Key Figures On Europe 2016 Edition

KS-EI-16-001-EN-C
Key gures on Europe

2016 edition Key gures on Europe 2016 edition
This publication presents a selection of topical data.
Key gures on Europe

Most data cover the European Union and its Member
States, while some indicators are provided for other
countries, such as members of the European Free Trade
Association, the enlargement countries, China, Japan and
the United States.
This publication may be viewed as an introduction
to European and international statistics. It provides a
starting point for those who wish to explore the wide
range of data that are freely available on Eurostats
website.
For more information

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/
2016 edition
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Foreword
Foreword
Our statistical book Key gures on Europe provides
you with a selection of the most important and
interesting statistics on Europe. Drawing from the
huge amount of data available at Eurostat, we aim
to give an insight into the European economy,
society and environment for example, how the
population of the European Union is changing,
how living conditions vary between EU Member
States or how the economy is performing
compared with large countries, such as China,
Japan and the United States. I hope that you will
nd information of interest both for your work
and your daily life.
You can nd the content of this book, in a much
richer form, in the continuously updated online publication Europe in gures Eurostat yearbook. The
latest and most complete data can be downloaded from the Eurostat website.
Eurostat is the statistical oce of the European Union, situated in Luxembourg. Its mission is to provide
high quality statistics for Europe. Working together with national statistical authorities in the European
Statistical System, we produce ocial statistics which meet the highest possible standards of quality.
I wish you an enjoyable reading experience!
Mariana Kotzeva
Acting Director-General, Eurostat
Key figures on Europe 2016 edition 3

Abstract
Abstract
Key gures on Europe presents a selection of statistical data on Europe. Most data cover the European
Union and its Member States, while some indicators are provided for other countries, such as members
of the European Free Trade Association, the enlargement countries, China, Japan or the United States.
This publication, which presents a subset of the most popular information found in the continuously
updated online publication Europe in gures Eurostat yearbook (available through http://ec.europa.
eu/eurostat/statistics-explained), may be viewed as an introduction to European statistics and
provides a starting point for those who wish to explore the wide range of data that is freely available
on Eurostats website at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat.
Editors
Helene Strandell and Pascal Wol
Eurostat, Unit B4 Digital dissemination
Contact details
Eurostat
Btiment Joseph Bech
5, rue Alphonse Weicker
2721 Luxembourg
E-mail: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu
Production
This publication was produced by William Helminger and Carla Martins CRI (Luxembourg) S.A.;
Bruno Scuve and Edouard Henderyckx
For more information please consult

Eurostat website: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Statistics Explained: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained
Acknowledgements
The editors of this publication would like to thank the Eurostat colleagues who were involved in its
preparation.
4 Key figures on Europe 2016 edition

Contents
Table of contents
Foreword 3
Abstract 4
Table of contents 5
Introduction 9
1. Population 13
Introduction 14
1.1 Population and population change 14
1.2 Population structure and ageing 17
1.3 Marriage and divorce 19
1.4 Fertility 21
1.5 Mortality and life expectancy 23
1.6 Migration and migrant population 25
1.7 Asylum 27
2. Living conditions 31
Introduction 32
2.1 Social inclusion 32
2.2 Income distribution 35
2.3 Housing 37
2.4 Social protection 39
2.5 Crime 41
3. Health 43
Introduction 44
3.1 Healthy life years 44
3.2 Causes of death 47
3.3 Healthcare provision 48
3.4 Healthcare expenditure 51
3.5 Accidents at work 53

Contents
4. Education and training 57

Introduction 58
4.1 Early childhood and primary education 59
4.2 Secondary education 62
4.3 Tertiary education 65
4.4 Early leavers from education and training 67
4.5 Lifelong learning 69
4.6 Educational expenditure 72
5. Labour market 75
Introduction 76
5.1 Employment 76
5.2 Unemployment 79
5.3 Wages and labour cost 81
5.4 Minimum wages 83
5.5 Job vacancies 84
6. Economy and nance 87
Introduction 88
6.1 National accounts GDP 88
6.2 Sector accounts 90
6.3 Government nances 93
6.4 Exchange rates and interest rates 95
6.5 Consumer prices ination and comparative price levels 97
6.6 Balance of payments 99
6.7 Foreign direct investment 101
7. International trade 103
Introduction 104
7.1 International trade in goods 104
7.2 International trade in services 107
8. Agriculture, forestry and sheries 109
Introduction 110
8.1 Agricultural output, price indices 110

Contents
8.2 Farm structure 112

8.3 Agricultural products 115
8.4 Forestry 117
8.5 Fisheries 119
9. Industry, trade and services 121
Introduction 122
9.1 Structural business statistics 122
9.2 Industry and construction 125
9.3 Services 128
9.4 Tourism 130
10. Science, technology and digital agenda 133
Introduction 134
10.1 R & D expenditure 135
10.2 R & D personnel 137
10.3 Innovation 140
10.4 Patents 143
10.5 Information society households and individuals 146
10.6 Information society enterprises 148
11. Environment 151
Introduction 152
11.1 Land cover and land use 152
11.2 Greenhouse gas emissions by industries and households 155
11.3 Carbon dioxide emissions from nal use of products 157
11.4 Material ow accounts and resource productivity 160
11.5 Waste 161
11.6 Water 165
11.7 Environmental economy employment and growth 167
11.8 Environmental protection expenditure 169
11.9 Environmental taxes 171

Contents
12. Energy 173

Introduction 174
12.1 Energy production and imports 174
12.2 Consumption of energy 177
12.3 Electricity production, consumption and market overview 180
12.4 Renewable energy 182
12.5 Energy prices 184
13. Transport 187
Introduction 188
13.1 Passenger transport 188
13.2 Freight transport 190
Annexes 193
Abbreviations and acronyms 194

Introduction

Introduction
Structure of the publication

Key gures on Europe presents a subset of data extraction, the data coverage and more
the most popular information found in the generally how to access to European statistics.
continuously updated online publication Europe The main chapters of this publication treat the
in gures Eurostat yearbook (available in http:// following areas: population; living conditions;
ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index. health; education and training; labour market;
php/Europe_in_gures_-_Eurostat_yearbook). economy and nance; international trade;
It provides users of ocial statistics with an agriculture, forestry and sheries; industry, trade
overview of the wealth of information that and services, science, technology and digital
is available on Eurostats website and within agenda; environment; energy; and transport.
its online databases. It has been conceived Each of the main chapters contains data and/
as a publication that provides a balanced set or background information relating to a very
of indicators, with a broad cross-section of wide range of European statistics. A great deal
information. more information can be found when consulting
Key gures on Europe is divided into an Eurostats website, which contains subject-
introduction and 13 main chapters. The specic publications and online databases.
introduction includes information concerning
Data extraction and coverage
Data extraction EU-27 (the 27 Member States of the EU prior to

the accession of Croatia in July 2013) are shown.
The statistical data presented in this publication The euro area aggregate is based on data for the
are the ones analysed in the continuously 18 members (prior to the adoption of the euro as
updated online publication Europe in gures currency by Lithuania in January 2015) when data
Eurostat yearbook. The accompanying text was are not available for the euro area with
drafted between April and December 2016. 19 members. The order of the Member States
used generally follows the protocol order;
Spatial data coverage in other words, the alphabetical order of the
countries names in their respective original
This publication usually presents information for
languages; in some of the gures the data are
the EU-28 (the 28 Member States of the EU), the
ranked according to the values of a particular
euro area (usually based on 19 members), as well
indicator.
as the individual EU Member States. When gures
are not available for the EU-28, results for the

Introduction
The EU and euro area aggregates are normally exceptions are footnoted). Generally, an eort
only provided when information for all of the has been made to go back at least two reference
countries is available, or if an estimate has been years, for example showing data for 2013 or 2014
made for missing information. Any incomplete for those countries (or geographical aggregates)
totals that are created are systematically for which 2015 data are not yet available.
footnoted. Time series for these geographical
aggregates are based on a consistent set of Data presentation
countries for the whole of the time period (unless
otherwise indicated). In other words, the time Eurostat online databases contain a large amount
series for EU-28 refer to a sum or an average of metadata that provides information on the
for all 28 countries for the whole of the period status of particular values or data series. In order
presented, as if all 28 Member States had been to improve readability, only the most signicant
part of the EU in earlier periods. information has been included in the tables and
gures. The following symbols are used, where
When available, information is also presented for necessary:
EFTA and enlargement countries (), as well as for
Italic data value is forecasted, provisional or
China, Japan and the United States. In the event
estimated and is likely to change;
that data for any of these non-member countries
are not available, then these have been excluded : not available, condential or unreliable
from tables and gures; however, the full set of value;
28 Member States is maintained in tables, with not applicable.
footnotes being added in gures for those
EU Member States for which information is Breaks in series are indicated in the footnotes
missing. provided under each table and gure.
Temporal data coverage

If data for a reference year (or reference period)
are not available for a particular country, then
eorts have been made to ll tables and gures
with data for previous reference years (these
() Candidate countries: Montenegro; the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; Albania; Serbia and Turkey. Potential candidates: Bosnia
and Herzegovina; Kosovo. The name of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is shown in tables and gures in this publication as
MK or as FYR of Macedonia this does not prejudge in any way the denitive nomenclature for this country, which is to be agreed
following the conclusion of negotiations currently taking place on this subject at the United Nations. The designation of Kosovo is
without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

Introduction
Accessing European statistics

The simplest way to access Eurostats broad reader is led directly to the freshest data when
range of statistical information is through its clicking on the hyper-links that form part of
website (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat). Eurostat each online data code. Online data codes lead
provides users with free access to its databases to either a two- or three-dimensional table in
and all of its publications in portable document the TGM (tables, graphs, maps) interface or to
format (PDF) via the internet. The website is an open dataset which generally contains more
updated daily and gives access to the latest and dimensions and longer time series using the Data
most comprehensive statistical information Explorer interface.
available on the EU, its Member States, EFTA By entering the online data code into the Search
countries, as well as enlargement countries. eld of the Eurostat website, users can access
Eurostat online data codes, such as tps00001 related dataset(s) and possibly publication(s) and
and nama_gdp_c, allow easy access to the metadata. By clicking on these hyperlinks, they
most recent data on Eurostats website. In this are directed to product page(s), which provide
statistical book these online data codes are information about each dataset/publication or
given as part of the source below each table and set of metadata.
gure. In the PDF version of this publication, the

Population

1 Population
Introduction
As the population of the European Union an upward tendency, its downward path over
(EU) grew beyond 500 million inhabitants, several decades means that it remains well
its structure continued to change. Recent below a level that would keep the size of the
demographic developments show that the population constant in the absence of inward
EU's population is slowly increasing, while its or outward migration. As a result, the EU will, in
age structure is becoming older as post-war the coming decades, face a number of changes
baby-boom generations reach retirement associated with an ageing society which will
age. Furthermore, people are living longer, impact on a range of areas, including labour
as life expectancy continues to increase. On markets, pensions and provisions for healthcare,
the other hand, while fertility increased for housing and social services, as well as managing
several years up to 2010, and is again showing migration and migrant integration.
1.1 Population and population change

On 1 January 2016 the population of the EU-28 in 2016, an increase of 103.4 million people. The
was estimated at 510.1 million inhabitants, which rate of population growth has slowed gradually
was 1.8 million more than a year before. The in recent decades: for example, the EU-28s
increase in population numbers during 2015 was population increased, on average, by about
bigger than that recorded during 2014 when the 1.5 million persons per year during the period
population of the EU-28 had risen by 1.3 million. 200516, compared with an average increase of
Over a longer period, the population of the EU-28 around 3.3 million persons per year during the
grew from 406.7 million in 1960 to 510.1 million 1960s.
Figure 1.1: Population, EU-28, 19602016

(at 1 January, million persons)
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Note: Excluding French overseas departments before 1998. Breaks in series: 2001,
201012 and 201416.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_gind)

Population 1
In 2015, deaths outnumbered live births in the the EU Member States. In 2015, net migration
EU-28 (for the rst time since the time series and statistical adjustment accounted for an
began in 1961), resulting in the aforementioned increase of 1.9 million persons, approximately
natural decrease in the population. As such, the twice the increase in 2014 and the largest
increase in population recorded during 2015 increase recorded since the time series began
for the EU-28 could be fully attributed to net in 1961; since 1992, net migration and statistical
migration and statistical adjustment; there were adjustment has been the main determinant of
however variations in the patterns observed in population growth in the EU-28.

1 Population
Table 1.1: Demographic balance, 2015

(thousands)
Total
Net migra-
Popula- change Popula-
tion and
tion, Natural between tion,
Live births Deaths statistical
1January change () 1January 1January
adjust-
2015 2015 and 2016
ment ()
2016
EU-28 () 508 293.4 5 091.3 5 226.5 135.2 1 897.8 1 762.7 510 056.0
Belgium () 11 209.0 122.3 110.5 11.7 69.1 80.9 11 289.9
Bulgaria 7 202.2 66.0 110.1 44.2 4.2 48.4 7 153.8
Czech Republic 10 538.3 110.8 111.2 0.4 16.0 15.6 10 553.8
Denmark 5 659.7 58.2 52.6 5.7 41.9 47.5 5 707.3
Germany 81 197.5 738.0 925.0 187.0 1 151.5 964.5 82 162.0
Estonia () 1 313.3 13.9 15.2 1.3 4.0 2.7 1 315.9
Ireland 4 628.9 65.9 30.0 36.0 6.4 29.6 4 658.5
Greece 10 858.0 91.9 120.8 29.0 35.5 64.5 10 793.5
Spain 46 449.6 417.3 420.0 2.8 8.4 11.1 46 438.4
France () 66 415.2 800.8 600.1 200.6 45.8 246.5 66 661.6
Croatia 4 225.3 37.5 54.2 16.7 17.9 34.6 4 190.7
Italy 60 795.6 485.8 647.6 161.8 31.7 130.1 60 665.6
Cyprus 847.0 9.2 5.9 3.3 2.0 1.3 848.3
Latvia 1 986.1 22.0 28.5 6.5 10.6 17.1 1 969.0
Lithuania 2 921.3 31.5 41.8 10.3 22.4 32.7 2 888.6
Luxembourg 563.0 6.1 4.0 2.1 11.2 13.3 576.2
Hungary 9 855.6 92.1 131.6 39.4 14.4 25.1 9 830.5
Malta 429.3 4.3 3.4 0.9 4.2 5.1 434.4
Netherlands 16 900.7 170.0 147.0 23.0 55.4 78.4 16 979.1
Austria 8 576.3 84.4 83.1 1.3 122.9 124.2 8 700.5
Poland 38 005.6 369.3 394.9 25.6 12.8 38.4 37 967.2
Portugal 10 374.8 85.5 108.5 23.0 10.5 33.5 10 341.3
Romania 19 870.6 185.0 260.7 75.7 35.0 110.7 19 760.0
Slovenia 2 062.9 20.6 19.8 0.8 0.5 1.3 2 064.2
Slovakia 5 421.3 55.6 53.8 1.8 3.1 4.9 5 426.3
Finland 5 471.8 55.5 52.5 3.0 12.6 15.6 5 487.3
Sweden 9 747.4 114.9 90.9 24.0 79.7 103.7 9 851.0
United Kingdom 64 767.1 777.2 602.8 174.4 399.7 574.1 65 341.2
Iceland 329.1 4.1 2.2 2.0 1.5 3.4 332.5
Liechtenstein 37.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 37.6
Norway 5 166.5 59.1 40.7 18.3 29.2 47.5 5 214.0
Switzerland 8 237.7 84.8 67.3 17.6 70.0 87.5 8 325.2
Montenegro 622.1 7.4 6.3 1.1 0.9 0.1 622.2
FYR of Macedonia 2 069.2 23.1 20.5 2.6 0.5 2.1 2 071.3
Albania 2 892.3 33.2 22.4 10.8 17.1 6.3 2 886.0
Serbia () 7 114.4 65.7 103.7 38.0 0.0 38.0 7 076.4
Turkey 77 695.9 1 325.8 405.2 920.6 124.6 1 045.1 78 741.1
Bosnia and Herzegovina ()() 3 830.9 29.2 34.8 5.6 0.0 5.6 3 825.3
Kosovo ()() 1 804.9 31.1 8.9 22.2 55.6 33.3 1 771.6
() Live births minus deaths. () Due to a lack of data on migration, the demographic balance is
() Total change minus natural change. based exclusively on the natural change.
() Break in series. () Demographic balance: 2014.
() Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.

Population 1
1.2 Population structure and ageing

This section looks at the impact of demographic Across the EU Member States, the highest share
ageing within the European Union (EU), which is of young people in the total population in 2015
likely to be of major signicance in the coming was observed in Ireland (22.1 %), while the
decades. Consistently low birth rates and higher lowest share was recorded in Germany (13.2 %).
life expectancy are transforming the shape of Regarding the share of persons aged 65 or older
the EU-28s age pyramid; probably the most in the total population, Italy (21.7 %), Germany
important change will be the marked transition (21.0 %) and Greece (20.9 %) had the highest
towards a much older population structure, a shares, while Ireland had the lowest share
development which is already apparent in several (13.0 %).
EU Member States. Age dependency ratios may be used to study the
The population of the EU-28 on 1 January 2015 level of support given to younger and/or older
was estimated at 508.5 million. Young people persons by the working age population; these
(0 to 14 years old) made up 15.6 % of the EU-28s ratios are expressed in terms of the relative size
population, while persons considered to be of of younger and/or older populations compared
working age (15 to 64 years old) accounted for with the working age population. The old-age
65.6 % of the population. Older persons (aged dependency ratio for the EU-28 was 28.8 % on
65 or over) had an 18.9 % share (an increase of 1 January 2015; as such, there were around four
0.4 % compared with the previous year and an persons of working age for every person aged
increase of 2.3 % compared with 10 years earlier). 65 or over.
Figure 1.2: Age dependency ratios, EU-28, 200115

(%)
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
EU-28 young-age dependency ratio EU-28 old-age dependency ratio
Note: Young-age dependency ratio: population aged 014 to population 1564 years.
Old dependency ratio: population 65 and over to population 1564 years. 2001:
break in series.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjanind)

1 Population
Table 1.2: Population age structure by major age groups, 2005 and 2015
(% of the total population)
014 years old 1564 years old 65 years old or over

2005 2015 2005 2015 2005 2015
EU-28 () 16.3 15.6 67.2 65.6 16.6 18.9
Belgium () 17.2 17.0 65.6 64.9 17.2 18.0
Bulgaria 13.7 13.9 68.9 66.2 17.4 20.0
Czech Republic 14.9 15.2 71.1 67.0 14.1 17.8
Denmark 18.8 17.0 66.1 64.4 15.0 18.6
Germany () 14.5 13.2 66.9 65.8 18.6 21.0
Estonia () 15.4 16.0 68.0 65.2 16.6 18.8
Ireland 20.7 22.1 68.2 64.9 11.1 13.0
Greece 15.1 14.5 66.7 64.5 18.3 20.9
Spain 14.5 15.2 69.0 66.3 16.6 18.5
France () 18.7 18.6 65.1 63.0 16.3 18.4
Croatia () 15.9 14.7 66.7 66.5 17.3 18.8
Italy 14.1 13.8 66.4 64.5 19.5 21.7
Cyprus 19.9 16.4 68.0 69.0 12.1 14.6
Latvia 15.0 15.0 68.4 65.6 16.6 19.4
Lithuania 17.1 14.6 67.1 66.6 15.8 18.7
Luxembourg () 18.6 16.7 67.3 69.2 14.1 14.2
Hungary () 15.6 14.5 68.8 67.6 15.6 17.9
Malta 17.6 14.3 69.0 67.2 13.3 18.5
Netherlands 18.5 16.7 67.5 65.4 14.0 17.8
Austria 16.1 14.3 67.9 67.2 15.9 18.5
Poland () 16.7 15.0 70.2 69.5 13.1 15.4
Portugal 16.0 14.4 66.8 65.4 17.2 20.3
Romania 17.5 15.5 68.4 67.5 14.2 17.0
Slovenia () 14.4 14.8 70.2 67.3 15.3 17.9
Slovakia 17.1 15.3 71.3 70.7 11.7 14.0
Finland 17.5 16.4 66.6 63.7 15.9 19.9
Sweden 17.6 17.3 65.2 63.1 17.2 19.6
United Kingdom 18.1 17.7 65.9 64.6 15.9 17.7
Iceland 22.3 20.4 65.9 66.1 11.8 13.5
Liechtenstein 17.6 15.1 71.3 68.9 11.1 16.0
Norway 19.7 18.0 65.6 65.8 14.7 16.1
Switzerland () 16.3 14.9 67.9 67.3 15.8 17.8
Montenegro () 20.8 18.5 66.7 67.8 12.5 13.7
FYR of Macedonia () 20.0 16.8 69.1 70.5 10.9 12.7
Albania 26.5 18.6 65.1 69.0 8.3 12.5
Serbia () 15.8 14.4 67.0 67.2 17.1 18.5
Turkey 27.5 24.3 65.9 67.8 6.7 8.0
() Break in time series in various years between 2005 and 2015.

() The population of unknown age is redistributed for calculating the age structure.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjanind)

Population 1
1.3 Marriage and divorce

Marriage, as recognised by the law of each 1 000 persons (in other words the crude marriage
country, has long been considered to mark the rate) and 2.0 divorces for every 1 000 persons (in
formation of a family unit. However, the analysis other words the crude divorce rate).
of trends in family formation and dissolution Since 1965, the crude marriage rate in the EU-28
based on just marriage and divorce data might has declined by close to 50 % in relative terms
not oer a full picture. Legal alternatives to (from 7.8 per 1 000 persons in 1965 to 4.2 in
marriage, like registered partnership, have 2011). At the same time, the crude divorce rate
become more widespread and national increased from 0.8 per 1 000 persons in 1965 to
legislation has changed to confer more rights on 2.0 in 2011. Part of this increase is due to the fact
unmarried couples. Recent demographic data that in several EU Member States divorce was
show that the number of marriages per legalised during the period (for example, in Italy,
1 000 persons decreased within the EU-28 in Spain, Ireland and Malta).
recent decades, while the number of divorces
increased. An increase in the proportion of The proportion of live births outside marriage
children who are born to unmarried couples was in the EU-28 in 2012 was 40 %. This share has
also apparent. continued to increase, signalling new patterns of
family formation alongside the more traditional
Some 2.1 million marriages and 986 thousand pattern where children were born within
divorces took place in the EU-28 in 2011, marriage. Extramarital births occur in non-marital
according to the most recent data available for relationships, among cohabiting couples and to
all EU Member States. These gures may be lone parents.
expressed as 4.2 marriages for every
Figure 1.3: Crude marriage and divorce rates, EU-28, 19702011

(per 1 000 inhabitants)
8
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2011
Crude marriage rate Crude divorce rate

Note: There is a change in time interval on the x-axis. Excluding French overseas
departments for 1970 to 1990.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_nind and demo_ndivind)

1 Population
Table 1.3: Crude marriage and divorce rates, selected years, 19652014
Marriages Divorces
1965 2000 2011 2014 1965 2000 2011 2014
EU-28 () 7.8 5.2 4.2 : 0.8 1.8 2.0 :
Belgium () 7.0 4.4 3.7 : 0.6 2.6 2.5 :
Bulgaria 8.0 4.3 2.9 3.4 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5
Czech Republic 8.4 5.4 4.3 4.3 1.7 2.9 2.7 2.5
Denmark 8.8 7.2 4.9 5.0 1.4 2.7 2.6 3.4
Germany 8.3 5.1 4.6 4.8 1.0 2.4 2.3 2.1
Estonia 8.2 3.9 4.1 4.7 2.3 3.0 2.3 2.4
Ireland () 5.9 5.0 4.3 : : 0.7 0.6 :
Greece 9.4 4.5 5.0 4.9 0.4 1.0 1.1 :
Spain () 7.1 5.4 3.4 3.4 : 0.9 2.2 2.2
France () : 5.0 3.6 : : 1.9 2.0 :
Croatia 9.0 4.9 4.7 4.6 1.3 1.0 1.3 :
Italy () 7.7 5.0 3.4 3.1 : 0.7 0.9 0.9
Cyprus () 7.6 13.4 7.3 : 0.2 1.7 2.3 :
Latvia 8.8 3.9 5.2 6.3 2.8 2.6 4.0 3.1
Lithuania 8.4 4.8 6.3 7.6 0.9 3.1 3.4 3.3
Luxembourg () 6.6 4.9 3.3 3.0 0.4 2.4 2.3 2.6
Hungary ()() 8.8 4.7 3.6 3.9 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.0
Malta () 6.2 6.7 6.2 6.7 : : 0.1 0.8
Netherlands 8.8 5.5 4.3 3.9 0.5 2.2 2.0 2.1
Austria 7.8 4.9 4.3 : 1.2 2.4 2.1 :
Poland () 6.4 5.5 5.4 5.0 0.7 1.1 1.7 1.7
Portugal 8.4 6.2 3.4 3.0 0.1 1.9 2.5 :
Romania 8.6 6.1 5.2 5.9 1.9 1.4 1.8 1.4
Slovenia 9.2 3.6 3.2 3.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2
Slovakia 7.0 4.8 4.7 4.9 0.6 1.7 2.1 1.9
Finland 7.9 5.1 5.3 4.5 1.0 2.7 2.5 2.5
Sweden 7.8 4.5 5.0 5.5 1.2 2.4 2.5 2.7
United Kingdom 7.8 5.2 4.5 : 0.7 2.6 2.1 :
Iceland 8.1 6.3 4.6 : 0.9 1.9 1.6 :
Liechtenstein 6.9 7.2 4.5 : : 3.9 2.5 :
Norway 6.5 5.0 4.6 4.6 0.7 2.2 2.1 1.9
Switzerland ()() 7.7 5.5 5.3 5.1 0.8 1.5 2.2 2.0
Montenegro : : : 5.7 : : 0.8 0.9
FYR of Macedonia 9.0 7.0 7.2 6.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
Albania 7.5 8.4 : : 0.6 0.7 : :
Serbia () : 5.7 4.9 5.1 : : 1.1 1.1
Turkey : : 8.0 7.8 : : 1.6 1.7
Bosnia and Herzegovina 9.3 5.6 : : : : : :
Kosovo () : : 9.3 : : : 0.8 :
() Excluding French overseas departments for 1965 to 1990. which at least one spouse was resident in the country. 1980:
() Marriages, 2011: break in series. break in series.
() Divorce was not possible by law in Italy until 1970, in Spain until () Marriages, 2012: break in series.
1981, in Ireland until 1995 and in Malta until 2011. () Divorces, 2012: break in series.
() Up to and including 2002: data refer to total marriages () Divorces, 2011: break in series.
contracted in the country, including marriages between () Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.
non-residents. From 2003 onwards: data refer to marriages in
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_nind and demo_ndivind)

Population 1
1.4 Fertility
In 2014, 5.1 million children were born in the In 2014, the total fertility rate in the EU-28 was
EU-28, corresponding to a crude birth rate (the 1.58 live births per woman. The EU-28's fertility
number of live births per 1 000 persons) of 10.1. rate increased from a low of 1.46 in 2001 to a
In recent decades Europeans have generally been high of 1.62 in 2010, subsequently followed by a
having fewer children, and this pattern partly slight decrease to 1.58 in 2014.
explains the slowdown in the EU-28s population Among the EU Member States, France reported
growth. The most widely used indicator of the highest fertility rate in 2014, with 2.01 live
fertility is the total fertility rate: this is the mean births per woman. By contrast, the lowest fertility
number of children that would be born alive to rates in 2014 were recorded in Portugal (1.23 live
a woman during her lifetime if she were to pass births per woman).
through her childbearing years conforming to the In the past 50 years, total fertility rates in the
age-specic fertility rates of a given year. A total EU Member States have, in general, been
fertility rate of around 2.1 live births per woman converging: in 1960 and in 1980, the disparity
is considered to be the replacement level in between the highest (Ireland) and the lowest
developed countries: in other words, the average (Estonia in 1960, Luxembourg in 1980) fertility
number of live births per woman required to rates was around 1.8 live births per woman, while
keep the population size constant in the absence in 1970 it was around 2.0. By 1990 this dierence
of inward or outward migration. A total fertility (between Cyprus and Italy) had decreased to
rate below 1.3 live births per woman is described 1.1 live births per woman. Since 2000 it has been
as 'lowest-low fertility'. The total fertility rate is around 0.7 to 0.8 live births per woman.
comparable across countries since it takes into
account changes in the size and structure of the
population.
Figure 1.4: Number of live births, EU-28, 19612014

(million)
8
4
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Note: Excluding French overseas departments before 1998. 2013 and 2014: provisional.
2014: break in series (including births in Mayotte).

1 Population
Table 1.4: Total fertility rate, 19602014

(live births per woman)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2012 2013 2014
EU-28 () : : : : : 1.62 1.58 1.54 1.58
Belgium () 2.54 2.25 1.68 1.62 1.67 1.86 1.79 1.75 1.74
Bulgaria 2.31 2.17 2.05 1.82 1.26 1.57 1.50 1.48 1.53
Czech Republic 2.09 1.92 2.08 1.90 1.15 1.51 1.45 1.46 1.53
Denmark 2.57 1.95 1.55 1.67 1.77 1.87 1.73 1.67 1.69
Germany () : : : : 1.38 1.39 1.38 1.39 1.47
Estonia 1.98 2.17 2.02 2.05 1.36 1.72 1.56 1.52 1.54
Ireland 3.78 3.85 3.21 2.11 1.89 2.05 2.01 1.96 1.94
Greece 2.23 2.40 2.23 1.39 1.25 1.48 1.34 1.29 1.30
Spain : : 2.20 1.36 1.23 1.37 1.32 1.27 1.32
France () : : : : 1.89 2.03 2.01 1.99 2.01
Croatia : : : : : 1.55 1.51 1.46 1.46
Italy 2.37 2.38 1.64 1.33 1.26 1.46 1.43 1.39 1.37
Cyprus : : : 2.41 1.64 1.44 1.39 1.30 1.31
Latvia : : : : 1.25 1.36 1.44 1.52 1.65
Lithuania : 2.40 1.99 2.03 1.39 1.50 1.60 1.59 1.63
Luxembourg () 2.29 1.97 1.50 1.60 1.76 1.63 1.57 1.55 1.50
Hungary () 2.02 1.98 1.91 1.87 1.32 1.25 1.34 1.35 1.44
Malta : : 1.99 2.04 1.70 1.36 1.43 1.38 1.42
Netherlands 3.12 2.57 1.60 1.62 1.72 1.79 1.72 1.68 1.71
Austria 2.69 2.29 1.65 1.46 1.36 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.47
Poland () : : : 2.06 1.37 1.41 1.33 1.29 1.32
Portugal 3.16 3.01 2.25 1.56 1.55 1.39 1.28 1.21 1.23
Romania : : 2.43 1.83 1.31 1.59 1.52 1.41 1.52
Slovenia : : : 1.46 1.26 1.57 1.58 1.55 1.58
Slovakia 3.04 2.41 2.32 2.09 1.30 1.43 1.34 1.34 1.37
Finland 2.72 1.83 1.63 1.78 1.73 1.87 1.80 1.75 1.71
Sweden : 1.92 1.68 2.13 1.54 1.98 1.91 1.89 1.88
United Kingdom : : 1.90 1.83 1.64 1.92 1.92 1.83 1.81
Iceland : 2.81 2.48 2.30 2.08 2.20 2.04 1.93 1.93
Liechtenstein : : : : 1.57 1.40 1.51 1.45 1.59
Norway : 2.50 1.72 1.93 1.85 1.95 1.85 1.78 1.75
Switzerland () 2.44 2.10 1.55 1.58 1.50 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.54
Montenegro : : : : : 1.70 1.72 1.73 1.75
FYR of Macedonia : : : : 1.88 1.56 1.51 1.49 1.52
Albania : : : : : : : : 1.78
Serbia () : : : : 1.48 1.40 1.45 1.43 1.46
Turkey : : : : : 2.04 2.09 2.08 2.17
() 2012 and 2014: break in series.

() 2012: break in series.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_frate)

Population 1
1.5 Mortality and life expectancy

In 2014, some 4.9 million persons died in the increase in life expectancy at birth across Europe
EU-28 this was broadly in line with the annual during the last century. This process has been
number of deaths recorded over the previous going on for longer in Europe than in most other
four decades. A peak was reached in 1993 with parts of the world, placing the EU-28 among the
5.03 million deaths. The crude death rate, which world leaders for life expectancy. Over the past
is the number of deaths per 1 000 persons, was 50 years, life expectancy at birth has increased by
9.7 in the EU-28 in 2014. about 10 years for both men and women in the
The most commonly used indicator for analysing EU-28. Further gains are expected to be achieved
mortality is life expectancy at birth: the mean mostly from the reduction in mortality at older
number of years that a person can expect to ages. Besides the reduction in fertility, the
live at birth if subjected to current mortality gradual reduction in mortality is the main factor
conditions throughout the rest of his or her life. contributing to the ageing of the population in
It is a simple but powerful way of illustrating the the EU-28.
developments in mortality. The total number of Life expectancy at birth in the EU-28 was
deaths depends on the size of the population estimated at 80.9 years in 2014, reaching
age groups (cohorts) reaching the end of their 83.6 years for women and 78.1 years for men.
life cycle and on mortality rates. Economic During more than a decade, between 2002 (the
development and the improvement in some rst year for which data are available for all EU
environmental conditions (for example in many Member States) and 2014, life expectancy in the
urban areas), improved lifestyles, advances in EU-28 increased by 3.2 years, from 77.7 to
healthcare and medicine, including reduced 80.9 years; the increase was 3.8 years for women
infant mortality, have resulted in a continuous and 2.7 years for men.
Figure 1.5: Life expectancy at birth, EU-28, 200214

(years)
84
82
80
78
76
74
72
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Females Males
Note: 2009, 2011, 2012 and 2014: breaks in series. 2013 and 2014: estimate and
provisional.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)

1 Population
While life expectancy has risen in all EU Member of 78.0 years in Bulgaria to a high of 86.2 years in
States, there are still major dierences between Spain.
and within countries. For men, the lowest life Around 18.8 thousand children died before
expectancy in 2014 was recorded in Latvia reaching one year of age in the EU-28 in 2014; this
(69.1 years) and the highest in Cyprus (80.9 years). was equivalent to an infant mortality rate of
For women, the range was narrower, from a low 3.7 deaths per 1 000 live births.
Table 1.5: Life expectancy at birth, 19802014

(years)
Total Males Females
2000 2010 2014 2000 2010 2014 2000 2010 2014
EU-28 () : 79.9 80.9 : 76.9 78.1 : 82.8 83.6
Belgium 77.9 80.3 81.4 74.6 77.5 78.8 81.0 83.0 83.9
Bulgaria 71.6 73.8 74.5 68.4 70.3 71.1 75.0 77.4 78.0
Czech Republic 75.1 77.7 78.9 71.6 74.5 75.8 78.5 80.9 82.0
Denmark 76.9 79.3 80.7 74.5 77.2 78.7 79.2 81.4 82.8
Germany 78.3 80.5 81.2 75.1 78.0 78.7 81.2 83.0 83.6
Estonia 71.1 76.0 77.4 65.6 70.9 72.4 76.4 80.8 81.9
Ireland 76.6 80.8 81.4 74.0 78.5 79.3 79.2 83.1 83.5
Greece 78.2 80.6 81.5 75.5 78.0 78.9 80.9 83.3 84.1
Spain 79.3 82.4 83.3 75.8 79.2 80.4 82.9 85.5 86.2
France () 79.2 81.8 82.8 75.3 78.2 79.5 83.0 85.3 86.0
Croatia : 76.7 77.9 : 73.4 74.7 : 79.9 81.0
Italy 79.9 82.2 83.2 76.9 79.5 80.7 82.8 84.7 85.6
Cyprus 77.7 81.5 82.8 75.4 79.2 80.9 80.1 83.9 84.7
Latvia : 73.1 74.5 : 67.9 69.1 : 78.0 79.4
Lithuania 72.1 73.3 74.7 66.7 67.6 69.2 77.4 78.9 80.1
Luxembourg 78.0 80.8 82.3 74.6 77.9 79.4 81.3 83.5 85.2
Hungary 71.9 74.7 76.0 67.5 70.7 72.3 76.2 78.6 79.4
Malta 78.4 81.5 82.1 76.2 79.3 79.8 80.3 83.6 84.2
Netherlands 78.2 81.0 81.8 75.6 78.9 80.0 80.7 83.0 83.5
Austria 78.3 80.7 81.7 75.2 77.8 79.2 81.2 83.5 84.0
Poland () 73.8 76.4 77.8 69.6 72.2 73.7 78.0 80.7 81.7
Portugal 76.8 80.1 81.3 73.3 76.8 78.0 80.4 83.2 84.4
Romania 71.2 73.7 75.0 67.7 70.0 71.4 74.8 77.7 78.7
Slovenia 76.2 79.8 81.2 72.2 76.4 78.2 79.9 83.1 84.1
Slovakia 73.3 75.6 77.0 69.2 71.8 73.3 77.5 79.3 80.5
Finland 77.8 80.2 81.3 74.2 76.9 78.4 81.2 83.5 84.1
Sweden 79.8 81.6 82.3 77.4 79.6 80.4 82.0 83.6 84.2
United Kingdom 78.0 80.6 81.4 75.5 78.6 79.5 80.3 82.6 83.2
Iceland 79.7 81.9 82.9 77.8 79.8 81.3 81.6 84.1 84.5
Liechtenstein 77.0 81.8 82.1 73.9 79.5 81.0 79.9 84.3 83.2
Norway 78.8 81.2 82.2 76.0 79.0 80.1 81.5 83.3 84.2
Switzerland 80.0 82.7 83.3 77.0 80.3 81.1 82.8 84.9 85.4
Montenegro : 76.1 76.5 : 73.6 74.1 : 78.5 78.9
FYR of Macedonia 73.0 75.0 75.5 70.8 72.9 73.5 75.2 77.2 77.5
Albania : : 78.3 : : 76.4 : : 80.3
Serbia 71.6 74.4 75.4 68.9 71.8 72.8 74.4 77.0 78.0
Turkey : 76.8 78.1 : 74.2 75.4 : 79.4 80.9
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)

Population 1
1.6 Migration and migrant population

Migration is inuenced by a combination of A total of 3.8 million people immigrated to one
economic, political and social factors: either of the EU-28 Member States during 2014, while at
in a migrants country of origin (push factors) least 2.8 million emigrants were reported to have
or in the country of destination (pull factors). left an EU Member State. These total gures do
Historically, the relative economic prosperity and not represent the migration ows to/from the EU
political stability of the EU are thought to have as a whole, since they also include ows between
exerted a considerable pull eect on immigrants. dierent EU Member States.
Table 1.6: Immigration by citizenship, 2014

