular, and some mahogany was im-
or flat, without suave modeling. Structure is supported ported with foreign influences.
with metal members. Walnut, pine, oak, chestnut, The late-18th-century classicism, the Empire and
cedar, and pearwood are commonly used, with metal 19th-century eclecticism followed the European trend.
ornaments, nailheads, inlays, chip or gouge carving Palace furniture had an imported elegance that only
used for ornament. the grandees could afford; provincial styles maintained
Table forms are distinct; splayed trestles, either of directness and honesty of manner.
turned, squared, or curved cutout members, are con-
nected by iron stretchers beautifully wrought. Thick
plank tops are braced only with cleats; edges are 1174 SPANISH COLONIAL STYLE.
square cut [1220]. Chairs are of simple rectangular
form [250]; the upholstery is often stretched across
[1151]; nailheads are universally ornamental. The X-
type chair was common, a rather topheavy version of
Italian form, or a light, Moorish type of repeated slats
with inlay. A ladder-back type appeared early, richly
painted, rush seated, with the top slat enlarged to
accommodate carving. Reds often had iron posts or
head panels of decorative iron; the Portuguese influ-
ence showed in rows of turned spindles, arches, etc.
[1149]. Cabinets were important; the outstanding
achievement of the period is the vargueno, a desk
box with fall front, mounted on a table support. The
base often has a pair of double- or triple-turned posts
with an arched colonnade between; the upper part
contained many small drawers, inlaid or molded, with
SPAN RAIL 411 SPONGE PAINTING
SPAN RAIL. Crosspiece between two uprights, as on

SPIRAL TURNING. Twisted turned work, typical of
a chair, bed frame, etc.
chair and They were
table legs of the 17th century.
often exercises in technique and were favored in
SPANISH CHAIR. English term for a carved high- Germany and Flanders. In less robust forms they are
back chair with upholstered seat and back, intro- found in late-17th-century English work. [560, 631,
duced into England late in the 16th century. 654.]
SPANISH FOOT. Rectangular ribbed foot larger at SPLAD; SPLAT. Flat central vertical member in a
the base, usually with a weak scroll. [263, 561.] chairback. Typical developments of splats are im-
portant indices of style, such as the Queen Anne
SPARVER. Tester or canopy. scrolled splat, or the pierced splats of Chippendale.
SPHINX. Mythical winged monster, half woman and SPLAY. Pitch; rake; cant; outward spread or slant,
half lion. Of Egyptian origin, it occurs in all classical as of a surface or leg.

schools of furniture. [86, 1071, 1234, 1346.]
SPLINT. Thin splits of hickory or oak woven into
SPICE CUPBOARD. A small cupboard to hold spices, chair seats. Early American; persists in rustic types.
etc., usually hanging. Often miniatures of floor cabi- [6, 1331.]
nets in the 18th century. [12.]
SPLIT BALUSTER: SPLIT SPINDLE. Turned
SPINDLE. A thin turned member, often tapered or members cut in half and applied to flat surfaces as
molded, used in chairbacks, etc. decoration, or used in chairbacks as spindles where
the projecting turnings might be uncomfortable. The
former use is a very common decoration in Jacobean
and derivative work. [725.]
SPONGE PAINTING. Primitive decorating texture.

19th-century American. See also painted furniture.
[1175.]
1175 PENNSYLVANIA WASHSTAND c. 1830. Sponge
painting, yellow and orange.
SPitur Ca IC40
Sphinx
SPINET. Early stringed instrument with keyboard
similar to but smaller than a harpsichord; ancestor of
the piano. Spinet cases of the early 19th century were
often converted into shallow writing desks, giving
form to the type so named. See also desk; musical
INSTRUMENTS.
SPINNING WHEEL. Spinning was a genteel occupa-

tion for women until the early 19th century; as the
spinning wheels often stood in handsomely decorated
rooms, they too, were decoratively treated. Late-17th-
century wheels in England have ornamental turnings
and are made of beech, yew, box, and oak; mahogany
examples survive from the 18th century, embellished
with inlay and ivory finials. The simple medieval types
persisted in country districts and in America.
SPIRAL EVOLUTE. Continuous wavelike scrolls in
a band ornament.
SPOOL BED 412
SPOOL BED. Most common type of turned work in
America, early and middle 19th century. r \<
SPOOL TUBNING. Continuously repeated bulbous

turning suggesting rows of spools. They appear early
in North European work and were much used in
Cromwellian and similar chairs. In America in the
19th century was a favorite turning after the intro-
it
duction of the machine lathe, and appears in all forms,

1
both free standing and split. Table legs, bed frames,
mirrors, etc., were so decorated through the entire
middle 19th century.
SPOON BACK. Queen Anne

[243.]
chairbacks were often

J
curved in profile like a spoon to fit the shape of the
body. [270, 566.]
7
SPOON CASES. Boxes similar to knife boxes, but ar-

ranged for spoons.
SPOON BACK. Hanging case

cipally in country furniture in
See also leppel bortie; sideboard. [1110.]
found prin-
for spoons,
England and France.
1176 SQUIRREL CAGE TIP TABLE,

i American,
Israel Sack, Inc.
c. 1780.
SPOONED OCT; SPOONING. Hollowed-out surface, SQUASR FEET. Flattened ball foot on cabinets, often
such as wooden chair seats of Windsor chairs, etc. carved and filleted. [1336.]
SPKING. Upholstering with coil springs originated SQUIBBEL CAGE. Revolving framework on top of
in France during the reign of Louis XV, replacing the the pedestal of a tilt-top table, upon which the top
method of stuffing hair, feathers, etc., over webbed is pivoted. [1176.]
frame covers. They are now also used in cased form
to fill cushions and mattresses. STALL. Ecclesiastical chair for dignitary or choir
member. Early chairs were founded on these types.
SPBING EDGE. Upholstered edge that is supported [718, 1154.]
by springs rather than by the hardwood frame. Now
universally used in good lounge chairs. STAND. Any small table, used for holding or dis-
playing objects, such as shaving stands, music stands,
SPBIING MOLDING. Molding applied to a curved candle stands, etc. See also table.
surface by springing it into place.
STANDABD. Adjustable or swinging mirrors are car-

SQUAB. Removable stuffed cushion of chairs; 17th ried on uprights called standards. Also the term for
and 18th centuries, originating in France.
a frame that carries a table or case piece.
SQUABE-BACK CHAIR The typical Sheraton chair-

back is square, with variations in the center ornamen-
STANDS
tation and the crestings.
SQUARE LEG. The Chinese influence gave Chippen-

dale the square leg, which he ornamented either with
vertical moldings or with panels of delicate sunken
fretwork. The inner surface was usually beveled.
Simpler versions, chiefly American, have only a quar-
ter-round bead on the outer edge.
FR.ENCH
fcHGUSI
.
STANDING SHELF 413 STOOLS

STANDING SHELF. Small bookcase. and who stood. The side chair developed from the
stool by the addition of the back. Italian sgabelli
STEEPLE CLOCK. Gothic Revival clock cases popu- show the stuck-on appearance of early efforts, and
lar in 19th-century America. [423.] little improvement appears in northern work for an-
other century. Stools and forms were thus slowly

STENCIL decoration, important in Gothic work. In pushed down the social scale until they were either
American work from 1815-1860 most important as completely rustic or, in more elegant surroundings,
rudimentary mass-production idea. Often in lesser only for ornamental or lounging purposes. The hand-
Empire work to simulate appliques. See also hitch- some cabriole-leg types of the Queen Anne period
COCK; PAINTED FURNITURE. [327, 347, 1139.] were footstools primarily. Ornamental types were used
for dressing tables, window seats, etc.. and this use
STEPPED CLRVE. Broken curve, the parts being is now most prevalent. See also bench. [1177 et seq.]
interrupted by right angles.
STICK BACK. Chair made up of spindles or small

members, as in a Windsor chair.
STILE. Outside vertical member of a cabinet or door,

which frames a panel.
STIPO (Italian). Drop-lid cabinet desk, usually tall

and highly ornamented. [754].
STOCK. Bed stock, or the framework of a bed that

is detached from the canopy-structure in the great
beds of the English and French styles. [105.]
STOOLS. Most ancient form of seating, having neither

back nor arms. Egyptian stools were X-shaped, usually
folding, and having skin or fabric seat; or solid framed
with rush or wood seats. The Greeks and Romans
used stools extensively except for ceremonial pur-
poses, the forms resembling the ancient Egyptian ones.
The curule chair is a developed stool. Throughout the 1179 ITALIAN HIGH RENAISSANCE ( Cinquecento )
Middle Ages and through the 17th century, stool or

form types were proper seating for all but the most 1180 ENGLISH JOINT STOOL
1625, oak.
important persons; etiquette prescribed who sat on c.

chairs, who on stools of one type and who on another, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909
1178 SPANISH, RUSTIC 1177 EGYPTIAN.

Lo Mejor de Espana Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1912
STOOLS 414
Si/mons Galleries, Inc. Anderson Galleries

1181 ENGLISH, Cromwellian H84 ENGLISH c. 1800. Directoire influence. 1182 FRENCH, Henri II, oak.
C. 1640, oak. Cavallo
i i

*, }\< i. ^^ i -^
i i o-r t-,-.^,^,. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1922

1187 FRENCH, 1700-1750 ( Regence-Louis XV). Part of chaise longue.
1186 CONNECTICUT, 1845-1850,

Empire Organ Stool.
1183 ENGLISH OR FLEMISH,
period of Charles II, ebonized.
1185 ENGLISH, Early Georgian.

Arthur S. Vcrnotj, Inc.
415 STUCCO
STRAIGHT PEDIMENT. Triangular or gable pedi-
ment of a cabinet or secretary, unbroken and unin-
terrupted.
STRAP HINGE. Hinge with long straplike leaves,

usually of iron, and common in Gothic work in Eng-
land and on the Continent. [544.]
STRAPWORK. Carved surface ornament in bands

or panels, based on interlacing straplike bands. It is
typical of Elizabethan and Jacobean work, and was

probably imported with French Renaissance and
Italian and Flemish models. It also appears in much
German work of the 16th and 17th centuries. [105,
549.]
rr8 ENGLISH c. 1810, gilded. Symon.s Galleries, Inc.
STRAW CHAIRS. French chairs seated with plaited

or woven straw or rush. The framework is generally
turned. They originated as rustic types in Europe at
an early date, and were designed with a decorative
purpose after the 17th century in France. In the 18th
century straw chairs were used even in the palaces,
and were designed in a charming and decorative
manner.
STREAKING. Irregular striping in the grain of wood,

broken by mottled or cross-fire figures.
STRETCHER. Crosspieces or rungs connecting legs

of chairs, tables, etc. Simple turned stretchers occur
in Windsor, ladder-back, and similar chairs, usually
arranged like an H; other types have diagonal or X-
stretchers; box stretchers connect the legs in a con-
tinuous line. Greater variety on tables include Y-
stretchers, double-H-stretchers, serpentine [1125],
1189 NORTH ITALIAN, late 18th century. Don Ruseau
arched, and other types, distinct in the various styles.
STRINGING. Narrow inlay band.

STOPPED CHANNEL FLUTING. Filled fluting:
lower part, usually about 1/3 of fluting, filled with a STRIPE. Many straight-grainwoods exhibit decided
reedlike rounding, sometimes carved like beads. [661, striped figure, such as some mahogany, walnut, zebra-
786.] wood, narra, Orientalwood, and others that grow
straight and tall.
STOVE. Heating devices treated as decorative com-
ponents appear in Gothic times. In Mediterranean STUART. The Stuart kings, James I, Charles I,
regions, braziers [1156] were portable devices after Charles II, and James II, ruled England from 1603-
the Moorish practice. In the North the less casual 1688, excepting the period of the Commonwealth,
demands for continuous heat brought forth great com- 1649-1660. The epoch is better divided into Early
positions of masonry and, later 5
ceramics [708] and Jacobean, Cromwellian, and Restoration. It covers the
iron. Experiments with "heat machines" late in the transition from oak to walnut, and the subordination
18th century resulted in cast-iron stoves [199], which of old English structural forms to the incoming Ra-
in America especially enjoyed artistic interest. roque influence. See also England.
STRAIGHT FRONT. In chests, secretaries, etc., a flat STUCCO. Plaster-like compound used for molded
front, however decorated; differing from the convex, ornaments by the Rrothers Adam. Also used in deco-
concave, or serpentine front. rative cabinet panels. See also scagliola.
STUDS 416 SUITE
STUDS. Large or fancy upholstery nails used as

decoration. [1151.]
STUMP. The lowest part of the tree, in which the

grain produces odd figures, curls, shakes, mineral
streaks, etc., which may be utilized in cross sections
of veneers to make beautiful symmetrical patterns.
STUMP BEDSTEAD. Beds with neither canopy nor

posts. [120.]
STYLE. Style signifies the distinctive manner of de-

signing typical of any given time, place, person, or
group. In its narrower sense it means fashion, usually
a short-lived aspect of taste. Style in reference to art
isalways given the broader interpretation, synony-
mous with "school," "period"; as the Gothic style or
Elizabethan, Louis XIV, Sheraton, Empire styles. It
is more inclusive than the actual name; the style of

Sheraton may work of contemporaries,
refer to the
copyists, or successors who work in a similar manner,
Sheraton's designs being sufficiently well known to
provide a standard or criterion of the general type.
Thus the style may readily be accredited to the com-
piler of a book formulating its characteristics. In the
case of a period name, as Regence or Queen Anne, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909
it is a loose characterization of the style spirit of the

1189B SUNFLOWER DETAIL, New England chest, late 17th
century.
era, but it is by no means able to be confined to the
exact years of the political designation. Again, a style
may be a major movement, such as Renaissance or
Rococo, which is in turn treated with individual varia-
tion in different countries and times.
SUMMER BED. Two single beds placed together and

joined by a cornice. An uncommon Sheraton design.
SUNBURST. Figured grain in wood in which cross-

fire or divergent rays radiate out from a center.
SUNFLOWER. Carved or painted motif in Colonial

