Secondary Energy Infobook

20
15
-20
16
Secondary Energy Infobook
A comprehensive classroom resource containing fact sheets that introduce students to energy
and describe energy sources, electricity consumption, efficiency, conservation, transportation,
climate change, and emerging technologies. Infobooks can be used as a resource for many
energy activities.
e Pri
Ele
Int Grade Level:
Sec Secondary
Subject Areas:
Science Social Studies
Math Language Arts
Technology
NEED Mission Statement
The mission of The NEED Project is to promote an energy
conscious and educated society by creating effective
networks of students, educators, business, government and
community leaders to design and deliver objective, multi-
Teacher Advisory Board

sided energy education programs.
Shelly Baumann Barbara Lazar

Teacher Advisory Board Statement
Rockford, MI Albuquerque, NM In support of NEED, the national Teacher Advisory Board
(TAB) is dedicated to developing and promoting standards-
Constance Beatty Robert Lazar based energy curriculum and training.
Kankakee, IL Albuquerque, NM
Amy Constant Leslie Lively Permission to Copy

Raleigh, NC Porters Falls, WV NEED materials may be reproduced for non-commercial
Nina Corley educational purposes.
Mollie Mukhamedov
Galveston, TX Port St. Lucie, FL
Regina Donour Don Pruett Jr.
Energy Data Used in NEED Materials
Whitesburg, KY Sumner, WA NEED believes in providing the most recently reported
energy data available to our teachers and students.
Linda Fonner Josh Rubin Most statistics and data are derived from the U.S. Energy
New Martinsville, WV Palo Alto, CA Information Administrations Annual Energy Review that
is published yearly. Working in partnership with EIA,
Samantha Forbes Joanne Spaziano NEED includes easy to understand data in our curriculum
Vienna, VA Cranston, RI materials. To do further research, visit the EIA website at
www.eia.gov. EIAs Energy Kids site has great lessons and
Michelle Garlick Gina Spencer
activities for students at www.eia.gov/kids.
Virginia Beach, VA
Robert Griegoliet Tom Spencer

Naperville, IL Chesapeake, VA
Viola Henry Jennifer Trochez
Thaxton, VA MacLean
Los Angeles, CA
Bob Hodash
Joanne Trombley
West Chester, PA
DaNel Hogan
Tucson, AZ Jen Varrella
Greg Holman Fort Collins, CO
Paradise, CA
Jennifer Winterbottom
Linda Hutton Pottstown, PA
Kitty Hawk, NC
Carolyn Wuest
Matthew Inman Pensacola, FL
Spokane, WA 1.800.875.5029
Wayne Yonkelowitz www.NEED.org
Fayetteville, WV 2015
Printed on Recycled Paper
2 Secondary Energy Infobook

Secondary Energy Infobook
Table of Contents
Standards Correlation Information 4
NEED Secondary Curriculum Resources 5
Introduction to Energy 6
Biomass 10
Coal 14
Geothermal 18
Hydropower 22
Natural Gas 26
Petroleum 30
Propane 34
Solar 38
Uranium 42
Wind 46
Climate Change 50
Hydrogen 52
Electricity 54
Measuring Electricity 62
Energy Consumption 64
Residential/Commercial Sector 64
Industrial Sector 67
Transportation Sector 68
Efficiency and Conservation 70
Glossary 76
Index 85
e
2015 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 3
Standards Correlation Information
www.NEED.org/curriculumcorrelations
Next Generation Science Standards

This guide effectively supports many Next Generation Science Standards. This material can satisfy performance expectations,
science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, and cross cutting concepts within your required curriculum. For more
details on these correlations, please visit NEEDs curriculum correlations website.
Common Core State Standards

This guide has been correlated to the Common Core State Standards in both language arts and mathematics. These correlations
are broken down by grade level and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED curriculum correlations
website.
Individual State Science Standards

This guide has been correlated to each states individual science standards. These correlations are broken down by grade level
and guide title, and can be downloaded as a spreadsheet from the NEED website.

e NEED Secondary Curriculum Resources
For more in-depth information, inquiry investigations, and engaging
activities, download these curriculum resources from www.NEED.org to
fit with our eight-step, comprehensive energy unit.
INTRODUCTORY Energy Games and Icebreakers

ACTIVITIES Energy Polls
STEP ONE: Energy Flows

Science of Energy Secondary Science of Energy
Thermodynamics
STEP TWO: Energy Enigma

Sources of Energy Energy Expos
STEP FIVE: Chemistry and Energy Efficiency
Energy Games and Icebreakers Efficiency and Energy Conservation Contract
Exploring Coal Conservation Energy Expos
Exploring Hydroelectricity Energy Games and Ice Breakers
Exploring Nuclear Energy Exploring Climate Change
Exploring Ocean Energy Learning and Conserving
Exploring Oil and Gas Museum of Solid Waste and Energy
Exploring Photovoltaics Plug Loads
Exploring Wind Energy Saving Energy at Home and School
Fossil Fuels to Products School Energy Survey
Great Energy Debate
H2 Educate
STEP SIX: Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage
Synthesis and Digital Energy
Liquefied Natural Gas: LNG Reinforcement Energy Analysis
Schools Going Solar
Energy and Our Rivers
Secondary Energy Infobook Activities
Energy Around the World
U.S. Energy Geography
Energy Games and Icebreakers
Wind for Schools
Energy Jeopardy
STEP THREE: Current Energy Affair Energy Math Challenge
Electricity and Energy Games and Icebreakers Energy on Stage
Magnetism Mission Possible Energy Rock Performances
Secondary Energy Infobook Activities Global Trading Game
STEP FOUR: Energy Expos NEED Songbook
Transportation Exploring Hybrid Buses
STEP SEVEN: Energy Polls
H2 Educate Evaluation Question Bank
Transportation Fuels Debate
Transportation Fuels Enigma
STEP EIGHT: Youth Awards Program Guide