Non-nationals
Total
Citizens of Citizens of
immi- Nationals
Total other EU non-member Stateless
grants
Member States countries
(thou- (thou- (thou- (thou- (thou- (thou-
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
sands) sands) sands) sands) sands) sands)
Belgium 124.8 17.6 14.1 105.9 84.9 64.6 51.8 41.3 33.1 0.0 0.0
Bulgaria 26.6 9.5 35.7 17.0 64.0 1.4 5.4 15.3 57.4 0.3 1.2
Czech Republic 29.9 5.8 19.3 24.1 80.7 14.8 49.3 9.4 31.4 0.0 0.0
Denmark 68.4 19.3 28.3 49.0 71.7 23.8 34.9 24.5 35.8 0.7 1.0
Germany 884.9 88.4 10.0 790.2 89.3 415.9 47.0 372.4 42.1 1.9 0.2
Estonia 3.9 2.6 65.5 1.3 34.4 0.2 4.0 1.2 29.6 0.0 0.8
Ireland 67.4 12.4 18.4 55.0 81.6 26.2 38.8 28.7 42.6 0.1 0.1
Greece 59.0 29.5 50.0 29.5 50.0 16.0 27.1 13.5 22.9 0.0 0.0
Spain 305.5 41.0 13.4 264.5 86.6 100.0 32.7 164.4 53.8 0.1 0.0
France 339.9 126.2 37.1 213.7 62.9 83.5 24.6 130.2 38.3 0.0 0.0
Croatia 10.6 4.8 45.3 5.8 54.6 2.3 21.9 3.5 32.6 0.0 0.1
Italy 277.6 29.3 10.5 248.4 89.5 68.1 24.5 180.3 64.9 0.0 0.0
Cyprus 9.2 1.4 15.3 7.8 84.7 3.7 40.8 4.0 43.9 0.0 0.0
Latvia 10.4 5.9 56.6 4.4 42.9 0.9 8.9 3.5 33.9 0.0 0.1
Lithuania 24.3 19.5 80.4 4.8 19.6 0.7 2.7 4.1 16.8 0.0 0.1
Luxembourg 22.3 1.3 5.9 21.0 94.0 16.5 74.1 4.4 19.9 0.0 0.0
Hungary 54.6 28.6 52.4 26.0 47.6 10.5 19.3 15.5 28.3 0.0 0.0
Malta 8.9 1.8 20.5 7.1 79.5 4.4 49.6 2.7 29.9 0.0 0.0
Netherlands 145.3 37.4 25.8 107.8 74.2 58.4 40.2 47.8 32.9 1.6 1.1
Austria 116.3 9.2 7.9 106.9 92.0 67.0 57.6 39.4 33.9 0.5 0.4
Poland 222.3 127.8 57.5 94.3 42.4 27.2 12.3 67.0 30.1 0.1 0.0
Portugal 19.5 10.2 52.4 9.3 47.6 3.4 17.3 5.9 30.3 0.0 0.0
Romania 136.0 123.9 91.1 12.1 8.9 1.2 0.9 10.9 8.0 0.0 0.0
Slovenia 13.8 2.5 18.3 11.3 81.7 3.3 23.6 8.0 58.1 0.0 0.0
Slovakia 5.4 2.9 54.9 2.4 45.1 2.0 36.8 0.4 8.3 0.0 0.0
Finland 31.5 7.9 24.9 23.1 73.4 9.5 30.1 13.6 43.1 0.1 0.2
Sweden 127.0 20.9 16.4 105.6 83.2 28.1 22.1 70.7 55.7 6.8 5.3
United Kingdom 632.0 81.3 12.9 550.7 87.1 263.6 41.7 287.1 45.4 0.0 0.0
Iceland 5.4 1.9 35.8 3.4 64.2 2.9 53.2 0.6 10.3 0.0 0.8
Liechtenstein 0.6 0.2 26.7 0.5 73.3 0.2 39.8 0.2 33.5 0.0 0.0
Norway 66.9 6.9 10.3 60.0 89.6 35.1 52.5 24.3 36.3 0.6 0.8
Switzerland 156.3 26.2 16.7 130.1 83.2 94.4 60.4 35.7 22.9 0.0 0.0
Note: The values for the dierent categories of citizenship may not sum to the total
due to rounding and the exclusion of the category 'unknown citizenship' from
the table.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_imm1ctz)

1 Population
Among these 3.8 million immigrants during In 2014, there were an estimated 1.9 million
2014, there were an estimated 1.6 million citizens immigrants to the EU-28 from non-member
of non-member countries, 1.3 million people countries. In addition, 1.8 million people
with citizenship of a dierent EU Member State previously residing in one EU Member State
from the one to which they immigrated, around migrated to another Member State.
870 thousand people who migrated to an EU The number of people acquiring the citizenship
Member State of which they had the citizenship of an EU Member State in 2014 was
(for example, returning nationals or nationals 889.1 thousand, corresponding to a 9 % decrease
born abroad), and some 12.4 thousand stateless with respect to 2013. This decline occurred after
people. two consecutive years of increase.
Figure 1.6: Number of persons having acquired the citizenship of an EU Member

State, EU-28, 200914
(thousands)
1000
900
800
700
600
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Note: 201014: estimates. 201012: includes data for Romania for 2009.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_acq)

Population 1
1.7 Asylum
Asylum is a form of international protection 2014 and close to 1.3 million in 2015. The 2015
given by a state on its territory. It is granted to a number of asylum applications within the EU-28
person who is unable to seek protection in his/ was almost double the number recorded within
her country of citizenship and/or residence, in the EU-15 in 1992.
particular for fear of being persecuted for reasons The number of rst time asylum applicants in the
of race, religion, nationality, membership of a EU-28 in 2015 was 66 thousand (about 5 %) less
particular social group, or political opinion. than the total number of applicants. The number
Having peaked in 1992 (672 thousand of rst time applicants more than doubled from
applications in the EU-15) when the EU Member 563 thousand in 2014 to almost 1.26 million in
States received many asylum applicants from 2015. The main contributions to the increase
former Yugoslavia and again in 2001 were higher numbers of applicants from Syria,
(424 thousand applications in the EU-27), the Afghanistan and Iraq and to a lesser extent from
number of asylum applications within the EU-27 Albania, Kosovo () and Pakistan.
fell to just below 200 thousand by 2006. In 2015, the number of rst time asylum
Focusing just on applications from citizens of applicants from Syria rose to 363 thousand in
non-member countries, there was a gradual the EU-28, which was 29 % of the total. Afghani
increase in the number of asylum applications citizens accounted for 14 % of the total and
within the EU-27 and later the EU-28 through to Iraqis for 10 %, while Kosovans and Albanians
2012, after which the number of asylum seekers accounted for 5 % and Pakistanis for 4 %.
rose to 431 thousand in 2013, 627 thousand in
Figure 1.7: Asylum applications (non-EU) in the EU-28 Member States, 200515
(thousands)
1 400
1 200
1 000
800
600
400
200
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Total First time applicant

Note: 200507: EU-27 and extra-EU-27. First time applicant: 200513 not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: migr_asyctz and migr_asyappctza)
() This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/99 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo
Declaration of Independence.

1 Population
The biggest relative fall in the number of Spain, Germany, Luxembourg, Ireland and
applicants, among the top countries, was Sweden all reported that their number of rst
recorded for Mali, as the number of Malian time asylum applicants more than doubled. By
asylum seekers fell by more than one third contrast, Romania, Croatia, Lithuania, Slovenia
between 2014 and 2015 (). and Latvia reported fewer rst time asylum
The number of rst time asylum applicants in applicants in 2015 than in 2014.
Germany increased from 173 thousand in 2014 More than four in ve (83 %) of the rst time
to 442 thousand in 2015. Hungary, Sweden and asylum seekers in the EU-28 in 2015 were less
Austria also reported very large increases (all in than 35 years old; those in the age range 1834
excess of 50 thousand more rst time asylum years accounted for slightly more than half (53 %)
applicants) between 2014 and 2015. In relative of the total number of rst time applicants, while
terms, the largest increases in the number of rst nearly 3 in 10 (29 %) applicants were minors aged
time applicants were recorded in Finland (over less than 18 years old.
nine times as high), Hungary (over four times)
and Austria (over three times), while Belgium,
Figure 1.8: Countries of origin of (non-EU) asylum seekers in the EU-28 Member
States, 2014 and 2015
(thousands of rst time applicants)
362.8
178.2
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Ukraine
Afghanistan
Iraq
Kosovo ()
Albania
Pakistan
Somalia
Stateless
Russia
Bangladesh
Gambia, The
Sudan
FYR of Macedonia
Senegal
Mali
Cte d'Ivoire
Ghana
Guinea
Ethiopia
Other non-EU-28
Syria
Eritrea
Nigeria
Iran
Unknown
Serbia
Algeria
Bosnia and
China (incl. Hong Kong)

Georgia
Dem. Rep. of Congo
2014 2015
Note: Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_asyappctza)
() For the purpose of this analysis only the top 30 countries of citizenship in terms of the number of applicants for asylum were
considered.

Population 1
Figure 1.9: Number of (non-EU) asylum seekers in the EU and EFTA Member States,
2014 and 2015
(thousands of rst time applicants)
441.8
200
150
100
50
Croatia
Slovakia
Hungary
Sweden
France
Spain
Poland
Lithuania
Slovenia
Norway
Austria
Italy
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Finland
Belgium
Bulgaria
Greece
Ireland
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Malta
Czech Republic
Romania
Portugal
Latvia
Estonia
Switzerland
Denmark
Germany
2014 2015
Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_asyappctza)

Living conditions

2 Living conditions
Introduction
The Europe 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable To measure progress in meeting the Europe 2020
and inclusive growth put forward by the goals, ve headline targets to be met by 2020
European Commission provides a growth have been agreed and translated into national
strategy for the current decade. A European targets in each EU Member State, reecting
platform against poverty is one of the seven dierent situations and circumstances. One of
agship initiatives of this strategy. Its goals are to: these targets is for there to be at least
ensure economic, social and territorial 20 million fewer people in or at-risk-of-poverty
cohesion; and social exclusion for the EU as a whole by
2020. The integrated economic and employment
guarantee respect for the fundamental guidelines, rst combined in 2008 and most
rights of people experiencing poverty and recently specied in 2010, are assessed through
social exclusion, and enable them to live in the use of a joint assessment framework (JAF)
dignity and take an active part in society; within the context of the Europe 2020 strategy;
mobilise support to help people integrate guideline 10 concerns promoting social inclusion
into the communities where they live, get and combating poverty.
training and help them to nd a job and
have access to social benets.
2.1 Social inclusion

As multi-dimensional concepts, poverty and for example: access to education and training,
social exclusion cannot easily be measured health, or housing.
through statistics. As a result, both monetary and In 2014, there were 122 million people in the EU-
non-monetary indicators have been developed, 28, equivalent to 24.5 % of the entire population,
such as the at-risk-of-poverty rate, the at- who lived in households facing poverty or social
risk-of-poverty threshold, the severe material exclusion. Compared with 2013, the number of
deprivation rate and the share of people living people at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion in
in households with very low work intensity. 2014 had decreased by 564 thousand, equivalent
There is a range of other indicators that are to a 0.1 percentage point decrease in the share of
equally relevant when analysing social inclusion, the total population.

Living conditions 2
The results for the EU-28 calculated as a Croatia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, Cyprus,
weighted average of the national results Lithuania and Estonia.
conceal considerable variations between The EU Member States with the lowest
EU Member States. In Romania (40.2 %) and proportions of their populations considered to be
Bulgaria (40.1 %), close to two fths of the at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion in 2014 were
population were considered to be at-risk-of- the Czech Republic (14.8 %), the Netherlands
poverty or social exclusion in 2014, while in (16.5 %), Sweden (16.9 %) and Finland (17.3 %);
Greece (36.0 %) the proportion was more than Iceland (11.2 %), Norway (13.5 %) and Switzerland
one third of the population. Over a quarter of (16.3 %, 2013 data) also reported relatively low
the population was considered to be at-risk- shares of their respective populations as being
of-poverty or social exclusion in 10 other EU at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion.
Member States in 2014, namely Latvia, Hungary,
Figure 2.1: Number of persons at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion analysed by type

of risks, EU-28, 2014
(million)
At-risk-of-poverty Severe material

deprivation
18.6
12.9
49.0
9.8
3.4
14.5
14.1
Very low
work intensity
Population:
neither at risk of poverty,
nor severely materially deprived,
nor living in a household with very low work intensity,
= 377.8 million
Note: The sum of the data for the seven groups at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion diers slightly from the total (published elsewhere)
due to rounding. Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_pees01)

2 Living conditions
Table 2.1: Population at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion, 200914
Proportion of the total population (%) Number of persons (thousand)

2009 () 2013 2014 2009 2013 2014
EU-28 23 3 24.6 24.5 : 122 884 122 320
EA-18 21.6 23.1 23.5 70 323 75 745 77 019
Belgium 20.2 20.8 21.2 2 145 2 286 2 339
Bulgaria () 46.2 48.0 40.1 3 511 3 493 2 909
Czech Republic 14.0 14.6 14.8 1 448 1 508 1 532
Denmark () 17.6 18.3 17.9 962 1 025 1 007
Germany 20.0 20.3 20.6 16 217 16 212 16 508
Estonia () 23.4 23.5 26.0 312 313 338
Ireland 25.7 29.5 27.4 1 150 1 358 1 265
Greece 27.6 35.7 36.0 3 007 3 904 3 885
Spain 24.7 27.3 29.2 11 336 12 630 13 402
France 18.5 18.1 18.5 11 200 11 245 11 540
Croatia : 29.9 29.3 : 1 271 1 243
Italy 24.9 28.5 28.3 14 799 17 229 17 146
Cyprus 23.5 27.8 27.4 188 240 234
Latvia 37.9 35.1 32.7 808 702 645
Lithuania 29.6 30.8 27.3 943 917 804
Luxembourg 17.8 19.0 19.0 85 96 96
Hungary 29.6 34.8 31.1 2 924 3 388 3 035
Malta 20.3 24.0 23.8 82 99 99
Netherlands 15.1 15.9 16.5 2 483 2 648 2 751
Austria 19.1 18.8 19.2 1 577 1 572 1 609
Poland 27.8 25.8 24.7 10 454 9 748 9 337
Portugal 24.9 27.5 27.5 2 648 2 879 2 863
Romania 43.1 40.4 40.2 9 112 8 601 8 549
Slovenia 17.1 20.4 20.4 339 410 410
Slovakia 19.6 19.8 18.4 1 061 1 070 960
Finland 16.9 16.0 17.3 886 854 927
Sweden 15.9 16.4 16.9 1 459 1 602 1 636
United Kingdom 22.0 24.8 24.1 13 389 15 586 15 188
Iceland 11.6 13.0 11.2 36 40 35
Norway 15.2 14.1 13.5 724 714 682
Switzerland 17.9 16.3 : 1 338 1 271 :
FYR of Macedonia : 48.1 43.2 : 993 894
Serbia : 42.0 43.1 : 3 005 3 068
Turkey 63.9 : : 45 051 : :
() EU-28 data not available; EU-27 instead.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_peps01)

Living conditions 2
2.2 Income distribution

The at-risk-of-poverty rate (after social transfers) EU Member States in 2014 from PPS 2.4 thousand
in the EU-28 remained almost stable between in Romania to PPS 13.0 thousand in Austria, with
2011 and 2013, dropping from 16.9 % to 16.7 %. the threshold in Luxembourg (PPS 17.0 thousand)
Between 2013 and 2014, the at-risk-of-poverty above this range.
rate increased by 0.5 percentage points to reach Dierent groups in society are more or less
17.2 %. vulnerable to monetary poverty.
The at-risk-of-poverty threshold is set at 60 % of The unemployed are a particularly vulnerable
national median equivalised disposable income. group: almost half (47.2 %) of all unemployed
It is often expressed in purchasing power persons in the EU-28 were at-risk-of-poverty in
standards (PPS) in order to take account of the 2014, with by far the highest rate in Germany
dierences in the cost of living across countries. (67.4 %).
This threshold varied considerably among the
Figure 2.2: At-risk-of-poverty rate and threshold, 2014

30 18 000
25 15 000
20 12 000
15 9 000
10 6 000
5 3 000
0 0
Croatia
EA-18
Latvia
Slovakia
EU-28
Norway
Romania
Spain
Greece
Estonia
Bulgaria
Portugal
Italy
Lithuania
Poland
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Malta
Ireland
Sweden
Hungary
Slovenia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Belgium
Austria
France
Finland
Switzerland ()
Iceland
FYR of Macedonia
Denmark
Netherlands
Serbia
Germany
At-risk-of poverty rate (%) (left-hand axis)

At-risk-of-poverty threshold (PPS) (right-hand axis)
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_li01 and ilc_li02)

2 Living conditions
Data on economic inequality become particularly The depth of poverty, which helps to quantify
important for estimating relative poverty, just how poor the poor are, can be measured
because the distribution of economic resources by the relative median at-risk-of-poverty gap.
may have a direct bearing on the extent and The median income of persons at risk of poverty
depth of poverty. There were wide inequalities in in the EU-28 was, on average, 24.6 % below
the distribution of income in 2014: a population- the poverty threshold in 2014; this threshold is
weighted average of national gures for each set at 60 % of the national median equivalised
of the individual EU Member States shows that disposable income of all persons. The relative
the top 20 % of the population (with the highest median at-risk-of-poverty gap was widest in
equivalised disposable income) received Romania (35.2 %) and the lowest was observed in
5.2 times as much income as the bottom 20 % Finland (13.9 %).
(with the lowest equivalised disposable income).
Figure 2.3: Inequality of income distribution, 2014

(income quintile share ratio)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Croatia
EA-18
Latvia
Slovakia
EU-28
Romania
Spain
Estonia
Lithuania
Italy
Cyprus
United Kingdom
Poland
Ireland
Luxembourg
France
Hungary
Sweden
Czech Republic
FYR of Macedonia
Bulgaria
Greece
Portugal
Switzerlan ()
Norway
Iceland
Denmark
Austria
Malta
Belgium
Netherlands
Slovenia
Finland
Serbia
Germany
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_di11)

Living conditions 2
2.3 Housing
Decent housing, at an aordable price in a safe One of the key dimensions in assessing the
environment, is a fundamental need and right. quality of housing is the availability of sucient
Ensuring this need is met, which is likely to space in a dwelling. The overcrowding rate
alleviate poverty and social exclusion, is still a describes the proportion of people living in
signicant challenge in a number of European an overcrowded dwelling, as dened by the
countries. number of rooms available to the household, the
In 2014, 4 out of every 10 persons in the EU-28 households size, as well as its members ages
lived in ats, just over one quarter (25.6 %) in and their family situation. In 2014, 17.1 % of the
semi-detached houses and just over one third EU-28 population lived in overcrowded dwellings.
(33.7 %) in detached houses.
Figure 2.4: Overcrowding rate, 2014

(% of specied population)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Croatia
EU-28 ()
EA-18 ()
Hungary
Latvia
Slovakia
Poland
Lithuania
Greece
Italy ()
Estonia ()
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Sweden
Portugal
United Kingdom
France
Finland
Luxembourg
Spain
Malta
Iceland ()
Norway
Romania
Bulgaria
Austria
Switzerland ()
FYR of Macedonia ()
Denmark
Netherlands
Ireland ()
Cyprus
Belgium
Serbia ()
Germany
Total Population at risk of poverty (4)

() Estimates. () 2013.
() Provisional data. () Population below 60 % of median equivalised income.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_lvho05a)
In 2014, an 11.4 % share of the EU-28 population households where housing costs exceeded 40 %
lived in households that spent 40 % or more of of their disposable income, notably Malta (1.6 %)
their equivalised disposable income on housing. and Cyprus (4.0 %). At the other extreme, around
The EU-28 average masks signicant dierences just over two out of every ve people (40.7 %) in
between Member States: at one extreme there Greece spent more than 40 % of their equivalised
were a number of countries where a relatively disposable income on housing.
small proportion of the population lived in

2 Living conditions
Table 2.2: Housing cost overburden rate by tenure status, 2014

(% of population)
Owner occupied, with
mortgage or housing
Owner occupied, no
rent at market price

mortgage or loan
Total population
rent at reduced
outstanding
price or free
Tenant
Tenant
loan
EU-28 11.4 7.4 6.8 27.1 12.7
EA-18 11.4 7.5 5.6 26.2 11.7
Belgium 10.4 3.1 1.8 38.1 13.3
Bulgaria 12.9 9.3 11.3 40.8 17.9
Czech Republic 10.5 8.3 6.2 29.9 7.0
Denmark () 15.6 5.2 7.1 32.9 :
Germany 15.9 11.3 9.6 23.1 16.6
Estonia () 7.2 9.2 4.8 25.6 10.4
Ireland () 4.9 1.4 1.7 17.8 6.8
Greece 40.7 29.2 37.6 55.8 47.5
Spain 10.9 9.0 2.8 47.5 10.8
France 5.1 1.1 0.7 15.8 9.3
Croatia 7.5 21.0 6.2 41.3 7.7
Italy 8.4 5.6 2.9 31.9 10.2
Cyprus 4.0 6.0 0.7 19.3 1.3
Latvia 9.6 15.2 8.2 15.1 9.7
Lithuania 7.1 6.8 6.4 37.3 9.2
Luxembourg 6.8 0.7 0.9 26.3 8.2
Hungary 11.4 26.0 5.8 40.1 15.9
Malta 1.6 2.8 0.6 26.6 0.7
Netherlands 15.4 11.8 3.9 24.8 14.0
Austria 6.6 1.8 2.6 15.6 6.8
Poland 9.6 18.0 8.0 25.5 10.9
Portugal 9.2 7.4 3.8 33.8 6.7
Romania 14.9 31.2 14.4 31.6 37.3
Slovenia 6.4 9.7 3.6 27.4 8.2
Slovakia 9.0 26.2 6.1 14.9 6.5
Finland 5.1 2.3 2.6 16.8 9.6
Sweden () 7.8 2.9 5.6 17.8 60.7
United Kingdom 12.1 6.3 4.3 33.2 15.7
Iceland () 8.8 6.8 7.0 17.9 14.4
Norway 8.2 5.1 4.0 34.2 16.8
Switzerland () 10.6 5.6 5.1 15.2 9.2
FYR of Macedonia () 17.6 10.3 17.1 62.4 20.2
Serbia () 28.0 33.4 25.2 62.4 33.1
() Tenants rent at reduced price or free: unreliable.

() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_lvho07c and ilc_lvho07a)

Living conditions 2
2.4 Social protection

Social protection encompasses interventions at 28.6 % in the EU-28 and was 2.6 percentage
from public or private bodies intended to relieve points above its 2008 level (26.0 %).
households and individuals of the burden of Among the EU Member States, the level of social
a dened set of risks or needs, provided that protection expenditure in relation to GDP in 2013
there is neither a simultaneous reciprocal nor an was highest in France (33.7 %) and Denmark
individual arrangement involved. (33.0 %). By contrast, Latvia had the lowest share
As the impact of the nancial and economic crisis at 14.4 %.
was felt across the EU-28, expenditure on social Expenditure on pensions across the EU-28 was
protection relative to gross domestic product equivalent to 12.8 % of GDP in 2012. In 2013,
(GDP) increased by 2.8 percentage points among the EU Member States it ranged from a
between 2008 and 2009. In 2010 and 2011, the high of 16.5 % in Italy to a low of 6.8 % in Ireland,
value of social protection expenditure increased with the 2012 value for Greece (no data available
by 3.8 % and 1.8 % respectively. In 2012, there was for 2013) above this range at 17.7 %.
a change in developments, as social protection
expenditure increased by 3.3 % compared Expenditure on care for the elderly covers care
with GDP growth of 1.9 %, resulting in a 0.4 allowance, accommodation, and assistance in
percentage point increase in the ratio of social carrying out daily tasks. Across the EU-28, this
protection expenditure to GDP, such that it stood expenditure accounted for 0.5 % of GDP in 2012.
Figure 2.5: Expenditure on pensions, 2013

(% of GDP)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Croatia
Slovakia ()
Latvia ()
EU-28 ()()
EA-18 ()()
Greece ()()
Italy ()
Portugal
France ()
Norway
Austria
Finland
Spain ()
Sweden ()
Slovenia ()
United Kingdom ()
Poland ()()
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Hungary
Czech Republic
Malta
Estonia
Lithuania ()
Ireland
Netherlands ()
Bulgaria
Romania
Switzerland
Iceland
Denmark ()
Belgium
Germany ()
Serbia
Turkey ()
() Provisional.
() 2012.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: spr_exp_pens)

2 Living conditions
Table 2.3: Expenditure on social protection, 200313

(% of GDP)
2003 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
EU-28 : 26.0 28.8 28.6 28.2 28.6 :
EA-18 26.8 26.5 29.3 29.2 28.9 29.4 :
Belgium 27.0 27.7 30.0 29.4 29.7 29.9 30.2
Bulgaria : 14.7 16.1 17.3 16.7 16.7 17.6
Czech Republic 18.6 17.9 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.5 20.2
Denmark () 30.1 28.9 32.8 32.8 32.3 32.2 33.0
Germany 29.8 27.1 30.5 29.8 28.6 28.7 29.0
Estonia 12.6 14.7 18.8 17.6 15.6 15.0 14.8
Ireland 16.4 20.1 23.9 24.5 23.2 23.0 22.0
Greece 22.6 25.3 27.3 28.6 30.4 31.6 :
Spain 19.8 21.4 24.4 24.7 25.4 25.5 25.7
France () 30.2 30.2 32.6 32.7 32.5 33.3 33.7
Croatia : 18.6 20.7 20.8 20.4 20.9 21.7
Italy 24.8 26.7 28.8 28.8 28.5 29.3 29.8
Cyprus 16.8 17.7 19.3 20.1 20.8 21.0 22.3
Latvia 13.3 12.0 16.7 18.1 15.1 14.2 14.4
Lithuania 13.4 15.9 21.0 18.9 16.9 16.3 15.3
Luxembourg 22.1 21.2 23.8 22.9 22.3 23.0 23.1
Hungary 21.0 22.5 22.9 22.7 21.7 21.4 20.9
Malta 16.8 17.6 19.0 18.7 18.2 18.4 18.4
Netherlands 26.3 26.4 29.4 29.7 30.2 31.0 31.3
Austria 28.8 27.8 29.8 29.8 29.0 29.3 29.7
Poland 21.0 19.4 20.4 19.6 18.6 17.7 :
Portugal 22.8 23.4 25.8 25.8 25.8 26.4 27.6
Romania 13.0 14.1 16.9 17.3 16.4 15.4 14.8
Slovenia 23.2 21.0 23.7 24.4 24.5 24.9 25.0
Slovakia 18.0 15.7 18.5 18.3 17.9 18.1 18.4
Finland 25.5 25.1 29.0 29.2 28.8 30.1 31.2
Sweden 30.4 27.7 30.1 28.6 28.2 29.3 30.0
United Kingdom 25.4 26.4 29.1 28.8 28.7 28.8 28.1
Iceland 22.3 21.1 23.9 23.3 23.9 23.7 23.6
Norway 26.7 21.7 25.4 25.1 24.7 24.5 25.0
Switzerland 26.4 23.3 25.4 25.5 25.4 26.3 27.0
Serbia : : : 23.9 22.7 24.0 23.3
Turkey () 10.7 11.9 14.1 13.5 13.2 13.8 14.1

Source: Eurostat (online data code: spr_exp_sum)

Living conditions 2
2.5 Crime
The most recent Eurostat gures on crime and oences in 2014 in the EU-28 was 8 % higher than
criminal justice statistics show that the levels of in 2008, although there was a decline between
police-recorded intentional homicide and assault 2008 and 2011 followed by increases since 2012.
steadily decreased across the EU-28 (data on Between 2008 and 2014, the overall number
assaults available for 29 jurisdictions and data on of police-recorded oences of sexual violence
intentional homicide available for 28 jurisdictions increased by 16.6 % across the EU-28 (data
out of the total of 30 jurisdictions. available for 25 jurisdictions). After a fall in the
The number of police-recorded oences of number of police-recorded oences in 2009, the
intentional homicide fell overall by 24 % between incidence of police-recorded sexual violence
2008 and 2014, while the number of rape in the EU-28 rose slightly each year during the
oences increased by 37 % over the same period. period 201012 (when it still remained below its
For sexual assault (data available for level of 2008), but increased more rapidly in 2013
26 jurisdictions), the number of police-recorded and 2014.
Figure 2.6: Police-recorded oences by oence category, EU-28, 200814

(2008 = 100)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Rape () Sexual assault () Intentional homicide () Assault ()

() Excluding Italy.
() Excluding Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland and Slovakia.
() Excluding the Netherlands and England and Wales (the United Kingdom).
() Excluding Poland.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: crim_o_cat)

2 Living conditions
The overall number of police ocers in the EU-28 year between 2008 and 2011, stabilised in 2012,
(consistent data available for 23 jurisdictions) and then fell by 3.6 % in 2013 and by 3.5 % in
decreased from 2009 to 2013 and increased 2014, such that the prison population in 2014 was
slightly in 2014. Across the EU-28 3.5 % below what it had been in 2008.
(20 jurisdictions), the number of professional Men account for the vast majority of the prison
judges increased each year during the period population Across the EU-28 (data available for
200813 and fell only slightly in 2014: the overall 26 jurisdictions) adult male prisoners accounted
increase in the number of judges between 2008 for 95 % of the total adult prison population in
and 2014 was 4.6 %. 2014, a share that had remained relatively stable
The total number of prisoners in the EU-28 (data since 2008.
available for 27 jurisdictions) rose gradually each
Figure 2.7: Personnel in the criminal justice system, EU-28, 200814

(2008 = 100)
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Professional judges () Police of ficers () Personnel in adult prisons ()
() Excluding Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the

Netherlands, England and Wales (the United Kingdom), and Northern Ireland (the
United Kingdom).
() Excluding Germany, Estonia, Greece, Spain, Italy, Latvia and the Netherlands.
() Excluding Belgium, Estonia, Greece, France, Cyprus, Latvia, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands and Sweden.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: crim_just_job)

Health

3 Health
Introduction
Health is an important priority for Europeans, The demand for healthcare is expected to
who expect to have a long and healthy life, to be increase dramatically as a result of an ageing
protected against illnesses and accidents, and to population and at the same time the proportion
receive appropriate healthcare. Health issues cut of the people in work will probably stagnate or
across a range of topics including consumer in some cases decline. As a result, there may be
protection (food safety issues), workplace safety, sta shortages in certain medical specialisations
environmental or social policies. or geographic areas. In 2014, about one third of
The competence for the organisation and all doctors in the EU were aged 55 or over.
delivery of health services and healthcare is The EU gathers statistical information in order
largely held by the EU Member States. The EU has to assess health issues, eectively design
a mandate to complement national action on policies and target future actions. This statistical
health. This consists mainly of: protecting people information needs to be based on a set of
from health threats and disease, promoting common EU health indicators, for which there is
healthy lifestyles and helping national authorities Europe-wide agreement regarding denitions,
in the EU cooperate on health issues. collection and use; examples include the
Population ageing will continue to be a challenge European core health indicators (ECHI) and
for the EUs health sector in the coming decades. sustainable development indicators.
3.1 Healthy life years

Whether extra years of life gained through Life expectancy for women in the EU-28 was,
increased longevity are spent in good or bad on average, 5.5 years longer than that for men
health is a crucial question. Since life expectancy in 2014. However, most of these additional years
at birth is not able to fully answer this question, tend to be lived with activity limitations. Indeed,
indicators of health expectancies, such as the gender gap was considerably smaller in
healthy life years (also called disability-free life terms of healthy life years than it was for overall
expectancy) have been developed. These focus life expectancy at just 0.4 years dierence in
on the quality of life spent in a healthy state, favour of women in 2014. Men therefore tend to
rather than the quantity of life as measured spend a greater proportion of their somewhat
by life expectancy. Healthy life years are an shorter lives free from activity limitations. The
important measure of the relative health of expected number of healthy life years at birth
populations in the EU. was higher for women than for men in 18 of the
In 2014, the number of healthy life years at birth EU Member States, with the dierence close
was estimated at 61.4 years for men and 61.8 to 4.0 years in Bulgaria and the Baltic Member
years for women in the EU-28; this represented States.
approximately 79 % and 74 % of total life
expectancy for men and women.

Health 3
Figure 3.1: Healthy life years at birth, by sex, 2014
(years)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Croatia
Malta
Sweden
Ireland
Cyprus
Spain
Czech Republic
Latvia
Slovakia
Hungary
Slovenia
Finland
Estonia
Portugal
Norway
Bulgaria
Greece
France
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Poland
Italy
Iceland
Belgium
Lithuania
Switzerland
Denmark
Netherlands
Romania
Austria
Germany
Women Men
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_hlye)
An analysis comparing healthy life years between and Portugal where men aged 65 could expect
the sexes at the age of 65 in 2014 shows that to live at least one year longer free from disability
there were 12 EU Member States where men than women. By contrast, women could expect
could expect more healthy life years than to live at least one year longer free from disability
women; this was most notably the case in Cyprus than men in Estonia, Sweden and Denmark.

3 Health
Table 3.1: Healthy life years at age 65, by sex, 2014

(years)
Women Men Dierence

EU-28 8.6 8.6 0.0
Belgium 11.0 11.0 0.0
Bulgaria 9.6 8.7 0.9
Czech Republic 9.3 8.5 0.8
Denmark 12.8 11.0 1.8
Germany 6.7 6.8 0.1
Estonia 6.0 4.9 1.1
Ireland 12.3 11.4 0.9
Greece 7.1 7.7 0.6
Spain 9.4 10.1 0.7
France 10.7 10.4 0.3
Croatia 5.8 6.0 0.2
Italy 7.3 7.8 0.5
Cyprus 8.8 10.4 1.6
Latvia 4.6 4.0 0.6
Lithuania 6.1 6.1 0.0
Luxembourg 10.8 11.3 0.5
Hungary 6.1 6.0 0.1
Malta 13.7 13.3 0.4
Netherlands 10.2 10.7 0.5
Austria 7.7 8.4 0.7
Poland 8.1 7.5 0.6
Portugal 5.6 6.9 1.3
Romania 5.7 5.9 0.2
Slovenia 8.6 7.8 0.8
Slovakia 3.6 4.3 0.7
Finland 9.3 8.8 0.5
Sweden 16.7 15.2 1.5
United Kingdom 10.6 9.7 0.9
Iceland 15.1 15.4 0.3
Norway 15.9 15.3 0.6
Switzerland 9.6 10.6 1.0
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_hlye)

Health 3
3.2 Causes of death

By relating all deaths in the population to an Diseases of the circulatory system include those
underlying cause of death, the risks associated related to high blood pressure, cholesterol,
with death from a range of specic diseases and diabetes and smoking; the most common causes
other causes can be assessed; these gures can of death from diseases of the circulatory system
be further analysed by age, sex, country where are ischaemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular
the death occurred / residency of the deceased, diseases. Ischaemic heart diseases accounted for
and region (NUTS level 2), using standardised 132 deaths per 100 000 inhabitants across the
death rates. EU-28 in 2013.
Between 2004 and 2013, there was an 11.0 % Although suicide is not a major cause of death
reduction in EU-28 standardised death rates and the data for some EU Member States are
relating to cancer for men and a 5.9 % reduction likely to be under-reported, it is often considered
for women. Larger declines were recorded in as an important indicator of issues that need
relation to deaths from ischaemic heart disease, to be addressed or considered by society. On
where death rates fell by 30.6 % for men and average, there were 11.7 deaths per
33.4 % for women, while even greater reductions 100 000 inhabitants resulting from suicide in the
were recorded for deaths from transport EU-28 in 2013.
accidents where rates fell by 45.3 % for men and
47.0 % for women.
Figure 3.2: Causes of death standardised death rate per 100 000 inhabitants,
males, EU-28, 200413
(2009 = 100)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Nervous system
Cancer (malignant neoplasms)
Lung cancer (malignant neoplasm of trachea, bronchus and lung)
Ischaemic heart diseases
Transport accidents
Note: 2004, 2005 and 2010: provisional. 201113: for the age standardisation, among
older people, the age group aged 85 and over was used rather than separate
age groups for 8589, 9094 and 95 and over.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_asdr and hlth_cd_asdr2)

3 Health
Figure 3.3: Causes of death standardised death rate per 100 000 inhabitants,
females, EU-28, 200413
(2009 = 100)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Nervous system
Lung cancer (malignant neoplasm of trachea, bronchus and lung)
Cancer (malignant neoplasms)
Breast cancer
Ischaemic heart diseases
Transport accidents
Note: 2004, 2005 and 2010: provisional. 201113: for the age standardisation, among
older people, the age group aged 85 and over was used rather than separate
age groups for 8589, 9094 and 95 and over.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_asdr and hlth_cd_asdr2)
3.3 Healthcare provision

An individuals state of health and that of In 2013, there were approximately 1.8 million
the population in general is inuenced by physicians in the EU-28, an increase of 253
genetic and environmental factors, cultural thousand compared with 10 years earlier. One
and socioeconomic conditions, as well as the of the key indicators for measuring healthcare
healthcare services that are available to prevent personnel is the total number of physicians,
and to treat illness and disease. expressed per 100 000 inhabitants. In 2014,
Non-monetary statistics may be used to evaluate Greece recorded the highest ratio among the EU
how a countrys healthcare system responds Member States, at 632 per 100 000 inhabitants
to the challenge of universal access to good (data for licensed physicians). Austria (505),
healthcare, through measuring human and Portugal (443; licensed physicians), Lithuania
technical resources, the allocation of these (431), Sweden (412; 2013 data) and Germany
resources and the demand for healthcare services (411) had the next highest ratios and were the
by patients. This chapter presents statistics on only other Member States to record in excess
healthcare professionals, hospital beds and of 400 physicians per 100 000 inhabitants. By
hospital discharges of in-patients and day care contrast, there were 231 physicians per 100 000
patients. inhabitants in Poland.

Health 3
There were over 340 thousand dentists in the This was considerably higher than in any of the
EU-28, over 440 thousand pharmacists and nearly other EU Member States, as Cyprus and Bulgaria
540 thousand physiotherapists On the basis of a (both 98) had the next highest ratios. By contrast,
comparison in relation to population numbers, there were fewer than 50 dentists per
among the EU Member States Greece recorded 100 000 inhabitants in Slovakia (49; professionally
the highest number of dentists, at 126 per active dentists), Malta (37) and Poland (34).
100 000 inhabitants (data for licensed dentists).
Figure 3.4: Number of physicians, by sex, 2014

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Greece
Latvia
Croatia
Estonia
Lithuania ()
Portugal
Sweden ()
Italy
Spain
Czech Republic ()
Slovakia
Malta
Finland ()
Ireland
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Slovenia
Norway
Liechtenstein
FYR of Macedonia
Austria
Bulgaria
Denmark ()
Netherlands
Cyprus
France
Hungary
Belgium
Romania
Poland
Switzerland
Iceland
Serbia
Montenegro
Turkey ()
Germany
Female Male
() Estimates.
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_rs_phys and demo_pjan)

3 Health
Figure 3.5: Number of dentists, pharmacists and physiotherapists, 2014

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Croatia
Greece ()()
Cyprus
Luxembourg ()
Sweden ()
Latvia
Slovakia ()
Finland ()
Czech Republic ()
Spain ()
Slovenia
Italy ()
France
Hungary
Ireland ()
United Kingdom
Liechtenstein
Netherlands ()
Malta ()
Poland
Norway
Bulgaria ()
Estonia
Lithuania ()
Portugal ()()
Romania
Iceland
Austria ()
Switzerland ()
FYR of Macedonia ()
Germany
Denmark ()
Belgium
Serbia ()
Turkey ()
Montenegro ()
Dentists Pharmacists Physiotherapists
Note: Ranked on dentists.