Connecticut chests. [352.]
SUITE. The suite of furniture is a modern invention,

although sets or groups of similar or related chairs
were made and sold in England during the late 18th
1189A SUMMER BED. From Sheraton, The Cabinet-Maker

and Upholsterer's Drawing Book 1790): "The Summer Bed in
(
Two Compartments-These beds are intended for a nobleman

or gentleman and his lady to sleep in separately in hot weather.
Some beds for this purpose have been made entirely in one,
except in bed-clothing, being confined in two drawers, running
on rollers, capable of being drawn out on each side by servants
in order to make them. But the preference for this design for
the purpose, must be obvious to every one in two or three
particulars. First the passage up the middle, which is about 22
ins. in width, gives room for the circulation of air, and likewise
affords an easy access to the servants when they make the beds."
SUNKEN PANEL 417 SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
century. The notion of a single motif in all the furni- SWELL FRONT. Convex curved front, as in a chest
ture of the dining room or bedroom is a pure com- or commode or any case piece. [603.]
mercial product. It is unwholesome in that it is sel-
dom possible to stretch the same theme over several SWING GLASS. Mirror carried by two uprights or
distinctive shapes and retain the original quality of standards on pivots, so as to swing freely; cheval glass.
the idea. [1324 et seq.] [874.]
SUNKEN PANEL. Sinkage or set-in panel in posts SWING LEG. Hinged leg to support a drop leaf;
or other flat parts of furniture. similar to gateleg, but lacking the lower stretcher.
[1219.]
SHAG. Festoon; swinging or suspended decoration,
representing drapery, ribbons, garlands of fruit and SWISS furniture is predominantly Alpine German, a
flowers, etc. Greek and Roman examples were copied well-to-do peasant style with positive Italian qualities.
in stone from the practice of decorating altars and Native woods alone are used pine, walnut, birch, and
temples with such garlands; Renaissance reproduc- oak. Much carving of good quality and even more
tions were both freer and more conventionalized. All painted decoration are typical. Renaissance German
styles of classic inspiration use swags, painted, carved, influences are most persistent in chests, cabinets, and
or inlaid in every form on all manner of pieces. Textile tables; chairs of three-legged sgabelle type are com-
[1134], inlaid [1229], carved [1030.] mon. [244, 464, 1209.]
SWIVEL CHAIR. Revolving seat on a fixed frame,

used for desk chairs, dressing chairs, music stools,
etc. [540.]
5 WAG
SYCAMORE. Hard, light, dense wood with maple
SWAN. Typical motive of Directoire style, especially
grain, but distinguishing flakes closely and regularly
in Italy. Chairbacks [212], bed and chair posts, and
placed. The American sycamore is prone to warp and
uprights.
check; hence its limitation to interior parts. The Eng-
lish sycamore grain resembles maple; where curly it
SWAN, ABRAHAM. English cabinetmaker, 18th
has more regularly parallel markings. Dyed gray, the
century.
English sycamore known as harewood.
is It is properly
the maple-leaved or London plane tree.
SWAN-NECK. Curved broken pediment of two S-
curves, usually ending in paterae; a definitely Ra- SYNTHETIC MATERIALS. Laboratory products
roque concept beautifully treated in 18th-century
substitute for almost every natural material success-
work. [1030.]
fully in varying degrees. In furniture today they are
encountered as molded parts, laminates, bonding
SWEDEN. See Scandinavia.
agents, finishes, hardware, surfacings, upholstery cov-
erings and filling materials.
Molded Parts. Chair shells are compression-molded
chiefly of Fiberglas. They are strong, light, colorful,
clean, inexpensive. Drawers, small cases and contain-
ers, such as radio enclosures, may be molded at a
fraction of the cost of fabricating in wood or metal.
Laminates and Ronding Agents. Plywood of wood-
veneer surfaces may have cores made of wood chips,
bonded together with synthetic materials by labora-

tory processes. The face veneers are bonded to the
cores with similar materials. The facings, instead of
wood veneer, may be sheet materials with a synthetic
face in color or printed effects, designed to withstand
impact, abrasion, light, moisture, etc. (laminates).
5I6PISM U* Np
Late iw awn Other bonding agents take the place of animal glues.
Such agents intentionally emphasize resistance to
Swedish Ciksnasik
TABERNACLE 418 TABLE
moisture or bacteria, or may be designed for more turning. Long narrow types used in the monasteries
rapid adhesion, or other special qualities. There are have remained to be known as refectory tables. Other
contact cements, adhesives made from casein, phe- specialized types appeared from this time on, as the
nolics, resorcinol. amenities of living increased.
Finishes include a range of lacquers, paints, color- Console Tables are more decorative side tables
ings, and surfacings employing synthetic base ma- probably designed originally as architectural compo-
terialsand, for special techniques and equipment, sitions. At first symmetrical, they ceased to be deco-
procedures from heat to electronics. Broadly speaking, rated on the side against the wall; finally the emphasis
these have completely supplanted the old varnishes, was permitted be entirely on the front. In some
to
shellacs, and paints and their time-consuming proc- cases this necessitated their being fastened to the wall.
esses. Dining Tables. Expanding types appeared in Italy,
Habdware. Synthetics like nylon have found use France, and England early in the 16th century, the
in moving parts for furniture. They may be quieter, draw top being commonest. Drop-leaf and center-
reducing friction and wear; stronger than die castings opening tables are known from the 16th century. The
and better than machined metals. ultimate development came in 18th-century England
Fabric coverings are in two groups. The woven when usage in general changed so rapidly. Con-
social
fabrics of synthetic yarns like rayon, nylon, Orion, tinental Europe took its table forms from England
Acrilon, etc., have versatility and quality that have after that.
been firmly established without eliminating silk, wool, Dressing Tables appeared commonly about the end
cotton, linen, etc. Mixtures of natural and synthetic The luxury of the period in Eng-
of the 17th century.
fibers are currently more common than any single- land and France encouraged their development in
content fabric. Each material has special properties, many varieties. Men made much of dressing tables
and none has so far completely usurped the functions in England and France, and for over a century much
and advantages of any other. The second group is ingenuity was expended on arrangements of mirrors,
that of the coated fabrics, largely vinyl or rubber- lighting, etc. The "Beau Brummels" of England and
base application to a fabric backing. These are em- the poudreuses of France are outstanding types.
bossed for special textures like leather, with weaves Side Tables. Tables with fixed tops were used along
and patterns aspiring to look more or less like the the walls of dining rooms to assist in the service after
natural material.
1700. developed from simple frames,
Earlier types,
Upholstery Fillers like polyurethane foam, foam had carried chests with linens, silver, liquor, utensils,
rubber, Dacron, rubberized hair, etc., have come to etc. From these evolved the serving tables, buffets,
replace largely the cotton felt, springs, kapok, down lowboys, etc., not identical with tables in form.
and feathers of historic use. No one completely an- Work and Game Tables in various forms appeared
swers every need, and time alone will establish their
with the rise of fads for needlework, painting, etc.,
relative replaceability.
late in the 17th century. Whole families of small tables
for sewing, tea service, drawing, reading, games, etc.,
TABEBNACLE. Niche or recess in a piece of furni-
came under this heading. The types are not necessarily
ture, such as a cabinet, for a statue or a vase. [457.]
distinct, so that few forms have special characteristics,
and all types today are adapted, scaled up or down,
TABLE. Tables have changed since ancient times
or revised for any purpose desired.
according to the evolution of social customs, yet the
Writing Tables or Flattop Desks developed from
few table forms remaining from Egypt are astonish-
ordinary tables by the addition of drawers under the
ingly similar to ours. These were four-legged types, top. They are also known as library tables.
the use of which we
can only surmise. In Greece and
early Rome, tables suggest altars in shape, and prob- 1190 EGYPTIAN, 1600-1500 wood.
B.C.,
ably that was their original use. Later, Rome had Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1912
bronze pedestal tables and tables with carved slab
sides. Both shapes were prototypes for Renaissance
styles. Prior to that, Gothic tables were cruder, based
on trestle forms; they were really not essential in the

Gothic scheme, as dining was done off boards tem-
porarily set on trestles. Other tables of ceremonial or
ecclesiasticalsignificance were adapted to general
purposes as the need arose. Italian tables of the 15th
century are trestle types, elaborated by means of
TABLE 419 TABLE

1194 NEW ENGLAND, 1670-1690. Bulhous turning recalls
Tudor design. Oak.
Metropolitan Museum George Blumcnthal, 1941
of Art, Cift of
1191 LATE GOTHIC, northern Europe, 16th century.
1195 FLEMISH, 17th-century twist turning.

1192 ITALIAN TILT-TOP, 16th century, walnut.
1196 AMERICAN, 1690-1700. Trumpet-turned, dovetailed

corners. Inlaid stone top may be imported.
1193 FRENCH, early 17th century, walnut. Don Ruseau Metropolitan Museum of Art
$
TABLE 420 TABLE
.WSSSMHHBtSEErfSEH
1198 FLORENTINE WALNUT, 16th century.
1197 SPANISH, 17th century, walnut. Hispanic Society of America
1199 ENGLISH REFECTORY, pe-

riod of Henry VIII, oak, twelve feet
long.
1200 ENGLISH, Italian influence,

I
c. 1660.
1201 TUDOR DRAW TOP.

TABLE 421 TABLE
1202 TUSCAN WALNUT REFECTORY, plank top.

Early 16th century.
THE TRESTLE FORM FOR DINING PREVAILED
IN THE MIDDLE AGES. ORNAMENTAL VARIA-
TIONS LIKE THE SLAB SIDE, SAWBUCK, AND
MELON TURNED PEDESTAL APPEARED AFTER
THE 15TH CENTURY THROUGHOUT EUROPE.
1203 ITALIAN, vase-shaped slab side, 16th century. 1204 VENETIAN, 1610-1640. Carved slab.
1205 Right. SPANISH, 17th century

1206. Bottom. ENGLISH, Tudor oak, 17th century. Stair and Company, Inc.
TABLE 432 TABLE
DRAW-TOP TABLES
1207 ENGLISH OAK, mid- 17th

century.
S(oi> and Company, Inc.
1208 ENGLISH c. 1600. Tudor with

Early Renaissance detail.
1209 SWISS, 17th century. Walnut and applewood. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1907
TABLE 423 TABLE
1210 FRANCE, 16th century, Renaissance. Walnut. Philadelphia Museum of Art
THE DRAW TOP MET THE NEED FOR AN EXPANDING TOP IN THE 16TH CEN
TURY,DEVELOPED ON THE FOUR-LEGGED OR SLAB-SIDE BASE, WEIGHTED TO
BALANCE INCREASED LEVERAGE. THE WEIGHT FACTOR TENDED TO GET OUT
OF HAND. THIS STYLE REACHED A HIGH POINT IN TUDOR ENGLAND.
1211 DUTCH, 17th century. Oak.

Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1913
Metropolitan
TABLE 424 TABLE
1212 NEW YORK c. 1800. Classical type of two half-round console sections tied with center Museum of the City of New York
drop-leaf section. Owned by Robert Fulton.
EXTENSION IDEAS FLOWERED IN THE 19TH CENTURY
1213, 1213A, 1213R
1213, 1213A, 1213B PHILADELPHIA c. 1810. Accordion center supports carried inserted leaves. Israel Sack, Inc.
TABLE
1214 lack, Inc. Stair and Company, Inc.
1214 ENGLISH c. 1620. Sawn

oak, baluster shape. 1215 ENGLISH, mid-17th
century. Oak, turned posts, trestle foot. 1216 PENNSYLVANIA c. 1710. Wal-
nut, classic turned legs as made in England a century earlier.
1217 FRENCH GATELEG TABLE, Louis XIII, mid-17th century. Walnut.
GATELEG TABLES BEGIN WITH THE EARLIEST FOLDING PORTABLE FORMS.

AFTER THE 15TH CENTURY A NEED FOR EXPANDING PORTABLE TABLES AROSE
AS ROOMS BECAME SMALLER. THE GATELEG REACHED ITS CLIMAX ABOUT
1700 IN VERY LARGE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH TWELVE LEGS. OTHER EXPANSION
IDEAS APPEARED IN THE 18TH CENTURY, SUCH AS THE SWING LEG WITH NO
STRETCHERS.
1219 NEW YORK c. 1770. Swing leg, Chippendale style.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest, 1933, in memory of Salem Towne Russell
1218 ENGLISH c. 1810. Oval swing leg, wood hinges,

mahogany.
426
ho Mejor de Espaiia 1221 SPANISH, 17th century

1220 SPANISH, rustic.
1222 FRENCH, Regence. Hoof

footand curvature of legs, fore-
shadowing cabriole, and elabo-
rate stretcher indicate softening
of Louis XIV lines into transi-
tional Regence.
French r Co., Inc.
1223 ENGLISH c. 1730.

Height of French Baroque in-
fluence. Developed cabriole
shape is still a scroll leg.
Crown Copyright
427 TABLE
1224 ENGLISH, George II. Marble top on

gilded base. French & Co., Inc.
1225 ENGLISH, Adam. These types served as

buffets, often in composition with end cabinets
or pedestals. French ir Co., Inc.
1226 FRENCH, Louis XVI, attributed to

Salembier. Console form. French 6- Co., Inc.
SMALLER SIDE TABLES FLOURISHED AFTER THE
18TH CENTURY, FUNCTIONING AS SERVERS, WRITING
AND DRESSING TABLES, CONSOLES, OR MERE
DECORATION
1227 LOUIS XIV. Side table sometimes called desserte. Marble

top, brass banding. French 4? Co., Inc.
1229 ENGLISH, decorated Sheraton. Symons Galleries, Inc.
1230 ENGLISH PIER TABLE, end of 18th century. Deco-

rated satinwood, marble and bronze.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cift of Louis J. Boury, 1932
1231 AMERICAN EMPIRE, 1800-1820. Marble top and

columns, ormolu and gilded carved wood.
1232 ENGLISH REGENCY, 1825-1850. Mirror back.
1231
TABLE 429
1234 AMERICAN, Early Empire.

Ginsburg and Levy
1233 ENGLISH c. 1800, Sheraton, with swinging

drawer as aid in dressing or writing.
1235 MARYLAND c. 1760, Chippendale style. Game or break-

fast table, Pembroke type; arched stretcher. 1236 ENGLISH
c. 1790. Sheraton, inlaid satinwood. 1237 NEW
YORK, end
of 18th century. Style of Phyfe. 1238 ENGLISH REGENCY,
early. Drop leaf, mahogany banded with rosewood and satin-
wood.
French ir Co., Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc.

430 TABLE
TABLE
Wine and Drinking Tables
style (two views) Hunt *ble Brass bottle
1239, 1239A ENGLISH c. 1790, Hepplewhite
Drop eaves on ends ENGLISH c 1800. L.fNout
holder pivoted to serve full circle. 1MJ
center in top exposes lead-lined containers for
ice. 1241 MASSACHUSETTS 1720-1740 Tile-
Hunt table with fold-over top leaves
top mixing table. 1242 ENGLISH c. 1800. breakfast
carried on gatelegs.
Mich.
1241 Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn,
1242
Symons
Galleries,
Inc.
TABLE 431 TABLE
1243 AMERICAN, 18th-century rustic with a T-base, New England. 1244 TURNED
PARTS. Virginia(?). 1245 AMERICAN JOINT STOOL. 1246 TUSCAN, 17th century.
1243 1244 1245 Israel Sack, Inc. 1246
1247 Lo Mcjor dc Esixina 1248 Don Buseau 1249 Arthur S. Vemay, Inc.
1247 RUSTIC SPANISH. 1248 RUSTIC FRENCH. 1249 SMALL DRUM TABLE, Late
George III. 1250 AMERICAN SHERATON. 1251 FRENCH c. 1800. Directoire. 1252
PENNSYLVANIA c. 1850. 1253 EMPIRE, English c. 1815.
1250 Israel Sack. Inr 1252 Henry Ford Museum 1253 Symons Galleries, Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc. '256
Daha
Small Tables
ACCESSORIES TO MINOR COMFORTS OF HOME LIFE

CARRIED A LIGHT OR A ROOK OR A JUG. LATER THEY
BECAME MORE SPECIALIZED FOR TEA, SEWING
LAMPS, BOOKS, AS A REDSIDE TABLE, OR AID IN
DRESSING.
1254 ENGLISH REGENCY, 1812. Hinged top over padded

tea caddy. 1255 ENGLISH DUMBWAITER c. 1765. 1256
LOUIS XVI, brass-framed marble top. 1257 SALEM c. 1800.
Sheraton mahogany and satinwood. 1258 PORTSMOUTH,
^Îtef^ NEW HAMPSHIRE, c. 1800. Birch end table.

1259 DUNCAN PHYFE TAMBOUR FRONT, 1812(?). 1260
ENGLISH WORKBOX, Sheraton style (stand doubtful).
1261 PHILADELPHIA, 1810-1820.
1260
1259 Ginsburg and Levy
433
1262 GERMAN, late-18th-century Rococo. Dalva Brothers, Inc. Israel Sack, Inc.
1263 WORKTABLE, American Sheraton.
A SPECIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE 18TH CENTURY WAS A COMPACT BOUDOIR

UTILITY TABLE, EQUIPPED FOR DRESSING, WRITING, OR SEWING.
1264
1265 Museum of the City of New York
1264 AMERICAN EMPIRE, label of

Charles-Honore Lannuier.
Ginsburg and Levy
1265 NEW YORK c. 1817.

^^^K
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434 TABLE
Card and Game Tables
1266 NEW YORK c. 1800. Sheraton cloverleaf, folding top, label of John
Dolan. 1267 TILT TABLE with guinea holes; scroll footed. 1268 FOLD-
ING-TOP TABLE byLannuier. 1269 PHILADELPHIA, possibly by
Affleck. 1270 NEW YORK, 1835-1845. 1271 NEW YORK c. 1760.
Early style of Chippendale. Folding top, gateleg. 1272 SALEM, 1790-1810.
Attributed to Samuel Mclntire.
TABLE 435
1276
1273 AMERICAN, style of Lannuier. Israel Sack, Inc.
Necdham's Antiques-, Inc.
1274 SALEM c. 1815. Regency style, folding top.
1275 FEDERAL STYLE of Charles-Honore Lannuier.

Gaming table.
1276 ENGLISH c. 1765. Chippendale, mahogany.
1277 Left REGENCY "GAMES" TARLE c. 1810. Re-

versible top; leathered backgammon surface in well.
1278, 1278A PROVINCIAL FRENCH with reversible

top as above, showing detail.
1278 Don Ruseau

1275 Mow in Museum of the City of New York
1278A
TABLE 436 TABLE
William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City, Mo.

1280 FRENCH, height of the Rococo. Louis XV c. 1750.
Console Tables
CONSOLE TABLES BASICALLY WALL DECORATIONS,
MAY BE FREE STANDING OR HUNG ON THE WALL. AS
A DECORATIVE FORM THEY SPRANG FROM THE SIDE
TABLE IN LOUIS XIV WALL COMPOSITIONS.
1279 HANGING CONSOLE, French, gilt wood and marble.

Louis XVI period.
1282 ENGLISH CHIPPENDALE, Mid-Georgian.

1283 ITALIAN ROCOCO, late 18th century.

Don Ruseau
if"'"
Don Ruseau
1281 FRENCH, 19th-century neo-Rococo.
t * * *>i*
1285 LOUIS XVI, CLASSIC STYLE. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906
1284
French ir Co., Inc.
^SM*.' I.O. V V >l_V.4i.V*-%* VUk**..

k
TABLE CHAIR 438
TABLE CHAIR. Armchair or settle with hinged table-

top as the back. [3, 879.]
TABLE DORMANT. First type of table to assume

permanent stationary form in the Middle Ages, in
place of the usual boards set on trestles.
TARLET CHAIR. Armchair with one flat arm wide

enough to use as a writing table. Frequent in Amer-
ican Windsor types, 18th century. [319.]
TAROLRET; TARORET. Low upholstered footstool,

French, 18th centurv (from tabour, a small drum).
[643.] Israel Sack, Inc.
1289 TAVERN TABLE, early 18th century. American.
TAILPIECE. A tongue on the back of some Windsor

chair seats, designed to receive two spindles that act glued to linen or duck. It runs in a groove and may
as a brace for the bow. [321.] follow any shape. Favored in Louis XVI work, Eng-
lishwork of the Sheraton period and contemporary
TALLROY. Highboy or chest-on-chest, a wide low American work, as in rolltop desks.
chest carrying a slightly narrower taller chest. The
top tier of drawers is often divided into two or three. TAMO. Japanese ash; light yellowish wood with
English and American. See also highboy. strong oaklike figure.
TAMBOUR. Flexible shutter or door, operating either TAftGCILLE. Red-brown Philippine wood with
vertically or horizontally, made of thin strips of wood striped figure and soft texture, sometimes called Philip-
pine mahogany. It is not accepted as mahogany.
1288 TAMBOUR FRONT SECRETARY,
- American - Sheraton
style, Federal period. TAPER. Diminishing toward a point, characteristic
Israel Sack, Inc.
nw * * m : i nt tm
of furniture legs, round or square, of the 18th cen-
tury. The taper produces the effect of lightness and
""
if f. v ii.r
'
'
"T !
"'!! !
grace.
TAPESTRY. Fabric of wool with silk or linen, usually

pictorial in design. An ancient method of weaving,
it came to be used to upholster chairs, etc., in the 17th
century. It is therefore an appropriate type of covering
such as French styles through
for all styles of this time,
Louis XV, English work through Queen Anne. Wil-
liam Morris revived tapestry weaving with his neo-
Gothic style about 1880. [561, 642.]
TARSIA. Intarsia.
TASTE. In the narrow sense, as applied to furniture,

an affectation of historical influence, as, "in the Gothic
taste," "in the Chinese taste."
TAVERN TARLE. Low oblong table on simple frame-

work of turned or square members; chiefly American
and English, 18th and early 19th centuries. [1289.]
TEA. The introduction of tea into Europe created a

fad that was responsible for changes in manners. Tea
and its service was so important that it acquired a
439 TEXTILES
TERN FEET. Three-scrolled feet, sometimes merely

grooved with three lines.
TESTER. Canopy of a four-post or draped bed, either

of wood or fabric. [109.]
TETE-A-TETE. Small two-seat sofa or love seat of

the 19th century in which the two seats face in oppo-
site directions, the backs forming an S-curve. Also
siamoise. [1310].
TEXTILES. Woven materials were essential to the

earliest furniture for upholstery and decoration value.
Egyptian had seats of stretched fabrics, linen,
stools
cotton, wool, and silk, and Roman couches were made
comfortable with silk cushions. European textiles of
the Middle Ages were largely influenced by the Ori-
ent. China and Japan sent silks; Persian, Mohamme-
dan, and Byzantine textiles added color, vivid pat-
Ginsburg and Levy tern, and texture to the harsh medieval halls. In the
1290 TEA TABLE c. 1760. By Gilbert Ash, New York.
12th century weaving began in Italy, and silks and
damasks and velvets came into European use in the
form of hangings for beds and walls, cushions, etc.
ritual with many appurtenances, among them a series Lucca, Venice, Florence, and Genoa produced velvets
of small tables for the service. These are known as and silks in rich patterns current to this day. Renais-
"tea caddies," "teakettle stands," "teapoys," and "tea sance furniture is usually upholstered in these mate-
tables," a family of graceful, well-designed small rials, as well as in the tapestries that were woven in
stands. [1254, 1290.] France and the Lowlands, after the 16th century.
Tapestry covered chairs of most English periods
TEAK. Large family of Oriental woods best known through the Early Georgian. Needlework and em-
for resistance to moisture and decay. They are very broidery were universally used through the 17th
heavy, light- to medium-brown in color, with a century. Crewel embroidery is typical of all Late Jaco-
straight, open grain. Extensively used for furniture bean work. Beds were draped in costliest velvets and
in the East, and in contemporary work, especially silks of Italian, French, and Spanish workmanship.
in Denmark and the United States. There were many simple weaves of linen, wool, mo-
hair, and cotton, such as rep and moquette.
TELAMONES. Atlantes; human figures on a support- Rococo styles everywhere used the most elegant
ing member. materials: silks, satins, damasks, brocade, brocatelle,
taffeta, and velvet of European and Oriental make.
TENON. Tongue or projecting part of wood that is Colors were light pastel tones; textures were refined
fitted into a corresponding hole or mortise. and smooth, and remained so in fine work for almost
two centuries. Rococo patterns, while small in scale,
TENT BED. Field bed; smaller four-poster resembling were widely spaced or rambling.
a tent, with rather low canopy. The classic revivals Louis XVI, Adam, etc. re-
turned to small overall patterns in silks, velvets, and
TERM. Pedestal, plinth, or pillar, often carrying a all other fine materials. Smooth surfaces were favored.
bust or decorative figure, used as accents in decorative The printing of material, usually cotton, silk or linen,
compositions. like the toiles-de-Jouy France by Oberkampf,
made in
spread over Europe, and by 1800 was in general favor

TERMINAL FIGURES. Ornamental use as a finish for upholstery and hangings. The Empire style re-
motif of the conventionalized human figure, all or established smooth, plain materials in hard colors and
part. They are often found mounted in full relief on finishes. Victorian England and America used haircloth
the pillars of cabinets, etc., particularly in Late Renais- and durable fabrics. Later, the Paris styles brought
sance work of Italy, France, and England. back the elegancies of the 18th century.
THERM FOOT 440 TORCH
Modern fabrics are less dependent on pattern than spread to the Netherlands and northern Europe in
on the textural interest of weaves and specialties in the 16th century. Here they found new uses in stoves
yarns. Rayon has added to the list of original fibers, and chimney facings, as well as decorative inserts in
and a new catalogue of textiles includes rayon, cello- cabinetwork. [1241.]
phane and a host of synthetics even fibrous glass-
woven in both historical and new patterns. TILL. Drawer or compartment in desks, chests, etc.,
for money, jewels, etc. They are often made with
THERM FOOT. Tapered foot of rectangular plan. secret locks or spring.
Spade foot.
TILT-TOP TARLE. Tabletop hinged to the base or
THERM LEG. Four-sided or square tapered leg. pedestal so that it may be tipped to a vertical posi-
tion to save space or to display the decorative features
THIMRLE TOE. Spade foot, more often turned than of the top. The found in medieval work but
idea is
square. reached its best development in the 18th century.

English usage and the customs of tea service inspired
THIRTEEN-STATE TRACERY. Geometric tracery the design of many small tables. [1192, 1294.]
pattern found in 18th-century English and American
secretaries, based on a Chinese motive. The coinci- TIP-UP (TIP-TOP) TARLE. Table whose top either
dence of its dividing the space into thirteen divisions folds down like a book over the base or tips over
has led to the belief that it symbolizes the thirteen the unfolded base. [1291.]
original states.
TODDY-TARLE. Small Georgian drinking stand.
THOIVET. The Viennese Michael Thonet began to
bend wood into chair elements about 1840, perfecting TOE. The end or tip of a cabriole foot.
the engineering aspect so practically that his "Vienna
bentwood" became one of the earliest mass-produc- I oil is de JOUY. See jouy; oberkampf.
tion successes. Its utter functionalism and directness
of both structural and visual aims produced furniture TOILET GLASS; TOILET TARLE. Accessories to
that is esthetically outstanding. [134, 913, 1003, 1006, dressing or the toilet. The use of these articles seeped
1084.] down from royalty to the nobles and gentry in the
17th century, andbecame very common in the 18th
THREE-PLY. Plywood or veneered work of three century when luxury was the keynote of furnishing.
layers, the grain of the two outside layers being across See DRESSING TABLE.
the grain of the center. Not practical in panels over
3/8 inch thick. TOLE. Painted tin, used for small articles and acces-
sories.
THROWN (E) CHAIR. Turned chair: old English.
[238 et seq.] TONGUE AND GROOYE. Wood joint, in which a
continuous projecting member fits into a similar rab-
THROWN (E) WORK. Turning, from the old name bet or groove.
for turning, or throwing. Also "turneyed."
TOOTH ORNAMENT. Carved ornamental repeat
THUJA (THUYA). Wood of North African
the molding, like dentils. Also called "dogtooth." It occurs
arborvitae, used entirely as veneers. Burly grain and in Romanesque, Gothic, and very Early Renaissance
a rich brown-red in color, it is one of the most decora- work, chiefly in England and northern Europe.
tive veneers, and has been so recognized since Roman
times. [438, 1118.] TOP RAIL. Top cross member of the back of a chair,
settee, etc.
THUMR MOLDING. Convex molding shaped in a
flattened curve, like the profile of the thumb. TORCH. The torch or flambeau occurs as an orna-
mental motive in Roman architecture; it reappears
TILES are used principally for tops liable to damage in Renaissance furniture and again in the classic re-
from liquids, heat, or abrasion. They go back to Moor- vivals of the late 18th century. The flaming torch is
ish work and appearearly in Mediterranean lands. typical of Louis XVI ornament; Directoire decoration
Portuguese Azulejos are outstanding. The practice includes a formal torch, while the burning torch is
441
Tilt-Top Tables

1292 TILT-TOP with patriotic portrait inlay.
Probably Albany, New York area c. 1824.
1293 SHERATON c. 1795. Breakfast table.
1294 SHERATON TILT-TOP TABLE, 49 inches by 60, end of 18th century.

Arthur S. Vernal/, Inc.
Israel Sack, Inc.
1291 SMALL TILT-TOP TEA TABLE.

TORCHERE 442 TRACERY
tury Italian torcheres were either column forms or
after the Roman candelabra or lampadaires. Raroque
types were ornately classical or twisted columns.
France had great torcheres through Louis XIV's reign,
highly ornamented with carving, gilding, Roulle work,
etc. Rococo forms were light and graceful, finally
coming to be hung entirely on the walls. In England

the torchere was important during the early 18th cen-
tury, borrowing from French sources. Chippendale
and the Adams used torcheres of large classical
types as decorative features, the Adams copying the
Roman forms literally. French Empire torcheres were
likewise large and ornate, closely following antique
designs. [770.]
TORTOISESHELL. Small pieces of the shell of the

sea turtle used in inlays on furniture in combination
with brass and wood. Originated by Roulle
strips
during the reign of Louis XIV and extensively copied
in Germany and elsewhere.
TORES. Rold convex round molding, usually in circle

of 1/2 inch or more, sometimes flattened. See molding.
TOW. Flax fiber used as upholstery stuffing in place

of hair in inexpensive furniture.
TOWEL HORSE; TOWEL RAIL. Rack or framework

for hanging towels, used in conjunction with a wash-
stand in the 18th and 19th centuries. [1326.]
TOWNSEND, JOHN. Cabinetmaker in Newport, 1760-

1770. Worked with cousin John Goddard, father Job,
and uncle Christopher in perfecting blockfront with
shell in chests and desks. See also goddard, john;
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL. [1389.]
TRACERY. Delicate latticelike forms of bars and

lines with spaces for glass or openings. These derive
from the Gothic windows in which a framework
within the large opening was necessary to sustain
the glass, which at first was in small sections. The
shapes evolved were beautifully designed within the
whole opening. The principle was applied to windows,
bookcase doors, etc., where large areas of glass ap-
peared impracticable or too bare, and in the 18th
Ginsburg and Levy and 19th centuries produced interesting variations.
1295 NEWPORT, 1750-1780. Secretary, school of Townsend'
and Goddard. Chippendale developed Gothic, Chinese, Rococo, and
simple geometric themes for tracery, which, like his
common in Empire ornament, usually in bronze appli- fretwork, is the epitome of 18th-century types.
que. Sheraton used metal latticework similarly, and the
Riedermeier and other 19th-century styles developed
TORCHERE. Stand for holding lights; developed from characteristic designs.
the Gothic flambeau, the Early Renaissance types Tracery, when it encloses glass, should, properly,
were chiefly iron, delicately wrought. Sixteenth-cen- actually separate pieces of glass, but modern com-
TRAY 443 TRIVET
mercial work merely uses a cutout pattern or filigree

over a pane of glass. [148.]
TRAY. Shallow drawer, usually with a low front, or
the front cut out for handhold; also an additional box

placed in the top drawer of a chest for jewelry and
small articles.
TRAY TABLE. Folding stand used to support a tray.
TREE1V. Small woodenware, such as bowls, trays,

boxes, etc., generally with minimum joinery. Archaic.
TREFOIL. Three-cusped or three-arc ornament char-

acteristic of Gothic work. Usually inscribed within
a circle. [1144.]
TRELLISWORK. Latticework in chairbacks; decora-

tive galleries, etc. See also fretwork.
TRESTLE FOOT. Base, usually on a table, with ver-

tical members or legs ending on a horizontal board
on the ground; inverted T shape. [1215.]
TRESTLE TARLE. Originally, all tables were merely

loose boards placed upon trestles or horses. In the
Middle Ages the "dormant table" was a permanent
structure of table with trestles attached; this became
the fixed-table type. The trestle form survived, as Dolvu Brothers, Inc.
1296 TRIPOD TABLE (gueridon) by Goutier, period of Louis

distinguished from the four-legged or pedestal table,
XVI. Bronze d'ore and white marble.
in various arrangements of posts and feet, more or less
ornate, in all styles to the present. [10, 1202.]
center panel with two hinged leaves. Byzantine and
TRIANGLE SEAT OR CHAIR. Corner chair. One Gothic religious triptychs on wood and ivory were
of the early types of chairs of northern Europe, made among the finest artistic productions of the Middle
of turned posts and rungs on a triangular plan. Alpine Ages.
countries after the 14th century; England after the
16th. See also harvard chair. [232, 239.] TRIVET. Three-legged metal table or stand used
near a fireplace for warming dishes. England, 18th
TRIGLYPH. Ornament for a frieze, spaced at regular and 19th centuries.
intervals and consisting of a flat raised surface with
three grooves, or two whole and two half V-shaped
depressions. Derived from Greek temple architecture
and used in classical interpretations in furniture.
TRIO TARLES. Nest of three tables.
TRIPOD TARLE. Pedestal table with three out-

swinging legs. A favorite shape for small incidental
tables inGeorgian work, particularly of the Adam
and Chippendale schools. [64, 1176, 1296, 1338.]
TRIPTYCH. Three-paneled altarpiece later used dec-

oratively; and mirror frame or decorative unit of a
TRIPOD Sr&MDS
444 TUDOR ROSE
TRUMPET TURNING, LEG. Turned leg with flaring
profile of atrumpet turned upward. Typical of Eng-
lish work, Restoration period and later, and similar
American furniture. See also turning. [14, 736, 816,
1196.]
TRUNDLE RED. Low rolling frame fitted as a bed,

designed to roll under a larger bed. American and
English 18th and early 19th centuries. Also called
truckle bed. [1297.]
TRUSS. In furniture, a brace or understructure for

tables and chest-stands, or a bracket. Usually orna-
mentally treated. [10.]
TUR CHAIR. Round large easy chair with wide

wings. English, time of Sheraton and later. [289, 1301.]
TUCKAWAY TARLE. Compact folding table with

cross-legs which fold together to permit the top leaves,
to drop close together. Early American modification of
a narrow English gateleg table.
TUDOR. English rulers:

Henry VII, 1485-1509
Henry VIII, 1509-1547
Edward VI, 1547-1553
Mary, 1553-1558
Elizabeth, 1558-1603
Their reigns cover the last phases of the Gothic
Anderson Gallertes
1296A TRUMEAU, Late Louis XIV
style and the introduction of Renaissance ideas. Furni-
or Regence. Painted,
carved, and gilt moldings. ture is heavy, richly carved oak. See also England.
[458, 1199.]
TROPHIES. Decorative motive popular in Louis XIV
and later work, especially Empire, after the classic
TUDOR ARCH. Elliptical arch pointed in the center,
custom of composing weapons, flags, drums, and other
representative of the English Tudor style.
military symbols into a decorative grouping.
TRUCKLE RED. TUDOR ROSE. Conventionalized rose used as a

Trundle bed.
symbol of the Tudors; frequently a decorative motif
in English carved oak furniture of the 16th and 17th
TRUMEAU. Overmantel treatment of Louis XV and
centuries.
Louis XVI style, consisting of mirror and painting.
Subsequently detached and used as a decorative mir-
ror in composition with a commode or chest, console
tables, etc. [859.]
1297 TRUNDLE RED pulls out from under "stump" bed-

stead. American, 18th century.
Israel Sack
TUFFT 445 TURNING
TUFFT, THOMAS. Died 1793. Philadelphia cabinet- lever alternately winding and unwinding a winch.
and chair-maker; his label is known on a lowboy of Probably the earliest application of water power and,
simple but good style. later, steam power was to the lathe, so that in all ages
turning has been a convenient and direct method of

TUFTING. In upholstery, the tieing down of an up- treating wood decoratively. Legs, posts, feet, spindles,
holstered surface by means of a button sewed through rungs, stretchers, etc., are most often turned. Turnings
the upholstery. The arrangement of buttons and the are also cut through (split turnings) and applied to
resulting folds produce patterns in the upholstering. flat surfaces as decoration, as in Jacobean work. [238,
See also upholstery. [1140.] 538, 992.]
Almost every style has distinctive profiles in its
TULIP. A conventionalized flower pattern suggesting turnings, so that the outline and character of a turning
the tulip leaf and flower. It occurs both carved and may be a key to the style. Early Italian Renaissance
painted on chests of the Netherlands, South Germany, turnings are mostly of the baluster type, with well-
England and America between the 15th and early 18th proportioned manner. Span-
fillets, etc., in the classical
centuries. [11, 352.] ish turnings, influenced by the characteristic Moorish
style, consist of closely repeated disks and ball forms,
TULIPWOOD. Heavy tan wood with red markings, deeply and sharply incised. They also used a straight
from Central America. Extensively used in Louis XV turning with collars and fillets suggesting the column
furniture. form. Early Spanish and Portuguese legs were also
spiral-turned, probably brought from India. Spiral
TUPELO. Gumwood, grayish white in color, medium turnings are a feature of Flemish work, whence it
hard and strong, subject to warping unless carefully came to England as a prime detail of late-17th-century
cut and dried. Used chiefly in lower-priced furniture furniture. French 17th-century work shows tremendous
as posts and face veneer, generally stained to imitate
walnut or mahogany.
1297A EARLY AMERICAN TURNINGS, from Nye, Colonial
Furniture (1895).
TURKEY. Furniture of Turkeybased on a different
is
Derails{*îTcfe?jof Turnings
domestic organization and has little parallel in West-
ern work. Beds are chiefly piles of rugs in divan form,
whence the interpretation of Turkish divans, Turkish
beds, etc., in various periods. Turkish chairs are softly
overstuffed, and other so-called Turkish features are
simply allusions to the softly cushioned effect associ-
ated with Turkish rooms. Turkish woodwork is primi-
tive in depending on complex inlays for
outline,
decorative effect. most significant for its influence
It is
on 19th-century European work, particularly the

Second Empire emphasis on upholstery.
TURKEYWORK. Embroidery work, popular in the

17th century for upholstery. Many Early American
inventories list pieces so covered.
TURKISH ROCKER. Overstuffed easy chair mounted

on a spring platform. Late- 19th-century American. plori or\d elevation of rftV
four of- roblr N* 47&fcwing

relation of souore to turning.
TURNING. Turning, one of the most ancient wood-

working processes, is done by the application of cut-
ting tools to the rotating surface. The device for rotat-
ing or turning the wood is called a lathe. This is the
oldest idea in woodworking machinery. Egyptian
lathes were operated by a bowstring; later lathes were
worked by treadles. In the Middle Ages, a form of
spring lathe depended on the elasticity of a wood
I^porhon of A portion of agister of jeg of choir|U porhoh of lejof Joblei
choir leg toole lee. choir: I choir leg
N<xi4 N.45 N-8 B. No. 19 N07 No- 44

I
a 3 }
Scale fc= =fc I I
'
inches
446 TWIST
Turning, almost absent in Rococo work, reappeared

in the Louis XVI
Legs were invariably a sharply
style.
tapered turning with severe fillets and bands, and

usually fluted. These were favored by the Adams,
Hepplewhite, and Sheraton. There was a typically
flared-out turning, one of several eccentric turnings;
another was the country turned leg with the spoon or
pad foot suggesting a cabriole leg. This appears in
American work, along with the simple balusters and
the vase turning typical of the Windsor chair. With
the advent of power machinery came the spool turn-
ing, a monotonous repetition of a simple profile that
overflowed America in the 19th century. [815.]

I M( 1 1 I It \< K Oval or elliptical boss or half-turned
1298 TURNER'S CRAFT, highly advanced; Flemish, 17th decoration. Common in Jacobean and similar Amer-
century.
ican cabinetwork as applied decoration; also found
on some Renaissance work on the Continent.
variety of turnings, particularly combinations of pro-
files of twisted, column, and baluster forms, deeply
TUSCAN. Simplest order of Roman architecture. See
cut disks and ball types. The most characteristic turn-
also ORDERS.
ing of northern Europe through the 17th century was
the ball or sausage type, a much-repeated simple pro-
TWIN BED. Uncommon until the 20th century. Shera-
file that is familiar in Cromwellian and American work
ton mentions the idea, suggesting a "summer bed" of
of the 17th century. In England the large melon-bulb
two narrow units united by an arched canopy. See
turning is an outstanding key to furniture of the
also summer bed. [1189 A.]
Tudor and Stuart periods. Later, the William and
Mary turnings were of unique trumpet, inverted cup-
TWIST. Spiral or screw turning. [129, 172, 1195.]
and-bell turnings, besides the much-varied spiral and
composite types. The practice of carving on turned
surfaces, prevalent in Early Jacobean work, reap-
peared in Early Georgian times, richly ornamented
and fluted turned shafts forming the pedestals of
tables, etc. Clustered turnings suggested bamboo in
the Chinese taste, and a definite imitation called "bam-
boo turning" appeared in English and American fur-
niture.
CEAt>-
KNOB VA/f
ft L
Co.. I860
447 UPHOLSTERY
maximum resiliency. Modern thin-looking work is
made possible by substituting for springs elastic tapes
of rubberized fabric, resilient cording, and other
piaterials to make a firm, yielding platform.
Spring upholstery requires a deeper wooden frame.
Frames are best made of hard nonsplitting woods
like ash or birch, securely joined with glued dowels
and braced with corner blocks to resist the tension
of tied springs. On the bottom the webbing is criss-
crossed and stitched together. The springs are ar-
ranged over this in rows; they are stitched down and
tied together in such a way as to brace them against
tension from any direction. Burlap covers the top of
the springs; over this is placed hair or felt, then a
and finally the finish
layer of wadding, then muslin,
material. In much modern work loose cushions are
placed over the spring seat or platform; these cushions
may be filled with down, floss, hair, cotton felt, springs,
foam rubber, synthetic spongy material like polyure-

thane foam, rubberized hair, Dacron fluff, etc. With
loose cushions a special roll or stitched edge is sewed
Hampton and Sons Catalogue,c. 1880
1299-1299A UMBRELLA STANDS, English Victorian, in iron on the platform.

and wood. Like original simple padding drawn over a board,
some advanced work achieves a molded effect with a
thin padding of foam rubber cemented to a molding
UMBRELLA STAND. Chiefly English mid-19th-cen- shell,then covered with fabric. In this the seating
tury development of simple utilitarian receptacle into comfort results more from the shape of the shell
a conspicuous item of hall furniture. See also cos- than from the resilience of the cushioning; loose
TUMER; HATRACK. [1299.] cushions of soft material are often added. Combina-
tions of new materials and methods have created a
UNDERRR \CI.\G. The arrangement of stretchers on new repertoire of comfortable sitting with great ad-
chairs, tables, and stands with legs, etc., distinctive vantages of lightness in weight and appearance, clean-
to various styles. and simplicity of covers and their replacement.
liness
Comfort varies with molded chairs, since each shape
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. See AMERICA. is essentially a one-position design.
movable fur-
Historically, the upholsterer's role in
UPHOLSTERY. Upholstering consists of stretching niture was minor until the decline of the Empire in
of textiles or leather across a rigid framework [107]. France. The "upholder" of earlier times (French
Elementary upholstering used nothing more; in tapissier) was concerned with fabrics. He hung drap-
Egypt and other ancient cultures, as well as in the
earliest Renaissance, skins or leather were merely
1300 UPHOLSTERER'S CARD, English, c. 1770.
nailed across such a framework. Later, cushions were Needham's Antiques, Inc.
placed over this; finally, the padding or cushion was

sewed together with the covering material. Padding
was made still more comfortable by increasing the
depth of cushions, filled with down, horsehair, soft
feathers, wool, etc.; in the 16th century the upholster-

ing, now thick, was further softened by the use of
additional loose cushions or carreaux. Springs came
into use in the 18th century, and with this improve-
ment modern upholstery begins.
Springs became helical in the mid-19th century,
and elaborate methods were developed to make seats
more resilient. Much later flat springs came into use.
The flat zigzag steel wire requires least thickness for
0t m.
'
W
Israel Sack, Inc. Sleepy Hollow Restorations
SHERATON EASyThYiR 80a 1302 AMERICAN WING CHAIR c. 1770. 1303 WASHINGTON IRVING* CHAIR,
1301
show construction. style of the French Restorat.on, c.
Firm upholstery, comfortable shape. Frame stripped to
Drawer under seat.
ENGLISH VICTORIAN UPHOLSTERY, 1850-1880
1304, 1305, 1306, 1307

Hampton and Sons Catalogue, c. 1880.
Furniture Collection of the Grand Rapids Publii
UPHOLSTERY 449
eries and tapestries, applied materials to walls, etc. His

work in the 17th century was in draping the great
beds. Dozens of named parts made up the ensemble.
Rich trimmings fringes, gimps, galloons, braids sup-
plemented embroidery [1142]. As the beds declined,
chairs and sofas took over the trimmings and the
fabrics. At Knole about 1610 there were curule chairs
with all wood-frame parts covered with silk damask,
layers of soft cushions for seat and back [1081]. The
Gobelin factories supplied materials for wall and seat
coverings for Louis XIV. The loose cushion became
thicker as the lavish informality of the 18th century
ascended. New shapes of chairs appeared as sitting
manners relaxed. The stiff-backed canape became a
sofa; there were the bergere and the fauteuil, the con-
fessional and the chaise longue, the marquise and the
gondole, and the causeuse the total expression of an
age of lively indolence.
Britain followed the French example as nearly as
the national temperament permitted, but the con-
Journal fur Bau-und-M iibel Schreiner, Tapezirer,
tained shape never was altogether lost in 18th-century Courtesy Cooper Union Museum, New York City
seatings. 1308, 1309 GERMANY c. 1845. Biedermeier debased by up-
French interest in the Near East mounted in the holstery.
1309
period of Louis-Philippe ( 1830 ) to a craze for Turkish
corners, cushions of heaps of carpets and fabrics, but
French orderliness demanded separate, firm pieces.
The purveyor of fabrics took over furniture design; he A
submerged the obvious wood structure, and found
ways to make his chairs and sofas all-fabric bulks;
lush softness suggested harem scenes, as dramatized
by contemporary painters like Delacroix. Springing
was perfected so that wire-framed shapes remained
firm but yielded luxuriously. Deep tufting helped hold
the fillings in place and kept the designed shape
whole. Under this influence appeared many new types:
the confortable, a completely upholstered overstuffed design are infinite and too complex for any but the
lounge chair; the ottoman, a backless cushion seat expert to judge. The practice of advertising one or
(in a small version it may be a hassock); the pouf, more features as indicative of quality is often mis-
literally a puffy shape of a stool; the borne, a central leading, and a dangerous guide to the amateur judge
island in a room, usually circular, with a middle pillar of values. Legislation has established certain mini-
for a backrest; the divan, originally a mere heap of mums and cleanliness in manufacture, but
of quality
cushions, translated into a bulky low sofa shape with in the medium and better qualities the purchaser has
no visible framing. no better guide than the guarantee of a sufficient
Upholstery techniques in commercial practice price and a reputable manufacturer. [1300 et seq.]
changed little until the 1930's. The rise of synthetics
created new springing, new cushioning, new covers. URN. Vase-shaped vessel used as a decorative motive
Some of these were developed from transportation in Greco-Roman carving and borrowed in the Renais-
seating, a continuous field of experimentation since the sance and subsequent styles based on classic styles.
mid-19th century. Fine wire coils and mesh sheet In French work it is sometimes referred to as soupiere.
springing and wire spring cushioning gave way after It is used free standing as finials, and at the intersec-
1930 to rubberized hair, latex tapes and cords, foam tion of crossed stretchers, etc., particularly in the
rubber, and the endless list of laboratory products, Adam and Louis XVI styles.
more adaptable to mass production than to the old
handicraft of upholstery. URN STAND; URN TABLE. Small table accessory to
The variations in quality of material, labor, and the tea service, Chippendale school. [585.]
VALANCE 450 VENEER
VALANCE. The drapery of the tester or canopy of VASE. Ornamental vase or urn shapes after the classic
a bed; later the top or horizontal section of any drap- sources are used extensively in Adam, Louis XVI,
ery arrangement. and similar work. Carved or painted, it is often the
source of freely scrolled foliage designs. Free stand-
VANRRLGH, SIR JOHN, 1664-1726. English archi- ing it is used as finials or decorative accents.
tect and designer, influential in the development of
the Early Georgian style. VASE SPLAT. Chairback suggesting vase form com-
mon in most Renaissance types; most highly developed
VANITY. Modern name for a dressing table. in Queen Anne chairs.
VARGLENO. Spanish cabinet-desk with fall front, VASE TURNING. Profile in turnery that suggests a
most distinguished furniture type of Spain, 16th, 17th vase with bulbous base and tapering neck. Commonly
and early 18th centuries. See also desk; spain. [1032, found in the leg turning of Windsor chairs.
1146.]
VEILLELSE. French type of chaise longue. Period
of Louis XV.
VELOLR. Velvet or plush, often of wool or mohair.
VELVET. Fabric with soft close pile, usually of silk

or rayon: velveteen is of cotton.
VENEER. The woods decoratively

art of utilizing fine
for their color and markings appears in earliest his-
tory [26]. Simultaneously it was realized that such
use is not always consistent with the best structural
advantages. The device of gluing a thin layer of dec-
orative wood to a thicker backing for substance the
1309A MATCHED ROSEWOOD VENEERS laid up diagon-

ally in diamond-matched pattern in screen of Louis XV style.
VA RGueNO
SPANISH' f6 T CCWf
VARNISH. Wood-finishing material of gum dissolved