() Dentists: licensed to practise.
() Pharmacists: professionally active.
() Pharmacists: licensed to practise.
() Physiotherapists: estimate.
() Excluding stomatologists and maxillofacial surgeons.
() 2013.
() Dentists and pharmacists: 2012.
() Estimates.
() Dentists and pharmacists: professionally active.
() Dentists and pharmacists: licensed to practise.
() Physiotherapists: the self-employed and those employed by institutions other than
hospitals are excluded.
() Pharmacists: estimate.
() Physiotherapists: not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_rs_prs1)

Health 3
3.4 Healthcare expenditure

Healthcare systems are organised and nanced Hospitals generally accounted for the highest
in dierent ways across the EU Member States, proportion of current healthcare expenditure in
but most Europeans would agree that universal 2013, ranging from 29.5 % of the total in Germany
access to quality healthcare, at an aordable to 47.6 % in Estonia. Germany and Bulgaria were
cost to both individuals and society at large, is a the only EU Member States, among those for
basic need. Moreover, this is one of the common which data are available, to report that hospitals
values and principles in EU health systems. did not have the highest share of healthcare
The level of current healthcare expenditure in expenditure, as ambulatory health care providers
Germany was EUR 309 billion in 2013, equivalent accounted for 31.1 % of total healthcare
to 10.9 % of GDP. In France, current healthcare expenditure in Germany, while retailers and other
expenditure (EUR 231 billion) was also equivalent providers of medical goods accounted for 42.4 %
to 10.9 % of GDP, while the Netherlands (11.0 %) of total healthcare expenditure in Bulgaria.
and Sweden (11.1 %) were the only EU Member The second most important category was
States for which data are available to report generally that of ambulatory health care
higher ratios; note that current healthcare providers, their share of healthcare expenditure
expenditure in Switzerland was equivalent to ranging from 10.4 % in Romania to more than
11.2 % of GDP. By contrast, current healthcare 30.0 % in Germany and Belgium; ambulatory
expenditure accounted for less than 6.5 % of GDP health care providers in Liechtenstein accounted
in Poland, Lithuania and Estonia, with Romania for 31.7 % of total healthcare expenditure.
recording the lowest ratio (5.2 %).
Figure 3.6: Healthcare expenditure by provider, 2013

(% of current healthcare expenditure)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Croatia
Estonia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Greece
Portugal
Spain
France
Romania
Austria
Sweden
Hungary
Netherlands
Finland
Poland
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Norway
Iceland ()
Liechtenstein
Belgium
Switzerland
Germany
Hospitals Providers of ambulatory health care

Retailers and other providers of medical goods Other providers
Note: Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia, Slovakia and the
United Kingdom: not available.
() Denitions dier.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_sha11_hp)

3 Health
Table 3.2: Current healthcare expenditure, 2013
Million EUR EUR per inhabitant PPS per inhabitant % of GDP

Belgium 40 907 3 658 3 263 10.4
Bulgaria 3 298 454 1 034 7.9
Czech Republic 10 895 1 036 1 593 6.9
Denmark : : : :
Germany 308 526 3 826 3 739 10.9
Estonia 1 136 862 1 222 6.0
Ireland : : : :
Greece 15 777 1 439 1 710 8.8
Spain 92 700 1 988 2 110 9.0
France 231 060 3 515 3 262 10.9
Croatia 3 171 745 1 177 7.3
Italy : : : :
Cyprus 1 244 1 443 1 529 6.9
Latvia : : : :
Lithuania 2 147 726 1 253 6.1
Luxembourg : : : :
Hungary 7 408 749 1 369 7.4
Malta : : : :
Netherlands 71 453 4 252 3 731 11.0
Austria 32 729 3 860 3 521 10.1
Poland 25 262 664 1 264 6.4
Portugal 15 477 1 480 1 844 9.1
Romania 7 431 372 767 5.2
Slovenia : : : :
Slovakia : : : :
Finland 19 319 3 552 2 854 9.5
Sweden 48 375 5 039 3 540 11.1
United Kingdom 202 721 3 161 2 736 9.9
Iceland () 1 013 3 130 2 789 8.8
Liechtenstein 287 7 762 : :
Norway 35 130 6 916 4 134 8.9
Switzerland 57 651 7 127 4 573 11.2
() Denition diers.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_sha11_hf)

Health 3
3.5 Accidents at work

This chapter presents main statistical indicators It should be noted that fatal accidents are
concerning non-fatal and fatal accidents at work relatively rare events. Because of this, incidence
in the EU collected within the framework of the rates for fatal accidents can vary greatly from
European statistics on accidents at work (ESAW) one year to the next, in particular in some of the
administrative data collection. smaller EU Member States.
An accident at work is dened in ESAW The likelihood of having an accident is related to
methodology as a discrete occurrence during the the economic activity in which a person works
course of work which leads to physical or mental and the relative importance of dierent activities
harm. Fatal accidents at work are those that lead varies between countries. To account for this,
to the death of the victim within one year. Non- standardised incidence rates are calculated.
fatal accidents at work collected within ESAW are These assume that the relative sizes of economic
those that imply at least four full calendar days activities within each national economy are the
of absence from work (they are sometimes also same as within the EU as a whole.
called serious accidents at work). Across the EU-28 there were, on average, 2.3 fatal
In 2013, there were just over 3.1 million non-fatal accidents per 100 000 persons employed in 2013
accidents that resulted in at least four calendar while there were 1 696 non-fatal accidents per
days of absence from work and 3 674 fatal 100 000 persons employed.
accidents in the EU-28, a ratio of approximately Within the EU-28, the construction,
850 non-fatal accidents for every fatal one. There manufacturing, transportation and storage, and
was a slight reduction in the number of accidents agriculture, forestry and shing sectors together
at work in the EU-28 between 2012 and 2013, accounted for almost two thirds (65.7 %) of
with 38 thousand fewer non-fatal accidents and all fatal accidents at work and just under half
244 fewer fatal accidents. Men were considerably (47.0 %) of all non-fatal accidents at work in 2013.
more likely than women to have an accident More than one in ve (21.4 %) fatal accidents at
at work. In the EU-28, more than two out of work in the EU-28 in 2013 took place within the
every three (69.8 %) non-fatal accidents at work construction sector, while the manufacturing
involved men. sector had the next highest share (16.6 %).

3 Health
Table 3.3: Number of non-fatal and fatal accidents at work, 2013

(persons)
Accidents at work involving at least four calendar days of absence Fatal accidents at
from work work
Total Male Female Total
EU-28 3 127 546 2 183 802 943 412 3 674
Belgium 56 405 41 444 14 954 66
Bulgaria 2 164 1 540 624 87
Czech Republic 44 070 30 838 13 232 130
Denmark 55 931 33 506 22 235 39
Germany 852 061 635 030 217 031 444
Estonia 6 175 3 801 2 373 20
Ireland 18 049 11 690 6 278 40
Greece 9 676 7 424 2 252 22
Spain 370 176 253 483 116 692 270
France 567 407 375 263 192 144 553
Croatia 11 709 7 850 3 854 29
Italy 329 404 240 540 88 864 517
Cyprus 1 529 1 076 453 9
Latvia 1 707 1 113 594 31
Lithuania 3 043 1 955 1 088 58
Luxembourg 7 055 5 619 1 436 6
Hungary 18 899 12 414 6 486 55
Malta 2 601 2 164 437 4
Netherlands 152 214 101 189 51 025 42
Austria 64 646 51 275 13 371 143
Poland 77 339 50 976 26 363 277
Portugal 123 137 86 554 36 583 160
Romania 3 453 2 726 726 269
Slovenia 12 537 9 411 3 126 20
Slovakia 8 741 5 931 2 810 55
Finland 47 432 32 630 14 802 22
Sweden 36 188 21 058 15 130 35
United Kingdom 243 798 155 302 88 449 271
Iceland 1 787 1 182 605 0
Norway 22 807 12 945 9 862 48
Switzerland 86 039 68 060 17 979 77
Note: Non-fatal accidents reported in the framework of ESAW are accidents that imply
at least four full calendar days of absence from work (serious accidents).
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hsw_n2_01 and hsw_n2_02)

Health 3
Figure 3.7: Fatal and non-fatal accidents at work by economic activity, EU-28, 2013
(% of fatal and non-fatal accidents)
0 5 10 15 20 25
Construction
Manufacturing
Transportation and storage
Agriculture, forestry and shing
Wholesale and retail trade
Administrative and support service activities
Public administration and defence
Water supply; sewerage, waste management
Mining and quarrying
Human health and social work activities
Professional, scientic and technical activities
Accommodation and food service activities
Arts, entertainment and recreation
Education
Other service activities
Information and communication
Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply
Financial and insurance activities
Real estate activities
Activities of households as employers
Activities of extraterritorial organisations and bodies
Other
Non-fatal accidents Fatal accidents

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hsw_n2_01 and hsw_n2_02)

Education and training

4 Education and training
Introduction
Education, vocational training and more lifelong learning, focusing on learning
generally lifelong learning play a vital role in outcomes for employability, innovation,
both an economic and social context. The active citizenship and well-being;
opportunities which the European Union (EU) inclusive education, equality, equity,
oers its citizens for living, studying and working non-discrimination and the promotion of
in other countries make a major contribution civic competences;
to cross-cultural understanding, personal open and innovative education and
development and the achievement of the EUs training, including by fully embracing the
full economic potential. Each year, well over a digital era;
million EU citizens of all ages benet from EU- strong support for teachers, trainers, school
funded educational, vocational and citizenship- leaders and other educational sta;
building programmes. transparency and recognition of skills and
Political cooperation within the EU was qualications to facilitate learning and
strengthened through the education and labour mobility;
training 2010 work programme which integrated sustainable investment, quality and
previous actions in the elds of education and eciency of education and training
training. The follow-up to this programme, the systems.
strategic framework for European cooperation The measurement of progress requires a range of
in education and training (known as ET 2020), comparable statistics on enrolment in education
was adopted by the Council in May 2009. It sets and training, numbers of graduates and teachers,
out four strategic objectives for education and language learning, student and researcher
training in the EU: making lifelong learning and mobility, educational expenditure, as well as data
mobility a reality; improving the quality and on educational attainment and adult learning.
eciency of education and training; promoting Education statistics cover a range of subjects,
equality, social cohesion and active citizenship; including: expenditure, personnel, participation
and enhancing creativity and innovation rates, and attainment. The standards for
(including entrepreneurship) at all levels of international statistics on education are set by
education and training. This strategy set a three international organisations:
number of benchmarks to be achieved by 2020. the United Nations Educational, Scientic,
In 2014, recent progress was assessed and and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
priorities reviewed: in November 2015 the institute for statistics (UIS);
Council adopted a set of six new priorities for the the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
period 201620 based on a joint report and Development (OECD);
(2015/C 417/04) from the European Commission Eurostat, the statistical oce of the
and the Member States. The priority areas for European Union.
further work towards 2020 are:
relevant and high-quality knowledge, skills
and competences developed throughout

Education and training 4
4.1 Early childhood and primary education

School helps young people acquire basic life each teacher. In 2013, pupilteacher ratios were
skills and competences that are necessary for particularly low which may generally be
their personal development. The quality of a considered to be benecial in early childhood
pupils school experience aects not only their development, with ratios among the six EU
development, but also his or her place in society, Member States for which data are available
level of educational attainment, and employment ranging from 5.1 in Germany to 9.5 in Croatia.
opportunities. The quality of education may be In all of these Member States the ratios for early
linked to teaching standards, which in turn are childhood development were lower than for
related to the demands placed upon teachers, pre-primary education.
the training they receive, the roles they are asked The pupilteacher ratio for pre-primary
to ll and the resources that are made available education ranged among the EU Member States
for them to carry out their tasks. from 9.0 in Estonia (the ratio also covers early
In the EU-28 there were just over 15 million pupils childhood development) to 16.6 in Cyprus,
in pre-primary education in 2013. The number of Romania and Portugal, with France (21.6) above
pupils in primary education was 1.9 times as high, this range and Sweden (6.4) below it. In a small
at just over 28 million. majority of EU Member States, 14 out of the
There were 1.2 million pre-primary school 26 for which data are available, pupilteacher
teachers in the EU-28 (excluding Denmark and ratios were lower for primary education than for
Ireland) in 2013 and 2.0 million primary school pre-primary education.
teachers.
An indicator of the quality of schooling is the
pupilteacher ratio, which provides an indication
of the average number of pupils there are for

Table 4.1: Number of early childhood and primary education students, 2013
(thousands)
Early childhood
Pre-primary Primary
development
Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female
EU-28 () : : : 15 058.8 7 765.9 7 292.8 28 343.8 14 221.0 13 796.3
Belgium : : : 457.0 234.3 222.7 764.1 390.3 373.8
Bulgaria : : : 235.0 121.3 113.8 253.7 131.2 122.5
Czech Republic : : : 358.1 185.9 172.2 491.8 252.4 239.4
Denmark 113.7 58.3 55.4 192.2 99.9 92.3 469.6 241.3 228.3
Germany 677.9 346.7 331.2 2 207.1 1 139.1 1 068.0 2 890.5 1 487.7 1 402.8
Estonia () : : : 67.0 34.5 32.5 75.6 38.9 36.7
Ireland : : : 78.1 39.8 38.3 527.8 270.5 257.3
Greece 49.5 : : 167.1 86.1 80.9 633.5 early 307.1
Spain 449.4 233.6 215.9 1 465.6 755.7 709.9 2 934.6 1 502.1 1 432.5
France : : : 2 560.8 1 309.9 1 250.8 4 171.0 2 137.6 2 033.4
Croatia 23.0 12.2 10.9 105.0 54.5 50.5 160.3 82.2 78.1
Italy : : : 1 686.1 874.6 811.5 2 861.0 1 475.3 1 385.7
Cyprus : : : 22.8 11.7 11.1 54.1 27.8 26.3
Latvia : : : 79.7 40.9 38.8 114.1 58.6 55.4
Lithuania 19.0 9.7 9.3 93.6 48.0 45.6 109.0 56.0 53.0
Luxembourg : : : 16.5 8.4 8.1 35.3 18.1 17.1
Hungary : : : 340.2 175.7 164.5 385.5 199.0 186.4
Malta : : : 8.9 4.6 4.3 23.7 12.1 11.5
Netherlands () : : : 521.3 266.8 254.5 1 251.0 642.8 608.3
Austria 36.7 18.9 17.8 237.3 122.1 115.3 327.2 168.4 158.8
Poland : : : 1 216.5 625.9 590.6 2 160.9 1 107.4 1 053.5
Portugal : : : 266.7 138.9 127.7 693.0 361.0 332.1
Romania : : : 581.1 297.5 283.7 932.0 482.5 449.4
Slovenia 24.9 12.8 12.1 58.2 30.3 28.0 109.2 56.2 53.1
Slovakia : : : 154.7 80.0 74.6 211.4 109.0 102.4
Finland 50.1 25.7 24.5 194.5 99.6 94.9 348.4 178.7 169.7
Sweden 160.3 82.5 77.8 429.7 221.6 208.1 733.4 366.0 367.4
United Kingdom 257.9 131.3 126.6 1 258.2 658.3 599.9 4 622.2 2 367.8 2 254.4
Iceland 6.1 3.1 3.0 13.5 7.0 6.6 29.6 15.1 14.5
Liechtenstein : : : 0.8 0.4 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.9
Norway 102.5 52.6 49.9 183.7 94.2 89.5 425.0 217.2 207.8
Switzerland : : : 158.2 81.8 76.5 453.9 233.8 220.1
FYR of Macedonia 5.9 3.1 2.8 21.0 10.7 10.3 109.9 56.7 53.2
Serbia 31.5 16.2 15.3 156.9 80.7 76.2 : : :
Turkey : : : 1 077.9 562.2 515.8 5 593.9 2 862.7 2 731.2
() Pre-primary education: includes early childhood educational development for

Estonia. Primary education: includes only the public sector for the Netherlands.
() Pre-primary education: includes early childhood educational development.
() Primary education: public sector only; the number of students in private
institutions is negligible.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_enrp01 and educ_uoe_enrp04)

Figure 4.1: Pupilteacher ratios in early childhood and primary education, 2013
(number of pupils per teacher)
25
20
15
10
0
United Kingdom
France
Czech Republic
Romania
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Ireland
Slovenia
Netherlands (1)
Germany
Croatia
Cyprus
Spain
Portugal
Finland
Estonia (2)
Belgium
Sweden
Italy
Austria
Denmark (3)
Malta
Latvia
Poland
Hungary (4)
Lithuania (2)
Greece
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway (2)
Liechtenstein
Turkey
FYR of Macedonia (2)
Primary Pre-primary (5) Early childhood development (6)
Note: ranked on ratio for primary education.
() Primary education: 2012.
() Pre-primary education: includes early childhood educational development.
() 2011. Primary education: includes lower secondary education.
() Includes management personnel.
() Denmark and Ireland: not available.
() Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, France,
Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Malta, Netherlands, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, United Kingdom, Liechtenstein, Norway,
Switzerland, FYR of Macedonia and Turkey: not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_perp04 and educ_iste)

4.2 Secondary education

Pupils enter lower secondary education (ISCED exist in Denmark, Croatia, Slovenia or the United
level 2) typically between the ages of 10 and Kingdom) in 2013, with the vast majority (90.8 %)
13 (age 12 being the most common). Pupils following vocational programmes.
enter upper secondary education (ISCED level There were 1.8 million lower secondary teachers
3) typically between ages 14 and 16. In general, in the EU-28 (excluding Ireland) in 2013,
compulsory education is completed at the end 1.8 million upper secondary teachers and
of lower secondary education, although in some 136 thousand post-secondary non-tertiary
countries it continues into upper secondary education teachers.
education. On average, compulsory education
lasts nine or ten years in most of the EU Member In 2013, pupilteacher ratios in lower and upper
States. As its name suggests, post-secondary secondary education were broadly similar
non-tertiary education (ISCED level 4) starts after to those observed for primary education.
the completion of upper secondary education. The pupilteacher ratio for lower secondary
education ranged among the EU Member States
In the EU-28 there were just over 20 million pupils from less than 8.0 in Latvia, Malta, Lithuania and
in lower secondary education in 2013, of which Greece, to 15.4 in France, with the ratio in the
the vast majority (81.9 %) were in the public United Kingdom (18.5) above this range.
sector; note this share excludes the Netherlands.
The number of pupils in upper secondary Pupilteacher ratios for lower secondary
education in the EU-28 was slightly higher, at just education were lower than those reported
over 21 million, with a smaller, but nevertheless for upper secondary education. France had
a clear majority (75.2 %; again excluding the a particularly low ratio for upper secondary
Netherlands) of pupils in the public sector; a education (10.1 pupils per teacher) compared
small majority (51.7 %) of upper secondary school with its ratio for lower secondary education (15.4).
pupils followed general programmes with the Pupilteacher ratios for post-secondary non-
remainder following vocational programmes. tertiary education are available for 16 of the
Post-secondary non-tertiary education was by EU Member States in 2013 and in all of these
far the smallest of the three education levels, except three the ratio was higher than for upper
with 1.7 million pupils in the EU-28 (excluding secondary education.
Greece and Spain; this education level does not

Table 4.2: Number of secondary education students, 2013
(thousands)
Post-secondary
Lower secondary Upper secondary
non-tertiary
Total Public Private Total Public Private Total Public Private
(% of total) (% of total) (% of total)
EU-28 () 20 188.4 81.9 18.1 21 388.8 71.8 28.2 1 670.6 60.1 39.9
Belgium 432.9 42.2 57.8 773.7 41.1 58.9 62.0 27.2 72.8
Bulgaria 235.5 94.0 6.0 284.1 95.6 4.4 2.5 13.3 86.7
Czech Republic 365.2 97.1 2.9 436.1 85.4 14.6 58.5 88.2 11.8
Denmark 244.1 73.1 26.9 311.2 98.0 2.0
Germany 4 713.7 90.4 9.6 2 575.7 92.0 8.0 828.7 74.9 25.1
Estonia 36.9 95.9 4.1 43.9 96.6 3.4 10.6 92.8 7.2
Ireland () 189.5 100.0 0.0 153.4 98.4 1.6 55.6 98.8 1.2
Greece 323.9 95.3 4.7 371.0 95.9 4.1 : : :
Spain 1 663.5 70.6 29.4 1 632.9 75.1 24.9 : : :
France 3 332.3 78.1 21.9 2 581.5 68.4 31.6 34.8 68.0 32.0
Croatia 190.9 99.6 0.4 188.2 96.0 4.0
Italy 1 813.9 96.1 3.9 2 780.4 90.9 9.1 8.2 0.0 100.0
Cyprus 28.7 83.6 16.4 32.1 80.9 19.1 0.2 100.0
Latvia 55.3 98.8 1.2 71.6 97.6 2.4 3.5 96.2 3.8
Lithuania 203.0 98.1 1.9 91.2 98.9 1.1 15.4 99.5 0.5
Luxembourg 21.8 81.0 19.0 24.4 83.2 16.8 0.8 100.0 0.0
Hungary 390.3 85.3 14.7 500.4 73.5 26.5 74.3 47.8 52.2
Malta 13.2 56.1 43.9 17.8 71.8 28.2 2.4 100.0 0.0
Netherlands : : : : : : 1.6 100.0
Austria 336.7 90.7 9.3 369.8 89.6 10.4 19.8 59.9 40.1
Poland 1 188.2 94.5 5.5 1 589.5 84.1 15.9 323.4 16.5 83.5
Portugal 400.5 87.3 12.7 398.4 79.1 20.9 10.3 87.8 12.2
Romania 812.2 99.7 0.3 851.5 97.8 2.2 92.9 51.5 48.5
Slovenia 54.6 99.7 0.3 93.0 96.3 3.7
Slovakia 259.2 93.3 6.7 222.3 84.8 15.2 18.4 83.3 16.7
Finland 181.4 95.2 4.8 359.6 81.2 18.8 24.2 84.1 15.9
Sweden 321.1 84.7 15.3 517.5 82.1 17.9 22.7 41.2 58.8
United Kingdom 2 379.8 47.7 52.3 4 117.2 26.0 74.0
Iceland 12.7 99.1 0.9 25.5 80.2 19.8 0.9 34.9 65.1
Liechtenstein 1.6 92.9 7.1 1.8 98.2 1.8
Norway 190.5 96.5 3.5 252.1 89.1 10.9 4.9 20.6 79.4
Switzerland 296.9 91.8 8.2 349.3 85.4 14.6 13.5 15.3 84.7
FYR of Macedonia 86.6 100.0 90.4 98.2 1.8 0.3 100.0
Turkey 5 567.0 97.0 3.0 4 995.6 96.9 3.1
Note: According to the UOE classication, the distinction between institutions make up, for example in the United Kingdom, only
public and private is made according to whether a public agency about 5 % of all institutions in secondary education.
or a private entity has the overall control of the institution and not () Lower and upper secondary education: excluding the
according to which sector provides the majority of the funding. Netherlands, except for public education. Post-secondary non-
This means that conventionally considered "private" institutions, tertiary education: sum of available data for EU Member States.
are only a subgroup of the total private institutions and are () Post-secondary non-tertiary education: excluding students in
referred to as the independent private institutions. These latter combined school and work-based programmes.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_enrs01, educ_
uoe_enrs04 and educ_uoe_enrs07)

Figure 4.2: Pupilteacher ratios in secondary education, 2013

(number of pupils per teacher)
68.7
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Italy
Croatia
Slovakia
United Kingdom
Finland
Ireland ()
Slovenia
Sweden
Hungary ()
Czech Republic
Latvia
Spain
Poland
Malta
Portugal ()
Greece
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Romania
Estonia ()
Bulgaria
France ()
Cyprus
Norway ()
FYR of Macedonia ()
Belgium ()
Austria
Switzerland
Turkey
Germany
Post-secondary non-tertiary () Upper secondary () Lower secondary ()

Note: Ranked on ratio for upper secondary education. Denmark: not available.
() Upper secondary education: includes post-secondary non-tertiary education.
() Independent private institutions: excluded.
() Includes management personnel.
() Post-secondary non-tertiary vocational education: included either in upper
secondary education or tertiary education.
() Upper secondary education: includes post-secondary non-tertiary vocational
education and short-cycle tertiary education.
() Upper secondary education: includes post-secondary non-tertiary vocational
education.
() Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Iceland and Switzerland: not
available. Croatia, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, Liechtenstein and Turkey: not
applicable.
() The Netherlands, Iceland and Switzerland: not available.
() Ireland and the Netherlands: not available
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_perp04 and educ_iste)

4.3 Tertiary education

Tertiary education provided by universities for 15.7 % of all tertiary education students. In
and other higher education institutions is the this eld, three quarters of the students were
level of education following secondary schooling. male. The third largest eld of study was health
It is seen to play an essential role in society, and welfare, with 13.2 % of all tertiary education
by fostering innovation, increasing economic students. In health and welfare close to three
development and growth, and improving more quarters of the students were female.
generally the wellbeing of citizens. Approximately 4.8 million students graduated
In the EU-28 there were 19.6 million tertiary from tertiary education establishments in the
education students in 2013, of which 7.5 % were EU-28 in 2013. The United Kingdom had the
following short-cycle tertiary courses, 60.7 % largest number of graduates, 792 thousand,
were studying for Bachelors degrees, 28.1 % for followed by France (734 thousand), some way
Masters degrees and 3.7 % for Doctoral degrees. ahead of Poland (598 thousand) and Germany
In 2013, more students were studying for (496 thousand).
Bachelors degrees than for any other level of There were 1.4 million people teaching in tertiary
tertiary education in all EU Member States. education in the EU-28 in 2013, of which
Across the EU-28, one third (32.7 %) of all 83.9 thousand provided short-cycle tertiary
students in tertiary education were studying courses. More than one quarter (26.7 %) of the
social sciences, business or law in 2013, with tertiary education teaching sta in the EU-28
more female than male students in this eld of were located in Germany, with just over one
education. The second most common eld of tenth each in Spain (10.9 %) and the United
education was engineering, manufacturing and Kingdom (10.5 %).
construction-related studies which accounted
Figure 4.3: Distribution of tertiary education students by eld and sex, EU-28, 2013
(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Social Engineer- Health Humani- Science, Education Services Agricul- Unknown
sciences, ing, and ties mathem- ture
business manufac- welfare and arts atics and and
and law turing and computing veterinary
construc-
tion
Women Men
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_uoe_enrt03)

Table 4.3: Number of tertiary education students by level and sex, 2013
(thousands)
Short-cycle Bachelor's or Master's or Doctoral or
Tertiary total
tertiary equivalent equivalent equivalent
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
EU-28 () 8 969.1 10 663.2 688.2 787.3 5 541.8 6 371.6 2 344.6 3 162.7 394.5 341.5
Belgium 216.3 272.2 9.2 15.0 160.2 204.0 39.0 46.5 8.0 6.6
Bulgaria 129.1 154.9 91.9 103.8 34.6 48.4 2.6 2.7
Czech Republic 182.0 245.4 0.4 0.6 115.3 152.4 52.2 81.3 14.2 11.0
Denmark 125.5 165.7 16.2 15.5 75.3 107.0 29.1 38.4 4.8 4.8
Germany 1 469.9 1 310.1 0.1 0.4 913.3 722.6 429.7 500.6 126.8 86.4
Estonia 26.9 37.9 19.5 25.3 6.2 10.8 1.3 1.8
Ireland 98.8 100.6 24.4 17.3 56.9 64.3 13.4 15.0 4.1 4.1
Greece 337.7 321.6 305.4 282.8 20.2 27.9 12.1 10.9
Spain 914.8 1 054.6 174.5 171.9 497.5 587.5 230.5 283.8 12.3 11.4
France 1 062.6 1 275.6 251.6 253.3 387.2 544.6 387.1 444.9 36.7 32.8
Croatia () 71.7 92.9 : : 48.2 54.6 21.9 36.3 1.7 2.0
Italy 804.1 1 068.5 1.9 0.6 497.2 611.1 288.1 438.9 16.9 18.0
Cyprus 14.3 17.7 1.4 1.9 9.5 10.5 3.0 4.9 0.4 0.5
Latvia 38.7 55.7 7.0 10.3 26.4 36.9 4.2 7.1 1.1 1.4
Lithuania 66.4 93.2 54.4 70.1 10.9 21.6 1.1 1.6
Luxembourg 3.2 3.4 0.1 0.2 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.2
Hungary 160.9 198.1 13.5 23.5 110.7 127.0 32.9 44.1 3.8 3.6
Malta 5.6 7.0 1.1 1.3 3.0 3.9 1.4 1.7 0.0 0.0
Netherlands 327.1 347.7 3.0 2.3 272.7 285.7 44.5 52.9 6.9 6.8
Austria 196.8 225.9 35.6 41.2 84.5 95.7 63.2 76.9 13.6 12.1
Poland 764.6 1 138.1 2.0 8.9 542.7 723.8 200.0 383.0 19.8 22.5
Portugal 173.7 197.3 107.5 124.1 57.2 62.8 9.1 10.4
Romania 284.9 333.2 199.1 210.5 75.0 112.2 10.8 10.5
Slovenia 41.5 56.2 7.6 5.8 23.0 31.9 9.2 16.6 1.7 1.9
Slovakia 84.5 125.0 0.9 1.9 49.7 71.1 28.2 46.7 5.7 5.2
Finland 143.1 165.9 0.1 0.0 109.1 119.2 24.1 36.0 9.9 10.7
Sweden 176.0 260.6 13.1 12.9 93.2 159.8 58.6 77.4 11.0 10.5
United Kingdom 1 048.0 1 338.2 124.5 202.3 686.7 840.0 178.9 244.7 58.0 51.1
Iceland 7.2 11.9 0.2 0.2 5.4 8.4 1.4 3.0 0.2 0.3
Liechtenstein 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0
Norway 105.2 150.2 7.3 2.5 69.8 112.2 24.5 31.8 3.6 3.8
Switzerland 141.3 138.5 4.5 6.3 94.7 91.7 29.6 30.4 12.5 10.2
FYR of Macedonia 27.6 33.1 25.9 31.0 1.6 2.0 0.1 0.1
Turkey 2 706.9 2 268.8 827.8 699.9 1 657.5 1 395.2 176.0 138.8 45.6 34.8
() Short-cycle tertiary education: excluding Croatia. Bachelor's or equivalent: includes
short-cycle tertiary education for Croatia.
() Bachelor's or equivalent: includes short-cycle tertiary education.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_uoe_enrt01)

4.4 Early leavers from education and training

Early leavers from education and training may The overall share of early leavers from education
face considerable diculties in the labour and training fell in the EU-28 by 2.9 percentage
market: for example, they may nd it dicult to points between 2010 and 2015.
obtain a secure foothold as employers may be The proportion of early leavers from education
more reluctant to take them on with their limited and training in 2015 in the EU-28 was
education. 2.9 percentage points higher for young men
The strategic framework for European (12.4 %) than for young women (9.5 %). In the
cooperation in education and training (known as EU-28, the proportion of early leavers fell
ET 2020) adopted a benchmark to be achieved by between 2006 and 2015: the overall proportion
2020, namely, that the share of early leavers from fell 4.3 percentage points while the proportions
education and training should be not more than for young men and for young women fell 5.0 and
10 % in the EU-28. 3.7 percentage points respectively.
An average of 11.0 % of young people (aged Early leavers not employed and not wanting to
1824) in the EU-28 were early leavers from work accounted for 2.1 % of the population aged
education and training in 2015, in other words 1824 in the EU-28 in 2015, but this proportion
having completed at most a lower secondary was 1.5 % among young men and nearly twice as
education and not being in further education high, 2.7 % among young women.
or training during the four weeks preceding the In 2015, the lowest proportion of early leavers in
survey. In this chapter, the terms early leavers the EU-28 was reported in cities (just under
and early leavers from education and training 1 in 10 young people). In towns and suburbs the
are used interchangeably. proportion of early leavers rose to 11.5 %, while it
was higher still in rural areas, at 12.2 %.
Figure 4.4: Early leavers from education and training, 2010 and 2015
(% of population aged 1824)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Croatia ()
EU-28 ()
Spain ()
Latvia
Slovakia
Malta
Romania
Italy
Portugal
Hungary
Estonia
United Kingdom ()
France
Luxembourg ()
Finland
Netherlands ()
Greece
Austria
Sweden ()
Ireland
Czech Republic
Lithuania ()
Cyprus
Poland
Slovenia
Iceland
FYR of Macedonia
Norway
Bulgaria
Belgium
Switzerland
Germany ()
Denmark ()
Turkey
2010 2015 Europe 2020 targets ()

Note: Breaks in series. () Europe 2020 target is dened as the school drop-out rate.
() For the target to be achieved, the share of early leavers from () No Europe 2020 target.
education and training should be below the target value. () 2015: low reliability.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: t2020_40)

Table 4.4: Distribution of early leavers from education and training aged 1824 by
labour status, 2015
(% of early leavers)
Total (young men and women) Total
of which Total
young
of which young men
Total women
employed
(employed Not Not employed
Employed Would like and not
and not employed wanting to employed and not
to work employed
employed) work
EU-28 11.0 4.6 6.4 4.3 2.1 12.4 9.5
Belgium 10.1 3.7 6.4 4.3 2.1 11.6 8.6
Bulgaria () 13.4 2.9 10.5 4.4 6.1 13.3 13.4
Czech Republic 6.2 2.2 4.0 1.7 2.3 6.4 6.0
Denmark 7.8 3.8 4.0 2.1 1.9 9.7 5.7
Germany 10.1 4.5 5.6 3.5 2.1 10.4 9.8
Estonia () 11.2 6.2 5.0 2.5 2.4 13.2 9.0
Ireland () 6.9 1.8 5.1 2.8 2.3 8.4 5.4
Greece 7.9 3.0 4.9 3.4 1.5 9.4 6.4
Spain 20.0 7.8 12.1 9.9 2.2 24.0 15.8
France 9.3 3.1 6.2 4.3 1.9 10.1 8.5
Croatia () 2.8 0.5 2.3 1.6 0.7 3.6 2.1
Italy 14.7 4.7 10.0 8.0 2.0 17.5 11.8
Cyprus () 5.3 2.3 2.9 2.1 0.8 7.7 3.2
Latvia () 9.9 6.2 3.8 2.3 1.4 13.4 6.2
Lithuania () 5.5 2.1 3.4 : 1.9 6.9 4.0
Luxembourg () 9.3 5.6 3.7 2.9 : 10.5 8.1
Hungary 11.6 4.7 6.9 4.0 2.9 12.0 11.2
Malta () 19.8 13.9 5.9 4.1 1.9 22.9 16.6
Netherlands 8.2 5.0 3.2 2.0 1.2 9.9 6.4
Austria 7.3 3.5 3.8 2.5 1.3 7.8 6.8
Poland () 5.3 2.0 3.3 1.8 1.5 7.2 3.2
Portugal 13.7 7.4 6.3 5.2 1.1 16.4 11.0
Romania 19.1 9.3 9.7 4.4 5.3 19.5 18.5
Slovenia () 5.0 1.7 3.3 2.1 1.2 6.4 3.4
Slovakia ()() 6.9 1.6 5.3 3.2 2.1 6.9 6.8
Finland 9.2 3.5 5.7 3.2 2.4 10.6 7.9
Sweden 7.0 3.9 3.1 2.0 1.1 7.6 6.4
United Kingdom 10.8 5.5 5.3 3.2 2.1 11.7 9.8
Iceland 18.8 14.9 3.9 2.6 : 24.9 12.4
Norway 10.2 6.8 3.4 2.1 1.3 12.4 8.0
Switzerland () 5.1 2.8 2.3 1.9 0.5 5.3 5.0
FYR of Macedonia () 11.4 3.2 8.2 3.7 4.5 10.0 12.9
Turkey 36.4 17.2 19.2 5.2 13.9 35.0 37.6
() Young women employed: low reliability. () Total employed and not wanting to work: low reliability.
() Young men not employed and would like to work: low Young men not employed: low reliability. Young women: low
reliability. Young women employed, would like to work and not reliability.
wanting to work: low reliability. () Young men and young women not employed and would like to
() Young women would like to work: low reliability. work: low reliability.
() Low reliability. () Total not wanting to work: low reliability. Young women: would
() Total would like to work and not wanting to work: low reliability. like to work and not wanting to work: low reliability.
Young men employed, not employed and would like to work: () Young women employed: low reliability.
low reliability. Young women: low reliability. () Total employed, would like to work and not wanting to work:
() Total not wanting to work: low reliability. Young men would like low reliability. Young men employed, not employed, would like
to work: low reliability. Young women employed: low reliability. to work and not wanting to work: low reliability. Young women:
low reliability.
() Young men not wanting to work: low reliability.
() Not wanting to work: low reliability.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: edat_lfse_14)

4.5 Lifelong learning

Lifelong learning encompasses all purposeful between July 2011 and June 2012. According to
learning activity, whether formal, non-formal this survey, in 2011 40.3 % of persons in the EU-27
or informal, undertaken on an ongoing basis aged 25 to 64 took part in education and training
with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and (during the 12 months preceding the interview),
competence. The intention or aim to learn is the the majority of which participating in non-formal
critical point that distinguishes these activities education and training.
from non-learning activities, such as cultural or For the EU-27 as a whole, participation rates
sporting activities. in education and training in the 12 months
In 2015, the proportion of persons aged 25 to preceding the interview were almost the
64 in the EU-28 who participated in education same for men and women. An analysis by
or training was 10.7 %; a share that was age shows that the participation of younger
1.4 percentage points higher than the persons (aged 2534) in the EU-28 was nearly
corresponding share for 2010. twice as high as that of older workers (aged
The proportion of the population who had 5564) in 2011. The likelihood of participation
participated in such lifelong learning was higher in education and training was related to the
among women (11.7 % in 2015) in the EU-28 level of educational achievement: persons with
than among men (9.7 %); the shares for men and a tertiary level education reported the highest
women were both higher in 2015 than they had participation rates (61.3 % for the EU-27 in 2011),
been ve years earlier. while those having completed at most lower
secondary education were the least likely to have
Information on education and training is available participated (21.8 %).
from the adult education survey (AES). The
most recent wave of the survey was conducted