in linseed oil,applied in films or skins, by brush or
spray, to protect and beautify wood surfaces. It ap-
pears to have been known
to the ancients, but the
secret was medieval workers, who used only oil
lost to
and wax which was absorbed into the wood. True
brushing varnishes, using dammar or copal in oil,
were probably the basis of the vernis Martin, but no
reliable records indicate that varnish was made before
1848. Spirit varnishes or gums like shellac in alcohol,
chiefly padded on the wood, had been known in Eu-
rope since the 17th century. At first, varnishes pre-
sented a sticky, overglossy look, but rubbing and im-
proved quality today produces a fine satiny gloss.
Varnishes for special purposes are made with rung
oil or synthetic bases, like cellulose derivatives.
VENICE 451 VICTORIAN
essence of veneering goes back to ancient Egypt and VENICE. Control of sea trade in the Middle Ages
Rome. It virtually disappears until the Renaissance, brought great wealth and cosmopolitanism to Venice;
reappearing as inlaying, intarsia, etc., in the 16th prior to the Renaissance her art was of mixed origins
century wherever the Renaissance influence touched. and secular splendor. Early Renaissance Venetian
Not until the 17th century was veneering of whole work shows mixtures of Eastern and European forms
surfaces practiced extensively; the invention of a finer Her cultivated social life created furniture styles of
saw permitted slicing the wood into thin sections. rich individuality; with the decline of commerce came
When enough sections of the wood could be
large social decadence and extravagant living. Venetian
successfully cut and glued, the style of veneering furniture of the 18th century is highly ornamental,
changed from excessive marquetry to plain surface fancifully painted, and theatrical in outline. The whole
designs. In England this transition is noted at the end school of North Italian Settecento Rococo is some-
of the 17th century. The William and Mary style had times called Venetian. See also italy; painted furni-
favored "seaweed marquetry" and "oystering." The tube. [116, 300, 342, 867, 1043, 1055, 1204.]
Queen Anne style displayed the actual pattern of the
wood grain in its own beauty. VERNIS MARTIN. Varnish process invented by the
In the 19th century the technique of wood veneer- Martin brothers in France during the period of Louis
ing was improved by new methods of cutting and ap- XIV. It had great brilliancy and depth, and the process
plying veneers, and later by the study of better ad- was widely used. It proved to be less durable than
hesives, but not enough to avoid giving veneers a bad the Oriental lacquering that inspired it. See France.
name. Until recent years there was an unfortunate
literary allusion to "thin veneers" and "cheap veneers" VICTORIAN. General term for English and American
that left a prejudice in many minds. Actually, the ad- furniture, 1840-1900. In England, Early Victorian,
vantages of veneering are manifold: 1830-1850, may include the Late Sheraton-Empire-
1. It is the only way to utilize the beauty of the Regency, the end of classicism; the neo-Gothic, more
wood in repeated surfaces or to make patterns or less continuously after 1830 through Eastlake and
by matching the lines of the grain. Morris. Mid-Victorian, 1850-1880, covers French re-
2. It permits the use of fragile woods or of cuts vivals of Louis Quatorze and Louis Seize, better or
that sacrifice strength to beauty, as burls and worse copying down to outright bastardization of
crotches by backing them with a sturdy wood of ornamental themes; free choice motif selection from
no special beauty or value. the Italian and French Renaissance, as used contem-
3. It reduces the cost of rare woods by yielding poraneously in the France of Louis-Philippe and the
many surfaces per inch of thickness. Second Empire; sporadic waves of nostalgia for Eliza-
4. It provides a method of increasing the strength bethan and Jacobean. Currently there was also much
of wood many times, since the process of lami- copying of Georgian and pre-Georgian. Late Victorian,
nating veneers in successive layers at right angles 1880-1905, takes in the neo-Renaissance and some re-
offsets the cross-grain weakness of wood. vivals of English 17th-centurywork as well as Em-
5. Shaped work, such as curved sections, when cut pire, and includes the reform movements begun by
out of the solid are apt to split owing to uneven Eastlake and Morris. See also nineteenth century.
internal stresses; when built up of veneers these [94, 124, 166,338, 616, 877.]
inequalities are avoided. The name used even more sweep-
"Victorian" is
Modern veneering, utilizing specific glues, with ingly in reference to the United States, although the
equipment for proper drying and testing of wood, inspiration was more often from France than from
applying great and equal pressure, precise prepara- England. The designer or artisan-designer lost identi-
tion of surfaces and joints, yields a fabricated product fication in the process of mechanization. The great
superior in strength and beauty to the solid wood. bulk of commercial output was innocent of the in-
Veneers are sawn, sliced, or shaved, or peeled by fluence of trained designers or architects. Inspiration
rotary cutting on a sort of lathe. Each method pro- was and uncritically drawn from all sources.
freely
duces a different grain. Divisions by period are similar to the English.
The whole log, cut into veneers, is called a "flitch." Early Victorian emerged from the Late Empire
The sheets are applied in a variety of ways to produce and neoclassical styles of Phyfe, debased Sheraton
different wood patterns book-matched, diamond, "fancy" chairs, with considerable Gothic detail; ma-
butted, side- or end-matched, etc. See wood. hogany favored, some walnut and maple [728, 891].
Mid- Victorian consistently showed a Rococo-Louis
VICTORIAN
RIGHT HAND PAGE
1313 REST BED, duchesse type.

1314 ROCKING CHAIR. 1315
EASY CHAIR. 1316 SOFA, Rococo
manner. 1317 FOUR-PIECE AS-
SEMBLAGE for center group. 1318
CORNER CHAIR. 1319 UTILITY
TABLE for sewing, games, etc. 1320,
1321, 1321A VERSIONS OF BAL-
LOON-CHAIR EVOLUTION.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Charles Reginald Leonard, 1957, in memory of Edgar Welch Leonard.
Robert Jarvis Lennnrd, and Charles Reginald Leonard
1310 AMERICAN MIDCENTURY LOVE SEAT (Vis-a-Vis).
BRITISH VICTORIAN BEDSTEADS

1850-1880
1312 Iron or brass, Gothic detail

in tubing and stamped parts.
1311 Renaissance derivative.

454 VICTORIAN
XV basis, exaggerated scale and curvature, heavy
carving of fruit and flowers, principally in walnut with
some rosewood and mahogany; new shapes and types
like those of the French Second Empire, with com-
plicated seatings and lush upholstery. Machine work
appeared in fancy shaping, molding, turning, veneer-
ing, and carving, applied heavily and often meaning-
lessly. Marble tops and fancy hardware of metal,
carved wood, porcelain, etc., were featured. Black

horsehair upholstery covering was a hallmark. Pro-
vincial work was simpler, some in quaint good taste,
like the spool-turning beds, simple commodes, and

some distinctive chairs. Elliptical shapes were more
common than round.
Late Victorian began with rectilinear shapes and
Renaissance details after 1870 and the Philadelphia
Exposition of 1876, this phase spanning the Columbian
Exposition of 1893. Superficially influenced by East-
lake,whose doctrine of simplicity was overwhelmed
by machined details inexpertly combined with Orien-
tal suggestions in incised carving, applied brackets,
panels, turnings, etc., some of it was suggested by the
Gothic, some of Tudor origin. Oak came into extensive
use in the 1880's, eventually in the yellow varnish
1322 BREAKFRONT CABINET, 1860-1880. finish of the "Golden Oak" period. Design was almost
universally a factory product, the professional de-
signer unknown. This was the heyday of patent
more or less ra-
furniture, combinations of functions,
tionally, like bed- wardrobe, desk-bookcase, table-chest;
mechanistic devices to save space or multiply utility.
Victorian Painted Bedroom "Suite,"

Cottage Style, c. 1880
1323 BUFFET CABINET c. 1880. Metal mounts, suggestion

of Berain design.
1324 CHAIR.
1325 WASHSTAND, marble top.
1326 TOWEL HORSE.

1327 CHEST OF DRAWERS.
1328 DESK OR DRESSING TABLE
VIGNOLA 455
In the 1890's came waves of inexpert eclectic styles:

American Colonial, Empire, machined
faulty essays in
Louis XV, unsealed Renaissance from all sources;
Japanese themes rendered in bamboo, real and imi-
tated. There were also echoes of William Morris in
simple cottage furniture that ended in the Mission
style.
VIGNOLA, GIACOMA DA, 1507-1573. Italian archi-

tect who classified the orders of architecture after the
standardized proportions of Vitruvius.
VINE MOriF
(gotwic)
VINE MOTIVE. Conventional rhythmic band orna-

ment. Occurs as carved decoration chiefly in Gothic
style; painted bands appear in classic English and
French work of the 18th century, in imitation of its

use on Greek and Roman vases. [349.]
VIOLETWOOD. Amaranth or purpleheart.
VIS-A-VIS. Tete-a-tete or Siamoise sofa, in which

two sitters face in opposite directions. [1310, 1329.]
1330 VITRINE, English Regency, c. 1810. Black-and-gold

lacquer.
1329 VIS-A-VIS, English Victorian, 1865-1880.

1331 WAGON SEAT, Pennsylvania, c. 1780. Poplar, splint
seat.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Robert W. de Forest, 1933
VITRINE. Cabinet with clear glass door, sometimes

glass sides and top, for the storage and display of
china, curios, etc. [181, 1330.]
VITRUVIAI* SCROLL. Wavelike series of scrolls in

band ornament, carved, inlaid or painted. Also called
"running dog."
VITRUVIUS. Roman writer on architecture, used as

source by Renaissance designers.
VOLUTE 456
VOLUTE. form is in the capi-

Spiral scroll. Its earliest
tal of the Greek Ionic order, after which it is found
extensively in Roman work and all later classic styles.

A Gothic form is based on plant life, naturalistic
leaves curling inward. See also scroll.
WAGON SEAT. Crude Early American double seat

on a frame, used both in a wagon or in the house.
Some had splint or rush seats, but most were merely
wood. [25, 1331.]
WAINSCOT. Panelwork not covering the wall all the

way to the ceiling.
WAUVSCOT CHAIR. Paneled chairs of French and

English type, 16th and 17th centuries. American types
follow the English examples. They were probably de- 1332 WALL SHELF, American, maple.
veloped from the detachment of a piece of wall panel-
ing with a seat-board attached. [8, 225, 551, 624.] maple, walnut has been injudiciously finished in the
past; the unfortunate connotation of black walnut
WALL FURNITURE. The classification of all pieces grows from the malpractice of dark staining in Vic-
of furniture intended for use against the wall: cabi- torian America.
nets, buffets, chests, cupboards, bookcases, hanging The characteristic American walnut is the black
cabinets, etc. walnut, one of the best in the world; moderately dark,
gray-brown with a simple figure. American butternut
WALNUT. Since ancient times walnut, the genus or white walnut, lighter in color, is not quite the equal
Juglans, has been a leading furniture wood because of black walnut, but a beautiful and serviceable wood.
of its prevalence wherever civilizations have flour- English, French, Italian, and Spanish walnuts are
ished, as well asits excellence and wide adaptability. lighter in color, finer in texture, but otherwise the
Walnut has great strength without excessive weight, equal of American black walnut. The Circassian or
is hard enough to withstand much shock, yet cuts Caucasian walnut is a gnarly tree whose wood shows
well, carves handily, and takes a fine polish. It contorted grain- markings in vividly contrasting light
is durable and able to resist much internal stress from and dark browns. Other walnuts Persian, Russian,
moisture changes, as well as the ravages of many in- Turkish, Rolivian, Brazilian (Imbuya), and Japanese
sects. As solid lumber and veneer it has the greatest have varying characteristics.
variety of colors, textures, and figures; there are African and Australian, Oriental or Queensland wal-
stripes, burls, crotches, mottles, curls and wavy figures, nuts are not true walnuts, the latter being of the laurel
butts, etc., as well as a variety of freaks and cuts that family.
produce interesting patterns. Like mahogany and In historic times walnut occurs in furniture of the
1334 DANISH, 1952. Panel wall system designed by Finn entire Italianand Spanish Renaissance. In France it
Juhl. displaced oak as soon as Renaissance forces came in;
1334 Frederick Lunning
457 WARDROBE
1333 HANGING CUPBOARD, Georgian, satinwood.
Wall Shelves
SHELVES FOR DISPLAY AND UTILITY AP-
PEAR IN EARLIEST WORK, AND THEY BE
COME ORNAMENTAL IN EVERY PERIOD.
GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE RELICS SHOW
VARIED USES AND TREATMENT. THEIR
HIGHEST DECORATIVE DEVELOPMENT AP
PEARED IN 18TH-CENTURY ENGLAND.
MODERN WORK UTILIZES SHELVES AND
WALL FURNITURE FOR SPACE ECONOMY
AND ENRICHMENT OF WALL SURFACE.
SPRING TENSION POLES ARE USED AS SUP-
PORTS, AS ARE CANTILEVER BRACKETS
CARRIED ON METAL STRIPS.
1335 ENGLAND c. 1860. MAHOGANY WARD-

ROBE with drawers, shelves and hanging space. Museum of the City of New York
Furniture Collection, Grand Rapids Public Library 1336 AMERICAN WARDROBE c. 1833. Mahogany, stencil decorations.
Gothic arch panels, "squash" carved feet,
similarly it was accepted in Flanders and the Low
Countries and South Germany with the earliest Renais-
sance influences. In England walnut had only slight
acceptance until the Restoration. Then all manner
of craftsmen were imported, and brought with them
the preference for the wood in which they had been
trained. The reign of Queen Anne is the Age of Wal-
nut, and walnut held sway until fashion turned to
mahogany about 1730. In America walnut was used
wherever found, particularly in Pennsylvania. [1044.]
WARDROBE. Large cabinet or cupboard for hanging

clothes. In Europe, where clothes closets are not com-
monly provided in the plan of the room, such ward-
robes are extensively used. They are often planned
in the proportion of the old armoire. See also armoire.
[804, 1335.]
1337
1338 Metropolitan Museum of Art 1339 Anderson Galleries
1337 ENGLISH c. 1840. 1338 "ATHENIENNE." French Neoclassic. 1339 SHERATON, Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
corner basin stand c. 1790. 1340 AMERICAN c. 1830. Painted and stenciled.
1340
Washstands
WARP. Twisting or bulging of wood boards result- Hepplewhite, Sheraton, Adam, Louis XVI, and con-
ing from changes of moisture content within the fibers. temporary American work.
All wood absorbs and throws off moisture, but if un-
evenly restrained or improperly protected it may WATER GILDING. Thin deposit of gold and mer-
curve or twist as the moisture causes the uneven swell- curv or ormolu mounts.
ing or drying of the fibers.
Also, the lengthwise threads in fabric. WAVE SCROLL. Continuous spiral band decoration,
also called Vitruvian scroll or "running dog."
WASHSTAND. Small table or cabinet holding a basin
and the accessories for washing, developed during WAX INLAYING. Wax filled into cutout patterns in
the 18th century in many forms by all designers in wood.
England, America, and on the Continent. [1325, 1337.]
WEBRING. Linen or jute bands from 2-1/2 to 4 inches
WATER BENCH. American, 19th-century rustic, usu- wide, used in upholstery as a base for springs or
allyfound on the back porch for the ablutions of farm- stuffing like hair. The bands are tacked at the ends
hands; usually homemade of available materials, some- to the wood frame and woven across, and are then
times with a zinc basin, a lower cupboard for pitchers, stitched together. See also upholstery.
an upper shelf. See also rustic furniture.
WERFOOT. Grooved or carved foot of a cabriole leg
WATER LEAF. Ornamental based on the elon-
detail suggesting the webbed feet of animals.
gated laurel leaf. Its simple delicate form is typical of
WEDGWOOD. English pottery ware of fine hard tex-
ture. The Wedgwoods were interested in the Classic

Revival in the 18th century, and duplicated many of
the antique vase forms under the direction of Robert
Adam. They also made plaques that were used as in-
serts in the same manner as Sevres plaques were ap-
plied in France. See also ceramic.
W&TEE &ENCH
AMERICAN
19 CCNTUey
WEISWEILER, ADAM. Cabinetmaker, latter part
18th century, of German origin, who worked in France
during the Louis XVI period and early stages of the
Empire. [659.]
WELSH DRESSER. Cabinet with drawers and door

compartments below, the receding upper part having
1342 ENGLISH ETAGERE
1341, 1341A VICTORIAN WHATNOTS, 1860-1875. c. 1780.
open shelves for the display of china. See also side- WHITEWOOD. Woodworker's name for yellow pop-
board. [1111.] lar, although the name sometimes includes basswood
and magnolia. Light yellowish color with satiny sheen;
WELTING. Narrow fabric edging or border of round sometimes called canary wood in England. It holds
section sewed into the seams of upholstery for finish paint well, and is moderately firm in structural use.
and accent. Has a faint grain and does not polish well.
WHATNOT. French etagere. Tier of shelves sup- WHORL. Spiral scroll decoration.
ported by turned posts, used for the display of curios,
etc. English 18th century and later. See also etagere. WICKER. General term for furniture woven of vari-
[124, 1341.] ous natural or synthetic materials, such as willow,
reed, rattan, or spirally twisted paper. Particularly
WHEAT-EAR. Carved ornament of several ears of used in summer and outdoor furniture.
wheat used in chairbacks, mirror frames, etc., by
Hepplewhite and in America by Mclntire and others. WIG STAND. Small stand, tripod, or turned pedestal
fittedwith drawers for materials for wig dressing,
WHEEL-BACK. Round or oval chairback with radi- sometimes a dummy head to carry the wig. English
ating spindles or bars resembling the spokes of a 18th century.
wheel, found mostly in later 18th-century English
chairs. WILLARD. Massachusetts family of clockmakers ac-
tive 1743-1848. Benjamin established a factory in
Grafton, Mass., about 1765; Simon, working in Rox-
bury, invented the banjo clock about 1800. Aaron
worked in Boston after 1790.
WILLIAM AND MARY. Ruled England 1689-1702.