Table 4.5: Lifelong learning, 2010 and 2015

(% of the population aged 25 to 64 participating in education and training)
Total Male Female
2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015
EU-28 () 9.3 10.7 8.4 9.7 10.2 11.7
Belgium 7.4 6.9 7.2 6.5 7.6 7.3
Bulgaria 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.9 1.7 2.1
Czech Republic () 7.8 8.5 7.6 8.3 8.0 8.6
Denmark 32.6 31.3 26.0 25.3 39.2 37.3
Germany 7.8 8.1 7.9 8.2 7.7 8.0
Estonia 11.0 12.4 8.6 10.6 13.1 14.1
Ireland 7.0 6.5 6.6 6.0 7.5 7.0
Greece 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.3
Spain () 11.2 9.9 10.3 9.2 12.1 10.7
France () 5.0 18.6 4.5 15.9 5.4 21.1
Croatia 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.6
Italy 6.2 7.3 5.9 6.9 6.5 7.7
Cyprus 8.1 7.5 7.9 7.0 8.2 8.0
Latvia 5.4 5.7 3.6 4.1 7.0 7.2
Lithuania 4.4 5.8 3.5 5.1 5.2 6.5
Luxembourg () 13.5 18.0 12.9 18.2 14.2 17.8
Hungary () 3.0 7.1 2.9 6.8 3.1 7.5
Malta 6.2 7.2 5.9 6.9 6.4 7.5
Netherlands () 17.0 18.9 16.4 18.4 17.7 19.4
Austria 13.8 14.4 12.8 13.3 14.9 15.4
Poland () 5.2 3.5 4.7 3.3 5.7 3.8
Portugal () 5.7 9.7 5.7 9.7 5.7 9.8
Romania 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3
Slovenia 16.4 11.9 14.3 10.7 18.5 13.3
Slovakia () 3.1 3.1 2.5 2.7 3.7 3.4
Finland 23.0 25.4 18.9 21.8 27.1 29.1
Sweden 24.7 29.4 18.3 22.3 31.3 36.7
United Kingdom 20.1 15.7 16.9 13.9 23.3 17.5
Iceland 25.4 28.1 21.3 23.5 29.6 32.7
Norway 18.2 20.1 16.7 18.3 19.8 22.0
Switzerland 30.6 32.1 31.6 32.8 29.6 31.4
FYR of Macedonia 3.5 2.6 3.4 2.7 3.6 2.5
Turkey () 2.9 5.5 3.1 5.6 2.8 5.3
() Break in series.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: trng_lfs_01)

Table 4.6: Participation rate in education and training, 2011
(%)
Type of training All types of training
Level of educational achievement
Sex Age
(ISCED levels)
Upper
Non- Lower
All Formal secondary
formal Age Age secondary Tertiary
& post-
Men Women 2534 5564 or less (levels 5
secondary
() (levels and 6)
(levels 3
02) ()
and 4)
EU-27 40.3 6.2 36.8 40.7 39.9 48.5 26.6 21.8 37.7 61.3
Belgium 37.7 7.4 33.1 38.6 36.9 49.5 19.9 15.2 33.2 62.9
Bulgaria 26.0 2.4 24.4 27.5 24.6 31.0 15.1 12.3 24.8 40.1
Czech Republic 37.1 3.7 34.9 37.2 37.0 44.2 20.4 10.5 33.9 64.2
Denmark 58.5 12.6 52.7 55.2 61.8 68.4 45.5 38.0 54.7 75.2
Germany 50.2 3.8 48.5 52.8 47.6 57.4 38.6 27.0 45.2 68.4
Estonia 49.9 6.6 48.0 46.1 53.3 64.5 32.6 22.9 41.6 67.0
Ireland 24.4 6.7 18.7 24.5 24.4 29.2 16.4 10.8 20.6 37.7
Greece 11.7 2.6 9.6 10.3 13.1 20.3 3.1 3.2 9.8 25.5
Spain 37.7 7.0 34.1 38.8 36.6 47.8 23.2 22.5 40.3 57.7
France 50.5 3.5 49.1 50.2 50.8 61.1 32.8 28.0 49.0 72.5
Croatia : : : : : : : : : :
Italy 35.6 2.9 34.3 37.3 34.0 43.0 22.3 19.2 42.2 65.9
Cyprus 42.3 3.7 40.9 43.1 41.5 50.2 27.8 16.9 36.1 63.0
Latvia 32.3 4.3 30.0 26.9 37.3 38.0 19.7 10.6 24.6 54.3
Lithuania 28.5 4.0 25.9 23.4 33.1 37.3 16.2 7.2 16.0 54.5
Luxembourg 70.1 9.9 68.0 71.6 68.5 81.4 49.4 55.3 67.6 81.7
Hungary 41.1 6.5 37.6 43.0 39.4 51.8 21.7 24.7 39.8 58.1
Malta 35.9 4.4 34.2 37.7 34.1 43.7 20.1 22.6 53.6 72.6
Netherlands 59.3 12.3 54.8 62.8 55.8 72.4 38.2 33.0 62.2 78.2
Austria 48.2 5.9 45.5 48.7 47.6 55.4 35.7 24.8 46.5 72.4
Poland 24.2 5.4 21.0 23.2 25.2 36.0 9.6 5.8 16.7 51.7
Portugal 44.4 10.4 39.6 43.5 45.2 59.9 21.9 32.3 61.1 74.2
Romania 8.0 1.4 6.9 8.0 8.0 13.1 2.0 1.4 7.0 21.8
Slovenia 36.2 2.3 34.7 34.5 37.9 43.3 22.8 13.2 34.5 62.8
Slovakia 41.6 5.8 38.3 41.4 41.9 49.4 21.9 : 35.5 63.5
Finland 55.7 12.0 51.3 48.5 63.1 65.8 35.5 34.5 51.2 71.7
Sweden 71.8 13.5 67.0 69.2 74.4 78.7 57.5 44.2 69.5 84.9
United Kingdom 35.8 14.8 24.3 33.6 37.9 42.6 26.5 17.9 33.5 45.8
Norway 60.0 7.6 56.9 59.2 60.9 71.5 40.6 33.4 53.7 74.2
Switzerland 65.5 9.0 63.1 65.0 66.0 73.0 54.0 29.8 62.7 82.6
Serbia 16.5 4.0 13.6 16.8 16.1 27.4 5.9 : 14.0 33.8
Turkey 17.8 4.2 15.1 20.6 15.1 26.8 5.5 10.1 26.0 46.4
() Greece: unreliable.
() Greece, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Serbia: unreliable.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: trng_aes_100, trng_aes_101 and trng_aes_102)

4.6 Educational expenditure

Expenditure on education may help foster Public expenditure on education within the
economic growth, enhance productivity, EU-28 in 2012 was in excess of EUR 672 billion
contribute to peoples personal and social (no recent data available for Greece or Croatia).
development, and help reduce social inequalities. In 2011, expenditure on education in the EU-28
was equivalent to an estimated 5.3 % of gross
Within the EU, the proportion of nancial domestic product (GDP).
resources devoted to education is one of the
key choices made by national governments. In The highest public spending on education
a similar vein, enterprises, students and their relative to GDP was observed in Denmark
families also make decisions on the nancial (8.8 % of GDP, 2011 data), while in 2012 public
resources that they are able or willing to set aside expenditure on education equivalent to 6.5 %
for education. or more of GDP was also reported in Sweden,
Finland (including also expenditure from
Among EU Member States, expenditure on international organisations), Malta, Cyprus and
education mainly comes from government, with Belgium. Most EU Member States reported
a smaller role for non-educational private sources public expenditure on education within a range
(including for example households, enterprises, between 3.1 % and 6.2 % of their GDP, with
non-prot organisations and religious only Latvia and Romania below this range
institutions) and generally an even smaller role note that the data for Latvia exclude tertiary
for international organisations. education.
Figure 4.5: Public expenditure on education (excluding early childhood educational

development) as a share of GDP, 2012
(%)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Croatia ()
Slovakia
Latvia ()
EU-28 ()
Sweden
Finland ()
Malta
Cyprus
Ireland
United Kingdom
Netherlands
France
Luxembourg ()
Italy ()
Iceland
Belgium
Austria
Slovenia
Portugal
Poland
Lithuania ()
Estonia
Spain
Czech Republic
Hungary
Bulgaria
Romania
Switzerland
Norway ()
Denmark ()
Germany
Note: Greece: not available. () Includes also expenditure by international organisations.

() 2011. Estimate. () Includes also early childhood educational development.
() 2011. Excludes R & D expenditure. Excludes independent () 2011. Excluding public transfers to private entities other than
private institutions. households.
() Excluding tertiary.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_ne06 and
educ_gdp)

Table 4.7: Main indicators for public expenditure on education (excluding early
childhood educational development), 2012
Expenditure as
Value of Expenditure as a Expenditure as a
a share of public
expenditure share of GDP share of GNI
expenditure
(million EUR) (%)
EU-28 () : 5.3 5.3 10.8
Belgium 24 817 6.6 6.6 12.0
Bulgaria 1 469 3.7 3.7 10.3
Czech Republic 6 616 4.3 4.7 9.7
Denmark () 17 029 8.8 8.5 15.2
Germany 129 076 4.8 4.7 10.8
Estonia () 842 4.8 5.1 12.3
Ireland 10 106 6.2 7.5 14.5
Greece : : : :
Spain 44 690 4.3 4.4 9.1
France 115 479 5.7 5.6 10.0
Croatia () : 4.2 4.3 8.7
Italy ()() 65 884 3.4 3.5 6.7
Cyprus 1 181 6.7 6.9 14.6
Latvia () 811 2.6 2.7 7.0
Lithuania () 1 590 4.8 5.0 13.4
Luxembourg () 1 693 3.9 5.8 9.0
Hungary 3 942 4.1 4.3 8.3
Malta 467 6.8 7.2 15.7
Netherlands 35 327 5.9 5.8 11.7
Austria 17 084 5.6 5.6 10.8
Poland 18 736 4.9 5.1 11.6
Portugal 8 149 4.9 5.1 10.4
Romania 3 476 2.6 2.7 7.2
Slovenia 1 922 5.4 5.5 11.3
Slovakia 2 169 3.1 3.1 8.0
Finland () 13 696 7.1 7.1 12.6
Sweden 30 108 7.4 7.2 14.2
United Kingdom 115 951 6.1 6.0 12.7
Iceland 758 7.2 8.0 15.1
Norway () 25 636 4.6 4.5 10.6
Switzerland 25 724 5.2 5.1 15.4
() 2011. () 2011. Excluding public transfers to private entities other than

() Value includes also early childhood educational development; households.
excluding upper secondary. Expenditure as a share of GDP, () Value: excluding short-cycle tertiary.
GNI and as a share of public expenditure: 2011; excludes R&D () Expenditure as a share of GDP, GNI and as a share of public
expenditure; excludes independent private institutions. expenditure: excluding tertiary.
() Expenditure as a share of GNI and as a share of public () Excluding tertiary.
expenditure: includes also early childhood educational () Includes also early childhood educational development.
development. () Includes also expenditure by international organisations.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_ne01, educ_uoe_
ne06, educ_uoe_ne08 and educ_gdp)

Labour market

5 Labour market
Introduction
Labour market statistics are at the juxtaposition One of the main priorities of the College of
of economic and social domains. Market Commissioners that entered into oce in
outcomes within the labour market directly aect 2014 is to focus on boosting jobs, growth and
not only the economy, but also the personal investment, with the goal of cutting regulation,
lives of virtually all Europeans. From an economic making smarter use of existing nancial resources
viewpoint, these statistics address labour as an and public funds. In November 2014, the
input for economic activity, providing measures European Commission provided an outline of
in relation to hours worked, labour productivity, its strategy through the annual growth survey
vacant posts, wage levels, labour costs, and so (AGS), which launched the European Semester.
on. However, labour market statistics also shed In February 2015, it published a series of country
light on social and socioeconomic matters, reports, analysing the economic policies of EU
such as the jobless (unemployed persons), Member States and providing information on
earnings and their structural components, social EU Member States priorities for the coming
inequalities (for example, the gender pay gap), year to boost growth and job creation. In the
working patterns and social integration. As such, same month, the European Commission also
Eurostat statistics cover both the supply and the proposed to make EUR 1 billion from the Youth
demand side of the labour market, oering data Employment Initiative available in 2015 so as
for short-term and structural analyses, as well as to increase by up to 30 times the pre-nancing
in monetary and non-monetary terms. EU Member States could receive to boost youth
With the aim of stimulating economic recovery, employment rates, helping up to 650 000 young
the European Commission set up the Europe people into work.
2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive
growth.
5.1 Employment
Labour market statistics are at the heart of many global nancial and economic crisis and its
EU policies following the introduction of an aftermath resulted in an overall reduction of
employment chapter into the Amsterdam Treaty 1.9 percentage points. There followed a return
in 1997. The employment rate, in other words the to the upward path observed prior to the crisis,
proportion of the working age population that is with increases for the EU-28 employment rate of
in employment, is considered to be a key social 0.8 and 0.9 percentage points in 2014 and 2015
indicator for analytical purposes when studying to reach 70.1 % in 2015, just 0.2 percentage points
developments within labour markets. below the pre-crisis peak.
In 2015, the EU-28 employment rate for persons Employment rates are generally lower among
aged 20 to 64, as measured by the EUs labour women and older workers. In 2015, the
force survey (EU LFS), stood at 70.1 %. The EU-28 employment rate for men aged 2064 stood at
employment rate peaked in 2008 at 70.3 % and 75.9 % in the EU-28, as compared with 64.3 %
decreased during successive years to stand at for women. A longer-term comparison shows
68.4 % in 2012 and 2013. This fall during the that while the employment rate for men in 2015

Labour market 5
Table 5.1: Employment rate, age group 2064, 200515
(%)
2005 2008 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28 67.9 70.3 68.4 68.4 69.2 70.1
EA-19 67.9 70.2 68.0 67.7 68.2 69.0
Belgium 66.5 68.0 67.2 67.2 67.3 67.2
Bulgaria 61.9 70.7 63.0 63.5 65.1 67.1
Czech Republic 70.7 72.4 71.5 72.5 73.5 74.8
Denmark 78.0 79.7 75.4 75.6 75.9 76.5
Germany 69.4 74.0 76.9 77.3 77.7 78.0
Estonia 72.0 77.1 72.2 73.3 74.3 76.5
Ireland 72.6 72.2 63.7 65.5 67.0 68.7
Greece 64.4 66.3 55.0 52.9 53.3 54.9
Spain 67.5 68.5 59.6 58.6 59.9 62.0
France () 69.4 70.5 69.4 69.5 69.3 69.5
Croatia 59.9 64.9 58.1 57.2 59.2 60.5
Italy 61.5 62.9 60.9 59.7 59.9 60.5
Cyprus 74.4 76.5 70.2 67.2 67.6 67.9
Latvia 69.1 75.4 68.1 69.7 70.7 72.5
Lithuania 70.7 72.0 68.5 69.9 71.8 73.3
Luxembourg () 69.0 68.8 71.4 71.1 72.1 70.9
Hungary 62.2 61.5 61.6 63.0 66.7 68.9
Malta 57.4 59.2 63.1 64.8 66.4 67.8
Netherlands 75.1 78.9 76.6 75.9 75.4 76.4
Austria 70.4 73.8 74.4 74.6 74.2 74.3
Poland 58.3 65.0 64.7 64.9 66.5 67.8
Portugal 72.2 73.1 66.3 65.4 67.6 69.1
Romania 63.6 64.4 64.8 64.7 65.7 66.0
Slovenia 71.1 73.0 68.3 67.2 67.7 69.1
Slovakia 64.5 68.8 65.1 65.0 65.9 67.7
Finland 73.0 75.8 74.0 73.3 73.1 72.9
Sweden 77.9 80.4 79.4 79.8 80.0 80.5
United Kingdom () 75.2 75.2 74.1 74.8 76.2 76.8
Iceland 85.5 85.3 81.8 82.8 84.9 86.5
Norway 78.2 81.8 79.9 79.6 79.6 79.1
Switzerland : : 82.0 82.1 82.3 82.8
FYR of Macedonia : 46.3 48.2 50.3 51.3 51.9
Turkey () : 48.4 52.8 53.4 53.2 53.9
() 200513: excluding overseas departments and territories.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: lfsi_emp_a)

5 Labour market
was the same as 10 years earlier (75.9 % in 2005), between 50 % and 66 %, while by far the highest
there was a marked increase in the proportion of rate was recorded in Sweden at 74.5 %.
women in employment rising 4.3 percentage Employment rates also vary considerably
points from 60.0 % in 2005. according to the level of educational attainment.
As with the female employment rate, there was The employment rate of those who had
evidence that the employment rate of older completed a tertiary (short-cycle tertiary,
workers (aged between 55 and 64) increased at bachelors, masters or doctoral levels (or
a rapid pace despite the nancial and economic equivalents)) education was 82.7 % across the
crisis. For the EU-28, the employment rate of EU-28 in 2015, much higher than the rate (52.6 %)
older workers reached 53.3 % in 2015; the rate for those who had attained no more than a
increased every year from 2002 (the start of the primary or lower secondary education. The EU-28
time series for the EU-28) up to and including employment rate of persons with at most an
2015 (the latest information available). In 2015, upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary
there were 11 EU-28 Member States that had education was 70.7 %.
employment rates for older workers that were
Figure 5.1: Employment rates by age group, 2015

(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latvia
Slovakia
Croatia
EU-28
EA-19
Sweden
United Kingdom
Estonia
Czech Republic
Austria
Finland
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Hungary
Malta
Portugal
France
Ireland
Poland
Cyprus
Greece
Iceland
Norway
Netherlands
FYR of Macedonia
Denmark
Bulgaria
Belgium
Romania
Spain
Italy
Switzerland
Turkey
Germany
2554 years 5564 years 1524 years

Note: The gure is ranked on the overall employment rate.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: lfsi_emp_a)

Labour market 5
5.2 Unemployment
Unemployment levels and rates move in a increases were reported in Finland, where the
cyclical manner, largely related to the general unemployment rate rose by 0.7 percentage
business cycle. However, other factors such as points, and in Luxembourg (up 0.4 points).
labour market policies and demographic changes At 24.9 % and 22.1 %, Greece and Spain recorded
may also inuence the short and long-term by far the highest overall unemployment
development of unemployment. rates among the EU Member States in 2015.
The overall unemployment rate in the EU-28 fell At the other end of the range, the lowest
from 10.2 % in 2014 to 9.4 % in 2015, a decrease of unemployment rates were recorded in Malta
0.8 percentage points, following a similar (5.4 %), the United Kingdom (5.3 %), the Czech
decrease (0.7 percentage points) the previous Republic (5.1 %) and Germany (4.6 %).
year. Between 2014 and 2015, unemployment rates for
The unemployment rate fell in 22 of the 28 EU men and women across the EU-28 decreased: the
Member States between 2014 and 2015, while unemployment rate for men fell from 10.1 % to
it rose in four Member States and remained 9.3 %, while the rate for women fell from 10.3 %
unchanged in two. The largest decreases in to 9.5 %. In the euro area (EA-19), unemployment
annual average unemployment rates between rates for men and women decreased at a slower
2014 and 2015 were recorded in Spain pace between 2014 and 2015, from 11.5 % to
( 2.4 percentage points), Bulgaria ( 2.2 points) 10.7 % and from 11.8 % to 11.0 % respectively.
and Ireland ( 1.9 points). By contrast, the highest
Figure 5.2: Unemployment rate, 200515

(%)
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
EU-28 EU-19
Source: Eurostat (online data code: une_rt_a)

5 Labour market
Youth unemployment rates (covering persons the purpose of analysis it presents the share
between 15 and up to 24 years) are generally of unemployed youths among the whole of the
much higher, sometimes more than double youth population. The youth unemployment
the total unemployment rate for persons of all ratio in the EU-28 was, unsurprisingly, much
ages (1574). The youth unemployment rate lower than the youth unemployment rate. The
in the EU-28 was more than double the overall youth unemployment ratio did however rise
unemployment rate in 2015, standing at 20.4 %. from 2008 through to 2013 due to the eects of
As such, around one out of every ve young the nancial and economic crisis on the labour
persons in the labour force was not employed, market. The latest EU-28 youth unemployment
but looking and available for a job. There was ratio shows that 8.4 % of those aged 1524 were
however a reduction in the youth unemployment unemployed in 2015.
rate between 2014 and 2015, with a fall of 1.8 Long-term unemployment is one of the main
percentage points. In the euro area, the youth concerns of policymakers. Apart from its nancial
unemployment rate was somewhat higher at and social eects on personal life, long-term
22.4 % and it fell at a slower pace between 2014 unemployment negatively aects social cohesion
and 2015, declining by 1.4 percentage points. and, ultimately, may hinder economic growth.
High youth unemployment rates reect, to some In total, 4.5 % of the labour force in the EU-28 in
degree, the diculties faced by young people in 2015 had been unemployed for more than one
nding jobs. However, this does not necessarily year; more than half of these, 2.8 % of the labour
mean that the group of unemployed persons force, had been unemployed for more than
aged between 15 and 24 is large, as many young two years. Although both of these gures were
people are studying full-time and are therefore lower in 2015 than in 2014, they still represented
neither working nor looking for a job (so they are a sizeable increase when compared with the
not part of the labour force which is used as the data from 2008 (at the onset of the nancial and
denominator for calculating the unemployment economic crisis), when 2.6 % of the EU-28s labour
rate). For this reason, the youth unemployment force had been unemployed for more than one
ratio is calculated as an alternative indicator for year and 1.5 % for more than two years.
Table 5.2: Unemployment rate, EU-28, selected years

(%)
2005 2008 2012 2013 2014 2015

Men 8.4 6.6 10.4 10.8 10.1 9.3
Women 9.8 7.5 10.5 10.9 10.3 9.5
Less than 25 years 19.0 15.9 23.3 23.7 22.2 20.4
Between 25 and 74 years 7.7 5.9 9.1 9.5 9.0 8.3
Long-term unemployment rate 4.0 2.6 4.6 5.1 5.0 4.5
Male 3.7 2.4 4.6 5.1 5.0 4.5
Female 4.4 2.8 4.6 5.1 5.0 4.5
Very long-term unemployment rate : 1.5 2.5 2.9 3.0 2.8
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: une_rt_a and une_ltu_a)

Labour market 5
5.3 Wages and labour cost

Labour plays a major role in the functioning of an average masks signicant dierences between
economy. From the point of view of businesses, it EU Member States, with hourly labour costs
represents a cost (labour costs) that includes not ranging between EUR 4.08 and EUR 41.31.
only the wages and salaries paid to employees Labour costs are made up of costs for wages and
but also non-wage costs, mainly social salaries plus non-wage costs such as employers
contributions payable by the employer. Thus, it is social contributions. The share of non-wage costs
a key determinant of business competitiveness, for the whole economy was 24.0 % in the EU-28,
although this is also inuenced by the cost while it was 26.0 % in the euro area.
of capital (for example interests on loans and
dividends on equity) and non-price elements Low-wage earners are dened as those
such as innovation and the brand/products employees earning two thirds or less of the
positioning on the market. national median gross hourly earnings in a
particular country. In 2010, 16.9 % of employees
The average hourly labour cost in the EU-28 was were low wage earners in the EU-27, whereas the
estimated at EUR 25.03 in 2015 and at proportion was 14.7 % in the euro area (EA-17).
EUR 29.50 in the euro area (EA-19). However, this
Figure 5.3: Estimated hourly labour costs, 2015

(EUR)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
Latvia
EU-28
EA-19
Sweden
Luxembourg
France
Norway
Denmark
Belgium
Netherlands
Finland
Austria
Ireland
Italy
United Kingdom
Spain
Cyprus
Slovenia
Greece
Portugal
Malta
Estonia
Czech Republic
Croatia
Poland
Hungary
Lithuania
Romania
Bulgaria
Germany
Wages and salaries Other labour costs

Note: Enterprises with 10 or more employees. NACE Rev. 2 Sections B to S excluding O.
Provisional data.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: lc_lci_lev)

5 Labour market
Despite some convergence, there remains a Czech Republic (22.1 %), Germany (21.6 %) and
substantial dierence between the average Slovakia (21.1 %).
earnings of men and women in the EU, a concept Various eects may contribute to these gender
commonly known as the gender pay gap. In pay gaps, such as: dierences in labour force
2014, in the EU-28 as a whole, women were paid, participation rates, dierences in the occupations
on average, 16.1 % less than men. The smallest and activities that tend to be male- or female-
dierences in average pay between the sexes dominated, dierences in the degrees to which
were found in Slovenia, Malta, Italy, Poland, men and women work on a part-time basis, as
Luxembourg and Belgium (less than 10.0 % well as the attitudes of personnel departments
dierence). The biggest gender pay gaps were within private and public bodies towards career
identied in Estonia (28.3 %), Austria (22.9 %), the development and unpaid and/or maternity leave.
Figure 5.4: Gender pay gap, 2014

(% dierence between average gross hourly earnings of male and female employees,
as % of male gross earnings, unadjusted form)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Slovakia
Estonia ()
Austria ()
Czech Republic
Germany ()
Spain ()
United Kingdom
Finland ()
Latvia
EU-28 ()
EA-19 ()
Netherlands
Cyprus
France ()
Hungary
Lithuania
Sweden
Portugal
Ireland ()
Croatia ()
Romania ()
Luxembourg ()
Poland
Italy
Malta
Slovenia
Switzerland ()
Iceland
Norway
Denmark
Bulgaria
Belgium
Note: Enterprises with 10 or more employees. NACE Rev. 2 Sections B to S excluding

O. Greece: not available.
() Provisional.
() Estimate.
() 2012. Provisional.
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsdsc340)

Labour market 5
5.4 Minimum wages

In January 2016, 22 out of the 28 EU Member 1:4 in PPS terms. Across the EU Member States,
States (Denmark, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Finland monthly minimum wages ranged from 445 PPS
and Sweden were the exceptions) had a national in Romania to 1 597 PPS in Luxembourg.
minimum wage. As of 1 January 2016, monthly In 2014, the level of gross minimum wages across
minimum wages varied widely, from EUR 215 in the EU Member States varied from 33 % to just
Bulgaria to EUR 1 923 in Luxembourg. over 50 % of average gross monthly earnings for
As might be expected, adjusting for dierences those persons working in industry, construction
in price levels reduces the variation between or services (activities of households as employers
countries. The disparities in minimum wage rates and extra-territorial organisations and bodies are
between the EU Member States were reduced excluded) as covered by NACE Rev. 2 Sections
from a ratio of 1:9 in euro terms to a ratio of BS.
Figure 5.5: Minimum wages, January 2016

(PPS per month)
1 750
1 500
1 250
1 000
750
500
250
0
Croatia
Slovakia
United States
Luxembourg
France
Latvia
Ireland
United Kingdom
Slovenia ()
Malta
Spain
Greece
Poland
Portugal
Hungary
Estonia
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Montenegro ()
FYR of Macedonia ()
Albania
Belgium
Netherlands
Bulgaria
Romania
Turkey
Serbia
Germany
Note: Estimates. Denmark, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Finland and () July 2015.
Sweden: no national minimum wage. () January 2015.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: earn_mw_cur)
The level of minimum wages in relation to the of the ranking, the United States (2013 data), the
mean value of average gross monthly earnings Czech Republic and Spain each reported that the
was highest in Slovenia (51.3 %), Greece (50.1 %, level of their minimum wage was less than 35 %
2011) and Turkey (50.0 %, 2010). At the lower end of average gross monthly earnings.

5 Labour market
Figure 5.6: Minimum wages as a proportion of the mean value of average gross
monthly earnings, 2014
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
United States ()
Slovenia
Latvia
Croatia
Slovakia
Greece ()()
France ()
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Hungary
Poland
Portugal ()
Belgium ()()
Malta
Ireland
United Kingdom
Estonia
Spain
Czech Republic
Netherlands ()
Bulgaria
Romania
Turkey ()()
Serbia
Note: NACE Rev. 2 Sections BS. Denmark, Germany, Italy, Cyprus, () 2011.
Austria, Finland and Sweden: no national minimum wage () 2013.
in 2014. () Excluding NACE Rev. 2 Sections OQ.
() Excluding NACE Rev. 2 Section O. () 2010.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: earn_mw_avgr2)
5.5 Job vacancies

EU policies in the area of job vacancies aim to EU-28 job vacancy rate fell to a historic low of
improve the functioning of the labour market by 1.4 % in 2009 (at the height of the global nancial
trying to help to match supply and demand more and economic crisis). Since 2009 the rate has
closely. been relatively stable. In 2010 there was a slight
There was an upward development in the annual recovery, as the EU-28 () job vacancy rate stood
job vacancy rate (the percentage of posts that are at 1.4 % and the same rate was registered in 2011.
vacant) in the EU-27 from 2003 to 2007, with the In 2012, the rate dipped down to 1.4 % before
rate peaking at 2.2 % at the end of this period. increasing by 0.1 percentage points in each of the
Thereafter, the job vacancy rate contracted in next two years to reach 1.6 % in 2014, its highest
successive years: it fell to 1.9 % in 2008 and the rate since 2008.
() Note that there is a break in the series, with all data before 2009 relating to the EU-27, while the information from 2009 onwards
concerns the EU-28. The dierence between the rates of the two aggregates was negligible.

Labour market 5
Figure 5.7: Job vacancy rate, 200414
(%)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
EU-28 () EA-18 ()
Note: 200408: NACE Rev. 1.1 Sections A to O. Since 2009: NACE () 200408: EU-27.
Rev. 2 Sections B to S. 2008-2014. provisional. () 200408: EA-16.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: jvs_a_nace1 and jvs_a_nace2)
Among the EU Member States, the annual job was lower than 1.0 % in 15 out of 28 EU Member
vacancy rate in 2014 was highest in Germany States in 2014, with the lowest rate recorded in
(2.9 %), Malta (2.5 %) (), the United Kingdom Latvia (0.4 %).
(2.3 %) and Belgium (2.2 %). The job vacancy rate
Figure 5.8: Job vacancy rate, 2014

(%)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Croatia
Slovakia
Latvia
EU-28 ()
EA-18 ()
Malta ()()
United Kingdom
Hungary ()
Sweden
Estonia
Czech Republic
Finland
Lithuania
Greece
Luxembourg
Spain
France ()()
Portugal
Italy ()()
Poland
Norway
Belgium
Austria
Denmark ()
Netherlands ()
Romania
Ireland
Bulgaria ()
Cyprus
Slovenia
Switzerland
FYR of Macedonia
Germany
Note: NACE Rev. 2 Sections B to S. () Units with 10 or more employees.

() Provisional. () NACE Rev. 2 Sections B to N.
() Business units with 10 or more employees.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: jvs_a_nace2)
() In Malta, job vacancies do not cover the whole economy; only units with 10 employees or more are surveyed.

Economy and nance

6 Economy and nance
Introduction
In 2014, the European Commission set out a list of global leadership in strategic sectors with high
10 key priorities. Three of these were of particular value jobs. Among the objectives for this priority
relevance for economic statistics, namely: the top is creating a capital markets union, intended to
priority to boost jobs, growth and investment; make it easier for small businesses to raise money
the EUs internal market; and economic and and make Europe a more attractive place for
monetary union. investment.
It is envisaged that the European Commissions Concerning economic and monetary union, the
jobs, growth and investment package will focus European Commissions objectives are to: make
on cutting regulation, making smarter use of decisions about support for struggling euro
existing nancial resources and making exible area countries more democratically legitimate;
use of public funds in order to provide up to evaluate support and reform programmes
EUR 300 billion in additional private and public not only for nancial sustainability but also for
investment over three years. This investment their impact on citizens; review the scal and
should be targeted towards: infrastructure; macroeconomic surveillance legislation and
education, research and innovation; renewable budgetary rules; encourage further structural
energy and energy eciency; youth reforms in euro area countries.
employment. Delivering a deeper and fairer economic and
The internal market is seen as the best asset monetary union was one of the priorities and
for meeting the challenges of globalisation. in June 2015 a report by the presidents of the
Strengthening the industrial base of the European Council, the European Parliament, the
economy in the EU by bringing industrys European Commission, the European Central
share of GDP in the EU back to 20 % by 2020 is Bank and the Eurogroup was presented providing
intended to ensure that Europe maintains its a plan how to achieve this.
6.1 National accounts GDP

National accounts are the source for a multitude The global nancial and economic crisis resulted
of well-known economic indicators which in a severe recession in the EU, Japan and the
are presented in this chapter. Gross domestic United States in 2009, followed by a recovery
product (GDP) is the most frequently used in 2010. The crisis was already apparent in 2008
measure for the overall size of an economy, while when there had been a considerable reduction in
derived indicators such as GDP per capita for the rate of increase for GDP in the EU-28 and this
example, in euro or adjusted for dierences in was followed by a fall in real GDP of 4.4 % in 2009.
price levels are widely used for a comparison The recovery in the EU-28 saw the volume index
of living standards, or to monitor the process of of GDP based on chain linked volumes increase
convergence across the EU. by 2.1 % in 2010 and there was a further gain of

Economy and nance 6
Figure 6.1: Real GDP growth, 200515
(% change compared with the previous year)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
China (incl. Hong Kong) () United States () EU-28 EA-19 Japan ()

Note: Based on chain linked volumes.
() 200510: estimates. 2015: not available.
() 2014: estimate. 2015: not available.
() 2015: estimate.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: naida_10_gdp), OECD and World Bank
1.7 % in 2011; subsequently real GDP contracted per capita within the EU-28 in 2015 was PPS
0.5 % in 2012, before progressively larger positive 28.8 thousand, which was above the previous
rates of change were recorded in 2013 (0.2 %), peak (PPS 26.1 thousand) reached in 2008 prior
2014 (1.5 %) and 2015 (2.2 %). In the euro area to the eects of the nancial and economic
(EA-19) the corresponding rates of change were crisis being felt. The relative position of
very similar to those in the EU-28 through to individual countries can be expressed through
2010, while the growth recorded in 2011 was a comparison with this average, with the EU-
slightly weaker (1.5 %) and the contraction in 28 value set to equal 100. The highest value
2012 was stronger ( 0.9 %) and was sustained among the EU Member States was recorded
into 2013 ( 0.3 %). In 2014 and 2015, real GDP for Luxembourg, where GDP per capita in PPS
growth in the euro area was somewhat weaker was about 2.7 times the EU-28 average in 2015
than that in the EU-28 as a whole. (which is partly explained by the importance of
To evaluate standards of living, it is commonplace cross-border workers from Belgium, France and
to use GDP per capita in PPS terms, in other Germany). On the other hand, GDP per capita
words, adjusted for the size of an economy in in PPS was less than half the EU-28 average in
terms of its population and also for dierences Bulgaria in 2015.
in price levels across countries. The average GDP

6 Economy and nance
Figure 6.2: GDP per capita at current market prices, 2015

(EU-28 = 100; based on PPS per inhabitant)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Slovakia
EU-28
Latvia
Croatia
United States ()
EA-19
Luxembourg
Ireland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Finland
France ()
Italy
Spain ()
Malta
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Cyprus ()
Portugal ()
Estonia
Lithuania
Greece ()
Poland ()
Hungary
Norway
FYR of Macedonia
Albania ()
Netherlands ()
Austria
Denmark
Belgium
Romania ()
Bulgaria ()
Switzerland ()
Iceland
Japan
Serbia ()
Germany
() 2015: provisional.
() 2013 instead of 2015.
() 2014 instead of 2015.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: naida_10_gdp, nama_10_pc and naida_10_pe),
OECD and World Bank
6.2 Sector accounts

Economic developments in production, income In 2014, the household investment rate was 8.0 %
generation and (re)distribution, consumption in the EU-28. This rate ranged (among the
and investment may be better understood when 23 EU Member States for which data are
analysed by institutional sector. In particular, available) from 9.9 % in Belgium and Finland and
the EUs sector accounts provide several key 9.7 % in Germany and down to 2.5 % in Bulgaria
indicators for households and non-nancial (2013 data).
corporations, like the household saving rate and In 2014, the household debt-to-income ratio
business prot share. in the euro area was 94.7 % (no data available
The household saving rate in 2014 was for the EU-28). It should be borne in mind that
2.2 percentage points higher in the 19 member high household debt may to some extent
euro area (EA-19; 12.5 %) than in the EU-28 mirror high levels of nancial assets. It may also
(10.3 %). This gap is, at least in part, explained mirror the ownership of non-nancial assets,
by the relatively high saving rates in Germany such as dwellings, or be impacted by national
(16.9 %), Slovenia and France (both 14.1 %). provisions that foster borrowing (for example, the
deduction of interest from taxes).

Economy and nance 6
Figure 6.3: Household investment rate (gross), 2014
(%)
12
10
Latvia
EU-28
EA-19
Finland
France ()
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Netherlands
Italy
Austria
Poland
Ireland
Cyprus ()
Estonia
United Kingdom
Lithuania
Slovenia
Hungary
Spain
Sweden
Portugal ()
Bulgaria ()
Iceland
Belgium
Denmark
Switzerland ()()
Germany
Note: Including non-prot institutions serving households. Greece, Croatia,

Luxembourg, Malta and Romania: not available.
() Provisional.
() Estimate.
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: nasa_10_ki)
The business investment rate (for non-nancial The prot share of non-nancial corporations was
corporations) in 2014 was 21.7 % in both the 39.3 % in the EU-28 in 2014 and 0.5 percentage
EU-28 and the euro area. The highest business points higher for the euro area. The lowest prot
investment rates among the 26 EU Member shares among the 27 EU Member States for
States (for which data are available) were which data are available were recorded in Croatia
recorded in Bulgaria (2013 data), the Czech (29.7 %) and France (30.4 %), while in Ireland the
Republic, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, Spain, share rose to a high of 60.7 %.
Latvia, Croatia, Belgium, Estonia and Austria, all
above 25.0 %. The lowest rates were recorded in
Greece (15.1 %) and Cyprus (10.5 %).

6 Economy and nance
Table 6.1: Key ratios of sector accounts, non-nancial corporations, 2014
Investment rate Prot share Investment rate Prot share

(%) Change from 2013 (percentage points)
EU-28 21.7 39.3 0.3 0.0
EA-19 21.7 39.8 0.3 0.0
Belgium 26.0 40.6 1.5 0.4
Bulgaria () 28.8 48.6 : :
Czech Republic 28.6 51.2 1.9 2.7
Denmark 20.5 39.5 0.1 1.3
Germany 19.7 41.3 0.4 0.3
Estonia 25.9 46.9 1.9 1.8
Ireland 23.9 60.7 2.5 1.1
Greece 15.1 55.8 1.0 4.0
Spain 26.7 42.9 1.5 0.4
France 22.8 30.4 0.2 0.4
Croatia 26.0 29.7 0.1 2.2
Italy 18.7 40.7 0.7 0.4
Cyprus 10.5 46.1 3.5 1.8
Latvia 26.1 49.5 0.4 3.1
Lithuania 17.5 56.7 0.5 0.8
Luxembourg : : : :
Hungary 24.8 48.3 0.4 1.2
Malta : 53.7 : 0.7
Netherlands 16.4 41.1 0.1 0.0
Austria 25.4 40.7 0.3 1.0
Poland 22.1 51.0 0.5 0.6
Portugal 20.1 41.6 0.6 0.3
Romania 27.2 56.9 1.9 0.2
Slovenia 20.1 35.5 2.0 0.9
Slovakia 27.2 51.7 0.4 1.5
Finland 20.0 40.3 0.6 0.2
Sweden 27.1 35.9 1.6 0.5
United Kingdom 16.9 36.3 0.1 1.4
Iceland 19.6 40.5 2.0 1.6
Norway 21.5 53.3 0.0 1.2
Switzerland () 25.6 31.5 : :
() 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: nasa_10_ki)

Economy and nance 6
6.3 Government nances

These statistics are crucial indicators for and in the EA-19 it decreased from 2.6 % to
determining the health of the economies of the 2.1 %. Three EU Member States Luxembourg,
EUs Member States. Under the terms of the EUs Germany and Estonia registered government
Stability and Growth Pact (SGP), Member States surpluses in 2015. Sweden reported a balance
pledged to keep their decits and debt below with neither a surplus nor a decit (0.0 %). There
certain limits: a Member States government were 17 EU Member States, namely Lithuania,
decit may not exceed 3 % of its gross the Czech Republic, Romania, Cyprus, Austria,
domestic product (GDP), while its debt may not Latvia, Malta, the Netherlands, Hungary, Bulgaria,
exceed 60 % of GDP. If a Member State does Denmark, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Poland, Finland
not respect these limits, the so-called excessive and Slovenia which recorded decits in 2015 that
decit procedure (EDP) is triggered. were lower than 3.0 % of GDP.
In the EU-28 the government decit-to-GDP ratio
decreased from 3.0 % in 2014 to 2.4 % in 2015
Figure 6.4: Public balance, 2014 and 2015

(net borrowing or lending of consolidated general government sector, % of GDP)
8.7
5.7
4
2
0
2
4
6 Threshold
8
10
Latvia
Slovakia
Croatia
EU-28
EA-19
Luxembourg
Estonia
Sweden
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Poland
Finland
Slovenia
France
Portugal
United Kingdom
Spain
Greece
Norway
Romania
Cyprus
Austria
Malta
Netherlands
Hungary
Bulgaria
Ireland
Italy
Denmark
Belgium
Germany
2014 2015
Note: Data extracted on 21.04.2016.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tec00127)

6 Economy and nance
In the EU-28 the government debt-to-GDP ratio total government revenue in 2015 amounted to
decreased from 86.8 % at the end of 2014 to 45.0 % of GDP (down from 45.2 % in 2014), and
85.2 % at the end of 2015, and in the EA-19 from expenditure amounted to 47.4 % of GDP (down
92.0 % to 90.7 %. A total of 17 EU Member States from 48.2 % in 2014). In the EA-19, total general
reported a debt ratio above 60 % of GDP in 2015. government expenditure amounted to 48.6 % of
At the end of 2015, the highest debt-to-GDP GDP in 2015 (down from 49.3 % in 2014) and total
ratios were registered by Greece (176.9 %), Italy revenue to 46.6 % of GDP (down from 46.8 % in
(132.7 %), Portugal (129.0 %), Cyprus (108.9 %) 2014).
and Belgium (106.0 %), while the lowest ratios In absolute terms, general government total
of government debt-to-GDP were recorded in expenditure grew at a slow pace over the
Estonia (9.7 %), Luxembourg (21.4 %) and Bulgaria period from 2005 to 2015 in both the EU-28 and
(26.7 %). the EA-19 (except for a slight decrease in the
The importance of the general government EA-19 between 2010 and 2011). Revenue grew
sector in the economy may be measured in at a steadier pace throughout the period from
terms of total general government revenue and 2009 to 2015, thereby leading to a decrease in
expenditure as a percentage of GDP. In the EU-28, the decit. However, between 2008 and 2009,
general government revenues fell in both areas.
Figure 6.5: General government debt, 2014 and 2015

(general government consolidated gross debt, % of GDP)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80 Threshold
60
40
20
0
Croatia
Slovakia
EU-28
EA-19
Greece
Italy
Portugal
Cyprus
Spain
France
Ireland
United Kingdom
Finland
Poland
Sweden
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Latvia
Estonia
Norway
Belgium
Austria
Slovenia
Hungary
Netherlands
Malta
Denmark
Romania
Bulgaria
Luxembourg
Germany
2014 2015
Note: Data extracted on 21.04.2016.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsdde410)

Economy and nance 6
6.4 Exchange rates and interest rates

This chapter starts by considering the yen through until 2007 (8.5 % per year) after
development of exchange rates across the EU, which the euro depreciated rapidly, falling, on
as well as exchange rate uctuations between average, by 8.7 % per year between 2007 and
the euro and several currencies of non-member 2012. Initially, a similar pattern was observed
countries, in particular the Japanese yen, the against the United States dollar, with the euro
Swiss franc and the United States dollar (all of appreciating 5.7 % per year until 2008. Thereafter,
which are important reserve currencies). The a more gentle but less regular depreciation was
second half of the chapter examines interest rates observed through to 2014 ( 1.7 % per year),
in other words, the cost of borrowing and/or followed by a sharper depreciation ( 16.5 %)
lending money. At the macroeconomic level, key in 2015, such that the euro was worth 10.8 %
interest rates are generally set by central banks, less against the dollar in 2015 than it had been
as a primary tool for monetary policy with the in 2005. By contrast, the euro appreciated less
goal of maintaining price stability and controlling against the Swiss franc, increasing by 3.0 % per
ination. year between 2005 and 2007. Between 2007 and
The indices presented in the various parts of 2011, the euro depreciated at an accelerating
Figure 6.6 start in 2005, towards the end of a pace against the Swiss franc.
period when the euro was still appreciating The stabilisation that started in September 2011
from historically low levels against many other resulted from the Swiss central bank introducing
currencies. a minimum exchange rate of CHF 1.20 = EUR
There was a marked appreciation in the value 1.00, eectively capping the Swiss francs
of the euro compared with the Japanese appreciation.
Figure 6.6: Exchange rates against the euro, 200515

(2005 = 100)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Japanese yen (JPY) US dollar (USD) Swiss franc (CHF)

Note: A reduction in the value of the index shows an appreciation in the value of the
foreign currency and a depreciation in the value of the euro. Note that the y-axis
does not start at 0.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ert_bil_eur_a)

6 Economy and nance
This minimum exchange rate was maintained in the euro area. In fact, yields fell by more than
until 15 January 2015: after its removal the Swiss 40 % in all EU Member States (no data available
Franc appreciated 30 % in inter-day trading and for Estonia), except for two: in Cyprus the yield
closed up 23 %; overall, the euro depreciated in 2015 was 4.54 %, slightly lower than the yield
12.1 % against the Swiss franc in 2015 compared of 4.60 % in 2010; in Greece the yield in 2015 was
with 2014, such that the euro had depreciated 9.67 %, slightly higher than the 9.09 % yield in
31.0 % overall between 2005 and 2015. 2010. As well as recording the only increase in
With regard to interest rates, the overall pattern bond yields between 2010 and 2015, Greeces
in bond yields for the EU-28 (weighted) average yield in 2015 was the highest among the EU
was that yields were lower in 2015 than in 2010, Member States, more than double the yield in
a time when yields had been increasing in Cyprus, which was the next highest. A total of
some countries due to issues linked to nancing 22 EU Member States recorded bond yields that
sovereign debt. In the EU-28, bond yields more were below 3.00 % in 2015, of which 19 were
than halved from 3.82 % to 1.45 %, with a similar below 2.00 % and 12 below 1.00 %.
fall of just under 2.4 percentage points observed
Figure 6.7: EMU convergence criterion bond yields (Maastricht criterion), 2010 and
2015
(%)
12
10
0
Croatia
Latvia
Slovakia
EU-28
EA ()
Greece
Cyprus
United Kingdom
Romania
Hungary
Poland
Spain
Italy
Bulgaria
Portugal
Slovenia
Malta
Lithuania
Ireland
France
Sweden
Czech Republic
Luxembourg ()
Belgium
Austria
Finland
Denmark
Netherlands
Germany
2010 2015
Note: Estonia: not available. () The indicator for Luxembourg is based on a basket of long-term
() 2010: EA-16. 2015: EA-19. bonds, which have an average residual maturity close to 10
years; the bonds are issued by a private credit institution.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tec00097), ECB

Economy and nance 6
6.5 Consumer prices ination and comparative

price levels
Ination is the increase in the general level of no longer able to purchase the same amount
prices of goods and services in an economy; the of goods and services with the same amount of
reverse situation is deation when the general money.
level of prices falls. Ination and deation are After relatively sharp movements during the
usually measured by consumer price indices period 200812, the rate at which prices were
or retail price indices. Within the EU, a specic rising slowed to 1.5 % in 2013, 0.5 % in 2014
consumer price index has been developed and in 2015 there was no change (0.0 %); these
the harmonised index of consumer prices last two rates for 2014 and 2015 were
(HICP). Other factors (such as wages) being the lowest ination rates since records began.
equal, ination in an economy means that the Moreover, during several months of 2013, 2014
purchasing power of consumers falls as they are and 2015 negative ination rates were recorded.
Figure 6.8: HICP all-items, ination rate, 200515

(%)
121.8
78.0
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latvia
Croatia
United States ()
EU ()
EA ()
Hungary
Estonia
Lithuania
United Kingdom
Poland
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Malta
Iceland
Norway
Romania
Bulgaria
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Austria
Finland
Spain
Italy
Greece
Cyprus
Belgium
Switzerland
Japan ()
Denmark
Netherlands
Portugal
France
Sweden
Ireland
Turkey ()
Germany
() The data refer to the ocial EU aggregate, its country coverage changes in line with
the addition of new EU Member States and integrates them using a chain-linked
index formula.
() The data refer to the ocial euro area aggregate, its country coverage changes in
line with the addition of new EA Member States and integrates them using a chain-
linked index formula.
() Denition diers.
() National CPI: not strictly comparable with the HICP. 2014 data.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: prc_hicp_aind and prc_ipc_a)

6 Economy and nance
Among EU Member States, Romania registered prices increased by 4.6 % over the same period.
the biggest increase in the HICP between 2005 The rates for food (30.7 %) and for services
and 2015 (an increase of 54.1 %), while Ireland (23.6 %) increased at a slightly faster pace when
experienced the lowest rise in the same period compared with the all-items index (20.9 %).
(9.5 %). The overall change in prices in the EU Looking in more detail, the prices of education
was an increase of 20.7 %, similar to the change and alcoholic beverages and tobacco in the EU
in prices recorded in the United States (21.2 %), rose at the highest rates (increases of 51.7 %
while prices rose at a much slower pace in Japan and 50.7 % respectively) between 2005 and
(2.5 %; 200514). 2015. Over the same 10-year period the price
As regards the main components of the HICP, of communications fell by 13.5 %. In 2015
energy prices in the EU rose at the highest (compared with 2014), prices fell not only for
rate (an increase of 39.6 %) between 2005 communications ( 0.4 %), but also for housing,
and 2015, despite the drops recorded in 2014 water and fuel ( 0.4 %) and transport ( 2.7 %).
and 2015, while non-energy industrial goods
Figure 6.9: HICP main headings, annual average ination rates, EU-28, 2015
(%)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Education
Alcohol & tobacco
Restaurants & hotels
Health
Miscellaneous
Recreation & culture
Household equipment
Clothing & footwear
Food & non-alcoholic beverages
HICP all-items
Communications
Housing, water, fuel
Transport
Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_hicp_aind)

Economy and nance 6
6.6 Balance of payments

The balance of payments records all economic billion. The latest developments for the EU-28s
transactions between resident and non-resident current account show a continuation of the
entities during a given period. The balance of the pattern established since 2008: while the current
current and capital accounts balance determine account decit peaked in 2008 at 2.1 % of GDP,
the exposure of an economy to the rest of the it gradually diminished, and in 2012 turned into
world, whereas the nancial account explains a surplus equivalent to 0.6 % of GDP; the surplus
how it is nanced. was equivalent to 1.1 % of GDP in 2013 and 0.9 %
The current account surplus of the EU-28 was in 2014. The current account surplus for 2015
EUR 161.6 billion in 2015, corresponding to 1.1 % was based on decits for primary and secondary
of gross domestic product (GDP). By contrast, in incomes (0.1 % and 0.5 % of GDP) and surpluses
2014 the current account surplus was EUR 129.6 in the current accounts for goods (0.7 % of GDP)
and services (1.0 %)
Figure 6.10: Current account transactions, EU-28, 200515

(billion EUR)
3 600 200
3 000 100
2 400 0
1 800 100
1 200 200
600 300
0 400
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Balance (right-hand scale) Credit (left-hand scale) Debit (left-hand scale)

Note: EU-28 vis--vis extra-EU-28.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_eu6_q)
Among the partner countries and regions, with the United States (EUR 101.0 billion) and
the EU-28s current account decit was largest Switzerland (EUR 70.6 billion), while surpluses
with China, standing at EUR 145.7 billion in were also achieved with Brazil, Hong Kong,
2015, followed by Russia (EUR 33.2 billion). The Canada and India.
highest current account surpluses were recorded

6 Economy and nance
Traditionally the capital account of the EU-28 with the highest value relative to GDP reported
has recorded a decit, with considerable capital by Malta (10.4 % of GDP). Five EU Member States
transfers to the rest of the world. In 2015, this appeared to be net borrowers, most prominently
trend was continued with a capital account the United Kingdom and France.
decit of EUR 45.0 billion, equivalent to 0.3 % In absolute terms, the largest net lender, by far, in
of GDP, which was mainly the result of a large the EU-28 was Germany, with net lending of
capital account decit for the Netherlands (EUR EUR 232.2 billion in 2015. The euro area was also
35.2 billion). a net lender to the rest of the world in 2015 with
The net nancial account is interpreted as net EUR 306.6 billion of net lending, equivalent to
lending to the rest of the world when positive, 2.9 % of GDP. The EU-28 remained a signicant
and net borrowing from the rest of the world net lender of capital (such as loans) to the rest of
when negative. A total of 23 EU Member States the world in 2015 (net lending equivalent to 1.7 %
were net lenders to the rest of the world in 2015, of GDP).
showing surpluses in their net nancial accounts,
Figure 6.11: Current account balance with selected partners, EU-28, 2015
(billion EUR)
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
Extra
United States
Brazil
EU-28
Switzerland
Hong Kong
Canada
India
Japan
Russia
China (excl.
Hong Kong)
Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_eu6_q)

Economy and nance 6
6.7 Foreign direct investment

After having increased during the years 200913 increased signicantly in Canada from EUR
the EU outward ows (Member States direct 11.8 billion in 2013 to EUR 23.4 billion in 2014.
investments in countries outside the EU) Direct investments in EU Member States from
declined sharply in 2014 and were at their lowest non-member countries (inward ows) also fell
level during the period 200914 This big fall in 2014, thus mirroring the development for
was mainly due to large disinvestments in some outward ows. Again this was largely due to the
traditional partner countries the United States ows with relation to the United States changing
(EUR 69.8 billion) and Switzerland (EUR from EUR 433.4 billion in 2013 to EUR 20.3
20 billion). billion in 2014.
EU Member States direct investments also fell Direct investments in the EU also declined from
signicantly in Central America, but remained both South America and Asia. Brazil went from
positive at a total of EUR 20.7 billion. This was direct investments of EUR 14.3 billion in 2013
mainly due to decreased EU FDI activities with to EUR 1.0 billion in 2014, while Singapore went
oshore nancial centres located in this area, from EUR 12.9 billion of investment to EUR
where special-purpose entities play an important 5.5 billion of disinvestments.
role. EU Member States direct investments
Figure 6.12: FDI ows and stocks, EU-28, 200914

(billion EUR)
7 000 700
6 000 600
5 000 500
4 000 400
(Stocks)
(Flows)
3 000 300
2 000 200
1 000 100
0 0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 () 2014 ()
Extra-EU outward stocks Extra-EU inward stocks

Outows to extra-EU Inows from extra-EU
Note: Dierent scale on the left and right axis.
() Based on international standards BPM6 and BD4.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: bop_fdi_main, bop_fdi6_ow and bop_fdi6_pos)

6 Economy and nance
Between end 2013 and end 2014, EU-28 outward At the end of 2014, the United States held close
stocks grew 7.6 % and inward stocks grew 9.6 %. to 40 % of total EU-28 FDI inward stocks from
At the end of 2014, North America had the the rest of the world. The United States thus
biggest share (40.2 %) of EU-28 FDI stocks abroad. maintained its position as the major holder of
The United States alone accounted for some FDI stocks in the EU-28, having invested, as of
34.5 % (EUR 1 985 billion) of all EU-28 outward the end of 2013, mostly in the nancial services
stocks. sector, followed by manufacturing; one third of
the latter was in the manufacture of petroleum,
European countries outside the EU accounted
chemical, pharmaceutical, rubber and plastic
for 20.6 % of EU-28 outward stocks at the end
products, and another third in the manufacture
of 2014. Switzerland was the second most
of food products, beverages and tobacco
important location, accounting for 11.0 % of
products.
EU-28 outward stocks, its main activity being
nancial intermediation. At the end of 2014, Brazil The gures for 2013 and 2014 have been
was the third main location with a 6 % share of compiled according to the new international
EU-28 FDI outward stocks, with Canada in fourth standards (BPM6 and BD4) and therefore they
place. cannot be directly compared with gures for
previous years.
Table 6.2: Top 10 countries as extra EU-28 partners for FDI positions, EU-28, end
201214
(billion EUR)
Outward Inward
Value (billion EUR) Share (%) Value (billion EUR) Share (%)
2012 2013 () 2014 () 2014 2012 2013 () 2014 () 2014
Extra EU-28 5 112.0 5 344.4 5 748.6 100.0 3 905.9 4 179.7 4 582.5 100.0
United States 1 627.8 1 812.6 1 985.3 34.5 1 543.9 1 756.0 1 810.8 39.5
Switzerland 664.8 665.9 632.3 11.0 500.6 484.1 509.4 11.1
Brazil 257.1 278.2 343.6 6.0 81.1 99.4 113.6 2.5
Canada 247.1 234.7 274.7 4.8 135.5 135.5 165.9 3.6
Russia 193.5 189.9 171.5 3.0 75.3 63.5 74.4 1.6
China 120.7 124.9 144.2 2.5 27.4 22.3 20.7 0.5
Mexico 82.4 109.6 119.2 2.1 21.4 23.8 28.3 0.6
Australia 141.0 126.9 115.3 2.0 30.7 24.2 26.4 0.6
Hong Kong 132.1 113.4 106.3 1.8 50.7 57.4 71.2 1.6
Singapore 92.6 91.9 102.9 1.8 47.7 35.7 43.8 1.0
() Based on international standards BPM6 and BD4.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: bop_fdi_main and bop_fdi6_pos)

International trade

7 International trade
Introduction
International trade in goods can be seen The EU has a common international trade policy,
as the rst step in the process of economic often referred to as the common commercial
globalisation. From the beginning it has allowed policy. In other words, the EU acts as a single
countries to specialise in the production of entity on trade issues, including issues related
certain goods while relying on trade to obtain to the World Trade Organisation (WTO). In these
others following their comparative advantages. cases, the European Commission negotiates
Services play a major role in all modern trade agreements and represents Europes
economies: as well as those supplied directly interests on behalf of the EU Member States.
to the households, services such as transport, The EUs trade policy aims to make the EU
communications and business services provide competitive in foreign markets. Being an open
vital support to other parts of the economy. economy, the EU seeks to secure improved
Increased international trade in services and the market access for its industries, services and
widespread availability of services may boost investments, and to enforce the rules of free
economic growth by improving the performance and fair trade. A coordinated trade policy
of other activities, since services can provide key takes on even greater importance in an era of
intermediate inputs, especially in an increasingly globalisation, where economies and borders
interlinked and globalised world. have opened-up more and more, leading to
The value of international trade in services is an increase in trade and capital movements,
typically less than that in goods. Part of this and the spread of information, knowledge and
dierence may be due to the nature of some technology, often accompanied by deregulation.
services, for example, the immediacy of the The economic impact of globalisation on the EU
relationship between supplier and consumer is felt through trade in goods and services, as well
means that many services are non-transportable; as through nancial ows and the movement of
in other words, they require the physical persons linked to cross-border economic activity.
proximity of the service provider and the
consumer.
7.1 International trade in goods

EU-28 international trade in goods with the rise 58.7 % over four years to a record level of
rest of the world (the sum of extra-EU exports EUR 1 737 billion in 2013. Exports then fell 1.9 %
and imports) was valued at EUR 3 517 billion in 2014 before rising 5.1 % to a new peak in 2015
in 2015. Both imports and exports increased of EUR 1 791 billion. By contrast, the increase in
in comparison with 2014, but this increase imports after 2009 was 45.5 % over three years
was larger for exports (EUR 88 billion) than for to peak in 2012 at EUR 1 798 billion. Imports fell
imports (EUR 35 billion). As a result, the EU-28s 6.2 % in 2013 before stabilising (up 0.3 %) in 2014
trade surplus increased from EUR 11 billion in and increasing by 2.0 % in 2015, still below the
2014 to EUR 64 billion in 2015. value reached in 2012.
After experiencing a sharp fall in both exports The United States remained, by far, the most
and imports in 2009, the EU-28 saw its exports common destination for goods exported from

International trade 7
Figure 7.1: Development of international trade, EU-28, 200515
(billion EUR)
100 2 000
(Exports/Imports)
0 1 500
(Trade balance)
100 1 000
200 500
300 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Trade balance Exports Imports
Note: External trade ows with extra EU-28. Dierent scale on the left and right axis.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ext_lt_intertrd)
the EU-28 in 2015, although the share of EU-28 all imports into the EU-28 in 2015 and was the
exports destined for the United States fell from largest supplier of goods imported into the
28.0 % of the total in 2002 to 16.7 % in 2013 EU-28. The United States share of EU-28 imports
before recovering to 20.7 % by 2015. China was of goods (14.4 %) was around 6 percentage
the second most important destination market points lower than that of China, while the share
for EU-28 exports in 2015 (9.5 % of the EU-28 of Russia (7.9 %), which was the third largest
total), followed by Switzerland (8.4 %). In 2015, supplier of goods to the EU-28, was a further
Turkey overtook Russia to be the fourth largest 6 percentage points smaller. In 2015, Turkey
destination for EU-28 exports of goods. The overtook Japan to be the sixth largest supplier of
seven largest destination markets for EU-28 EU-28 imports of goods.
exports of goods China, the United States, Between 2010 and 2015, the value of the EU-28s
Russia, Switzerland, Norway, Turkey and Japan imports and exports increased for all product
accounted for more than half (53.1 %) of all EU-28 groups, except for the imports of mineral fuels
exports of goods. and lubricant products which fell 14.7 %. The
The seven largest suppliers of EU-28 imports of highest growth rate for exports was reported for
goods were the same countries as the seven food, drinks and tobacco for which an increase
largest destination markets for EU-28 exports, of 49.5 % was observed. The imports of these
although their order was slightly dierent. These products also increased strongly (up 33.8 %), but
seven countries accounted for a larger share of this growth was surpassed by chemicals and
the EU-28s imports of goods than their share related products where growth of 34.8 % was
of EU-28 exports of goods: nearly three fths recorded.
(59.8 %) of all imports of goods into the EU-28
came from these seven countries. China was
the origin for more than one fth (20.3 %) of

Figure 7.2: Main trading partners for exports and imports, EU-28, 2015
(% share of extra EU-28 exports and imports)
Exports
United States
20.7 %
Rest of the world

46.9 %
China ()
9.5 %
Switzerland
8.4 %
Turkey
4.4 %
Norway
Japan Russia
2.7 %
3.2 % 4.1 %
Imports
China ()
20.3 %
Rest of the world

40.2 %
United States
14.4 %
Russia
Japan 7.9 %
3.5 %
Switzerland
Turkey Norway
5.9 %
3.6 % 4.3 %
() Excluding Hong Kong.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ext_lt_maineu)

International trade 7
7.2 International trade in services

The EU-28's exports of services to non-member From 2010 onwards, the combined exports and
countries increased from EUR 569 billion in 2010 imports of services traded with non-member
to EUR 811 billion in 2015, whereas EU-28 imports countries increased at a relatively rapid pace,
of services from non-member countries during with growth peaking at 10.7 % in 2015 (when
the same period progressed from EUR 462 billion compared with 2014).
to EUR 660 billion, resulting in the surplus for
trade in services increasing from EUR 108 billion
to EUR 151 billion.
Figure 7.3: International trade in services with non-member countries (extra-EU),

EU-28, 201015
(billion EUR)
180 900
160 800
140 700
(Exports/Imports)
(Trade balance)
120 600
100 500
80 400
60 300
40 200
20 100
0 0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Trade balance Exports Imports

Note: 2015 provisional. Dierent scale on the left and right axis.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_its6_tot)
In 2015, the United States remained, by far, The main countries of origin for EU-28 imports
the largest destination for EU-28 exports of of services were the same as the destinations.
services, with this trade valued at EUR 212 billion, Again, the United States accounted for the largest
representing more than one quarter (26 %) of value of imported services, some EUR 203 billion
all exports to non-member countries. The next which was equivalent to 31 % of the total from
largest destinations were Switzerland (14 %), non-member countries. The next highest shares
China, Japan (both 4 %), Russia (3 %), Canada, were from Switzerland (10 %) and China (4 %).
India and Brazil (all 2 %).

In 2015, other business services represented EUR 144 billion, equivalent to 18 % of the
the bulk of services exported to non-member services total, down 4 percentage points
countries, the EUR 223 billion of such exports compared with 2010. This was followed by
from the EU-28 representing 27 % of total travel which represented approximately 14 %
exports, which was equivalent to a 3 percentage of all services exported in 2010 and in 2015,
point increase in comparison with 2010. telecommunications, computer and information
Transport constituted the second largest group services which represented 12 % of all services
of services exported by the EU-28 to exports in 2015 (up from 11 % in 2010), and
non-member countries in 2015, valued at nancial services which represented 10 % of all
services exports in both 2010 and 2015.
Figure 7.4: Trade in services with non-member countries (extra-EU), main partners,
EU-28, 2010 and 2015
(billion EUR)
250
200
150
100
50
0
United States
Brazil
United States
Brazil
Switzerland
China ()
Japan
Norway ()
Russia
Canada
India
Hong Kong
India
Hong Kong
Turkey ()
Switzerland
China ()
Japan
Norway ()
Russia
Canada
Turkey ()
Exports Imports
2010 2015
Note: Ranked on the average value of exports and imports.
() Excluding Hong Kong.
() 2014 instead of 2015.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_its6_det)

Agriculture, forestry
and sheries

8 Agriculture, forestry and sheries
Introduction
EU agricultural statistics were initially designed support for production towards a more market-
to monitor the main objectives of the common oriented and environmentally-friendly and
agricultural policy (CAP), for example the sustainable agriculture.
production and supply of agricultural products While the EU has no separate policy on forestry,
and income in the agricultural sector. Today, forests are aected by a broad array of EU
agricultural statistics cover topics as diverse sectoral policies. Environmental forest functions
as: farm structure, use of farm land, labour have attracted increasing attention in relation to
input, production, supply/use, prices, and the the protection of biodiversity and in the context
composition of agricultural income. of energy policies and the impact of climate
Agriculture was one of the rst sectors of the change.
economy (following coal and steel) to receive The European Commission presented proposals
the attention of EU policymakers. Article 39 of for a reform of the common sheries policy
the Treaty of Rome on the EEC (1957) set out CFP) which were adopted in December 2013
the objectives for the rst CAP; this was focused and became eective on 1 January 2014. The
on increasing agricultural productivity as a CFP is designed to conserve sh stocks and to
way to ensure a fair standard of living for the manage them as a common resource; it gives
agricultural community, stabilising markets, and all European shing eets equal access to EU
ensuring security of supply at aordable prices waters and shing grounds. It aims to ensure
for consumers. that the EUs shing industry is environmentally,
As the primary objective of producing more economically and socially sustainable, through
food within Europe was achieved, food high long-term shing yields for all stocks (at the
surpluses accrued, distorting trade and raising latest by 2020); this is referred to as maximum
environmental concerns. These were the sustainable yield. Another increasingly important
principal drivers for changes in the common aim of the CFP is to reduce unwanted catches
agricultural policy, a process that started in the and wasteful practices to the minimum or avoid
early 1990s and which resulted in a change from them altogether.
8.1 Agricultural output, price indices

The gross value of EU-28 crop output fell to a but then grew for ve consecutive years to 2014.
relative low of EUR 177.2 billion in 2009. This The rate of change slowed towards the end of
was followed by a rebound and four years of this period and in 2014 there was almost no
consecutive growth through to 2013 (peaking change (up 0.5 %) in the value of animal output
at EUR 220.2 billion). However, the latest in the EU-28, which reached EUR 171.5 billion. In
information available reveals that crop output in 2015 there was a considerable fall in the animal
the EU-28 fell by 3.9 % in 2014 to EUR 211.6 billion, output of the EU-28, which was valued at EUR
before stabilising (+ 0.6 %) in 2015, when output 161.7 billion, some 5.8 % lower than the year
was valued at EUR 212.9 billion. before.
EU-28 gross animal output at basic prices also
recorded a relative low in 2009 (EUR 138.0 billion),

Agriculture, forestry and sheries 8
The increases in the EU-28s gross output during As a result, from a relative low of EUR 135.9 billion
the period 200913 were oset to some extent in 2009, the gross value added at basic prices
by an increase in the value of intermediate of the EU-28s agricultural sector rose for four
consumption of goods and services at basic consecutive years to reach a relative high of EUR
prices. Here too there was a period of relatively 171.7 billion in 2013, before falling by 3.2 % to EUR
rapid growth followed by more modest growth 166.3 billion in 2014 and falling a further 1.3 % to
rates and then reductions of 0.6 % in 2014 and EUR 164.1 billion in 2015.
2.5 % in 2015.
Figure 8.1: Agricultural output and gross value added at basic prices, EU-28, 200515
(2005 = 100)
130
120
110
100
90
80
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Crop output Animal output Gross value added of the agricultural sector
Note: 2015 estimate.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: aact_eaa05)
Changes in the value of agricultural output For 13 of the 26 EU Member States for which
comprise a volume and price component. data are available, the average annual rate of
One important strand of recent changes in change in deated input prices was greater than
agricultural policy has been to move away from the change in deated output prices, with the
price support mechanisms, so that prices more largest (percentage point) dierences observed
accurately reect market forces and changes in for Portugal, Belgium, Latvia and Lithuania (all of
supply and demand. During the period 201015 which recorded falling deated output prices).
there were considerable dierences between Among the 13 EU Member States where deated
the EU Member States in the development of output price changes exceeded the change in
deated agricultural output prices; such deated deated input prices the greatest dierences
prices show the extent to which agricultural were observed for Italy, the Czech Republic and
prices have changed compared with consumer Bulgaria.
prices.

Figure 8.2: Change in deated price indices of agricultural input and output, 201015
(average annual rate of change, %)
3
Slovakia
Croatia
Cyprus
Ireland
Czech Republic
Hungary
Portugal
Lithuania
United Kingdom
Latvia
Bulgaria
Spain ()
Italy
Greece
Malta
France
Slovenia
Romania
Poland ()
Sweden
Finland ()
Netherlands ()
Luxembourg
Austria ()
Denmark
Belgium
Germany ()
Input index Output index

Note: Estonia not available.
() Input index: not available.
() Output index: provisional.
() The value of the input index is 0.02.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: apri_pi10_ina and apri_pi10_outa)
8.2 Farm structure

The structure of agriculture in the Member States economic size shows that among these there
of the EU varies as a function of dierences were 6.5 million (or 59.8 %) that had a standard
in geology, topography, climate and natural output in excess of EUR 2 000. The utilised
resources, as well as the diversity of regional agricultural area (UAA) in the EU-28 was almost
activities, infrastructure and social customs. 175 million hectares (some 40.0 % of the total
In 2013, there were 10.8 million agricultural land area), giving an average size of 16.1 hectares
holdings within the EU-28. An analysis by per agricultural holding.

The total farm labour force in the EU-28 was the 2013, with a further 9.0 % of the land belonging
equivalent of 9.5 million annual working units to agricultural holdings, either in the form of
in 2013, of which 8.7 million (92 %) were regular wooded areas (6.7 %) or other land not used for
workers. The overall change in the EU-28s farm agriculture (2.3 %).
labour force during the period 200713 was Arable land (which includes land for cereals
a fall of 2.3 million annual work units (AWU), and other arable land) accounted for three
equivalent to a reduction of 19.8 %. fths (59.8 %) of the utilised agricultural area in
The EU-28's livestock herd was 130 million the EU-28 in 2013, with permanent grassland
livestock units (LSU) in 2013. The total number of and meadow (which is composed of pasture,
livestock in the EU-28 decreased between 2007 meadow and rough grazing) accounting for just
and 2013 by 6.6 million LSU, equivalent to a fall over one third (34.2 %). Permanent crops, such
of 4.8 %. as vineyards, olive trees and orchards, accounted
Utilised agricultural area accounted for two fths for a 5.9 % share, with the remaining 0.2 % mainly
(40.0 %) of the total land area of the EU-28 in attributed to kitchen gardens.
Figure 8.3: Land belonging to agricultural holdings, 2013

(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
EU-28
Ireland
United Kingdom
Spain
Poland
Lithuania
Czech Republic
France
Italy
Portugal
Greece
Latvia
Croatia
Malta
Montenegro ()
Belgium
Bulgaria
Austria
Slovenia
Estonia
Cyprus
Sweden
Finland
Switzerland ()
Iceland ()
Norway
Denmark
Romania
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Hungary
Germany
Utilised agricultural area (UAA) Wooded area Other (unutilised) land
Note: Denmark, Germany, France, Italy, Hungary, Poland, Portugal and Montenegro: as
a share of total area instead of land area. EU-28: as a share of the area based on a
sum of the available data for total area or land area for the Member States.
() 2010.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_r_d3area and ef_oluft)

Table 8.1: Labour force, 200713
Labour force
(1 000 annual work units)
2007 2010 2013
EU-28 11 850 9 946 9 509
Belgium 66 62 57
Bulgaria 494 407 320
Czech Republic 137 108 105
Denmark 56 52 54
Germany 609 546 523
Estonia 32 25 22
Ireland 148 165 164
Greece 569 430 464
Spain 968 889 814
France 805 780 725
Croatia 189 184 175
Italy 1 302 954 817
Cyprus 26 19 17
Latvia 105 85 82
Lithuania 180 147 145
Luxembourg 4 4 4
Hungary 403 423 434
Malta 4 5 4
Netherlands 165 162 153
Austria 163 114 111
Poland 2 263 1 897 1 919
Portugal 338 363 323
Romania 2 205 1 610 1 553
Slovenia 84 77 82
Slovakia 91 56 51
Finland 72 60 58
Sweden 65 57 59
United Kingdom 306 266 275
Iceland : 4 :
Norway 56 46 44
Switzerland 117 96 :
Montenegro : 48 :
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ef_kvaareg)

8.3 Agricultural products

There is a wide diversity of natural environments, the average for the previous ve years. The
climates, economic conditions and farming production of the other main root crop in the
practices across the EU. They are reected in the EU-28 potatoes was 53.1 million tonnes,
broad array of food and drink products that are 7.0 % less than the average for the previous ve
made available for human consumption and years.
animal feed, as well as a range of inputs for non- Oilseeds production has followed an upward
food processes. Indeed, agricultural products pattern in recent years mainly due to the
contribute to the cultural identity of Europes increased use of oilseeds for bioenergy
people and regions. production. However, as for cereals and the two
In 2015, the EU-28 produced 317.0 million tonnes root, at 7.9 million tonnes the production of
of cereals (including rice). This was 5.7 % above sunower seeds was relatively low in 2015, 5.5 %
the average for the previous ve years (201014). below the average for the previous ve years. By
The EU-28 produced 101.9 million tonnes of contrast, at 21.7 million tonnes the production of
sugar beet in 2015, which was 12.9 % less than rape and turnip rape was 4.3 % higher than the
ve year average.
Figure 8.4: Production of main agricultural crops, EU-28, 201315

(thousand tonnes)
350 000
300 000
250 000
200 000
150 000
100 000
50 000
0
Cereals Sugar beet Potatoes Rape and Sunower
turnip rape seed
2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat (online data code: apro_acs_a)
Dairy production has a diverse structure across 36.3 % of all whole milk converted into cheese,
the EU Member States, in terms of farm and and 24.4 % into butter.
dairy herd sizes, as well as milk yields. 29.3 % of The total collection of cows milk (in other words,
the whole milk that was utilised in the EU-28 cows milk delivered to dairies) in the EU-28 in
in 2015 was used for fresh products, mainly as 2015 amounted to an estimated 152 million
drinking milk or cream. The remaining 70.7 % was tonnes. Germany and France recorded the
transformed into manufactured products; with highest quantities of cows milk collected in 2015

and they also accounted for the highest levels The principal meat product in the EU-28 was
of production for butter and cheese; together pig meat (23.0 million tonnes in 2015), with the
they contributed between 38 % and 44 % of the weight of production three times as high as the
EU-28s total production for each of these three share recorded for meat from bovines (beef/veal),
dairy products. which stood at 7.6 million tonnes; the production
of sheep meat in the EU-28 was relatively modest
(0.7 million tonnes).
Table 8.2: Agricultural production related to animals, 2015

(thousand tonnes)
Raw cows' milk Meat from:
delivered to Butter Cheese
bovines pigs sheep
dairies
EU-28 () 151 588 1 890 9 525 7 590 22 958 724
Belgium 3 988 32 101 268 1 124 3
Bulgaria 488 1 77 5 61 :
Czech Republic 2 482 25 123 68 228 0
Denmark 5 278 45 391 121 1 599 2
Germany 31 879 456 1 900 1 124 5 562 21
Estonia 720 5 43 10 42 0
Ireland 6 585 187 207 564 276 58
Greece 603 1 188 42 90 55
Spain 6 800 32 465 634 3 896 117
France 25 323 368 1 950 1 451 1 968 81
Croatia 513 4 34 42 73 1
Italy 10 500 95 1 207 788 1 486 34
Cyprus 173 0 23 5 43 3
Latvia 808 6 38 17 29 0
Lithuania 1 438 14 101 44 66 0
Luxembourg 333 : : 9 12 0
Hungary 1 536 5 80 26 409 0
Malta 42 0 : 1 6 0
Netherlands 13 331 : 845 383 1 456 13
Austria 3 103 32 185 229 528 7
Poland 10 874 170 773 471 1 906 1
Portugal 1 935 32 73 89 377 11
Romania 919 11 82 44 330 9
Slovenia 554 : 15 34 20 0
Slovakia 865 7 36 8 45 1
Finland 2 394 55 88 86 192 1
Sweden 2 933 16 90 144 234 5
United Kingdom 15 191 : 403 883 898 300
Iceland : : : 4 7 10
Norway 1 570 19 98 : : :
Switzerland 3 457 43 189 142 240 4
Montenegro : : : 4 0 1
Albania : : : 9 8 2
Serbia 862 3 41 : : :
Turkey 8 934 0 666 98 0 59
Bosnia and Herzegovina : : : 23 9 1
() EU-28 Eurostat estimates, made for the purpose of this publication, include
condential data. They were rounded to safeguard the national condential values.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: apro_mk_pobta and apro_mt_pann)

8.4 Forestry
Roundwood production is a synonym for corresponding to an estimated 41 % of its total
removals; it comprises all quantities of wood area.
removed from forests and other wooded land EU-28 roundwood production (for coniferous and
or other felling sites during a given period; it is non-coniferous species combined) rebounded
reported in cubic metres (m) underbark (in other strongly in 2010 (10.1 %) and continued to rise in
words, excluding bark). Sawnwood production is 2011, but at a much more modest pace (1.4 %).
wood that has been produced either by sawing This was followed by two years when there
lengthways or by a prole-chipping process and was almost no change in the level of output.
that exceeds 6 mm in thickness. In 2014, there was a 2.1 % reduction in EU-28
In 2015, the EU-28 had approximately 182 million roundwood production, such that output stood
hectares of forests and other wooded land, at 425 million m, some 37 million m (or 8.0 %)
lower than its pre-crisis high of 2007.
Figure 8.5: Annual production of roundwood, EU-28, 19952014

(thousand m)
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Non-coniferous Coniferous
Note: Estimates. 2011: provisional.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: for_remov)
Among the EU Member States, Sweden were produced in the EU-28 in 2014, just over
produced the most roundwood (70.1 million two thirds of which came from the ve largest
m) in 2014, followed by Finland, Germany and producing EU Member States, namely, Germany
France (each producing between 52 million and (22.0 %), Sweden (17.6 %), Finland (11.0 %), Austria
57 million m). Some 99 million m of sawnwood (8.4 %) and France (8.0 %).