Of Dutch origin, William brought a complete style
to replace the deteriorating Late Jacobean. This pe-
riod is marked as the Age of Walnut. Its furniture is
more domestic in scale, more elegantly designed and
finished, and is characterized by innovations like the
cabriole leg, seaweed marquetry, the highboy, and
flat serpentine stretchers. See also America; England.
[12, 14, 735, 815.]

WINDOW SEAT 460
WINDOW SEAT. Bench with two ends, as arms, or

a small backless settee used in theembrasure of a
window. Fine types in 18th-century English work;
also found in French and Italian styles after 1750.
The deep reveal of early buildings provided an in-
viting place to sit; particularly true in northern coun-
tries where the walls were thick and the windows
small; Gothic and Renaissance window seats were
functional and much used. Fine types are found in
18th-century England, France, Italy, and America,
after 1750. [1343.]

1344 ENGLISH REGENCY c. 1815. Black lacquer.
1345 REGENCY MAHOGANY c. 1805. Symons Galleries, Inc.
1343 ENGLISH, "French taste," c. 1775. Needham's Antiques, Inc.
1346 By LANNUIER c. 1815. Mahogany, black and gold

Maryland Historical Society
WINDSOR 461 WINDSOR
WINDSOR. Style of chair using bentwood back
frame and wood seat with the legs pegged directly
into the seat instead of being framed with aprons.
The type seems to have originated around Windsor
Castle in England between 1700 and 1725, and ap-
pears always to have been made by wheelwrights or
turners rather than by cabinetmakers. It is likely that
they attempted to imitate the finer Queen Anne chairs
with rustic attempts at round backs and splats; the
English Windsor usually has a pierced slat flanked
by turned spindles suggesting wheel spokes. The legs
were invariably splayed, as often cabriole as turned
[528, 1347]. The American colonists carried the Wind-
sor to its ultimate development, producing a chair of
the utmost strength, comfort, lightness, and ease of
manufacture. The first Windsors appeared around
Philadelphia after 1725; by 1760 they were the pre-
dominant chairs for common use. They appeared in
infinite variations of comb back, fan, hoop, and bow
backs, made in combinations of woods. The saddle-
shaped seat was generally of thick pine, sometimes Needham's Antiques, Inc.
of soft birch.The bent members were beech, hickory, 1348 ENGLISH, late 18th century.
ash, or birch, and the turned parts were maple, ash, Bent stretcher.
birch, oak, or beech.They were often painted or left 1349, 1349A AMERICAN c.
in the raw wood. The notion was later extended to 1770(?) One-piece back and
arms. Detail: upholstery over
settees [17, 1088, 1350]; beds, tables, etc. [314 et seq.]
unshaped seat.
Windsors are now found occasionally with upholstered Collection of Mrs. Samuel Schwartz
seats, and there is evidence that this was the pristine
condition. Normally the saddle-shape modeling of the
thick seat (elm in England, pine in America) is a
vital point of a good Windsor. When the seat is quite
flat with straight sides and there are signs of tack
marks, authorities conclude that padding was applied.

[1349.]
1347 ENGLISH, walnut, Early Georgian. Seat

shaping significant.
AMERICAN VINDSoe
TUENIWGS
3
1350 WINDSOR SETTEE, Rhode Island, Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.
1750-1800.
The basic Windsor idea of legs stuck into a wood WINE COOLER. Metal-lined tub for wine service,
seat persisted in country work in England and Amer- decoratively treated in the 18th-century English styles.
ica throughout the 19th century. In the United States [1351, 1352.]
particularly, it then evolved into the simplest form
of everyday chair with only the two front legs so

back legs and upper back being a mixture
treated, the
of every known theme. [81, 334, 335, 530.]
1351

1352 WINE COOLER, English, Adam style, 1770-1780.
Mahogany.
1351 NEW YORK c. 1820. Mahogany wine cooler.

Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence
WINE SIDEBOARD. Cabinet fitted to hold wines 1354 WINE SIDEBOARD, French, c. 1760. Crotch mahogany
grain in exquisitely proportioned panels.
for imminent use. [1353, 1354.]
WINE TABLE. Horseshoe-shaped table for the serv- THE AMENITIES OF WINE SERVICE BROUGHT INTO
BEING SOME UNIQUE FURNITURE DESIGNS -SIDE-
ing of wine. English after 1750. See also hunt table.
BOARDS, SERVERS, COOLERS, TABLES, CABINETS,
[1239.] ETC. -AT A TIME WHEN THE WHOLE LEVEL OF
FURNITURE REACHED HEIGHTS OF SOPHISTICATED
WING. ELEGANCE.
Projecting side of a piece of furniture.
WING BOOKCASE. Breakfront, the receding side 1353 ENGLISH c. 1780. Serpentine front wine sideboard.
portions suggesting the wing form. Arthur S. Vernay, Inc.
flBOR^* 1
WING CHAIR. Comfortable large chair with side

pieces, usually overstuffed. The general type existed
in France as the "confessional," but the usual impli-
cation is the type evolved in England and America
~n.
after 1750. [261, 1302.]
WINGED CLAW. Heavy couch foot used in Empire

sofas and other heavy pieces. [542.]
WINTHROP. Slant-top desks are colloquially called

Governor Winthrop secretaries, for no good reason.
See also desk.
1354A
WINGED CLAW poor-
AMEE.ICAN C IS30
WOOD 464 WOOD
Selection woods and grains; matchings of
of
veneers and other methods of accentuating the
grain; various methods of finishing, polishing,
etc., to bring out and preserve these qualities,
offer a range of beautiful effects unique to wood

and to wood alone.
The disadvantages of wood are largely the result of
its organic nature.
1. The fibers of wood are capable of absorbing and
losing moisture according to the humidity of
the surrounding air. This causes cracking, swell-
ing and shrinking, warping or twisting, check-
ing or surface cracking. The remedy lies in:
(a) the careful growth and selection of grains

for various uses; ( b ) proper drying, both by air
and applied heat in kilns; (c) the protection of
the wood from too sudden changes of tempera-
ture and humidity, by coating with a resistant
film like varnish, lacquer, etc. (see finish); (d)
fabrication of wood into plywood (see plywood).
2. It is inflammable. Wood can be chemically
treated to resist fire, but the process is costly
and used only rarely.
3. It is subject to attack by worms and insects.
Various treatments and finishes afford more or

less protection.
1355 THE PARTS OF THE TREE, AND CUTTING

METHODS.
WOOD. Wood has always been the basic material for

furniture; it has in fact never had a serious rival.
Its preeminence is the result of many virtues:

1. Various woods are readily available wherever
conditions have favored human living. Grain op flat cot
BOARDS
2. It is among the strongest of organic materials,
and stronger forweight than other materials.
its
It offers a variety of strengths and weights for

different and decorative uses.
structural
3. It is easily worked; it grows in convenient sizes;
it cuts easily with simple tools; it can be agree- 6raiis1 of Qubarea

ably surfaced with no great labor.
4. It can be joined together in many ways: nailed,
glued, joined, etc. (see joinery). The grain of wood is exhibited by cutting cross
5. It is agreeable to the touch; it feels good. Being sections in various ways through the fibers, the ar-
a poor conductor of heat, its temperature is less rangement of which is different and
distinctive in
startling than that of other materials. every wood, as well as in different logs of the same
6. It produces less noise under impact than other wood, and different parts of the same tree. Thus,
materials of equivalent strength. woods present different appearances according to:
7. It is relatively light in weight. (a) botanical variety, (b) method of cutting the log,
8. It may be easily repaired when broken or injured. (c) part of the tree from which it is cut.
9. It possesses intrinsic beauty in infinite variety The typical structure of wood consists of long fibers,
of color, texture, and pattern; it can be worked differently placed in different woods, but always in
in many ways to exploit and enhance this beauty. concentric rings out from the center of the tree. These
WOOD 465 WOOD
rings are the results of alternate growth and dormant from other parts. The crotch, where the tree forks
periods in the seasons; they are called "annual rings," into two limbs, produces a vivid irregular V-shaped
and indicate the age of the tree. There are also radial grain, sometimes with markings described as plumes
lines "medullary" or "pith rays" that cross the annual or feathers, cross fire, etc. The swirl, or the outside
rings. The combinations of these rings, as well as the of the crotch-block, is very irregular, but lacks the
sizeand arrangement of the fibers, are infinitely com- V-shape of the crotch figure. The butt or stump figure,
plex and variable, but assume definite character in cut from the base of the log where it spreads hori-
the different woods, by which the woods are identi- zontally toward the roots, is also a slightly V-shaped
fied. Oak, for example, has a coarse, open-grained tex- figure, often with smaller cross rays, curls, etc. The
ture; the pores are large and the pith rays so distinct burl is a tumor or wart, an erratic wild growth any-
as to be known as flakes. In maple, on the other hand, where on the tree, which shows a finely pitted or
the fibers are so fine and close that the surface of gnarly figure in cross section of most woods. Bird's-
the wood is silky smooth. Straight grains or comb eye, an erratic, spotty figure occuring chiefly in maple,
grains are common to some varieties, while other fig- is formed by the growth of buds too deep to break
ures are known as curly grain, mottled, fiddleback, through the bark. Curly or wavy figures are an unex-
blister, bird's-eye, etc.; more specialized are bees- plained phenomenon in which more or less fine cross
wings, rope figures, quilted, roe, raindrop, plum pud- stripes appear at right angles to the long grain; they
ding, broken stripes, swirls, etc. Color is likewise a may be partially the result of the swaying of the
distinguishing factor of the species. The pigment may tree. Different in fineness of the curl are the fiddle-
be evenly distributed, as in mahogany, may be or back, roll, and blister figures.

strikingly contrasting between the heartwood and the The selection of woods best suited to structural or
sapwood, as in birch; it may also be arranged con- decorative uses is a matter of expert knowledge as
trastingly in the annual rings, causing a strong stripe well as of choice. The distinction between softwood
figure, as in zebrawood. Pigment may also be de- and hardwood is not always correctly used; many
posited irregularly by stains from decay or injury properly called softwoods are physically harder than
that produce an erratic interesting pattern when cut some hardwoods. Actually, the term "softwood" may
through. be applied only to evergreen or nondeciduous trees,
There are several ways of cutting the log that pro- such as pine, hemlock, fir, spruce, etc. All deciduous
duce various figures. A board cut through the middle or leaf-shedding trees arehardwood whether the wood
of the whole log will show straight comb stripes on is as soft as basswood and poplar or as hard as maple
the outer sides while the midsection will appear as or oak. The leading American woods of general struc-
a more irregular figure. Such a board is called "plain tural value in furniture are walnut, oak, maple, birch,
sawed." When the log is first cut into quarters, then cherry, gumwood, pine; less used except for special-
sawed into boards at approximately right angles to ized purposes are beech, chestnut, poplar, basswood,
the concentric rings, it is called "quarter sawed." ash, fir, elm, magnolia, butternut, cottonwood, red-
Each method produces its distinct grain, with separate wood, spruce, cedar, sycamore, cypress. These are
properties and uses. used both as veneers and as solid lumber. Of the
In cutting veneers there are many processes that imported woods, mahogany is by far the best and
produce highly varied figures. The oldest method of most commonly used, its vast range of hardness and
slicing veneers yields a grain similar to the long grain; strengths, color and figure lending it to almost every
it can be cut at any angle between the flat grain and purpose. Others frequently used both as lumber and
the quarter. Sawed veneers show the same tendencies. veneers are rosewood, primavera, avodire, European
Peeled or rotary-cut veneers are literally unrolled from and tropical walnuts, holly, ebony, sycamore, satin-
the log by rotating the log against a long knife. The wood, eucalyptus, pear, teak, tulip, zebra, amaranth,
grain appears very actively figured. Cross sections of koa, vermilion. Almost exclusively used as veneers
small limbs used whole in veneering are known as are amboyna, snakewood, yew, thuja, olive, kingwood,
"oystering"; these odd designs of concentric circles myrtle, acacia, laurel, cocobolo, box, sandalwood, lab-
were favored in late- 17th-century English work. Knots urnum, and a vast list of more or less similar varieties.
are utilized as a decorative feature, particularly in There is considerable confusion and obscurantism in
cedar and pine. the nomenclature of these woods, resulting from con-
The part of the tree from which the wood is cut fusion of identification, local or foreign names, the
is readily classified. The long grain is the best and ambiguity of trade promotions, and the effort to dis-
commonest all-purpose wood; the fibers being straight- guise a familiar wood with its botanical or literary
est, the wood is strongest. Decorative grains are cut name, etc.
CHARACTERISTIC WOOD GRAINS
1359 KNOTTY CEDAR. 1360 MAPLE, bird's-eye figure.
1361 CUBAN MAHOGANY, 1362 MAHOGANY, 1363 MAHOGANY, 1364 MAHOGANY, 1365 MAHOGANY,
plum-pudding figure. fiddleback figure. broken stripe. rope figure. mottle figure.
* ;
at* "
asm
*-.;*<
:tf.
%
Fm
1366 CHERRY, curly figure. 1367 WALNUT, sliced, pin knotty. 1368 WALNUT, narrow heart, sliced.
1369 LACEWOOD figure due

toprominent pith rays or flakes,
as in oak.
1370 WHITE OAK, flake figure.
1371 WALNUT, four-piece match butt.
1369 1370
1372 WALNUT, crotch swirl. 1373 WALNUT, feather crotch. 1373A WALNUT, stumpwood (butt).
//X
x*H :
^
468
Writing Tables
ALMOST ANY TABLE CAN FUNCTION AS A

DESK OR WRITING TABLE. IT BECOMES
SPECIALIZED BY THE ADDITION OF
DRAWERS OR RACKS. THE FRENCH BU-
REAU PLAT AND ENGLISH LIBRARY TABLE
TEND TO BE LARGE ENOUGH TO USE FOR
LARGE FOLIOS, PRINTS, AND ENGRAVINGS.
1374 SPANISH, early 17th century. Walnut;

drawers faced with red velvet. Anderson Galleries
1375 FRENCH, 1650-1680. Writing table by

Boulle. Victoria and Albert Museum, Crown Copyright
1376 "BUREAU PLAT,"

Louis XIV. Inlaid wood,
ormolu mounts.
Doha Brothers, Inc.

1377 LOUIS XV.
1378 "BUREAU PLAT" with cartonniere;

Louis XIV Regence.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan
1906
1379 LOUIS XVI. Frick Collection

}>
V, f
From. "Chinese Household Furniture" by George N. Kates
courtesy Dover Publications
1381 Top right. CHINESE, brass and copper mounts on polished dark
wood.
1383 HEPPLEWHITE SERPENTINE FRONT c. 1780. Needham's Antiques, Inc.
Brunovan, Inc.
1380 Top left. Italian Directoire c. 1800. Drop front
writing drawer.
Writing Tables
1382 "CARLTON HOUSE" DESK, English, 1780-

1790.
i
471

1384 Top left. SHERATON DRUM TABLE c. 1790.
1385 Top right. CHIPPENDALE RENT TABLE c. 1770.

1386 Center. KNEEHOLE DESK c. 1780. Nest of

pigeonholes drops to flush top. Maker's label,
SeduOns. Needham's Antiques, Inc.
1387 OVAL DESK with slides, Hepplewhite design.

Label, "Wright & Mansfield." Symons Galleries, Inc.
472 WRITING TABLES
1389 BLOCKFRONT KNEEHOLE DESK, attributed to

John Townsend, Newport, Rhode Island, c. 1770.
1388 RHODE ISLAND BLOCKFRONT c. 1770.

. _^
Israel Sack, Inc
1390 CHIPPENDALE SCHOOL c. 1755. "Four-way" pedestal

writing table, black leather top.
WRITING TABLES

1392 REGENCY, 1810-1820. Rose-
wood inlav, unusually shaped drop-
leaf.
1391 ENGLISH c. 1780. Kidney-

shaped kneehole writing table.
1393 NEW YORK, Sheraton style. Probably by Major Pierre L'Enfant for the first Congress of
the United States in Federal Hall, 1789.
n_f
WORKTABLES 474 WROUGHT IRON
WRITING ARM. Tablet arm; wide board arm suit-
able for a writing tablet, as in Windsor chairs. [319.]
61EDEKMMG
WORKTABLES in various forms appeared with the

rise of fads for needlework, painting, etc., late in the
17th century. Whole families of small tables for sew-
WRITING ACM-
ing, tea service, drawing, reading, games, etc., came AMERICAN WINDSOR
under this heading. The types are not necessarily dis-
tinct, so that few forms have special characteristics
and all types today are adapted, scaled up or down,
or revised for any purpose desired. See also bag table; WRITING DESK; WRITING TARLE. Flattop desk
DAVENPORT; READING STAND; SEWING TABLE; TABLE. or any table type of proper size for writing, usually
fittedwith drawers or desk compartments. Original
WREATH. A classical motive, chiefly Roman, which desk or "bureau" was merely a table with cloth called
recurs in the Renaissance and all later revivals of bure. See also desk; escritoire; library table; table.
the classical style. Early Renaissance wreaths were [319, 1374.]
severely round and firm in outline; later, they grew
richer and ornate. These were painted, carved, or WROUGHT IRON. Forged iron in furniture is bent,
appliqued, often in conjunction with coats-of-arms or beaten, cut, or otherwise shaped when hot, as differ-
monograms. In the Empire style they were commonly ing from cast iron, which is molded. In earliest work
bronze appliques, using laurel leaves or other austere iron bindings were the principal means of holding
shapes. wood boards together [544]. As joinery developed,
the iron became merely adjunct or bracing and finally
WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER, 1632-1723. English only decorative as appliques or as working hardware,
architect largely responsible for the Restoration style, such as hinges, locks, handles. [1152.]
following the classic manner of Palladio. He directed
the reconstruction of much of London after the Great
Fire. While he is known to have designed little mobile WROUGHT IRON
furniture, his general direction influenced the school
of woodcarving of which Grinling Gibbons was pre-
eminent.
&ED SPANI54J
BENCH ITALIAN TABLE ITALIAN

X-CHAIR 475 ZUCCHI
1394 X-STOOL, ancient Egypt.

Rogers Fund, 1912
eCOENCt * ctbktcu
CANADA
YEW. Hard, close-grained red-brown wood, resistant

to wear and decay. Takes a high polish; used on fur-
niture chiefly for decorative veneered effects and in-
X-CHAIR. Ancient type of chair based on the folding laying since 17th century, although it was also so
chair. It was known in Egypt and Rome, and appears used by the ancients.
in the Middle Ages.
YORKSHIRE CHAIR. English carved side chair of
the 17th century, peculiar to Yorkshire. It stems from
the panel or wainscot chair, and is invariably of oak
with turned front legs and stretchers. [237.1
YoecsmeE
CMAIP
ROMAN
X- 'STOOL
X- STRETCHER ^ Thomas hope
X-STOOL. The simplest form of folding stool, found STRETCHER.

in ancient Egyptian remains and most subsequent
types. Earliest forms had leather or skin seats. Renais-
YORKSHIRE DRESSER. Dresser or dish cupboard
sance stools were solid, often having the crossed mem- with a low back. It originates in Yorkshire, and is
bers carved. This was the curule chair Romans,
of the
usually of oak or deal.
and is particularly characteristic of the Empire style.
YCRA. Tasmanian oak; has dense texture and regular

curly figure.
ZERRAWOOD. Hard decorative wood from Rritish

Guiana; named for its vigorous stripings of dark red-
dish-brown on creamy ground. Used chiefly for inlays
and bandings, but more extensively on large surfaces
in modern work.
ZUCCHI, ANTONIO, 1 726- 1 795. Italian decorative

-jTRtTCHEC AMERICA^
painter who worked in England, often under the direc-
tion of Robert Adam, painting medallions and wall
X-STRETCHER. Crossed stretchers on chairs or designs and probably furniture decorations. Husband
tables, etc. [246, 257, 260, 264, 317, 476.] of Angelica Kauffmann.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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"Indicates a source book of the period.
. . . . .
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,
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A GLOSSARY OF DESIGNERS AND CRAFTSMEN
Aalto, Alvar, contemporary Finnish Barry, Sir Charles, England, 19th Bouvier, Michael, Philadelphia, Pa.,
architect and furniture designer. century. Architect. active 1819-1859.
"Adam Brothers, English architects: Barry, Joseph B., Philadelphia, circa Bradburn, John, England, 18th cen-
John, 1721-1792; Robert, 1728- 1810. tury.
1792; James, 1730-1794;William, Baumgartner, Ulrich, Germany, 17th Bradshaw, William, England, 18th
1739-1822. century. century.
"Affleck, Thomas, Philadelphia, Pa. Beck, Sebald, Germany, 16th cen- Brettingham, Matthew, England,
Died 1763. tury. 1699-1769. Architect. Pupil of
Albertolli, Giocono, Italy, Directoire Belchier, John, England. Died 1753. William Kent.
period. See under Nineteenth Bell, Philip, England, 18th century. Breuer, Marcel, contemporary Amer-
Century. Belli, Andrea Alessandro, Italy, 16th ican architect.
Allen, Josiah, Charleston, S.C He ap- century. Breuhaus, Fritz A., Germany, early
pears in the city directory be- Belli, Giovanni, Italy, 16th century. 20th century.
tween 1809-1813. 'Belter, John Henry, New York City. Brinner, John, New York City, 18th
*Allison, Michael, New York City. Ac- Died 1865. century.
tive at the beginning of the 19th Beman, Reuben, Jr., Connecticut, Brizard, Sulpice, France, 1735?-
century. active 1785-1800. 1798. JME 1763.
Ancellet, Denis-Louis, France. JME :
Beneman, Guillaume, France. JME Brodstock, William, England, 17th

1766. Court furniture for Louis 1785. century.
XVI. Bennett, Samuel, England, late 17th Brookshaw, George, England. Cabi-
Appleton, Nathaniel, Salem, Mass. century. netmaker circa 1783.
Early 19th century. 'Berain, Claude, France, 17th and Bulfinch, Charles, New England,
Ash, Gilbert, New York City, 1717- 18th centuries. 1763-1844. Architect.
1785. :
Berain, Jean (the elder), France, Burnham, Benjamin, Philadelphia,

Ash, Thomas, New York City. Died 1638-1711. 18th century.
1813. :
Berain, Jean (the younger), France, Burroughs, John, England. Fl. 1662-
Asinelis, Antonio, Italy, 16th cen- 1678-1726. 1690.
tury. Bergamo, Fra Damiano da, Italy, *Caffieri, Jacques, France, 1678-
Atlee, William, Philadelphia, Pa., 1490-1550? 1755.
18th century. Bertoiia, Harry, contemporary Amer- Calder, Alexander, Charleston, S.C,
Aubiche, Jacques d', France, 18th ican designer. active 1796-1807.
century. Bertolina, B. J., Italy, 16th century. Callow, Stephen, New York City,
Axton, Thomas, England, 17th cen- Blake, S., England, 19th century. 18th century.
tury. Bland, Charles, England, 17th cen- Campbell and Sons, England, 18th
Axton, William, Jr., Charleston, S.C. tury. century.
Died 1800. Bolte, Adrian, England, 17th cen- Canabas, Joseph (Gegenbach),
Bachelier of Toulouse, France, 16th tury. France, 1715?-1797. JME
1766.
century. Borgona, Felipe, Spain, 16th cen- 1785.
Carlin, Martin, France. Died
Bachman, John, Lancaster County, tury. Carpenter, Thomas, England, 18th
Pa., late 18th century. :
Boulle, Andre-Charles, France, century.

Badlam, Stephen, Dorchester, 1642-1732. Carter, John, England, 18th century.
Mass., 1751-1815. Boulle, Pierre, France, 17th century. Architect.
Baerze, Jacques de, Flanders, 14th Boulton, Matthew, England, 18th Casbert, John, England, 17th cen-
century. century. tury.
Baillie-Scott, M. H., Scotland. Born Bourdin, Michel, France, 16th cen- Challen, William, New York City,
1865. Architect. tury. 18th century.
Fl.= Flourished.
JME=Maitre Ebeniste.
*=See Text.
480
GLOSSARY 481 GLOSSARY
'"Chambers, Sir William, England, Davies, John, Boston, Mass., after Gale, Cornelius, England, late 17th
1726-1796. Architect, published 1635. century.
Designs of Chinese Buildings, Delorme, Francois, 1691-1768. JME Galletti, Giovanni, Italy, 18th cen-
Furniture, etc. 1735. Chinoiserie. tury.
Chapin, Aaron, active in Connecticut Delorme, Philibert. See L'Orme, Gamier, P., France, 18th century.
in 1780's. Philibertde. Gaudreau, Antoine Robert, France.
Chapin, Eliphalet, Connecticut, Denizot, France, 18th century. Died 1751.
1741-1807. Dennis, Thomas, Ipswich, Mass., Gautier, Andrew, New York City,
Cheney, Silas E., Litchfield, Conn., 17th century. 18th century.
active 1799-1821. Derignee, Robert, England, 17th Germain, Thomas, France, 18th cen-
Chippendale, John, England, 18th century. tury.
century. Deskey, Donald, America, active in Gettich or Gottlieb, Paulus, Ger-
::
Chippendale, Thomas, Sr., England, the modern movement. many, 17th century.
1718-1779. Desmalter family. See Jacob. Geuser, Marx, Germany, 17th cen-
Chippendale, Thomas, Jr., England, Dester, Godefroy, France. JME 1774. tury.
1749-1822. De Vries. See Vries, Vredeman de. Gheel, Francis van, Flanders, 18th
*Cipriani, Giovanni Battista, 1727- Disbrowe, Nicholas, Hartford, 1612- century.
1785. In England from 1755. 1683. "Gibbons, Grinling, England, 1648-
Claude, Charles S., France, 18th Downing, Andrew Jackson, 1815- 1720. Carver.
century. 1852. American designer and Gibbs, James, England, 1674-1754.
Cobb, John, England. Partner of Wil- writer. Architect.
liam Vile. Died 1778. Dunlap, Samuel, 2nd, member of Gilbert, John, England, 19th century.
Cogswell, John, Boston, Mass., New Hampshire joiners, late 18th Gillet, Louis, France, 18th century.
active 1769-1782. century. 'Gillingham, James, Philadelphia,
Cole, Cornelius, England, 17th cen- Du Quesnoy, F. H., and J., Flanders, Pa., 18th century.
tury. 17th century. Gillow, Richard, England, 18th cen-
Collman, L. W., England, 19th cen- Eames, Charles, contemporary tury.
tury. Decorator. American designer. Gillow, Robert, England, 17th and
Connelly, Henry, Philadelphia, Pa., Eastlake, Charles Locke, 1833-1906. 18th centuries.
1770-1826. Egerton, Matthew, Brunswick, N.J., Gimson, Ernest, English designer,
Copeland, H., England, 18th cen- 1739-1802. 1864-1919.
tury. Elfe, Thomas, Charleston, S.C., ac- Giovanni, Fra, Italy, 16th century.
Corbusier, Le (Charles Jeanneret), tive 1747-1776. 'Goddard, John, Newport, R.I., 1723-
France, 1887-1965. Elliott, Charles, England, 18th cen- 1785.
Cotte, Jules Robert de, France, 18th tury. Golle, Peter (Dutch), France, 17th
century. John, Philadelphia, Pa., Died
Elliott, century.
Cotte, Robert de, France, 1656- 1791. Goodison, Benjamin, England, 18th
1735. Architect. Essex, Joseph, Boston, 18th cen- century.
Couet, L. Jacques, France, 18th century.
;:
Gostelowe, Jonathan, Philadelphia,

tury. Etienne, Avril, France, 18th century. circa 1744-1795.
Courtnay, Hercules, Philadelphia, Farmborough, William, England. Goujon, Jean, France, 16th century.
Pa., active about 1762. Worked with Burroughs, 1672- -Gouthiere, Pierre, France, 1740-
*Cox, Joseph, New York City, 18th 1690. 1806.
century. Fitzcook, H., England, 19th century. Grendey, Giles, England, early 18th
Coxed, G., and Wosilk, T., England, Flaxman, John, England, 1755- century.
17th century. 1826. Artist. Grene, William, England. Coffer-
Cramer, M. G., France, 18th century.

Flotner, Peter, Germany, 16th cen- makers to the Crown, 16th cen-
tury. tury.
*Cressent, Charles, France, 1685-
Fontaine, Pierre-Francois, France, Griffiths, Edward, England, 18th
1768.
1762-1853. Empire period, with century.
Criaerd or Criard, Andre (1689-
Charles Percier, 1764-1838. Gropius, Walter, contemporary
1776) and Mathieu (older American architect.
France, William, England, 18th cen-
brother), France. Worked for
tury. Gumley, John, England, 18th cen-
Oeben.
France and Beckwith, England, circa tury. Cabinetmaker to George I.
Crunden, John, England, last half
1770. Haeghen, Vander, Flanders, 18th
of 18th century.
Frankl, Paul, American designer. century.
Cucci, Domenico (Italian), France, Died 1958. Haig, Thomas, England, 18th cen-
17th century. Frothingham, Benjamin, Charles- tury. Partner of Chippendale.
Daley, John, Baltimore, Md. ton, S.C., about 1756-1809. Haines, Ephraim, Philadelphia, Pa.
*Darly, Matthias, England, 18th cen- Gabler, Matthias, Germany, 17th Worked with Henry Connelly.
tury. century. Adam, Philadelphia, Pa. Born
Hains,
"David (David Roentgen), France, Gaines, John, Portsmouth, N.H., ac- 1768, and active until circa 1815.
1743-1807. tive 1724-1743. ^Halfpenny, William and J., England,
18th century. Architects, authors Juhl, Finn, Danish contemporary.