Table 8.3: Wood production, 200014

(thousand m)
Roundwood production Sawnwood production
2000 2010 2014 2000 2010 2014
EU-28 411 764 427 611 425 351 100 706 100 815 99 208
EA () 236 540 234 993 225 127 61 337 59 673 55 133
Belgium 4 510 4 827 : 1 150 1 383 :
Bulgaria 4 784 5 668 5 570 312 554 :
Czech Republic 14 441 16 736 15 476 4 106 4 744 3 861
Denmark 2 952 2 669 3 180 364 448 358
Germany 53 710 54 418 54 356 16 340 22 059 21 787
Estonia 8 910 7 200 8 460 1 436 1 771 1 600
Ireland 2 673 2 618 2 831 888 772 907
Greece 2 245 1 048 : 123 118 :
Spain 14 321 16 089 15 911 3 760 2 038 2 047
France 65 865 55 808 51 671 10 536 8 316 7 901
Croatia 3 669 4 477 5 003 642 677 780
Italy 9 329 7 844 : 1 630 1 200 1 430
Cyprus 21 9 9 9 4 2
Latvia 14 304 12 534 12 597 3 900 3 150 3 657
Lithuania 5 500 7 097 7 351 1 300 1 272 1 345
Luxembourg 260 275 : 133 94 :
Hungary 5 902 5 740 5 671 291 133 121
Malta 0 0 0 0 0 0
Netherlands 1 039 1 081 1 337 389 231 227
Austria 13 276 17 831 17 089 10 390 9 603 8 351
Poland 26 025 35 467 40 565 4 262 4 220 4 615
Portugal 10 831 9 648 : 1 427 1 045 :
Romania 13 148 13 112 15 068 3 396 4 323 5 762
Slovenia 2 253 2 945 5 099 439 760 700
Slovakia 6 163 9 599 : 1 265 2 576 :
Finland 54 542 50 952 57 033 13 420 9 473 10 940
Sweden 63 300 72 200 70 100 16 176 16 750 17 500
United Kingdom 7 791 9 718 11 184 2 622 3 101 3 764
Iceland 0 : : 0 : :
Liechtenstein : 25 19 : 4 0
Norway 8 156 10 443 12 386 2 280 2 118 2 407
Switzerland 9 238 4 938 4 709 1 625 1 457 1 140
Montenegro : 915 915 : 52 53
FYR of Macedonia 1 052 631 691 36 5 4
Turkey 15 939 20 597 22 835 5 528 6 243 6 635
Brazil 235 402 235 432 264 443 21 300 17 452 15 397
Canada 201 845 142 013 154 259 50 465 38 667 43 351
China 323 646 350 633 347 512 6 675 37 231 68 440
India 318 553 358 066 357 226 7 900 6 889 6 889
Indonesia 137 830 113 849 115 232 6 500 4 169 4 169
Russia 158 101 175 499 203 000 20 000 28 870 33 900
United States 466 549 376 572 398 693 91 076 60 013 74 803
() EA-11 for 2000. EA-12 for 2005. EA-16 for 2010. EA-17 for 201113. EA-18 for 2014.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: for_remov and for_swpan)

8.5 Fisheries
Fish are a natural, biological, mobile (sometimes States, in terms of power, were those from France,
over wide distances) and renewable resource. Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom.
Aside from sh farming, sh cannot be owned Having peaked in 1995 at 7.6 million tonnes of
until they have been caught. For this reason, live weight, the total EU-28 catch (calculated as
sh stocks continue to be regarded as a the sum of catches in the seven regions for which
common resource, which needs to be managed statistics are covered by EU legal acts) fell almost
collectively. This has led to a range of policies that every year until 2007. Thereafter, the weight
regulate the amount of shing that is conducted of EU-28 catches was relatively stable up until
in EU waters, as well as the types of shing 2013, with a marked jump in 2014 (up 11.5 %). A
techniques and gear used in sh capture. smaller reduction followed in 2015 ( 5.0 %), with
The EU-28's shing eet in 2015 had a combined the total EU-28 catch amounting to 5.1 million
capacity of 1.6 million gross tonnes and a total tonnes. This quantity was 7.0 % less than 10 years
engine power of 6.4 million kilowatts (kW). By far, earlier and approximately one third lower than
the largest shing eets among the EU Member in 1995.
Figure 8.6: Total catches in selected shing regions, EU-28, 2015

(% of total catches)
Rest of EU-28
Finland 7.3 %
3.0 % Spain
Portugal 17.6 %
3.6 %
Poland
3.7 %
Italy
3.7 %
Sweden
4.0 %
Denmark
Ireland 17.0 %
4.6 %
Germany
4.9 %
Netherlands
7.1 % United Kingdom
France 13.7 %
9.7 %
Note: Total catches in the seven regions covered by legal acts, catches in inland waters are excluded. Rest of EU-28: Latvia,
namely: 21 Atlantic, Northwest; 27 Atlantic, Northeast; Croatia, Estonia, Greece, Lithuania, Belgium, Bulgaria,
34 Atlantic, Eastern Central; 37 Mediterranean Romania, Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia. Not applicable for
and Black Sea; 41 Atlantic, Southwest; 47 Atlantic, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Hungary, Austria and Slovakia
Southeast; and 51 Indian Ocean, Western. Consequently (landlocked countries without a marine shing eet).
Source: Eurostat (online data code: sh_ca_main)

The EU-28 had a stable output of aquaculture (285 thousand tonnes), the United Kingdom,
products during the period 200414, with a France, Italy and Greece, which together
production quantity uctuating around 1.2 accounted for three quarters of the EU-28 total;
1.3 million tonnes live weight. The lowest none of the other EU Member States reported a
quantity was 1.18 million tonnes recorded in 2013 level of production above 100 thousand tonnes
and the highest 1.33 million tonnes recorded in of live weight.
2004.
The ve largest aquaculture producers among
the EU Member States in 2014 were Spain
Figure 8.7: Aquaculture production, EU-28, 2014

(% of total live weight)
Rest of EU-28 Spain
20.0 % 22.4 %
Netherlands
5.0 %
Greece United Kingdom ()

8.2 % 16.9 %
Italy
11.7 %
France
15.7 %
Note: Excluding production from hatcheries and nurseries, sh eggs for human
consumption, ornamental and aquarium species. Rest of EU-28: Poland,
Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia, Finland, Sweden,
Portugal, Romania, Malta, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Austria, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia,
Estonia, Latvia and Belgium. No data available for Luxembourg.
() Break in series.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sh_aq_q and sh_aq_2a)

Industry, trade
and services

9 Industry, trade and services
Introduction
Business statistics cover industry, construction, successful entrepreneurship and improve the
trade and services, including tourism. Several business environment for SMEs, to allow them to
other statistics also relate to businesses, for achieve their full potential in the global economy.
example some science, technology and digital COSME is an EU programme for the
society statistics as well as many social statistics competitiveness of enterprises and SMEs; it will
related to the labour market. run from 2014 to 2020 with a planned budget
The European Commissions enterprise policies of EUR 2.3 billion. It aims to supports SMEs in
aim to create a favourable environment for the following areas: improving access to nance;
business to thrive within the EU, thus creating access to markets; supporting entrepreneurs; and
higher productivity, economic growth, jobs improving conditions for competitiveness.
and wealth. Policies are aimed at reducing The Entrepreneurship 2020 action plan
administrative burden, stimulating innovation, (COM(2012) 795 nal) proposes action to increase
encouraging sustainable production, and Europes entrepreneurial potential, to remove
ensuring the smooth functioning of the EUs existing obstacles and to transform the culture
internal market. of entrepreneurship in Europe. The plan has
The 22.6 million small and medium-sized four main parts: educating young people about
enterprises (SMEs) in the EU-28 in 2013 entrepreneurship; highlighting entrepreneurial
represented 99.8 % of enterprises in the opportunities for women and other groups;
non-nancial business economy, and are creating an environment based on easy
regarded as a key driver for economic growth, administrative requirements; and making it easier
innovation, employment and social integration. for entrepreneurs to attract investors.
The European Commission aims to promote
9.1 Structural business statistics

Structural business statistics can provide answers Among the NACE Rev. 2 sections in the non-
to questions on the wealth creation (value nancial business economy, manufacturing was
added), investment and labour input of dierent the largest in terms of value added: 2 million
economic activities. The data can be used to manufacturing enterprises generated EUR
analyse structural shifts, for example between 1 630 billion of value added in 2013, while
industry and services, country specialisations in providing employment for about 29.7 million
particular activities, sectoral productivity and persons. Distributive trades enterprises had the
protability, as well as a range of other topics. largest share of employment: these enterprises
In 2013, a total of EUR 6 240 billion of gross value provided employment to 32.5 million persons
added at factor cost was generated in the EU-28s and generated EUR 1 147 billion of value added.
non-nancial business economy. The non- Professional, scientic and technical activities
nancial business economy workforce reached had the third highest value added but only the
133 million persons employed, around three fth largest workforce, behind administrative and
fths (63.0 %) of those employed in the EU-28. support services as well as construction.

Industry, trade and services 9
Figure 9.1 contrasts the value added and notably accommodation and food services;
employment contributions of the various sectors administrative and support services (which
to the non-nancial business economy. The includes cleaning and security services, as well
industrial activities of mining and quarrying; as employment services such as the provision of
manufacturing; electricity, gas, steam and air temporary personnel); repair of computers and
conditioning supply; water supply, waste and personal and household goods; and distributive
remediation contributed more in terms of value trades reported relatively low levels of
added than employment to the overall non- apparent labour productivity. It should be noted
nancial business economy, indicating an above that the employment data presented are in terms
average apparent labour productivity. This was of head counts and not, for example, full-time
also the case in some of the service activities, equivalents, and there may be a signicant
namely information and communication services, proportion of persons working part-time in some
real estate activities, as well as professional, of the activities covered; this may explain, at
scientic and technical activities. By contrast, the least to some degree, the relatively low levels of
construction sector and a number of services apparent labour productivity for some activities.
Figure 9.1: Analysis of non-nancial business economy value added and employment,
EU-28, 2013
(% of non-nancial business economy value added and employment)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Manufacturing
Distributive trades
Professional, scientic & technical activities
Information & communication
Transport & storage
Construction
Administrative & support services
Electricity, gas, steam & air con. supply
Accommodation & food services
Water supply, waste & remediation
Mining & quarrying
Repair: computers, personal & h'hold goods
Value added Employment

Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: sbs_na_sca_r2)

The overwhelming majority (99.8 %) of 17.5 million in manufacturing and 10.7 million
enterprises active within the EU-28s non-nancial in construction; together, these three activities
business economy in 2013 were micro, small provided work to 57.4 % of the non-nancial
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) some business economy workforce in SMEs. Micro
22.6 million together they contributed 57.8 % enterprises employed more people than any
of the value added generated within the EUs other enterprise size class in all service sectors
non-nancial business economy. More than 9 out (at the section level of detail), with the exception
of 10 (92.9 %) enterprises in the EU-28 were micro of administrative and support service activities.
enterprises (employing less than 10 persons) This pattern was particularly pronounced
and their share of value added within the non- for the repair of computers, personal and
nancial business economy was considerably household goods where an absolute majority
lower, around one fth. of the workforce in this sector worked in
Perhaps the most striking phenomenon of SMEs micro enterprises. By contrast, in mining and
is their contribution to employment. No less quarrying as well as electricity, gas, steam and air
than two thirds (66.8 %) of the EUs non-nancial conditioning supply large enterprises employed
business economy workforce was active in an more than half of the workforce, as they also did
SME in 2013. Some 22.8 million persons worked in administrative and support service activities.
in SMEs in the distributive trades sector,
Figure 9.2: Enterprise size class analysis of employment, EU-28, 2013

(% of sectoral total)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Repair: computer, personal & h'hold goods
Professional, scientic & technical activities
Construction
Accommodation & food services
Distributive trades
Information & communication
Transport & storage
Administrative & support services
Manufacturing
Water supply, waste & remediation
Mining & quarrying
Electricity, gas, steam & air con. supply
Micro (09 persons employed) Small (1049 persons employed)
Medium-sized (50249 persons employed) Large (250+ persons employed)
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sbs_sc_ind_r2, sbs_sc_con_r2, sbs_sc_dt_r2 and
sbs_sc_1b_se_r2)

9.2 Industry and construction

Short-term business statistics (STS) are provided month-on-month rates of change for 22 out of
in the form of indices that allow the most rapid 28 months through to a peak in August 2011: this
assessment of the economic climate within peak was 13.9 % above the April 2009 low but
industry and construction, providing a rst nevertheless
evaluation of recent developments for a range 8.4 % below the pre-crisis peak of April 2008.
of economic activities. STS show developments Thereafter, there was a gradual decline in
over time, and so may be used to calculate rates EU-28 industrial output observed through until
of change, typically showing comparisons with November 2012 during which time output
the month or quarter before, or the same period contracted by 4.7 %; subsequently industrial
of the previous year. output grew at a relatively slow pace to July 2015
Industrial output in the EU-28 recovered during (the latest data available at the time of writing),
a period of slightly more than two years from increasing 4.3 % over the course of two years and
its relative low in April 2009, recording positive eight months.
Figure 9.3: Production and domestic output price indices for industry (excluding
construction), EU-28, 200515
(2010 = 100)
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
Jul-05 Jul-07 Jul-09 Jul-11 Jul-13 Jul-15
Domestic output price index () Index of production ()

() Unadjusted series.
() Seasonally and working-day adjusted. July 2015: estimate.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sts_inppd_m and sts_inpr_m)

By contrast, the return to positive rates of change 2013, a decline that lasted in total ve years and
for EU-28 industrial output prices in August 2009 one month and left construction output 26.2 %
heralded a more sustained and longer period lower than it had been. Construction output
of price increases. The industrial output price expanded by a total of 7.6 % during the next
index passed its pre-crisis peak in February 2011 13 months and between then (April 2014)
and continued an almost unbroken climb until and the most recent period for which data are
April 2012 when it stood some 13.5 % above the available (July 2015) output remained relatively
low recorded during the crisis and 4.9 % above stable.
the pre-crisis peak (nearly four years earlier). The long and deep downturn in construction
From April 2012 onwards, the development of activity was widespread within the EU-28,
industrial output prices in the EU-28 followed an illustrated by the fact that nearly every EU
irregular pattern with almost no overall change in Member State experienced at least two years
prices through to the autumn of 2013. Thereafter, of contraction in construction output during
industrial output prices fell at a relatively modest the most recent ve-year period (201014) for
pace during a period of more than one year, which data are available, despite the fact that
reaching a low in January 2015, since when prices this period excludes the rst two years of the
have been relatively stable. downturn. By 2012, the number of Member
The downturn in activity for construction within States reporting an expansion had fallen to just
the EU-28 lasted longer than for industry. Despite ve, although this increased to nine in 2013 and
occasional short-lived periods of growth, the 18 in 2014 when the EU-28 recorded its rst
EU-28 index of production for construction fell annual increase in construction output since
from a peak in February 2008 to a low in March 2007.

Table 9.1: Annual growth rates for industry (excluding construction), 201014
(%)
Index of production () Domestic output price index ()

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
EU-28 6.8 3.1 2.1 0.5 1.1 3.1 6.1 2.8 0.0 1.5
EA-19 7.3 3.4 2.4 0.7 0.8 2.7 5.7 2.8 0.2 1.5
Belgium 11.1 4.1 2.1 0.9 1.0 5.4 8.1 3.5 0.6 4.6
Bulgaria 2.1 5.9 0.2 0.1 1.7 7.1 8.6 5.3 1.3 0.9
Czech Republic 8.2 5.9 0.8 0.1 5.0 1.3 5.5 2.1 0.8 0.8
Denmark 2.0 1.9 0.1 0.4 0.8 6.4 7.8 2.5 2.2 2.3
Germany 10.9 7.2 0.3 0.2 1.3 1.5 5.1 1.7 0.0 0.9
Estonia 22.9 19.7 1.5 4.2 2.4 1.7 4.6 3.4 9.9 2.3
Ireland 7.5 0.4 1.5 2.2 20.9 1.5 6.5 3.1 1.5 0.3
Greece 6.1 5.8 2.1 3.2 2.0 6.1 7.4 4.9 0.7 0.8
Spain 0.8 1.7 6.9 1.7 1.3 3.7 6.9 3.8 0.6 1.3
France 5.0 2.4 2.6 0.7 1.1 2.7 5.4 2.8 0.3 1.3
Croatia 1.6 1.2 5.3 2.0 1.3 4.3 6.4 7.0 0.4 2.7
Italy 6.8 1.2 6.3 3.2 0.5 3.1 5.1 4.1 1.2 1.8
Cyprus 1.7 7.7 9.6 13.5 0.9 4.0 5.9 8.1 2.1 3.1
Latvia 14.4 8.8 6.2 0.4 0.9 0.2 8.8 5.3 1.1 0.1
Lithuania 6.1 6.6 3.7 3.3 0.2 3.9 10.4 5.6 0.3 5.1
Luxembourg 8.7 1.9 5.3 3.9 5.7 1.5 4.4 3.6 1.3 4.8
Hungary 10.3 5.7 1.4 1.5 7.2 7.3 6.1 5.3 0.5 2.1
Malta 8.6 0.1 5.4 5.3 5.8 11.5 2.2 2.3 0.9 1.2
Netherlands 7.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 3.0 4.2 9.8 3.8 1.3 3.2
Austria 6.7 6.8 0.3 0.8 0.8 4.0 4.8 0.9 1.0 1.5
Poland 11.1 6.7 1.2 2.3 3.4 3.7 7.6 3.6 1.2 1.4
Portugal 1.6 1.0 6.1 0.5 1.8 3.6 6.0 2.9 0.1 1.2
Romania 4.9 7.9 2.5 7.5 6.3 4.0 6.6 4.8 3.7 0.2
Slovenia 6.9 2.1 0.5 1.4 1.7 2.0 3.8 1.0 0.3 1.1
Slovakia 8.2 5.3 8.0 5.2 3.7 2.8 2.7 3.8 0.2 3.6
Finland 5.3 1.7 1.5 3.2 2.1 6.7 5.8 2.3 0.9 0.9
Sweden 8.7 2.6 1.2 4.6 1.7 3.0 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.1
United Kingdom 3.1 0.6 3.0 0.2 1.5 5.4 9.7 2.2 1.0 2.3
Norway 5.4 4.5 2.7 5.0 3.6 8.5 8.0 0.1 2.9 0.4
Switzerland : : : : : 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.7
Montenegro : 10.2 7.1 10.6 11.4 : : : : :
FYR of Macedonia 4.8 6.9 2.8 3.2 4.8 8.7 12.4 4.6 0.4 1.2
Serbia 1.1 2.5 2.6 6.0 6.6 12.1 14.4 5.6 3.0 1.0
Turkey 12.6 9.5 2.4 3.5 3.5 6.2 12.3 6.1 5.7 10.1
Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.2 2.3 3.6 5.2 0.1 : : : : :
() Calendar adjusted. () Unadjusted series.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sts_inprgr_a and sts_inppdgr_a)

9.3 Services
Traditionally, short-term business statistics were in Figure 9.4 reached a low point in the second
concentrated on industrial and construction or third quarter of 2009, or the rst quarter of
activities, and to a lesser extent retail trade. Since 2010. From these lows, the strongest growth in
the middle of the 1990s, major developments in turnover across the dierent services through
ocial statistics within the EU have seen to the second quarter of 2015 was recorded for
short-term data collection eorts focus administrative and support services (30.3 %),
increasingly on services. followed by transportation and storage services
Services turnover (in current price terms) fell (21.4 %). Professional, scientic and technical
by 8.8 % in the EU-28 in 2009 compared with activities, distributive trades and accommodation
the year before, but rebounded in 2010 and and food services also recorded double-digit
2011 increasing by 4.7 % and 5.0 % respectively. growth between their mid-crisis lows and
Growth continued in 2012, 2013 and 2014, but at their latest levels (second quarter of 2015), with
a more modest pace (rising by 0.4 %, 0.9 % and turnover rising by 16.9 %, 14.0 % and 13.2 %
1.4 %). respectively. The rate of change for information
and communication services was a more modest
Having peaked in various quarters of 2008,
9.8 %.
EU-28 turnover for all six of the services shown
Figure 9.4: Index of turnover, selected service activities, EU-28, 200515

(2010 = 100)
130
120
110
100
90
80
Q1-2005
Q1-2006
Q1-2007
Q1-2008
Q1-2009
Q1-2010
Q1-2011
Q1-2012
Q1-2013
Q1-2014
Q1-2015
Administrative & support services ()() Transportation & storage ()

Professional, scientic & technical act. ()() Accommodation & food services ()
Information & communication () Distributive trades ()
Note: Seasonally and working-day adjusted.
() As required by the STS Regulation.
() 200509: estimates. Q2-2015: estimates.
() 200509 and 2015: estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sts_trtu_q and sts_setu_q)

Table 9.2: Annual growth rates for the index of turnover, selected services, 201314
(%)
Transportation and
Administrative and
Distributive trades
support services()
Information and
Accommodation
communication
Professional,
scientic and
food services
activities()
technical
activities
storage
and
2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014
EU-28 1.7 0.2 1.3 5.0 0.5 3.3 0.5 1.6 1.7 3.3 2.1 6.1
EA-19 0.5 0.5 0.1 1.6 0.0 2.0 1.7 1.4 0.3 1.3 0.0 4.3
Belgium 0.8 1.3 7.9 4.7 3.3 5.4 0.6 1.0 5.6 0.8 8.7 16.6
Bulgaria 3.5 10.2 8.8 3.2 6.0 5.8 1.6 4.0 3.8 0.4 6.7 2.1
Czech Republic 1.1 4.3 3.0 4.1 1.1 2.5 3.6 0.7 6.5 1.9 2.4 3.6
Denmark 2.3 5.5 : : : : : : : : : :
Germany 0.1 0.7 0.3 2.1 1.0 3.6 0.4 3.0 2.2 4.9 0.4 9.1
Estonia 15.2 1.0 5.9 3.5 8.1 7.5 3.1 2.2 9.0 17.5 6.7 2.9
Ireland 5.0 2.4 : : 1.9 10.9 : : : : : :
Greece 10.1 1.0 4.4 1.0 4.8 12.7 9.3 1.7 8.9 2.3 3.5 1.2
Spain 1.8 3.0 0.4 4.2 0.1 4.2 5.1 0.3 3.8 0.3 3.1 0.9
France 0.0 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.7 0.5 0.0 0.8 0.0 2.2
Croatia 1.2 1.4 0.3 1.1 19.3 1.7 4.2 1.7 0.8 2.3 0.8 6.1
Italy 2.5 0.7 0.0 1.1 2.4 0.1 5.7 3.4 2.2 2.1 4.2 1.7
Cyprus 10.1 0.9 1.3 0.6 3.9 2.0 16.0 3.3 11.1 7.2 12.8 3.7
Latvia 4.9 0.5 2.1 0.4 6.9 7.9 8.2 2.8 4.8 2.9 16.3 4.3
Lithuania 6.8 3.0 8.3 6.0 7.5 7.5 2.9 2.8 12.6 10.5 12.9 7.5
Luxembourg 4.5 3.9 2.0 4.6 5.0 2.9 4.7 1.1 8.5 8.1 9.3 5.2
Hungary 4.7 8.4 10.6 12.8 14.9 22.5 16.9 1.5 10.6 15.6 18.6 3.2
Malta 0.7 2.4 5.7 1.1 1.3 9.9 1.9 9.4 6.4 13.3 3.3 8.9
Netherlands 3.1 1.8 0.6 2.2 0.9 5.1 2.5 2.6 0.5 2.8 1.1 4.1
Austria 2.3 1.4 1.1 0.4 3.9 3.7 0.2 0.1 1.1 3.3 2.8 0.3
Poland 3.7 0.5 5.0 7.4 5.8 5.7 2.8 1.8 5.4 3.9 9.1 15.1
Portugal 3.5 2.3 0.9 0.1 3.4 3.9 5.5 3.8 7.9 5.2 5.2 0.2
Romania 2.7 0.5 9.9 4.0 2.8 3.6 4.6 7.5 4.1 5.9 14.7 4.2
Slovenia 0.6 1.6 0.5 6.1 1.2 2.1 0.1 1.2 2.2 2.5 3.0 2.4
Slovakia 2.6 5.5 10.4 4.9 3.2 3.3 4.6 3.3 18.7 1.8 16.0 7.2
Finland 3.2 0.8 1.5 0.8 1.1 0.8 2.5 8.5 0.8 3.0 0.4 0.5
Sweden 0.6 4.9 1.6 0.5 5.2 4.8 1.0 4.5 0.1 7.6 0.5 2.6
United Kingdom 8.9 0.5 3.1 7.1 0.9 6.4 2.7 1.6 7.8 8.1 7.8 11.4
Turkey 9.0 12.0 11.0 12.3 15.4 13.3 8.7 6.9 9.7 0.5 11.0 10.8
Note: Working day adjusted.

() As required by the STS Regulation.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: sts_trtu_a and sts_setu_a)

9.4 Tourism
Residents (aged 15 and above) from within the than half (57.4 %) of the total number of trips
EU-28 made an estimated 1.2 billion tourism trips made, while three quarters (74.9 %) of all trips
in 2014, for personal or business purposes. Short made were to domestic destinations, with the
trips (of one to three nights) accounted for more remainder abroad.
Table 9.3: Tourist accommodation establishments, 2014

Number of establishments Number of bed places Nights spent by residents
(units) (thousands) and non-residents (millions)
EU-28 () 570 268 30 913.0 2 684.0
Belgium 5 139 366.2 32.6
Bulgaria 3 163 314.3 21.7
Czech Republic 9 013 710.4 42.9
Denmark 1 118 420.0 29.6
Germany 50 925 3 318.6 366.5
Estonia 1 419 58.1 5.8
Ireland 6 574 205.9 29.2
Greece 34 522 1 238.6 95.1
Spain 47 689 3 483.0 404.0
France 28 895 5 109.9 402.3
Croatia 67 724 893.8 66.1
Italy 158 412 4 849.4 378.2
Cyprus 802 87.6 13.7
Latvia 644 39.1 4.2
Lithuania 2 062 72.9 6.5
Luxembourg 434 64.9 2.9
Hungary 4 176 435.6 26.1
Malta 166 41.9 8.8
Netherlands 9 214 1 373.6 99.8
Austria 20 329 993.6 110.4
Poland 9 885 694.0 66.6
Portugal 3 429 519.9 55.0
Romania 6 191 309.0 20.2
Slovenia 2 900 106.6 9.5
Slovakia 2 687 149.1 10.8
Finland 1 408 251.0 19.8
Sweden 4 269 805.3 52.3
UnitedKingdom () 87 079 4 001.0 303.6
Iceland () 916 : 4.3
Liechtenstein 86 2.0 0.1
Norway 2 707 575.3 30.6
Switzerland () 5 541 398.6 41.3
Montenegro () 524 149.3 9.2
FYR of Macedonia 441 43.4 1.5
Serbia 987 102.4 6.0
Turkey : : 130.0
() Estimate made for the purpose of this publication, based on () 2013.

available data. () Excluding holiday and other short-stay accommodation
() Number of establishments and bed places: 2013. Number of establishments.
nights spent: 2012. () 2012.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tour_cap_nat and tour_occ_ninat)

In some EU Member States, over half of the total Romania, Bulgaria and Greece spent, on average,
number of tourism trips made in 2014 were less than one night abroad in 2014.
to destinations abroad; this was the case for In 2014, Spain was the most common tourism
Luxembourg, Belgium, Malta and Slovenia (as destination in the EU for non-residents (people
well as Switzerland). However, 10.0 % or less of coming from abroad), with 260 million nights
the trips taken by residents of Romania, Spain and spent in tourist accommodation establishments,
Portugal were abroad. These gures appear to be or 21.5 % of the EU-28 total. Across the EU, the top
inuenced by both the size of the Member States four most popular destinations for non-residents
and their geographical location (smaller and more were Spain, Italy (187 million nights), France
northerly countries tended to report a higher (131 million nights) and the United Kingdom
propensity for their residents to travel abroad). (105 million nights, data for 2013), which together
When taking into account a countrys size in accounted for more than half (56.6 %) of the total
terms of its population, Luxembourg was the EU nights spent by non-residents in the EU-28. The
Member State whose residents spent the most least common destinations were Luxembourg
nights abroad per inhabitant (an average of and Latvia; the eect of the size of these Member
24.6 nights in 2014), followed by Cyprus (20.3). States should be considered when interpreting
At the other end of the spectrum, residents of these values.
Figure 9.5: Tourism intensity, 2014

(nights spent by residents and non-residents at tourist accommodation establishments
per inhabitant)
25
20
15
10
0
Croatia
EU-28 ()
Malta
Austria
Greece
Spain
Ireland
Italy
France
United Kingdom ()
Slovenia
Estonia
Czech Republic
Finland
Hungary
Lithuania
Latvia
Slovakia
Poland
Iceland ()
Norway
Liechtenstein
Cyprus
Netherlands
Sweden
Portugal
Luxembourg
Bulgaria
Belgium
Romania
Switzerland ()
Montenegro ()
FYR of Macedonia
Denmark
Turkey
Serbia
Germany
() Estimate made for the purpose of this publication, based on () 2013.

available data. () Excluding nights spent in holiday and other short stay
() 2012. accommodation establishments.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tour_occ_ninat)

Science, technology and
digital agenda

10 Science, technology and digital agenda
Introduction
European Union (EU) statistics in the elds of The European innovation scoreboard is
science, technology and innovation cover a used to monitor the implementation of the
range of issues, most notably: research and innovation union. This tool aims to provide a
development (R & D) statistics, innovation comparative assessment of the performance of
statistics and statistics on human resources in the EU Member States as well as a range of non-
science and technology. member countries.
Science is part of almost every aspect of our Horizon 2020 is the framework programme for
lives: at the ick of a switch, we have light; when research and innovation for the period running
we are ill, medicines help us get better; when from 2014 through to 2020. By coupling research
we want to talk to a friend we just pick up the and innovation, Horizon 2020 emphasises
telephone or send a text message or e-mail. excellent science, industrial leadership and
Europe has a long tradition of excellence in tackling societal challenges. The goal is to ensure
research and innovation. The EU is a global player Europe produces world-class science, removes
in a range of cutting-edge industrial sectors, barriers to innovation and makes it easier for the
for example, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, public and private sectors to work together to
telecommunications or aerospace. deliver innovation.
R & D is often considered as one of the driving The policy context for ICT is a European
forces behind growth and job creation. However, Commission Communication concerning A
its inuence extends well beyond the economic digital agenda for Europe (COM(2010)
sphere, as it can potentially among others 245 nal/2), which presented a strategy to
resolve environmental or international promote a thriving digital economy in the EU
security threats, ensure safer food, or lead to the by 2020. The digital agenda for Europe is one
development of new medicines to prevent and of seven agships initiatives under the Europe
ght illness and disease. 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive
In October 2010, the European Commission growth. The agenda outlines seven priority areas
launched a Europe 2020 agship initiative titled for action including the creation of a digital single
Innovation union (COM(2010) 546 nal) which market.
sets out a strategic approach to a range of
challenges like climate change, energy and food
security, health and an ageing population.

Science, technology and digital agenda 10
10.1 R & D expenditure

One of the key objectives of the EU during the In order to make gures more comparable, GERD
last couple of decades has been to encourage is often expressed relative to GDP, also known as
increasing levels of investment, in order to R & D intensity. This ratio increased modestly in
provide a stimulus to the EUs competitiveness. the EU-28 during the period from 2004 to 2007,
The Europe 2020 strategy adopted in 2010 rising from 1.76 % to 1.78 %. Between 2007 and
maintained a long-standing objective for the EU 2012 it increased more rapidly, reaching 2.01 %,
to devote 3 % of gross domestic product (GDP) to despite a small decline in 2010; R & D intensity
R & D activities; this is one of the ve key targets increased slightly to 2.03 % in 2013 where it
of this strategy. stayed in 2014. Despite the increase in recent
Gross domestic expenditure on R & D (GERD) years, the EU-28s R & D expenditure relative to
stood at EUR 284 billion in the EU-28 in 2014, GDP remained well below the corresponding
which was a 3.4 % increase on the year before, ratios recorded in Japan (3.47 %, 2013 data) and
and 42.0 % higher than 10 years earlier (in 2004) the United States (2.81 %, 2012 data), as it has for
note that these rates of change are in current a lengthy period of time. In 2013, R&D intensity in
prices and so reect price changes as well as real China surpassed that of the EU-28, with Chinese
changes in the level of expenditure. R & D expenditure equivalent to 2.08 % of GDP.
Figure 10.1: Gross domestic expenditure on R & D, 200414

(% of GDP)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Japan () United States () China (except Hong Kong) () EU-28 ()
() 2008: break in series. () 2009: break in series.
() Excludes most or all capital expenditure. 2012: provisional. () 2014: provisional.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsc00001)
Nearly all EU Member States reported a higher period under consideration. At the other end of
R & D intensity in 2014 than in 2004, the the range, the biggest increases in R & D intensity
exceptions being the two Member States with (in percentage point terms) between 2004
the highest intensities, Finland and Sweden, as and 2014 were recorded in Slovenia, the Czech
well as Luxembourg and Croatia; there was no Republic and Austria.
change in R & D intensity in Romania during the

Figure 10.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R & D, 2004 and 2014

(% of GDP)
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0 Slovakia
Croatia
United States ()
EU-28
EA-19
Finland
Sweden ()
Austria
Slovenia ()
France ()
Czech Republic
Netherlands ()
United Kingdom
Ireland
Estonia
Hungary
Italy
Portugal ()
Luxembourg
Spain
Lithuania
Poland
Greece ()
Latvia
Malta
Cyprus
Norway
Bulgaria
Romania ()
South Korea ()()

Japan ()()
China (excl. Hong Kong) ()
Denmark ()
Belgium
Switzerland ()
Iceland (1)()
Russia
Turkey
Serbia
Montenegro
Germany
2004 () 2014 ()
() Break in series.
() 2012 instead of 2014.
() 2003 instead of 2004.
() 2013 instead of 2014.
() Portugal and Sweden: estimates. South Korea and the United States: denition
diers.
() EU-28, EA-19, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, France, Italy,
Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal,
Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States: estimates or provisional. The
United States: denition diers.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: t2020_20 and rd_e_gerdtot)

10.2 R & D personnel

The number of researchers in the EU-28 has An analysis of researchers by sex shows that men
increased in recent years: there were 1.76 million accounted for 67 % of the EU-28s workforce in
researchers (in full-time equivalents (FTE)) 2013. Women accounted for half or more of the
employed in the EU-28 in 2014, which marked total number of researchers in 2013 in Bulgaria,
an increase of 441 thousand (or 33.6 %) when Lithuania and Latvia, and their share was also
compared with 2004. close to parity in Croatia.
An analysis of R & D personnel by sector in R & D personnel from all sectors together
2014 shows that in the EU-28 there was a high made up 2.0 % of the labour force in Denmark
concentration of researchers in the business and Finland and 1.9 % in Luxembourg in 2014,
enterprise sector (48 %) and the higher compared with an EU-28 average of 1.1 %. Aside
education sector (39 %), while 12 % of the total from these three Member States, this share
number of researchers were working in the ranged from 0.3 % in Cyprus and Romania to
government sector. The relative importance 1.6 % in Sweden.
of the dierent sectors varied considerably An analysis of science and technology graduates
across the EU Member States, with business by sex shows that men (aged 2029) were more
enterprises accounting for three fths or more likely to graduate in these elds than women: in
of all researchers in Sweden, Ireland, Austria, the 2014, the EU-28 registered 24.5 tertiary graduates
Netherlands, France, Malta and Denmark. By in these elds per 1 000 men aged 2029 and
contrast, the government sector employed the 12.7 graduates per 1 000 women of the same
highest share of researchers in Bulgaria (38 %) age, a dierence of 11.8 per 1 000. A gender gap
and in Romania (35 %). Around three fths of was observed in all EU Member States in 2014,
all researchers working in Cyprus, Lithuania, ranging from 3.0 per 1 000 in Luxembourg to
Slovakia, Latvia and Greece were employed 24.1 per 1 000 in Ireland.
within the higher education sector, with this
share reaching two thirds (67 %) in Portugal.

Figure 10.3: Researchers in full-time equivalents (FTE), by sector, 2014 ()

(% of total)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
EU-28
EA-19
Sweden
Ireland
Austria
Netherlands ()
France
Malta
Denmark
Hungary
Germany
Finland
Slovenia
Belgium
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Italy
United Kingdom
Spain
Poland
Estonia
Romania
Portugal
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Cyprus
Latvia
Slovakia
Greece
Croatia ()
Norway ()
Switzerland ()
Iceland ()
Turkey
Montenegro
FYR of Macedonia
Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina ()
South Korea ()
Japan ()
United States ()()
China (except Hong Kong) ()
Russia
Business enterprise sector Government sector
Higher education sector Private non-prot sector
() EU-28, EA-19, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, France, Italy,
Cyprus, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia,
Sweden and the United Kingdom: estimates or provisional.
() Denition diers.
() 2012.
() 2013.
() Data only available for the business enterprise sector.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsc00004)

Figure 10.4: Science and technology graduates, 2014
(tertiary graduates in science and technology per 1 000 persons aged 2029 years)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
EU-28
Ireland
France
United Kingdom
Austria
Finland
Denmark
Spain
Portugal
Slovenia
Poland
Germany
Lithuania
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Greece
Romania
Croatia
Malta
Sweden
Belgium
Bulgaria
Italy
Estonia
Latvia
Hungary
Netherlands
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Norway
Liechtenstein
Serbia
FYR of Macedonia
Men Women
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_uoe_grad04)

10.3 Innovation
Innovation forms part of the Europe 2020 systems or operations for purchasing, accounting,
strategy for its role in creating job opportunities, or computing were implemented in nearly
making enterprises more competitive in the three fths (58.9 %) of the process innovative
global market, improving the quality of life and enterprises across the EU. Less common
in contributing to a more sustainable growth. implementation in the process innovation
Encouraging and stimulating innovation is one of context was process innovations related to
the main objectives of European policies. new or signicantly improved logistics, delivery
Almost half of all enterprises in the EU-28 or distribution methods for inputs, goods or
reported innovation activity (48.9 %) during services, as this was undertaken by just over
the period 201012. Compared with the period one third (34.9 %) of the process innovative
200810 the share of innovative enterprises enterprises in the EU.
decreased by 3.9 percentage points. More than 6 in 10 (61.9 %) product and / or
process innovative enterprises in the EU used
For the EU-28 as a whole, more than one quarter
lead time advantage over competitors (in
(27.5 %) of enterprises reported organisational
other words, reducing the time lag between
innovation. Marketing innovation ranked
the initiation and the implementation of their
second, being implemented in 24.3 % of all
innovations) to improve their competiveness
enterprises. Product innovation (innovation that
between 2010 and 2012. Slightly more than one
encompasses new or signicantly improved
quarter (28.5 %) of these enterprises considered
goods or services) was introduced in 23.7 % of
this method as highly important. A similar
enterprises. Relatively few enterprises (21.4 %)
proportion (60.6 %) of product and / or process
implemented process innovations. It is important
innovative enterprises used the complexity
to note that individual enterprises may have
of goods or services to maintain or increase
introduced more than one type of innovation.
their competitiveness. Less than half of these
Based on the available data, the most common considered this method highly important. These
novelty or improvement among process two leading methods (among those surveyed)
innovators was related to the methods to were closely followed by the use of secrecy,
manufacture or produce goods and services. which was used by just over half (51.2 %) of
New or signicantly improved supporting product and / or process innovative enterprises
activities for processes, such as maintenance in the EU.

Table 10.1: Share of process innovative enterprises by implementation type, 201012
Enterprises that
Enterprises that Enterprises that
developed process
developed process developed process
innovation by
innovation by innovation by
Process innovative introducing new or
introducing new introducing new or
enterprises improved methods
or improved improved supporting
to manufacture or
logistics, delivery or activities for
produce goods or
distribution methods processes
services
(% of all enterprises) (% of all process innovative enterprises)
EU-28 () 21.4 34.9 65.5 58.9
Belgium 31.1 35.2 60.3 53.3
Bulgaria 9.3 28.1 61.7 48.7
Czech Republic 24.0 39.6 68.0 59.2
Denmark 22.9 37.7 41.9 77.8
Germany 25.5 44.1 74.9 53.3
Estonia 23.8 25.4 65.9 48.4
Ireland 25.9 40.5 59.9 70.0
Greece 25.6 28.3 59.7 63.3
Spain 15.1 20.3 61.8 56.1
France 24.1 35.9 72.4 48.0
Croatia 19.0 40.8 65.3 69.0
Italy 30.4 31.3 61.3 66.8
Cyprus 28.2 95.7 57.8 84.7
Latvia 12.7 32.6 71.9 42.3
Lithuania 13.1 25.4 70.1 58.3
Luxembourg 32.8 41.7 59.1 64.9
Hungary 8.3 19.6 58.9 55.1
Malta 26.4 52.4 57.8 74.8
Netherlands 25.9 32.7 62.1 55.4
Austria 28.7 32.5 55.4 72.8
Poland 11.0 29.2 61.7 54.1
Portugal 33.5 37.2 60.7 72.2
Romania 4.6 31.6 69.3 34.9
Slovenia 22.5 34.1 68.2 66.6
Slovakia 13.5 38.6 62.9 64.4
Finland 29.3 33.9 64.0 62.9
Sweden 23.9 32.0 57.2 61.2
United Kingdom 14.1 : : :
Norway 11.9 25.4 60.8 47.4
Serbia 22.0 40.9 49.9 74.8
Turkey 20.4 45.3 79.9 58.4
Note: The survey reference period covers the three years from () Excluding the United Kingdom for the specic types of
2010 to 2012. implementation.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: inn_cis8_spec)

Figure 10.5: Methods for maintaining or increasing competitiveness in product and/

or process innovative enterprises by degree of importance, EU-28, 201012
(% of all product and / or process innovative enterprises)
Design registration 5.3 20.0 74.6
Copyright 6.2 21.1 72.6
Patents 10.5 20.4 69.1
Trademarks 12.9 28.1 59.0
Secrecy 15.5 35.7 48.8
Complexity of goods / services 20.4 40.6 39.0
Lead time advantages 28.5 33.4 38.1
0 25 50 75 100
High Medium and low Not used

Note: Excluding the Czech Republic, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, France, Latvia and the
United Kingdom. The survey reference period covers the three years from 2010
to 2012.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: inn_cis8_comp)

10.4 Patents
Patents reect inventive activity and they also Austria (230) and the Netherlands (205). With
show the capacity to exploit knowledge and the exception of Italy (70 patent applications per
translate it into potential economic gains. In this million inhabitants) and Slovenia (66), all of the
context, indicators based on patent statistics are southern and eastern EU Member States as well
widely used to assess the inventive performance as the Baltic Member States reported less than
of countries or regions. 50 patent applications per million inhabitants in
The total number of patent applications to the 2014.
European Patent Oce (EPO) was 142.7 thousand Patent applications for information and
in 2014. Applications from EU-28 Member States communication technologies (ICT) represented
reached 56.6 thousand in 2014 (or 39.6 % of the almost one third (31.5 %) of the total applications
total), an increase of 1.1 thousand compared with made to the EPO in 2012. The relative share of the
2004, or a gain of 2.0 % in relative terms. EU Member States in the number of ICT patents
was quite low, as they accounted for 32.0 % of all
Among the EU Member States, Germany had by
ICT applications. ICT patent applications to the
far the highest number of patent applications to
EPO were relatively concentrated in a small group
the EPO in 2014, some 20.7 thousand (36.5 % of
of EU Member States. The highest numbers
the EU-28 total), followed by France
of ICT patent applications were recorded
(9.1 thousand), the United Kingdom
in Germany, France, the United Kingdom,
(5.3 thousand), Italy (4.2 thousand), the
Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy and Finland, all
Netherlands (3.5 thousand) and Sweden
of which reported more than 500 applications.
(3.4 thousand). From non-member countries,
Collectively, these seven Member States led
the highest numbers of patent applications were
87.2 % of the ICT patent applications made from
recorded from the United States (36.8 thousand)
within the EU-28 in 2012. The number of ICT
and Japan (21.3 thousand), followed by China
patent applications from non-member countries
(7.5 thousand) and South Korea (6.4 thousand).
was particularly high in the United States
Relative to its population, Sweden reported the (11.9 thousand) and Japan (7.6 thousand), while
highest number of patent applications in 2014, China and South Korea each made a greater
some 349 per million inhabitants, followed by number of applications than any of the EU
Finland (340), Germany (256), Denmark (244), Member States apart from Germany.

Figure 10.6: Patent applications to the EPO, 2004 and 2014

(per million inhabitants)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
EU-28
Sweden 349
Finland 340
Germany
Denmark
Austria
Netherlands
France
Belgium
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Italy
Slovenia
Ireland
Spain
Latvia ()
Czech Republic
Hungary
Lithuania
Poland
Portugal
Greece
Estonia
Malta
Slovakia
Cyprus
Bulgaria
Romania
Croatia
418
Switzerland 398
Iceland
Norway
Turkey
Japan
Israel ()
South Korea
United States
Canada ()
New Zealand
Australia
Russia ()
South Africa ()
Brazil () 11
India () 01
Mexico () 11
2004 2014
Note: 2013 and 2014: estimates.
() 2013 instead of 2014.
() 2012 instead of 2014.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: pat_ep_ntot)

Figure 10.7: Patent applications to the EPO ICT, 2012
(number)
0 200 400 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400 1 600 1 800 2 000
EU-28 14 367
Germany 4 787
France 2 693
United Kingdom
Sweden
Netherlands
Italy
Finland
Belgium
Austria
Spain
Denmark
Ireland
Poland
Hungary
Czech Republic
Romania
Greece
Portugal
Slovenia 18
Estonia 9
Slovakia 9
Lithuania 8
Luxembourg 8
Bulgaria 8
Latvia 7
Croatia 2
Cyprus 2
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland 8
Liechtenstein 2
Turkey
United States 11 933
Japan 7 581
China 3 299
South Korea 3 170
Canada
Taiwan
Israel
India
Australia
Russia
Singapore
Brazil
New Zealand
South Africa
Mexico 6
Note: Malta: not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: pat_ep_nict)

10.5 Information society households and

individuals
The development of the information society internet access in 2015 ranged from 62 % among
is regarded as critical to meet the demands of households in the rst income quartile (the
society and the EU economy. Information and 25 % of households with the lowest income),
communication technologies aect peoples increasing through the second and third income
everyday lives in many ways, both at work and in quartiles, to reach 97 % among households in the
the home, for example, when communicating or fourth income quartile (the 25 % of households
buying online. EU policies range from regulating with the highest income). In general, Member
entire areas such as e-commerce to trying to States with high overall internet access, such as
protect an individuals privacy. Luxembourg, reported relatively little dierence
in internet access between income quartiles. By
ICTs have become widely available to the contrast, larger dierences were generally noted
general public, both in terms of accessibility as among those Member States with lower overall
well as cost. The level of income can inuence levels of internet access, mainly in southern and
the level of internet access by households. For eastern EU Member States and some of the Baltic
the EU-28, the proportion of households with Member States.
Figure 10.8: Internet access in households by income quartile, 2015

(% of all households)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
Croatia
EU-28 ()
Luxembourg
Finland
Sweden ()
Estonia
France
Malta ()
Czech Republic
Spain
Slovenia
Latvia
Hungary
Poland
Cyprus
Portugal
Italy ()
Greece
Lithuania
Norway
FYR of Macedonia
Romania
Iceland ()
Netherlands
Denmark
Belgium
Austria
Bulgaria
Germany
Income in the rst quartile Income in the second quartile

Income in the third quartile Income in the fourth quartile
Note: Ranked on overall internet access. Ireland and the United () 2014.
Kingdom: not available. () 2013.
() Excluding Ireland and the United Kingdom. Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_bde15b_h)

In 2015, two thirds (67 %) of individuals accessed also reported a high share of daily internet users
the internet on a daily basis, with a further 9 % among all internet users.
using it at least once a week (but not daily). As One of the most common online activities in
such, 76 % of individuals were regular users (at the EU-28 in 2015 was participation in social
least weekly) of the internet, a level of use just networking. Half (50 %) of individuals aged 16
surpassing the digital agenda target of 75 % to 74 used the internet for social networking, for
for 2015. The proportion of daily users among example using sites such as Facebook or Twitter.
internet users (those who had used the internet Around two thirds (6668 %) of people in the
within the previous three months) ranged United Kingdom, Belgium and Luxembourg used
among the EU Member States from 66 % in social networking sites, in Norway the proportion
Romania, 76 % in Poland and 77 % in Slovakia, reached 73 % and in Iceland it was 83 % (2014
to 91 % in Denmark, Malta, the Netherlands and data). At the other end of the scale, there were
Finland to 94 % in Italy and 95 % in Luxembourg. three EU Member States where less than 4 in
Norway (92 %) and Iceland (96 %, 2014 data) 10 people used such sites, namely France, Italy
and Slovenia.
Figure 10.9: Individuals who ordered goods or services over the internet for private
use in the 12 months prior to the survey, 2012 and 2015
(% of individuals aged 16 to 74)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
EU-28
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
France
Estonia ()
Czech Republic
Latvia
Croatia
Spain
Slovenia
Poland
Hungary
Greece
Lithuania
Portugal
Italy
Cyprus
Norway
Denmark
Netherlands
Finland
Sweden
Austria
Ireland
Malta
Belgium
Bulgaria
Romania ()
Switzerland ()()
Iceland ()
Montenegro ()
FYR of Macedonia
Turkey
Germany
2012 2015
() Break in series. () 2012: not available.
() 2015: not available. () 2014 instead of 2015.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ec_ibuy)
The proportion of individuals aged 16 to 74 in More than 70 % of individuals in the United

the EU-28 who ordered goods or services over Kingdom, Denmark, Luxembourg, Germany, the
the internet for private use continued to rise: in Netherlands, Finland and Sweden ordered goods
2015, it reached 53 %, an increase of 9 percentage or services over the internet in 2015, whereas the
points compared with 2012. The digital agenda proportion was nearer one person in four in Italy
target to have 50 % of the population buying and Cyprus, less than one in ve in Bulgaria and
online had already been achieved in 2014 around 1 in 10 in Romania.
and was surpassed in the target year (2015).

10.6 Information society enterprises

Progress in the development of the digital enterprises increasingly equip their sta with
economy is regarded as critical to improve portable computers, smartphones and other
the competitiveness of EU industry and, more mobile devices) and to the speed of xed
generally, to meet the demands of the EU broadband connections.
economy. ICTs have fast become an integral The use of ICTs has the potential to make
part of how enterprises function: indeed, their signicant changes to the way that enterprises
extensive use is having a profound impact on are run, the adoption of ICT-based solutions
how businesses are run, touching upon a range within business processes is often referred to
of aspects such as how they organise their using the generic term of e-business. In 2015,
internal communications, share their information three quarters (75 %) of EU-28 enterprises gave
with business partners, or communicate with importance to their visibility on the internet and
their customers. had either a website or homepage. This share
In 2015, the vast majority (93 %) of enterprises was eight percentage points higher than it had
in the EU-28 with at least 10 persons employed been in 2010, when 67 % of enterprises had a
made use of a xed broadband connection website or homepage.
to access the internet); as such, the share of Over the last decade there has been a shift away
enterprises with a broadband connection was from static webpages towards web applications
close to saturation. With almost all enterprises which draw on user data. Enterprises have not
connected to the internet, the attention of only progressively embraced this new generation
policymakers has more recently switched to of highly dynamic web applications, but have
the uptake of mobile internet connections (as also adopted new behaviours.
Figure 10.10: Enterprises connecting to the internet using xed broadband and
enterprises having a website or homepage, EU-28, 201115
(% of enterprises)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Internet connection: xed broadband access
Having a website or homepage
Speed of internet connection: 2 Mb/s but < 10 Mb/s
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: isoc_ci_it_en2 and isoc_ciweb)

In 2015, some 39 % of EU-28 enterprises made to customers opinions/reviews/questions and
use of social media, this proportion rose at a peaked at almost four fths (79 %) for those
relatively fast pace, growing by nine percentage enterprises using social media to develop their
points since 2013. Social media refers to internet- enterprises image or to market products.
based applications, for example, social networks, E-commerce refers to the trading of goods
blogs, multimedia content-sharing sites or wikis. or services over computer networks such as
Most enterprises that use social media tend to do the internet. These statistics are divided into
so for image building and/or marketing products, e-commerce sales (e-sales) and e-commerce
in order to reach as wide an audience as possible. purchases (e-purchases) according to whether an
In 2015, more than one third (36 %) of EU-28 enterprise makes or receives orders.
enterprises used social networks, while some In 2014, more than twice as many enterprises
13 % of enterprises used blogs and microblogs, in the EU made e-purchases as e-sales: 40 %
and multimedia content-sharing websites; of enterprises in the EU-28 made e-purchases,
the share of enterprises using wiki-based while 19 % received orders/made e-commerce
knowledge-sharing tools was considerably lower, sales. The proportion of EU-28 enterprises that
at 5 %. made e-purchases rose by three percentage
Among those EU-28 enterprises that used points between 2009 and 2014, while the share
social media in 2015, just over one quarter of enterprises making e-sales rose by four
(26 %) collaborated with business partners or percentage points over the same period.
other organisations, while identical shares of In 2014, e-sales accounted for 17 % of the total
enterprises using social media exchanged views, turnover generated by EU-28 enterprises; as such,
opinions or knowledge within their enterprise less than one fth of total sales in the EU-28
or involved customers in the development/ were accounted for by e-commerce. The share of
innovation of goods or services. More than one e-sales in total turnover rose by three percentage
third (38 %) of EU-28 enterprises that used social points between 2009 and 2014, as the share of
media did so for recruiting employees, while e-sales in total turnover had stood at 14 % at the
the share of enterprises making use of social start of the period under consideration.
media rose to just over half (51 %) in relation
to those enterprises using it to obtain/respond
Figure 10.11: Enterprises using social media, by type of social media, EU-28, 2013 and
2015
(% of enterprises)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Social networks Blogs or microblogs Multimedia content- Wiki-based know-
sharing websites ledge-sharing tools
2013 2015
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_cismt)

Environment

11 Environment
Introduction
Eurostat produces statistics and accounts on households; how expensive it is to protect the
environmental pressures, impacts on the state environment and who pays for it; how large is
and change of environmental quality and on the the environmental economy within the overall
measures to avoid or mitigate impacts on the economy; how large is the production and
environment. Environmental accounts describe consumption of natural resources and energy.
the relationship of the environment with the Environment action programmes have guided
economy, including the impacts of the economy the development of the EUs environment policy
on the environment and the contribution of the since the early 1970s. The current EU environment
environment to the economy. action programme referred to as the 7th EAP
Environmental accounts analyse the links was adopted by Decision 1386/2013 of the
between the environment and the economy European Parliament and Council in November
by organising the environmental information 2013 under the title Living well, within the limits
in a way that is consistent with the accounting of our planet; it guides the EUs environment
principles of national accounts. Environmental policy up to 2020. The programme draws on a
economic accounts can be used, for example, number of recent strategic initiatives, including
to identify: which are the most polluting the resource eciency roadmap, the biodiversity
activities or the ones that most deplete natural strategy and the low carbon economy roadmap.
resources; what is the role of government and
11.1 Land cover and land use

Land is the basis for most biological and human Forests and other wooded areas occupied 37.1 %
activities on Earth. Agriculture, forestry, industry, of the total area of the EU-27 in 2012, cropland
transport, housing and other services use land nearly a quarter (24.8 %) of the area, grassland
as a natural and/or an economic resource. just over one fth (20.7 %) while built-up and
Land is also an integral part of ecosystems and other articial areas, such as roads and railways
indispensable for biodiversity and the carbon had a 4.1 % share. Woodland was the prevailing
cycle. land cover in northern parts of Europe in 2012
Land can be divided into two interlinked and for a number of EU Member States whose
concepts: typography is dominated by mountains and hilly
land cover refers to the bio-physical areas. The share of woodland in the total area
coverage of land (for example, crops, grass, reached 60.0 % or higher in Finland, Sweden and
broad-leaved forest, or built-up area); Slovenia (Alpine).
land use indicates the socioeconomic use
of land (for example, agriculture, forestry,
recreation or residential use).

Environment 11
Denmark and Hungary were the EU Member true in Malta where articial land accounted for
States that reported the highest proportion of 32.6 % of the total area.
their total area covered by cropland, its share Agricultural land use is the most common
rising close to 50.0 %. Natural and agricultural primary () land use category in the EU-27; it
grasslands dominate the landscape in Ireland accounted for 43.5 % of the total area in 2012.
(63.6 %) and the United Kingdom (43.2 %). Malta Areas used for forestry covered 32.4 % of the EU-
and the Benelux countries had the highest 27s land area, while 5.7 % was used for services,
proportions of built-up areas: this was particularly residential and recreational purposes.
Figure 11.1: Main land use by land use type, EU-27, 2012
(% of total area)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Agricultural use Forestry use Services, Industry, Other use or
recreational and mining and no visible use
residential use transport use
Source: Eurostat (online data code: lan_lu)
In 13 out of 27 EU Member States, more than for forestry purposes, Commerce (distributive
half of the land area was used for agricultural trades), community services, recreational and
purposes in 2012. The highest share of residential areas covered 5.7 % of the EU-27s land
agricultural land was recorded in Ireland (71.5 %), area in 2012. Just over half (52.1 %) of this total
while Denmark, the United Kingdom, Hungary in the EU was devoted to residential areas, more
and Romania each reported shares of more than than one third (34.9 %) to recreational purposes,
60.0 %. 8.9 % to community services, and just 4.1 % to
In Finland, Sweden, Slovenia, Estonia and Latvia commerce.
more than 50.0 % of the total land area was used
() The same area can be used in parallel for many purposes (for example, a forest can be used for forestry, hunting and recreation); the
statistics presented are based on the primary use.

11 Environment
Figure 11.2: Primary land use by land use type, 2012

(% of total area)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
EU-27
Ireland
Latvia
United Kingdom
Hungary
Lithuania
Poland
Luxembourg
Czech Republic
Italy
Spain
Portugal
Cyprus
Denmark
Romania
Netherlands
France
Belgium
Bulgaria
Austria
Greece
Malta ()
Slovenia
Estonia
Sweden
Finland
Germany
Agricultural use Forestry use

Services, recreational and residential use Industry, mining and transport use
Other use or no visible use
Note: Croatia: not available.
() Forestry use: not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: lan_lu)

Environment 11
11.2 Greenhouse gas emissions by industries and

households
This chapter analyses the emissions of three water supply and construction (NACE Sections
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the EU by the E to G and I to U) accounted for 10.9 % of
industries and households that are responsible greenhouse gas emissions. While transportation
for their generation. These gases are carbon and storage services had a relatively low share of
dioxide (CO), nitrous oxide (NO) and methane all emissions in 2013 (10.9 %) it should be noted
(CH). that this encompasses only businesses whose
In 2013, GHG emissions generated by industries main activity is transport, and so excludes the
and households stood in the EU-28 at 4.61 billion operation of motor vehicles by businesses not
tonnes of CO equivalents. operating in the transport activities as well as
motor vehicles operated by private households.
In 2013, the electricity, gas, steam and air Mining and quarrying (NACE Section B)
conditioning supply activities (NACE Section D) accounted for the remaining 1.8 % of the total.
had the largest share of the EU-28s greenhouse
gas emissions, accounting for 26.6 % of the In 2013, the EU-28 overall greenhouse gas
total. The share of manufacturing (NACE Section emissions were 11.8 % lower than they had been
C) in all emissions was 18.8 %, meaning that in 2008, in other words, 617 million tonnes less of
producers engaged in these two groupings CO equivalents were emitted in 2013.
of activities together contributed nearly half In absolute terms, the largest decrease was
(45.4 %) of all greenhouse gas emissions in the recorded in manufacturing, falling from 1.08
EU-28 in 2013. Households accounted for 19.6 % billion tonnes of CO equivalents in 2008 to
of greenhouse gas emissions, while producers in 865 million tonnes in 2013, a decrease of 20.1 %.
agriculture, forestry and shing (NACE Section Households in the EU-28 reduced their emissions
A) were responsible for a further 11.5 %. The by 54.6 million tonnes of CO equivalents (a
grouping of services (other than transport), reduction of 5.7 %) during the same time period.

11 Environment
Figure 11.3: Greenhouse gas emissions by economic activity, EU-28, 2008 and 2013
(% of total emissions in CO equivalents)
2008
and shing
10.5 %
Households
18.3 % Mining and quarrying
1.9 %
Other services, Manufacturing

water supply 20.7 %
and construction
10.8 %
Transport
and storage
10.9 %
Electricity, gas, steam and
air conditioning supply
26.8 %
2013
and shing
11.5 %
Households
19.6 %
Mining and quarrying
1.8 %
Manufacturing
Other services, 18.8 %
water supply
and construction
10.9 %
Transport
and storage
10.9 %
air conditioning supply
26.6 %
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_ainah_r2)

Environment 11
Figure 11.4: Greenhouse gas emissions by economic activity and by pollutant, EU-28,
2013
(thousand tonnes of CO equivalents)
1 400 000
1 200 000
1 000 000
800 000
600 000
400 000
200 000
0
Agriculture, Mining Manufac- Electricity, Transpor- Other Households
forestry and turing gas, steam tation services,
and shing quarrying and air and water supply
conditioning storage and
supply construction
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_ainah_r2)
11.3 Carbon dioxide emissions from nal use of

products
CO emissions induced by the nal use dwellings and fuelling private vehicles) and
of products within the EU-28 economy 5.94 t/person induced indirectly along the
(consumption perspective) are also referred to production chains of products which were
as the carbon footprint. The EU-28 nal use of either consumed or are investments within the
products encompasses the consumption by EU. A majority of the latter 4.94 t/person
private households and government as well stemmed from domestic production activities
as the use of products for gross xed capital actually located in the EU. A smaller part, equal
formation (in other words investments such as to 1.00 t/person, is estimated to have originated
buildings, plant and machinery, motor vehicles, from production activities outside the EU that
and infrastructure). In 2012, the carbon footprint created intermediate and nal products that
of EU-28 nal use was composed of about were then imported into the EU for nal use. The
1.67 tonnes per person (t/person) associated with EU-28's total carbon footprint was equal to
the direct emissions by private households when 7.61 tonnes CO per person in 2012.
burning fossil fuels (for example for heating

11 Environment
Carbon dioxide emissions may also be analysed domestic production activities, in other words
from a production perspective, in other words, from EU production activities. The majority of
emissions generated by the EU-28 economy. In the latter relate to the production of goods and
2012, these amounted in total to 7.82 tonnes CO services for the EU domestic nal use
per person. CO emitted by the EU economy was (4.94 t/person). A smaller part of the EU
made up of 1.67 t/person direct emissions by production emissions is due to the production of
private households (for example for heating and goods and services that are exported outside the
private transport) and 6.15 t/person coming from EU (1.21 t/person).
Figure 11.5: CO emissions production and consumption perspective, EU-28, 2012

(tonnes CO per inhabitant)
8
Exported EU-28 emissions Imported emissions
1.21 1.00
production activities
6
Emissions by EU-28
Emissions by EU-28 Emissions by EU-28

production activities production activities
4 induced by EU-28 induced by EU-28
domestic nal demand, domestic nal demand,
4.94 4.94
2
Direct emissions by Direct emissions by
households, households,
1.67 1.67
0
CO2 emissions by residents CO2 emissions induced by
of the EU-28 economy EU-28 domestic nal demand
(production perspective) (consumptionperspective)
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_io10 and demo_gind)

Environment 11
Table 11.1: Domestic and imported CO emissions induced by nal use of products,
EU-28, 2012
Final consumption Gross capital Domestic nal use,

expenditure formation total
CPA product Domestic Imported Domestic Imported
Global emissions
emissions emissions emissions emissions
(kg of CO per inhabitant) (%)
928 42 3 0 973 12.8
air-conditioning
Constructions and construction works 29 4 565 84 682 9.0
Food products, beverages and
329 60 4 1 394 5.2
tobacco products
Coke and rened petroleum products 139 118 8 7 271 3.6
Retail trade services, except of motor
194 23 8 1 225 3.0
vehicles and motorcycles
Accommodation and food services 196 27 0 0 223 2.9
Public administration and
defence services; compulsory social 185 26 1 0 212 2.8
security services
Wholesale trade services, except of
151 25 31 5 212 2.8
motor vehicles and motorcycles
Land transport services and
187 17 5 0 210 2.8
transport services via pipelines
Real estate services
170 21 4 1 197 2.6
(excl. imputed rents)
Human health services 159 27 0 0 186 2.4
Motor vehicles, trailers and
84 23 44 12 163 2.1
semi-trailers
Air transport services 127 32 0 0 160 2.1
Education services 99 9 0 0 108 1.4
Products of agriculture, hunting and
77 19 7 2 104 1.4
related services
Machinery and equipment n.e.c. 2 1 68 32 103 1.4
Scientic research and
10 2 66 16 94 1.2
development services
Textiles, wearing apparel and
38 50 1 2 91 1.2
leather products
Other products 822 205 205 108 1 339 17.6
Total 3 925 730 1 019 271 5 945 78.1
Direct emissions by private
1 666 0 0 0 1 666 21.9
households
All CPA products plus direct emissions
5 592 730 1 019 271 7 612 100.0
by private households
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_io10 and demo_gind)

11 Environment
11.4 Material ow accounts and resource

productivity
Eurostats material ow accounts are a latter measures the total amount of materials
comprehensive data framework that directly consumed in an economy by businesses
systematically records the inputs of materials for economic production and by households.
to European economies. Resource productivity EU-28 resource productivity increased from
quanties the relation between economic 1.48 EUR/kg in 2000 to 2.00 EUR/kg in 2015, an
activity and the consumption of natural increase of 35.4 %. This was not a steady increase:
resources, and sheds light on whether they go in particular the nancial and economic crisis
hand-in-hand or the extent to which they are marked a change in 2008. Indeed, resource
decoupled. Natural resources include biomass, productivity reported a steady but modest
metal ores, non-metallic minerals and fossil increase from 2000 to 2008 (8.2 %). From 2008 to
energy materials. 2014 resource productivity surged from
The resource productivity components are gross 1.60 to 2.00 EUR/kg, despite a dip in 2011. During
domestic product (GDP) in chain linked volumes this period annual growth was highest in 2009
and domestic material consumption (DMC). The (8.4 %) and 2012 (7.2 %).
Figure 11.6: Development of resource productivity in comparison with GDP and DMC,
EU-28, 200015
(2000 = 100)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Resource productivity Gross domestic product
Domestic material consumption
Note: GDP in chain-linked volumes, reference year 2010.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nama_10_gdp and env_ac_mfa)
The level of DMC diered greatly among the EU composition of DMC in each Member State is
Member States, ranging from around 8 tonnes inuenced by domestic extraction and by natural
per capita in Spain and Italy to 30.6 tonnes endowments with material resources, and the
per capita in Finland in 2015. Furthermore, the latter may form an important structural element
structure of DMC by main material category of each economy.
varies between the Member States. The

Environment 11
Figure 11.7: Domestic material consumption by main material category, 2015
(tonnes per capita)
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
Latvia
Slovakia
Croatia
EU-28
Finland
Estonia
Luxembourg
Sweden
Romania
Ireland
Austria
Poland
Czech Republic
Bulgaria
Portugal
Lithuania
Malta
Slovenia
Greece
Hungary
Denmark
Belgium
Netherlands
France
Cyprus
United Kingdom
Italy
Spain
Germany
Non-metallic minerals Biomass Metal ores Fossil energy materials

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_mfa and demo_gind)
11.5 Waste
Waste, dened by Directive 2008/98/EC Article States in 2014, both in the amount of waste
3(1) as any substance or object which the generated and in the activities that mostly
holder discards or intends or is required to contributed to waste generation.
discard, potentially represents an enormous The average amount of waste generated across
loss of resources in the form of both materials the EU-28 in 2014 was equivalent to more
and energy. In addition, the management and than ve tonnes (5 118 kg) per inhabitant.
disposal of waste can have serious environmental Construction contributed 33.5 % of the total in
impacts. Landll, for example, takes up land 2014 (with
space and may cause air, water and soil pollution, 871 million tonnes) in the EU-28 and was
while incineration may result in emissions of air followed by mining and quarrying (29.8 % or
pollutants. 774 million tonnes), manufacturing (9.8 % or 256
In 2014, the total waste generated in the EU-28 million tonnes), households (8.1 % or 209 million
by all economic activities and households tonnes) and energy (3.7 % or 95 million tonnes);
amounted to 2 598 million tonnes. There were the remaining 15 % was waste generated from
considerable variations across EU-28 Member other economic activities, mainly including waste

11 Environment
and water services (8.8 %) and services (3.8 %). either with energy recovery or without.
Almost two thirds (65 %) of the total waste Signicant dierences could be observed among
generated in the EU-28 was mineral waste. the EU Member States concerning the use they
Among the waste generated in the EU-28 in 2014, made of the various treatment methods.
some 95.6 million tonnes (3.7 % of the total) were The quantity of waste landlled in 2014 was 16 %
classied as hazardous waste. This was equivalent lower than it had been in 2004. The quantity of
to an average of 188 kg of hazardous waste per waste recovered (excluding energy recovery),
inhabitant in the EU-28. in other words recycled or used for backlling,
In 2014, some 2 145 million tonnes of waste were grew by 20.1 % from 890 million tonnes in 2004
treated in the EU-28; this includes the treatment to 1 069 million tonnes in 2014; as a result, the
of waste imported into the EU and the reported share of such recovery in total waste treatment
amounts are therefore not directly comparable rose from 42.1 % in 2004 to 49.9 % by 2014. Waste
with those on waste generation. incineration (including energy recovery) saw an
overall increase between 2004 and 2014 of 29.6 %
More than two fths (43.6 %) of the waste treated and its share of the total rose from 5.1 % to 6.5 %.
in the EU-28 in 2014 was subject to disposal
operations other than waste incineration. A In total, 75.6 million tonnes of hazardous waste
further 39.0 % of the waste treated in the EU-28 were treated in the EU-28 in 2014. Nearly
in 2014 was sent to recovery operations other half (49.1 %) of this total was deposited into
than energy recovery and backlling. Just over or onto land or through land treatment and
one tenth (10.8 %) of the waste treated was release into water bodies (disposal other than
backlled, where backlling is the use of waste incineration). Some 6.0 % of all hazardous waste
in excavated areas for the purpose of slope was incinerated without energy recovery and
reclamation or safety or for engineering purposes a further 7.4 % with energy recovery. 37.5 % of
in landscaping. The remaining 6.5 % of the waste hazardous waste in the EU-28 was recovered
treated in the EU-28 was sent for incineration, (recycled or used for backlling) in 2014.

Environment 11
Figure 11.8: Waste generation by economic activities and households, 2014
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Croatia
EU-28
Portugal
Latvia
Slovakia
Cyprus ()
Lithuania
Italy
Spain
Hungary
Czech Republic
Ireland ()
Slovenia
United Kingdom
Malta
France
Greece
Sweden
Estonia
Finland
Liechtenstein
Norway
FYR of Macedonia
Kosovo ()()
Denmark
Belgium
Austria
Netherlands
Poland
Luxembourg
Romania ()
Bulgaria
Turkey ()
Montenegro
Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina

Germany
Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Energy

Construction and demolition Other economic activities Households
() 2012.
() Construction and demolition: not available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wasgen)

11 Environment
Figure 11.9: Waste treatment, 2014

(% of total)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Latvia
Croatia
Slovakia
EU-28
Italy
Portugal
France
Slovenia
Poland
Hungary
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Spain
Austria
Malta
Lithuania
Estonia
Finland
Cyprus
Ireland ()
Sweden
Greece
Iceland ()
Norway
FYR of Macedonia
Belgium
Denmark
Romania ()
Bulgaria
Turkey
Serbia
Germany
Recycling Energy recovery Backlling Incineration Disposal
() 2012.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wastrt)

Environment 11
11.6 Water
Water is essential for life, it is an indispensable resources, of fresh and salt water ecosystems, and
resource for the economy, and also plays a of the water we drink and bathe in is therefore
fundamental role in the climate regulation one of the cornerstones of environmental
cycle. The management and protection of water protection.
Table 11.2: Freshwater resources long-term annual average

(billion m)
C. Internal E. Freshwater
A. B. D. External
ow resources Outow
Precipitation Evapotranspiration inow
(C. = A.B.) (E. = C.+D.)
Belgium 28.9 16.6 12.3 7.6 19.9 15.6
Bulgaria 69.9 52.3 17.6 89.1 106.7 108.0
Czech Republic 54.7 39.4 15.2 0.7 16.0 16.0
Denmark 38.5 22.1 16.3 0.0 16.3 1.9
Germany 307.0 190.0 117.0 75.0 188.0 182.0
Estonia 29.0 : 12.3 : 12.3 :
Ireland 80.0 32.5 47.5 3.5 51.0 :
Greece 115.0 55.0 60.0 12.0 72.0 :
Spain 346.5 235.4 111.1 0.0 111.1 111.1
France 500.8 320.8 180.0 11.0 186.3 168.0
Croatia 65.7 39.6 26.1 85.6 111.7 111.7
Italy 241.1 155.8 85.3 30.5 115.8 115.9
Cyprus 3.0 2.7 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.1
Latvia 42.7 25.8 16.9 16.8 33.7 32.9
Lithuania 44.0 28.5 15.5 9.0 24.5 25.9
Luxembourg 2.0 1.1 0.9 0.7 1.6 1.6
Hungary 55.7 48.2 7.5 108.9 116.4 115.7
Malta 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
Netherlands 31.6 21.3 10.3 81.5 91.8 90.9
Austria 98.0 43.0 55.0 29.0 84.0 84.0
Poland 193.1 138.3 54.8 8.3 63.1 63.1
Portugal 82.2 43.6 38.6 35.0 73.6 34.0
Romania 154.0 114.6 39.4 2.9 42.3 17.9
Slovenia 31.7 13.1 18.6 13.5 32.1 32.3
Slovakia 37.4 24.3 13.1 67.3 80.3 81.7
Finland 222.0 115.0 107.0 3.2 110.0 110.0
Sweden 342.2 169.9 172.6 13.6 186.2 186.2
United Kingdom 287.6 127.3 161.4 6.5 172.9 171.0
Iceland 200.0 30.0 170.0 0.0 170.0 170.0
Norway 470.7 112.0 380.7 12.3 393.0 393.0
Switzerland 61.2 21.4 39.8 12.6 52.4 53.1
FYR of Macedonia 19.5 : : 1.0 : 6.3
Serbia 56.1 43.3 12.8 162.6 175.4 175.4
Turkey 503.1 275.7 227.4 6.9 234.3 178.0
Note: The minimum period taken into account for the calculation of long term annual
averages is 20 years.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wat_res)

11 Environment
Water resources refer to the water available for long-term annual averages ranging between
use in a territory and include surface waters 172.9 and 188.0 billion m.
(in other words, coastal bays, lakes, rivers In 2013, freshwater abstraction by public water
and streams) and groundwater. Renewable supply ranged across the EU Member States
water resources are calculated as the sum of from a high of 159.1 m of water per inhabitant
internal ow (which is precipitation minus in Italy (2012 data) down to a low of 32.7 m per
actual evapotranspiration) and external inow. inhabitant in Malta. Some of the patterns of
Freshwater availability in a country is determined freshwater abstraction from public supply reect
by climate conditions, geomorphology, land uses specic conditions in the EU Member States: for
and transboundary water ows (in other words, example, in Ireland (140.3 m per inhabitant in
external ows). Therefore, there are signicant 2007) the use of water from the public supply
dierences among countries: the United was still free of charge, while in Bulgaria
Kingdom, Sweden, France and Germany had the (125.1 m per inhabitant in 2013) there were
highest amount of freshwater resources, with particularly high losses from the public network.
Figure 11.10: Total freshwater abstraction by public water supply, 2013

(m per inhabitant)
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
Croatia ()
Slovakia
Italy ()
Ireland ()
Greece ()
Spain ()
Latvia
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Sweden ()
United Kingdom ()
Portugal ()
France ()
Austria ()
Slovenia
Finland ()
Luxembourg
Netherlands ()
Hungary
Czech Republic
Poland
Malta
Iceland ()
Norway
Belgium ()
Denmark ()
Romania
Estonia
Lithuania ()
Switzerland
FYR of Macedonia
Bosnia and Herzegovina ()
Kosovo ()()
Germany ()
Serbia
Turkey ()
() 2012. () 2010.
() 2007. () Estimate.
() Provisional. () 2009.
() 2011. () Under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wat_abs)

Environment 11
11.7 Environmental economy employment and

growth
The environmental economy encompasses 2.8 million full-time equivalents (FTEs) in 2000
two broad groups of activities and/or products: to 4.2 million FTEs in 2013. The environmental
environmental protection all activities related economy in the EU-28 generated EUR 699 billion
to preventing, reducing and eliminating pollution of output and EUR 284 billion of value added in
and any other degradation of the environment; 2013. Between 2000 and 2013, the environmental
resource management preserving and economy consistently outperformed the
maintaining the stock of natural resources and overall economy in terms of the growth of its
hence safeguarding against depletion. employment and value added/GDP, with the
According to Eurostat estimates, employment in exception of employment in 2003 and value
the EU-28s environmental economy rose from added in 2012.
Figure 11.11: Development of key indicators for the environmental economy and the
overall economy, EU-28, 200013
(2000 = 100)
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Environmental economy: gross value added ()
Environmental economy: employment ()
Overall economy: gross domestic product ()
Overall economy: employment
Note: Estimates. () In current prices.