::
Mclntyre, Samuel, Salem, Mass.,
of New Designs for Chinese Tem- -Kauffmann, Angelica, England, 1757-1811. Carver.
ples (1750). 1741-1807. Painter. Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, Scot-
Hallet, William, England, 17th or Keller, Johann Heinrich, Switzer- land. Born 1868.
18th century. land. Early Baroque. Marc, Jean, France, 17th century.
Hampton & Sons, London, mid- and :=
Kent, William, England, 1684-1748. Majano, Giuliano de, Italy, 1432-
late-19th century. Architect-designer. 1490.
Heal &Son, England, cabinetmakers Kiskner, Ulrich, Germany, 17th cen- Malmsten, Carl, Swedish contempo-
after 1840. tury. rary.
Heinhofer, Philip, Germany, 16th Klenze, Franz Karl Leo von, 1784- "Manwaring, Robert, England, 18th
and 17th centuries. 1864. German architect. century. Cabinet- and chair-
Helmont, Van, Flanders, 18th cen- Kolding, Peter Jensen, Copenhagen, maker. Published The Cabinet
tury. Denmark, about 1600. and Chair Maker's Real Friend and
*Hepplewhite, George, England. Died Kraft, J.C, England, 18th century. Companion (1765); The Chair-
1786. His widow, Alice H., pub- Lacroix, Roger Van Der Cruse, Maker's Guide (1766).
lished The Cabinet Maker and Up- France, 1728-1799. JME 1755. Marchand, Nicolas-Jean, France.
holsterer's Guide (1788). Signed R.V.L.C. Born 1697. JME 1738.
Hernandez, Gregorio, Spain, circa Ladetto, Francesco, Italy, 18th cen- Margaritone of Arezzo, Italy, 1236-
1576-1636. Architect, sculptor. tury. 1313.
Hitchcock, Lambert, Hitchcockville, Lalonde, Richard de, France, late -Marot, Daniel, France, 1650-1712.
Conn, (working after 1818). 18th century. Designer. Architect and designer.
Hoffman, Josef, Austria, 1870-1923 :
' Langley, Batty and Thomas, Eng- Marot, Gerard, France, 17th century.
(Wiener Werkstatte). land, 18th century. Architects; Marot, Jean (son of Gerard Marot),
Holbein, Hans, England, early 16th authors of The City and Country France, 1625-1679. Architect.
century. Builder's Workman's Treasury of "Martin, Guillaume, Simon, Etienne,
Holland, Henry, England, 1746- Designs (1740). Julien, and Robert, France, 18th
1806. Architect. Langlois, Peter, England. Born 1738. century. See also Vernis Martin.
Holmes, W., England, 19th-century Cabinetmaker in the manner of :
Mayhew, Thomas. See also Ince and
designer. Boulle. Mayhew, England.
Holthausen, H. J., France, 18th cen- ::
Lannier, Charles-Honore, New York McCobb, Paul, contemporary Amer-
tury. City. Active 1805-1819. ican.
*Hope, Thomas, England and Flan- Lardant, Jacques, France, 16th cen- *Meissonnier, Juste-Aurele, France,
ders, 1769-1831. tury. 1693-1750.
Hopkins, Gerrard, Philadelphia, Pa., Laszlo, Paul, contemporary Amer- Mills and Deming, New York City,
18th century. ican. active around 1790.
Hosmer, Joseph, Concord, Mass. Lawton, Robert, Jr., Newport, R.I. Molitor, Bernard, France under
*lnce, William, England, 18th century. Working 1794. Louis XVI. JME 1787.
Ince and Mayhew published The :
=Le Brun, Charles, France, 1619- Montigny, Philippe Claude, France,

Universal System of Household 1690. 1734-1800. JME 1766.
Furniture. Le Corbusier. See Corbusier, Le. Moore, James, England. Died 1726.
*Jacob, Georges, France, 1735-1814. Le Moyne, Jean-France, 1645-1718. Cabinetmaker to the Crown.
JME 1765. Le Roux, J. B., France, 18th century. Moore, James, the Younger, Eng-
Jacob-Desmalter (Frangois Honore Lehman, Benjamin, Philadelphia, land. Died 1734.
Georges), France, 1770-1841. Pa., late 18th century. "Morris, William, England, 1834-
Jacob-Desmalter (Georges Al- Leleu, Jean Frangois, France, 1728- 1896.
phonse), France, 1799-1870. 1807. Worked with Oeben. Moser, Koloman, Austria, Sezes-
Jacobsen.Arne, contemporary Lemon, William, Salem, Mass., ac- sion.
Swedish architect. tive around 1796. Nelson, George, contemporary
Jennens and Bettridge, England. Lepautre, Jean, France, 1617-1682. American.
Manufacturers of papier-mache Levasseur, Etienne, France. Born in Norman, Samuel, England, 18th cen-
furniture, 19th century. 1721. Worked in the manner of tury. Partner of Goodison.
Jensen, Gerriet, England, 17th cen- Boulle.The family continued in 'Oeben, Jean Frangois, France. Born
tury. Cabinetmaker to the Crown. the tradition through the 19th circa 1720, died 1763. Developed
Johnson, Thomas, England, 18th century. Gobelin factory.
century. Carver; author of Twelve England, 18th century.
Linnell, J., Oppenord, Alexandre Jean (Dutch),
Girandoles (1755) and One Hun- ::
Lock, Matthias, England, 18th cen- France, 17th century.

dred and Fifty New Designs. tury. Carver and designer. Pub- :
Oppenord, Gilles-Marie, France,

*Jones, Inigo, England, 1573-1652. lished A New Book of Ornaments 1672-1742.
Architect. (1768). :
Oudry, Jean-Baptiste, France, 18th

Jones, William, England, 18th cen- Loos, Adolph, Austria, late 19th cen- century. Artist.
tury. Designer; author of The tury. Sezession. 'Palladio, Andrea, Italy, 1518-1580.
Gentleman's and Builders' Com- L'Orme, Philibert de, France, 16th Architect.
panion. century. Panturmo, J. di, Italy, 1492-1556.
Parran, Benjamin, England, 18th Rogers, Harry, England, 19th cen- John, and Simeon, Boston,
Skillin,
century. Partner of Goodison. tury. Designer. Mass. Carvers, late 18th century.
Parzinger, Tommi, contemporary Rohde, Gilbert, American designer. Slocombe, P., England, 19th cen-
American. Died 1944. tury. Designer.
Passe, Crispin de, France, 17th cen- Rohe, Mies Van Der, contemporary
:;
Smith, George, England. Cabinet-
tury. American architect. maker and designer. Published A
Paudevine, John, England. Uphol- Roller, Alfred, Austria, early-20th- Co//ection of Designs for House-
sterer in the Restoration period. century Sezession. ho/d Furniture and Interior Deco-
Paul, Bruno, Germany, early 20th Rossi, Properzia de, Italy, 15th and ration (1808).
century. 16th centuries. Soli, Guiseppi, Italy, Empire period.
*Percier, Charles, France, 1764-1838. Ruhlmann, Jacques Emile, France. Stewart, James, England, 18th cen-
Architect and designer. Died 1933. tury. Architect.
*Pergolesi, Michel Angelo (Italian), Rukers, Thomas, Augsburg, 16th Stickley, Gustave, Grand Rapids,
England, 18th century. Decorator century. Mich., late 19th century, early
employed by the Adam brothers. Russell, Gordon, England. Contem- 20th.

Published Original Designs. porary. Stitcher and Clemens, Baltimore,
Philippon, Adam, France, 16th cen- Saarinen, Eero, American, 1911- Md., circa 1804.
tury. 1961. Street, Sir George, Royal Academy,
Phill,Thomas, England. Upholsterer, "Sambin, Hugues, France, 16th cen- England, 1824-1881.
reigns of Anne and George I. Died tury. Designer. Swan, Abraham, England, 18th cen-
1728. Sanderson, Elijah, Salem, Mass., ac- tury.
*Phyfe, Duncan, New York City, tive 1771-1825. Tasso, Giovanni Battista, Italy, 15
1768-1854. Sass, Jacob, Charleston, S.C., active and 16th centuries.
Italy, 1700-1777.
Piffetti, A. Pietro, 1774 to about 1828. Tatham, Thomas, England, 1763-
Pillement, Jean Baptiste, France, "Saunier, Claude Charles, France, 1818.
1713-1789. era of Louis XVI. Taylor, John, New York City, 18th
Pillon, Germain, France, late 16th *Savery, William, Philadelphia, Pa., century.
century. Designer. active from 1740's to 1787. Terry, Eli, 1772-1852. Connecticut
Pimm, John, Boston, Mass., circa Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, Berlin, clockmaker.
1740. 1781-1841. Architect. *Thomire, Pierre Phillippe, France,
Ponti, Gio, contemporary, Italian. Schmieg, Carl, contemporary Amer- 1751-1843.
Porfirio, Bernardino di, Italy, 16th ican. Thonet, Michael, Vienna, after 1846.
century. Schoen, Eugene, 20th-century Amer- Tiffany, Louis Comfort, American
Price, Richard, England. Joiner and ican, architect-designer. designer, 1848-1933.
chairmarker to Charles II. Died *Seddon, George, England, 1727- Tilliard, Jean Baptiste, France,
before 1686. 1801. 1685-1766.
Quervelle, Anthony Gabriel, Phila- ::
Seddon, Thomas, England, 19th Tolfo, G., Italy, 16th century.
delphia, Pa. Active 1820? century. Toms and Luscombe, England, 19th
Randolph, Benjamin, Philadelphia, century.
Sene Family: Claude, 1724-1792;
Pa., circa1762-1792. Topino, Charles, France. JME 1773.
JME 1742; Claude II, Le Jeune;
Rennie, James, England. Partner of Toppan, Abner, Newbury, Mass.,
JME 1769.
Thomas Chippendale. Died 1766. 1764-1836.
Sene, Jean Baptiste, France, born
Revitt, N., England, 18th century. Tosi, Francesco Marie, Italian archi-
1748. Furnisher to the Crown,
Architect. tect. Died 1859.
1785.
Rheydt, Melchior, Cologne, Ger- Town and Emmanuel, England, 19th
Serlius, Sebastian, France, 16th
many, after 1600. century.
century. Designer.
Riesen Burg, Bernard Van, France,
::
Townsend family, Rhode Island, for
Seymour, John, Boston, Mass., ac-
about a century before 1750 to
early 18th century. Signed BVRB.
tive 1790-1810.
Riesener, Henri-Francois, France, the middle of the 19th century.
Shackleton, Thomas, England. Part- *Townsend, Edmund, Rhode Island,
18th century.
ner of Seddon. 1736-1811.
Riesener, Jean-Henri, France, 1734-
1806. Shaw, John, Annapolis, Md., active *Townsend, Job, Rhode Island, 1699-
Rietveld, Gerrit, Holland. Born 1888 1773-1794. 1765.
(DeStijI).
:
Shearer, Thomas, England, 18th Townsend, Stephen, Charleston,

Roberts, Richard, England. "Chair- century. Cabinetmaker and de- S.C., between 1763 and 1768.
maker to His Majesty," 1728. signer. The Cabinetmaker's Trevigi, Girolama Da, England, 1503-
Roberts, Thomas, England. Joiner- London Book of Prices and De- 1544.
chairmaker, reigns of William and signs (1788). *Tufft, Thomas, Philadelphia, late
Mary, and Anne. "Sheraton, Thomas, England, 1751- 18th century.

Rodwell, James, England. Cabinet- 1806. Cabinetmaker and de- Turing, William, England, early 18th
maker, reign of George II. signer. century. A partner of John Gumley
* Roentgen, David better known as Short, Joseph, Newburyport, Mass., in the 1720's.
David), France, i/43-1807. active 1771-1819. Uccello, Paolo, Italy, 1397-1479.
Ugliengo, Carlo, Italy, 18th century. Walker, Robert, Charleston, S.C., ac- White, Stanford, New York City,
Van de Velde, Henri, Belgium. Born tive 1799-1833. 1853-1906. Architect.
1863. Art Nouveau. Ware, Isaac, England, 18th century. Willard, Simon, 19th-century Con-
Van der Rohe, Mies, contemporary Architect. necticut clockmaker.
American architect. Wayne, Jacob, Philadelphia, Pa., ac- Willet, Marinus, New York City,
;
Vanbrugh, Sir John, England, 1664- tive after 1785. 1740-1830.
1726. Architect. Williams, John, Newcastle, Del.
Weaver, Holmes, Newport, R.I.,
Venasco, Giovanni Paolo, Italy, 18th 1769-1848. Wolfender, John, Boston, last quar-
century. ter of the 17th century.
Webb, Isaac, Boston, Mass., 18th
Verbruggen, Peter (the younger), century.
Wormley, Edward, contemporary
Flanders, 1660-1724. American.
Webb, Philip, English architect of
Verhaeghen, Theodore, Flanders, ::
Wren, Sir Christopher, England,
the Ruskin group, 1830-1915.
18th century. 1632-1723. Architect and de-
Webster, John, Pennsylvania, 18th
Vile, William,England. Died 1767. signer.
century.
Viollet-Le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel, Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1869-1959,
France, 1814-1879.
Wedgwood, Josiah, England, 1730-
American
Gothic Re- architect.
1795.
vival. Wright, Russel, contemporary Amer-
Voysey, C. F. England, 1857-
A.,
Wegner, Hans J., Danish contem- ican.
porary.
1941. William Morris group. Wright and Mansfield, England, 19th
Vries,Jan Vredeman de (Flemish),
:s
Weisweiler, Adam (German), France, century.

France, 1527-1606. Published 18th century. Zabello, Francesco, Italy, 16th cen-
Differents Pourtraicts de Menui's- Wenman, Richard, New York City, tury.
en'e. 18th century. :!
Zucchi, Antonio Pietro, England,
Wagner, Otto, Austria, 1841-1918. Wertheimer, Samson, England, 19th 1726-1795. Painter; husband of
Architect. century. Angelica Kauffmann.
\A
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THIRD EDITION COMPLETELY REVISED

Covering: every period and develop-

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FURNITURE

CROWN PUBLISHERS, INC., NEW YORK

San Rafael, California

1965, by Joseph Aronson

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 65-24334

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION

FOREWORD TO THE THIRD REVISED EDITION

Without world of assistance, advice, and coopera-

beautiful spirit of antiquity, and to transfuse it with

AMARANTH. Purplish wood used for veneering

AMROYNA. An East Indian wood, used as veneer

AMRRY. In medieval churches a recess for the

AMRULANTE (French). Small portable table, used

EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD-17TH CENTURY

AMERICAN FURNITURE OF THE PILGRIM CENTURY IMPORTED IDEAS OR

3 CHAIR TABLE, 1675. CHEST Ipswich, Massachusetts, 1675. CRADLE, 1625-1675.

AMERICAN FURNITURE IN THE 17TH CENTURY SIMPLIFIED THE

10 TRESTLE TABLE, Massachusetts, c. 1650. 11 SUN-

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Fanny Avery Welcher, 1911

13 BANISTER-BACK ARMCHAIR, ram's-horn arms, c. 1690. GATELEG TABLE, 1730-1740,

16 STRETCHER TABLE, Pennsylvania type, 1725-1750.

15 WALL CUPBOARD, Pennsylvania. Gothic

CHAIR DETAILS-FLEMISH STYLE

14 HIGHBOY, Boston, 1680-1700. William, and Mary style, trumpet turnings,

PLAM of HIGHBOY STRETCHER.

AT THE OPENING OF THE 18TH CENTURY THE ENGLISH CHARACTER

17 WINDSOR TABLE, PENNSYLVANIA SETTEE, CANDLESTAND.

20 WILLIAM AND MARY SIDE CHAIR,

22 DECORATED CHEST, Connecticut, c. 1690; oak and tulipwood.

21 QUEEN ANNE SIDE CHAIR, maple, Spanish

23 ROUNDABOUT CHAIR. 24 WAGON SEAT, New England, 18th century.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909

25 LOWBOY, New England, early 18th century, is matched

Israel Sack, Inc.

27A A MIRROR IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE.

27 DETAIL, NEW HAMPSHIRE CHEST, 1775-1790,

chests, upholstered chairs, etc. in fact, the roots of

LATER COLONIAL-18TH CENTURY

in walnut, but mahogany ultimately came to the fore.

28 CHEST, curly maple, drake foot, mid- 18th century.

Henry Ford Museum, Dearborn, Mich.

MATURE 18TH-CENTURY BAROQUE.

35 KNEEHOLE DESK c. 1760. Israel Sack, Inc.

30 MIRROR, Dutch style.

31 BLOCKFRONT DESK, 1760-1770. Israel Sack, Inc.

32 QUEEN ANNE WALNUT

34 CORNER CHAIR with fluted column,

33 CHIPPENDALE-STYLE CHAIR attributed

36 "THE ADAMS SECRETARY. Ginsburg and Levy

37 CAMELBACK SOFA, Philadelphia, c. 1760. Israel Sack, inc.

39 LATE-18TH-CENTURY BED. John S. Walton, Inc.

38 CHEST-ON-CHEST, Massachusetts, 1770-1780.

40 SERPENTINE-FRONT BUREAU, ogee bracket feet,

41 BOMBE CHEST, Massachusetts, c. 1760.

42 TALL CLOCK, second quarter of

TRANSITION FROM BAROQUE-LATE COLONIAL TO

44 CHEST, Sheraton style, 1820-1830. Israel Sack, Inc.