() In full-time equivalents.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_egss1, env_ac_egss3, nama_10_pe and
nama_gdp_c)

11 Environment
The growing number of persons employed equivalents in 2000 to 1.1 million full-time
within the environmental economy since 2000 equivalents in 2013 (an overall increase of 34 %).
was mainly due to growth in the management The development of the gross value added of the
of energy resources, especially those concerning environmental economy since 2000 is shown in
the production of energy from renewable Figure 11.12. This increased from EUR 135 billion
sources (such as wind and solar power) and the in 2000 to EUR 284 billion in 2013 (note these
production of equipment and installations for developments are shown in current price terms),
heat and energy saving. Employment in this as the environmental economys contribution
environmental domain increased from to overall GDP increased from 1.5 % to 2.2 %
547 thousand full-time equivalents in 2000 during the period under consideration. Gross
to 1.6 million full-time equivalents in 2013, in value added of the environmental economy
other words an increase of more than a million rose steadily between 2000 and 2008 to reach
full-time equivalents (or 187 %). The second EUR 231 billion. It remained unchanged during
most important contribution to employment 2009 as a result of the impact of the nancial
growth in the environmental economy came and economic crisis, but subsequently followed
from the domain of waste management, with an upward development in the following years
employment rising from 828 thousand full-time (201013).
Figure 11.12: Gross value added of the environmental economy, by domain, EU-28,
200013
(billion EUR)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Management of waters Management of energy resources

Other environmental protection Wastewater management
Waste management
Note: Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_egss2)

Environment 11
11.8 Environmental protection expenditure

The environmental protection expenditure EU-28. Between 2006 and 2014 it grew by 20 %
accounts (EPEA) describe consumption, at current prices. In the rst three years of that
investment, transfers and some production period a growth of 7 % was registered followed
and employment in environmental protection by a slight decrease (1 %) between 2008 and
activities. 2009, as the global nancial and economic crisis
unfolded. During the years 2009 to 2014 national
In 2014, national expenditure on environmental expenditure on environmental protection grew
protection amounted to EUR 297 billion in the more strongly again, by 13 % in total.
Figure 11.13: Expenditure on environmental protection, EU-28, 200614

(million EUR and % of GDP)
300 000 3.0
250 000 2.5
200 000 2.0

(million EUR)
(% of GDP)
150 000 1.5
100 000 1.0
50 000 0.5
0 0.0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
million EUR % GDP

Note: Estimates. Dierent scale on the left and right axis.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_pepsgg, env_ac_pepssp, env_ac_
pepsnsp and nama_10_gdp)

11 Environment
In the EU-28, households spent some total). Between 2006 and 2014, corporations'
EUR 63 billion on environmental protection in investment for environmental protection
2014, accounting for about 57 % of the total nal grew by 3.2 % at current prices, while general
consumption expenditure on environmental governments investment decreased by 5.2 %.
protection. General government (including Between 2006 and 2008 general government's
also non-prot institutions serving households environmental protection investment grew by
(NPISH)) spent about EUR 47 billion (the 5 % while between 2008 and 2014 a drop of 9 %
remaining 43 % of the total). was registered. A similar development could be
In 2014, corporations in the EU-28 invested observed for corporations: between 2006 and
some EUR 36 billion (about 59 % of the total) 2008 a growth of 10 % was registered whereas
for environmental protection. The general between 2008 and 2014 investment decreased
government had an investment of about by 6 %, although this development was regular
EUR 25 billion (the remaining 41 % of the than for general government.
Figure 11.14: Investment for environmental protection, EU-28, 200614

(million EUR and % of total investment)
40 000 8
(lines, % of total investments)

35 000 7
30 000 6
(bars, million EUR)
25 000 5
20 000 4
15 000 3
10 000 2
5 000 1
0 0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
General government () Corporations

Note: Estimates. Investment comprises gross xed capital formation and acquisitions
less disposals of non-nancial non-produced assets.
() Including non-prot institutions serving households (NPISH). Estimates for the total
investment of general government and NPISH (used as the denominator for the
share in %) do not include the total investment by NPISH.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: env_ac_pepsgg, env_ac_pepssp, env_ac_
pepsnsp and nasa_10_nf_tr)

Environment 11
11.9 Environmental taxes

The total revenue from environmental taxes market prices rose at an annual average of 2.5 %.
in the EU-28 in 2014 was EUR 343.6 billion; this In 2014, the level of environmental tax revenues
gure equates to 2.5 % of GDP and to 6.3 % of the was some EUR 79 billion higher than in 2002.
total revenues derived from all taxes and social However, from 2008 onwards the nancial and
contributions. economic crisis caused a reduction in economic
From 2002 to 2014, the total environmental tax activity in the EU, leading to lower tax receipts
revenue in the EU increased by 2.2 % per year in 2008 and 2009. In 2010, environmental tax
(at current prices) on average whereas GDP at revenues returned to an upward path.
Figure 11.15: Total environmental tax revenue by type of tax, EU-28, 200214
(billion EUR)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Energy taxes Transport taxes Taxes on pollution and resources

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_tax)

11 Environment
Energy taxes (which include taxes on transport EU-28 total in 2014. Pollution and resource taxes
fuels) represented by far the highest share of represented a relatively small share (3.6 %) of total
overall environmental tax revenue, accounting environmental tax revenues in the EU-28 in 2014.
for 76.5 % of the EU-28 total in 2014. Energy taxes This category of taxes was implemented more
were particularly prominent in Lithuania, the recently in most European countries.
Czech Republic and Luxembourg, where they Across the EU Member States, businesses paid
accounted for more than nine tenths of total a little more than half (53 %) of all energy tax
environmental tax revenues. By contrast, energy revenue collected by governments, while the
taxes slightly exceeded 50 % of the revenues contribution of households rose to 45 %. The
from environmental taxes in Malta, as was also remainder (2 %) was paid by non-residents or not
the case in Norway. Transport taxes represented allocated.
the second most important contribution to total
environmental tax revenues, with 19.9 % of the
Figure 11.16: Environmental taxes by tax category, 2014

(% of total environmental taxes)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Slovakia
Croatia
EU-28
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Spain
Italy
Greece
Sweden
Latvia
France
Slovenia
Cyprus
Hungary
Portugal
United Kingdom
Finland
Norway
Romania
Estonia
Poland
Bulgaria
Austria
Ireland
Belgium
Denmark
Netherlands
Malta
Serbia
Germany
Energy taxes Transport taxes Taxes on pollution and resources

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_tax)

Energy

12 Energy
Introduction
A competitive, reliable and sustainable energy resilient energy union with a forward-looking
sector is essential for all advanced economies. climate change policy in a Communication
The energy sector has been under the spotlight COM(2015) 80. The Communication proposes ve
in recent years due to a number of issues that dimensions for the strategy:
have pushed energy to the top of national and energy security, solidarity and trust;
European Union (EU) political agendas.
a fully integrated European energy market;
One of the 10 priorities of the European
energy eciency contributing to
Commission is an Energy Union. It is intended
moderation of demand;
that a European Energy Union will ensure secure,
sustainable, competitive and aordable energy. decarbonising the economy, and
In February 2015, the European Commission research, innovation and competitiveness.
set out its plans for a framework strategy for a
12.1 Energy production and imports

Production of primary energy in the EU-28 Close to one quarter (25.5 %) of the EU-28s total
totalled 771 million tonnes of oil equivalent production of primary energy was accounted
(Mtoe) in 2014. This continued the generally for by renewable energy sources, while the
downward development observed in recent share for solid fuels (19.4 %, largely coal) was just
years, with 2010 the main exception as below one fth and the share for natural gas was
production rebounded following a relatively somewhat lower (15.2 %). Crude oil (9.1 %) was
strong fall in energy production in 2009 that the only other major source of primary energy
coincided with the nancial and economic production.
crisis. When viewed over a longer period, the The growth of primary production from
production of primary energy in the EU-28 was renewable energy sources exceeded that of all
17.3 % lower in 2014 than it had been a decade the other energy types; this growth was relatively
earlier. uniform during the period covering 200414,
Primary energy production in the EU-28 in 2014 with a small dip in production in 2011.
was spread across a range of dierent energy Over this 10-year period the production of
sources, the most important of which in terms renewables increased by 73.1 %. By contrast, the
of the size of its contribution was nuclear energy production levels for the other primary sources of
(29.4 % of the total). energy generally fell over this period.

Energy 12
The downturn in the primary production of populous EU Member States, with the exception
hard coal, lignite, crude oil, natural gas and more of Poland (where some indigenous reserves of
recently nuclear energy led to a situation where coal remain).
the EU was increasingly reliant on primary energy EU-28 dependency on energy imports increased
imports in order to satisfy demand, although from less than 40 % of gross energy consumption
this situation stabilised in the aftermath of the in the 1980s to reach 53.5 % by 2014. This
nancial and economic crisis. The EU-28s imports latest gure marked a slight decrease in the
of primary energy exceeded exports by some dependency rate, which had peaked at 54.5 %
881 Mtoe in 2014. The largest net importers in 2008.
of primary energy were generally the most
Figure 12.1: Production of primary energy, EU-28, 2014

(% of total, based on tonnes of oil equivalent)
100
Natural gas Crude oil
15.2 % 9.1 %
75
Solid Renewable 50
fuels energy
19.4 % 25.5 %
25
Other 0
1.6 % Geothermal energy
Nuclear energy Solar energy
29.4 % Wind
Hydropower
Biomass & waste
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_100a and nrg_107a)

12 Energy
Figure 12.2: Energy dependency rate all products, 2014

(% of net imports in gross inland consumption and bunkers, based on tonnes of oil
equivalent)
100
75
50
25
25
569.6
Slovakia
Croatia
Latvia
EU-28
Malta
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Ireland
Lithuania
Italy
Spain
Portugal
Greece
Austria
Hungary
Finland
France
United Kingdom
Slovenia
Iceland
Norway
FYR of Macedonia
Bulgaria
Netherlands
Sweden
Czech Republic
Poland
Romania
Estonia
Albania
Kosovo ()
Belgium
Denmark
Turkey
Montenegro
Serbia

Germany
() Under United Nations Security Council Resolution

1244/99.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsdcc310)

Energy 12
12.2 Consumption of energy

Gross inland consumption of energy within the and 2013 saw more modest rates of change as
EU-28 in 2014 was 1 606 Mtoe. Having remained consumption fell by 0.8 % and 1.1 %. This pattern
relatively unchanged during the period from intensied in 2014, as the latest year-on-year
2003 to 2008, gross inland consumption of change revealed gross inland consumption
energy decreased by 5.8 % in 2009; some falling by a further 3.6 %.
of this change may be attributed to a lower The gross inland consumption of each EU
level of economic activity as a result of the Member State depends, to a large degree, on the
global nancial and economic crisis, rather structure of its energy system, the availability of
than a structural shift in the pattern of energy natural resources for primary energy production,
consumption. In 2010, there was a 3.7 % rebound and the structure and development of each
in the level of gross inland consumption of economy; this is true not only for conventional
energy in the EU-28 although this was followed fuels and nuclear power, but also for renewable
by a similarly large ( 3.7 %) fall in 2011. After energy sources.
these three years of relatively large changes, 2012
Figure 12.3: Final energy consumption, EU-28, 2014

(% of total, based on tonnes of oil equivalent)
Agriculture Other
and forestry 0.6 %
Services 2.2 %
13.3 %
Transport
33.2 %
Households
24.8 %
Industry
25.9 %
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_100a)

12 Energy
An analysis of the nal end use of energy in the increased, rising each year from the start of
EU-28 in 2014 shows three dominant categories: the time series in 1990. However, in 2008, as
namely, transport (33.2 %), industry (25.9 %) and the nancial and economic crisis started, the
households (24.8 %). consumption of energy for transport purposes
There was a marked change in the development fell before an increase of 1.3 % was registered in
of energy consumption for transport after 2007. 2014. Overall, between the 2007 peak and the
Until that year consumption had consistently low of 2013, energy consumption for transport in
the EU-28 fell by 9.1 %.

Energy 12
Table 12.1: Gross inland consumption of energy, 19902014
(million tonnes of oil equivalent)
Share in
1990 2000 2010 2013 2014 EU-28, 2014
(%)
EU-28 1 667.9 1 730.0 1 763.7 1 666.7 1 605.9 100.0
Belgium 48.6 59.3 61.2 56.5 53.4 3.3
Bulgaria 27.6 18.5 17.8 16.8 17.7 1.1
Czech Republic 49.9 41.1 44.7 42.2 41.5 2.6
Denmark 17.9 19.7 20.0 18.2 16.9 1.1
Germany 356.3 342.3 333.0 324.5 313.0 19.5
Estonia 9.9 5.0 6.2 6.7 6.7 0.4
Ireland 10.3 14.4 15.2 13.7 13.6 0.8
Greece 22.3 28.3 28.8 24.3 24.4 1.5
Spain 90.1 123.6 130.3 119.3 116.7 7.3
France 227.8 257.5 267.1 258.9 248.5 15.5
Croatia 9.5 8.4 9.4 8.6 8.2 0.5
Italy 153.5 174.2 177.9 159.5 151.0 9.4
Cyprus 1.6 2.4 2.7 2.2 2.2 0.1
Latvia 7.9 3.9 4.6 4.5 4.5 0.3
Lithuania 15.9 7.1 6.8 6.7 6.7 0.4
Luxembourg 3.5 3.7 4.6 4.3 4.2 0.3
Hungary 28.8 25.3 25.7 22.7 22.8 1.4
Malta 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.1
Netherlands 66.7 78.1 86.1 80.4 76.8 4.8
Austria 25.0 29.0 34.3 33.7 32.7 2.0
Poland 103.3 88.6 100.7 98.0 94.3 5.9
Portugal 18.2 25.3 24.3 22.4 22.1 1.4
Romania 58.1 36.6 35.8 32.4 32.3 2.0
Slovenia 5.7 6.5 7.3 6.9 6.7 0.4
Slovakia 21.8 18.3 17.9 17.0 16.2 1.0
Finland 28.8 32.4 37.1 34.1 34.6 2.2
Sweden 47.4 48.9 50.8 49.1 48.2 3.0
United Kingdom 210.6 230.6 212.5 202.2 189.3 11.8
Iceland 2.4 3.3 5.9 6.1 6.1
Norway 21.4 26.4 34.3 33.7 29.2
Montenegro 1.2 1.0 1.0
FYR of Macedonia 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.6
Albania 2.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.3
Serbia 19.6 13.7 15.6 14.9 13.3
Turkey 52.3 76.7 106.9 118.5 124.0
Bosnia and Herzegovina 5.0 3.2 4.7 5.0 7.8
Kosovo () 1.5 2.5 2.3 2.1

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_100a)

12 Energy
12.3 Electricity production, consumption and market

overview
Total net electricity generation in the EU-28 followed by wind turbines (8.3 %) and solar
was 3.03 million gigawatt hours (GWh) in 2014 power (3.2 %).
which was 2.4 % less than the year before. The relative importance of renewable energy
This was the fourth consecutive fall in output, sources in relation to EU-28 net electricity
following on from reductions of 2.2 %, 0.1 % and generation grew between 2004 and 2014 from
0.6 % in 2011, 2012 and 2013. As such, the level of 13.5 % to 24.9 %, while there was a relatively large
net electricity generation in 2014 was 5.7 % lower decrease in the importance of combustible fuels
than its peak level of 2008 (3.22 million GWh). from 55.9 % to 47.6 % and also a reduction in
More than one quarter (27.4 %) of the net the share of electricity generated from nuclear
electricity generated in the EU-28 in 2014 came power plants from 30.6 % to 27.4 %. Among the
from nuclear power plants, while almost double renewable energy sources, the proportion of
this share (47.6 %) came from power stations net electricity generated from solar and wind
using combustible fuels (such as natural gas, coal increased greatly: from 0.02 % in 2004 to 3.2 % in
and oil). Among the renewable energy sources, 2014 for solar power and from 1.9 % in 2004 to
the highest share of net electricity generation 8.3 % in 2014 for wind turbines.
in 2014 was from hydropower plants (13.2 %),
Figure 12.4: Net electricity generation, EU-28, 2014

(% of total, based on GWh)
Solar Geothermal Other
3.2 % 0.2 % 0.2 %
Wind
8.3 %
Hydro
13.2 %
Combustible
fuels
47.6 %
Nuclear
27.4 %
Note: Figures do not sum to 100 % due to rounding.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_105a)

Energy 12
During the 10-year period from 2004 to 2014, total number of households both of which are
the consumption of electricity by households fell linked to demographic events. Other inuences
in the EU-28 by 1.3 %. These gures on overall include the extent of ownership of electrical
household electricity consumption are likely to household appliances and consumer goods as
be inuenced, in part, by the average number well as the use of energy saving devices.
of persons living in each household and by the
Figure 12.5: Electricity consumption by households, 2014

(2004 = 100)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
Croatia
Albania
Latvia
Slovakia
EU-28
Lithuania
Spain
Estonia
Netherlands
Ireland
France
Malta
Slovenia
Austria
Greece
Czech Republic
Italy
Portugal
Hungary
Sweden
United Kingdom
Iceland
Norway
Romania
FYR of Macedonia
Bulgaria
Luxembourg
Poland
Cyprus
Finland

Kosovo ()
Denmark
Belgium
Turkey
Serbia
Germany

Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsdpc310)

12 Energy
12.4 Renewable energy

The primary production of renewable energy Among the EU Member States, the highest share
within the EU-28 in 2014 was 196 million tonnes of renewables in gross nal energy consumption
of oil equivalent (toe) a 25.4 % share of total in 2014 was recorded in Sweden (52.6 %), while
primary energy production from all sources. The Latvia, Finland and Austria each reported
quantity of renewable energy produced within that more than 30.0 % of their nal energy
the EU-28 increased overall by 73.1 % between consumption was derived from renewables.
2004 and 2014, equivalent to an average increase The latest information available for 2014 shows
of 5.6 % per year. that electricity generated from renewable
Renewable energy sources accounted for a energy sources contributed more than one
12.5 % share of the EU-28s gross inland energy quarter (27.5 %) of the EU-28s gross electricity
consumption in 2014. The EU seeks to have a consumption.
20 % share of its gross nal energy consumption
from renewable sources by 2020. The share stood
at 16.0 % in the EU-28 in 2014.
Figure 12.6: Share of renewables in gross nal energy consumption, 2014 and 2020
(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Croatia
Latvia
EU-28
Sweden
Finland
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Austria
Portugal
Estonia
Romania
Lithuania
Slovenia
Italy
Spain
Poland
Hungary
Cyprus
Ireland
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Iceland
Norway
Denmark
Bulgaria
Greece
France
Belgium
Netherlands
Malta
Germany
2014 2020 ()
() Legally binding targets for 2020. Iceland and Norway: not applicable.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: t2020_31)

Energy 12
The growth in electricity generated from way in 2014 was relatively similar to that recorded
renewable energy sources during the period a decade earlier, rising by just 12.1 % overall. By
2004 to 2014 largely reects an expansion contrast, the quantity of electricity generated
in three renewable energy sources, namely, from solid biofuels (including renewable waste)
wind turbines, solar power and solid biofuels. and from wind turbines in 2014 was 1.8 times
Although hydropower remained the single and 3.3 times as high as in 2004. Over this 10-
largest source for renewable electricity year period, the contribution of solar power to
generation in the EU-28 in 2014 (43.9 % of the all electricity generated from renewable energy
total), the amount of electricity generated in this sources rose from 0.1 % to 10.0 %.
Figure 12.7: Proportion of electricity generated from renewable sources, 2014

(% of gross electricity consumption)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Latvia
Slovakia
EU-28
Portugal
Croatia
Finland
Ireland
Greece
France
United Kingdom
Estonia
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Poland
Luxembourg
Malta
Norway
Austria
Sweden
Iceland
Denmark
Romania
Spain
Slovenia
Italy
Bulgaria
Belgium
Netherlands
Cyprus
Hungary
Germany
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tsdcc330)

12 Energy
12.5 Energy prices

The price of energy depends on a range of consumer in the EU-28 fell by 1.3 % between the
dierent supply and demand conditions, second half of 2014 and the second half of 2015.
including the geopolitical situation, import In the second half of 2015, the price of natural
diversication, network costs, environmental gas to a medium-sized household within the
protection costs, severe weather conditions, and EU-28 was EUR 0.071 per kWh. Natural gas prices
levels of excise and taxation; note that prices were highest in Sweden (EUR 0.117 per kWh)
presented in this chapter generally include taxes, and Portugal (EUR 0.098 per kWh). Between the
levies and value added tax (VAT) for household second half of 2014 and the second half of 2015,
consumers but exclude (deductible) VAT for natural gas prices for households fell by 1.7 % in
industrial/business users. the EU-28.
The average price of electricity for household Across the EU-28, the price of natural gas for a
consumers in the EU-28 (the prices for each EU medium-sized industrial consumer averaged EUR
Member State are weighted according to their 0.034 per kWh in the second half of 2015. Natural
consumption by the household sector) was EUR gas prices during the second half of 2015 were
0.211 per kWh in the second half of 2015. The highest in Finland and Sweden (both EUR
price of electricity for household consumers in 0.042 per kWh). Between the second half of 2014
Denmark (EUR 0.304 per kWh) was 3.2 times as and the second half of 2015, natural gas prices for
high as in Bulgaria (EUR 0.096 per kWh). industrial users decreased in all but one of the
Between the second half of 2014 and the second 26 EU Member States for which data are available
half of 2015 the average increase for the whole of (Cyprus and Malta, not applicable).
the EU-28 was 2.4 %, although there were The average price of Euro-super 95 in the EU was
12 Member States where the price of electricity EUR 1.30 per litre at the end of 2015, its lowest
fell. level since the end of 2009. The average price of
EU-28 electricity prices for industrial consumers automotive diesel was EUR 1.13 per litre (which
during the second half of 2015 averaged EUR was also its lowest level since the end of 2009).
0.119 per kWh. The price of electricity for this Across the EU-28 as a whole, the price paid
category of consumers was highest in Italy, the at-the-pump by consumers for Euro-super 95
United Kingdom and Germany, while relatively was 3.0 times as high as the price without taxes
low prices were recorded for Finland and and duties. The inclusion of taxes and duties in
Sweden (which had the lowest price level). The the nal price of Euro-super 95 resulted in the
price of electricity for a medium-sized industrial price being more than doubled in each of the EU
Member States.

Energy 12
Table 12.2: Electricity and gas prices, second half of year, 2014 and 2015
(EUR per kWh)
Electricity prices Gas prices
Households () Industry () Households () Industry ()
2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015
EU-28 0.206 0.211 0.120 0.119 0.072 0.071 0.037 0.034
EA() 0.218 0.221 0.129 0.125 0.079 0.076 0.038 0.035
Belgium 0.204 0.235 0.109 0.108 0.065 0.062 0.029 0.029
Bulgaria 0.090 0.096 0.076 0.078 0.048 0.039 0.034 0.027
Czech Republic 0.127 0.129 0.082 0.078 0.056 0.058 0.030 0.029
Denmark 0.304 0.304 0.097 0.091 0.088 0.076 0.037 0.034
Germany 0.297 0.295 0.152 0.149 0.068 0.068 0.040 0.038
Estonia 0.133 0.129 0.093 0.096 0.049 0.038 0.037 0.027
Ireland 0.254 0.245 0.136 0.136 0.075 0.072 0.042 0.037
Greece 0.179 0.177 0.130 0.115 0.080 0.075 0.047 0.036
Spain 0.237 0.237 0.117 0.113 0.096 0.093 0.037 0.032
France 0.162 0.168 0.093 0.095 0.076 0.073 0.038 0.037
Croatia 0.132 0.131 0.092 0.093 0.048 0.046 0.040 0.035
Italy 0.234 0.243 0.174 0.160 0.095 0.091 0.035 0.032
Cyprus 0.236 0.184 0.190 0.141
Latvia 0.130 0.165 0.118 0.118 0.049 0.049 0.036 0.029
Lithuania 0.132 0.124 0.117 0.100 0.050 0.044 0.037 0.022
Luxembourg 0.174 0.177 0.099 0.089 0.051 0.048 0.039 0.037
Hungary 0.115 0.115 0.090 0.087 0.035 0.035 0.039 0.034
Malta 0.125 0.127 0.178 0.137
Netherlands 0.173 0.183 0.089 0.084 0.082 0.077 0.033 0.032
Austria 0.199 0.198 0.106 0.105 0.073 0.071 0.040 0.038
Poland 0.141 0.142 0.083 0.086 0.050 0.050 0.036 0.034
Portugal 0.223 0.229 0.119 0.115 0.104 0.098 0.044 0.038
Romania 0.125 0.132 0.081 0.080 0.032 0.034 0.031 0.029
Slovenia 0.163 0.163 0.085 0.087 0.063 0.061 0.044 0.038
Slovakia 0.152 0.152 0.117 0.112 0.052 0.050 0.038 0.035
Finland 0.154 0.153 0.072 0.071 : : 0.047 0.042
Sweden 0.187 0.187 0.067 0.059 0.114 0.117 0.044 0.042
United Kingdom 0.201 0.218 0.134 0.152 0.065 0.067 0.035 0.035
Iceland 0.116 0.127 : :
Liechtenstein 0.155 0.180 0.140 0.161 0.086 0.093 0.056 0.060
Norway 0.166 0.143 0.081 0.069 : : : :
Montenegro 0.099 0.099 0.075 0.076
FYR of Macedonia 0.082 0.084 0.078 0.081 : : 0.042 0.027
Albania 0.116 0.082 : :
Serbia 0.060 0.065 0.067 0.068 0.045 0.040 0.038 0.036
Turkey 0.131 0.122 0.081 0.070 0.037 0.035 0.027 0.025
Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.081 0.083 0.062 0.061 0.051 0.051 0.053 0.053
Kosovo () 0.059 0.061 0.079 0.081
Moldova : 0.088 : 0.077 : 0.032 : 0.027
() Annual consumption: 2 500 kWh < consumption < 5 000 kWh.

() Annual consumption: 500 MWh < consumption < 2 000 MWh; excluding VAT
() Annual consumption: 20 GJ < consumption < 200 GJ.
() Annual consumption: 10 000 GJ < consumption < 100 000 GJ; excluding VAT.
() 2013: EA-17. 2014: EA-18. 2015: EA-19.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_pc_204, nrg_pc_205, nrg_pc_202 and
nrg_pc_203)

12 Energy
Figure 12.8: Consumer prices of petroleum products, EU, 200515

(EUR per litre)
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Euro-super 95 Automotive diesel Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) motor fuel
Note: Weighted average. Inclusive of taxes and duties. Reference periods refer to the
end of each half year.
Source: Oil bulletin, Directorate-General for Energy, European Commission

Transport

13 Transport
Introduction
In March 2011, the European Commission single transport, energy and digital markets,
adopted a White paper titled Roadmap to a highlighting measures most likely to foster
single European transport area towards a growth and employment by helping people,
competitive and resource ecient transport goods, services and capital to move more easily
system (COM(2011) 144 nal). This strategy throughout the EU.
contains 40 specic initiatives to build a Eurostats statistics describe the most important
competitive transport system that aims to features of transport, not only in terms of the
increase mobility, remove major barriers, and quantities of freight and numbers of passengers
stimulate growth and employment. that are moved each year, or the number of
In October 2012, the European Commission vehicles and infrastructure that are used, but
proposed a second set of actions to further also the contribution of transport services to
develop the single market within the EU: the the economy as a whole. Data collection is
Single Market Act II, titled Together for new supported by several legal acts obliging the EU
growth (COM(2012) 573 nal). This focused Member States to report statistical data, as well
on the role of networks as the backbone as voluntary agreements to supply additional
of the EU economy and promoted, among data.
others, the benets that may be derived from
13.1 Passenger transport

Passenger cars accounted for 83.2 % of inland airport (64 million), Frankfurt airport (59 million)
passenger transport in the EU-28 in 2013, with and Amsterdams Schiphol airport (55 million).
motor coaches, buses and trolley buses (9.2 %) The overwhelming majority (at least 89 %) of
and trains (7.6 %) both accounting for less than a passengers through the four largest airports in
tenth of all trac (as measured by the number of the EU were on international ights.
inland passenger-kilometres (pkm) travelled by Ports in the EU-28 handled 400 million maritime
each mode). passengers in 2013. Greek and Italian ports
Based on the latest data available (generally each handled roughly twice as many maritime
for 2014), there were 381 billion pkm travelled passengers in 2014 as in any other EU Member
on national railway networks of the EU-28. This State, their 75 million and 72 million passengers
gure was considerably higher than the 22 billion accounting for just less than one fth of the
pkm travelled on international journeys (the EU-28 total. Denmark (41 million passengers) had
comparison is based on the same availability for the next highest number of maritime passengers,
the EU Member States). followed by Germany, Sweden, the United
Some 880 million passengers were carried by air Kingdom, France (2013 data), Croatia and Spain,
in 2014 in the EU-28. London Heathrow was the which each handled between 31 million and
busiest airport in the EU-28 in terms of passenger 23 million passengers in 2014.
numbers in 2014 (73 million), followed at
some distance by Paris Charles de Gaulle

Transport 13
Figure 13.1: Modal split of inland passenger transport, 2013
(% of total inland passenger-km)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Croatia ()
Slovakia ()
Latvia
EU-28
Lithuania
Portugal ()
Slovenia ()
Malta ()
Luxembourg ()
Cyprus ()
Greece ()
Czech Republic
Hungary ()
Norway
Netherlands
United Kingdom ()
France
Finland
Sweden
Estonia ()
Ireland ()
Iceland
Romania ()
Bulgaria ()
Spain
Italy
Poland
Denmark
Belgium ()
Austria ()
Switzerland
FYR of Macedonia ()
Turkey
Germany
Trains Motor coaches, buses and trolley buses Passenger cars

Note: Excluding powered two-wheelers. Cyprus, Malta and Iceland: railways not
applicable.
() Includes estimates or provisional data.
() The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian BB and
included in their statistics.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: tran_hv_psmod)
Figure 13.2: Top 15 airports, passengers carried (embarked and disembarked), EU-28,
2014
(million passengers)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
London Heathrow (United Kingdom)
Paris Charles-de-Gaulle (France)
Frankfurt (Germany)
Amsterdam Schiphol (Netherlands)
Madrid Barajas (Spain)
Mnchen F.J. Strauss (Germany)
Roma Fiumicino (Italy)
London Gatwick (United Kingdom)
Barcelona (Spain)
Paris Orly (France)
Kbenhavn Kastrup (Denmark)
Palma de Mallorca (Spain)
Wien-Schwechat (Austria)
Stockholm Arlanda (Sweden)
Manchester (United Kingdom)
International National
Source: Eurostat (online data code: avia_paoa)

13 Transport
13.2 Freight transport

Total inland freight transport in the EU-28 carried by roads was 0.6 percentage points lower
was estimated to be over 2 200 billion tonne- in 2013, while the share transported by inland
kilometres (tkm) in 2013; some three quarters of waterways had increased by the same amount,
this freight total was transported over roads. as the share transported by rail remained stable.
The share of EU-28 inland freight that was About 14.4 million tonnes of air freight (both
transported by road (74.9 %) was more than four national and international) was carried through
times as high as the share transported by rail airports within the EU-28 in 2014.The quantity of
(18.2 %), while the remainder (6.9 %) of the freight goods transported by air in the EU-28 was 27.1 %
transported in the EU-28 in 2013 was carried higher in 2014 than it had been ve years earlier
along inland waterways. Compared with the in 2009.
modal split in 2008, the share of inland freight
Figure 13.3: Modal split of inland freight transport, 2013

(% of total inland tkm)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Croatia
EU-28
Cyprus
Malta
Ireland
Greece
Spain
Italy
Portugal
United Kingdom
France
Luxembourg ()
Poland
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Latvia
Finland
Sweden
Slovenia
Norway
Belgium ()
Austria ()
Hungary
Bulgaria
Netherlands
Romania
Estonia
Lithuania
Switzerland
Denmark
Germany
Inland waterways Railways Roads

Note: Excluding pipelines. Cyprus and Malta: railways not applicable.
() Estimates.
() The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian BB and
included in their statistics.
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: rail_go_typeall, iww_go_atygo, road_go_ta_tott
and road_go_ca_c) and Eurostat calculations

Transport 13
Airports in Germany dealt with 4.3 million Maritime ports in the EU-28 handled 3.8 billion
tonnes of air freight in 2014, considerably more tonnes of seaborne goods in 2014, which marked
than in any other EU Member State; the United a slight increase of 2.1 % when compared
Kingdom and France had the second and third with 2013, but an increase of 9.5 % compared
highest amounts of air freight, at 2.4 million with the 2009 mid-crisis level. Sea ports in the
and 2.3 million tonnes. Some of the smaller EU Netherlands and the United Kingdom each
Member States are relatively specialised in air handled more than 500 million tonnes of goods
freight, notably all of the Benelux countries, and in 2014, while in Italy and Spain the level was
in particular, Luxembourg which ranked as the in excess of 400 million tonnes. These four EU
seventh largest air freight transporter among the Member States collectively handled more than
EU Member States. half (51.2 %) of the EU-28s seaborne freight.
Figure 13.4: Air freight transport, 2014

(thousand tonnes)
4 500 225
4 000 200
3 500 175
3 000 150
2 500 125
2 000 100
1 500 75
1 000 50
500 25
0 0
Slovakia
Croatia
United Kingdom
France
Netherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
Spain
Hungary
Greece
Czech Republic
Latvia
Belgium
Switzerland
Norway
Austria
Finland
Sweden
Ireland
Portugal
Poland
Romania
Cyprus
Estonia
Malta
Iceland
Denmark
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Slovenia
Germany
Note: Note the dierent scales used in the two parts of the gure.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ttr00011)

Annexes

Abbreviations
Abbreviations and acronyms
Geographical abbreviations
EU-28 European Union of 28 Member States
EU-27 European Union of 27 Member States
EU European Union
EA-19 Euro area of 19 Member States
EA Euro area
EFTA Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland
In this publication like in the other Eurostat publications, the geographical descriptions and the use
of the terms southern, northern, central, eastern and western Europe are not meant as political
categorisations. The references in the text are made in relation to the geographical location of one
group of Member States of the European Union in comparison to another group of Member States.
Units of measurement
% per cent
CHF Swiss franc
EUR euro
FTE full-time equivalent(s)
GWh gigawatt-hour
JPY Japanese yen
kg kilogram
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt hour
m cubic metre
pkm passenger-kilometre
PPS purchasing power standard
tkm tonne-kilometre
toe tonne of oil equivalent
USD United States dollar

Abbreviations
Other abbreviations
BD4 Fourth edition of the OECD benchmark denition of foreign direct investment
BPM6 Sixth edition of the balance of payments and international investment
position manual
CAP common agricultural policy
CH methane
CO carbon dioxide
CPI consumer price index
EAP environment action programme
ECB European Central Bank
EFTA European free trade association
EMU economic and monetary union
EPO European Patent Oce
ET education and training
EU European Union
Eurostat statistical oce of the European Union
FDI foreign direct investment
GDP gross domestic product
GERD gross domestic expenditure on R & D
HICP harmonised index of consumer prices
ICT information and communication technology
ISCED international standard classication of education
JAF Joint Assessment Framework
LFS labour force survey
NO nitrous oxide
NACE statistical classication of economic activities within the European Community
n.e.c. not elsewhere classied
NUTS classication of territorial units for statistics (NUTS levels 1, 2 and 3 regions)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PDF portable document format
PEEI(s) Principal European Economic Indicator(s)

Abbreviations
R&D research and development

Rev. revision
SGP stability and growth pact
SME small and medium-sized enterprise
STS short-term (business) statistics
TGM tables, graphs and maps (software for viewing data)
UAA utilised agricultural area
UNESCO United Nations educational, scientic and cultural organisation
VAT value added tax
WTO World Trade Organisation

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Key gures on Europe
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For more information please consult

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4. Education and training 57

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8.2 Farm structure 112

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12. Energy 173

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Structure of the publication

Data extraction and coverage

Data extraction EU-27 (the 27 Member States of the EU prior to

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Temporal data coverage

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Accessing European statistics

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1.1 Population and population change

Figure 1.1: Population, EU-28, 19602016

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Table 1.1: Demographic balance, 2015

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1.2 Population structure and ageing

Figure 1.2: Age dependency ratios, EU-28, 200115

EU-28 young-age dependency ratio EU-28 old-age dependency ratio

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