Student Leadership and
Transportation Fuels Infobook Outreach
Transportation Fuels Rock Performances
e Introduction to Energy
What Is Energy?
Energy does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats on the
water. It bakes a cake in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It
Energy at a Glance, 2013
plays our favorite songs and lights our homes at night. Energy helps our
2012 2013
bodies grow and our minds think. Energy is a changing, doing, moving,
working thing. World Population 7,020,760,225 7,098,495,231
Energy is defined as the ability to produce change or do work, and that U.S. Population 313,873,685 316,128,839
work can be divided into several main tasks we easily recognize: World Energy Production 513.695 Q 524.501 Q
U.S. Energy Production 79.219 Q 81.942 Q
Energy produces light.
Renewables 8.838 Q 9.298 Q
Energy produces heat.
Nonrenewables 70.381 Q 72.644 Q
Energy produces motion.
World Energy Consumption 518.086 528.743 Q
Energy produces sound. U.S. Energy Consumption 96.705 Q 97.785 Q
Energy produces growth. Renewables 8.798 Q 9.298 Q
Energy powers technology. Nonrenewables 87.907 Q 88.487 Q
Forms of Energy Q = Quad (1015 Btu) see Measuring Energy on page 8.
Data: Energy Information Administration

There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories
potential or kinetic.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or
gravitational potential energy. There are several forms of potential
Forms of Energy
energy, including:
POTENTIAL KINETIC

Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and
molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Foods
Chemical Electrical
we eat, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of
Energy Energy
stored chemical energy.
During photosynthesis, sunlight gives plants the energy they need to
build complex chemical compounds. When these compounds are later Elastic Radiant
broken down, the stored chemical energy is released as heat, light,
Energy Energy
motion, and sound.

Elastic energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force.
Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of elastic Thermal
Nuclear Energy
energy.
Energy

Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atomthe energy
that binds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the Motion
nuclei are combined or split apart. Nuclear power plants split the nuclei Energy
of uranium atoms in a process called fission. The sun combines the
Gravitational
nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion.
Potential
In both fission and fusion, mass is converted into energy, according to Energy Sound
Einsteins Theory, E = mc2. Energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy of position or place. A
rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy
because of its position. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind
a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is motionthe motion of waves, electrons, atoms,
Efficiency
molecules, substances, and objects. Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy you can get out of a
system. In theory, a 100 percent energy efficient machine would change

Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of all of the energy put in it into useful work. Converting one form of energy
tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles into another form always involves a loss of usable energy, usually in the
called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force can make form of thermal energy.
some of the electrons move. Electrons moving through a wire are
called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy. In fact, most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human
body is no exception. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your

Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse machine is food. Food gives us the energy to move, breathe, and think.
waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and Your body is very inefficient at converting food into useful work. Most of
radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. the energy in your body is released as thermal energy.

Thermal energy, which is often described as heat, is the internal An incandescent light bulb isnt efficient either. This type of light bulb
energy in substancesthe vibration and movement of atoms and converts ten percent of the electrical energy into light and the rest (90
molecules within substances. The faster molecules and atoms vibrate percent) is converted into thermal energy. Thats why these light bulbs
and move within a substance, the more energy they possess and the are so hot to the touch.
hotter they become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal
energy. Most electric power plants that use steam to spin turbines are about
Transformations

Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from one
place to another. According to Newtons Laws of Motion, objects and
Efficiency of a Power Plant
35 percent efficient. Thus, it takes three units of fuel to make one unit
of electricity.
Most thermalMost
dissipates
powerofplants
the are
other
environment
aboutenergy is lost
35 percent
where we
as waste
efficient.
can no
heat.
Of the 100
longer
unitsThis
use
heat
of energy
that go into a plant, 65 units are lost as one form of energy is converted to otherasforms.
into the it a
substances move when an unbalanced force is applied. Wind is an practical source of energy.
The remaining 35 units of energy leave the plant to do usable work.
example of motion energy. Efficiency of a Power Plant

Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in Most thermal power plants are about 35 THERMAL
percentENERGY
efficient. Of the 100 units of energy
longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced FUEL SUPPLY FUEL BURNING ELECTRICITY
that go into a plant, 65 units are lost as one form of energy is converted to other forms.
when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate. The energy is Efficiency of a Thermal Power Plant
The remaining 35 units of energy leave the plant to do usable work.
STEAM LINE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION TRANSMISSION
transferred through the substance in a wave. 3
100 units of GENERATOR
BOILER THERMAL ENERGY
energy go in SWITCHYARD
Motion of Energy
Conservation Chemical Motion
FUEL SUPPLY
CHEMICAL
FUEL BURNING 2 TURBINE
4
5 ELECTRICITY
6
ENERGY ELECTRICITY GENERATION TRANSMISSION
3 STEAM LINE
Your parents may tell you to conserve energy. Turn off the lights, they 100 units of FEED GENERATOR
BOILER WATER CONDENSER 35 units of
say. But to scientists, conservation of energy means something quite energy
1 go in SWITCHYARD
energy
TURBINE 5
different. The Law of Conservation of Energy says energy is neither CHEMICAL 2 4 MOTION ENERGY come6 out
created nor destroyed. ENERGY
Fuel Sources FEED
When we use energy, we do not use it completelywe just change its WATER CONDENSER 35 units of
1 energy
form. Thats really what we mean when we say we are using energy. We MOTION ENERGY come out
Chemical Electrical
change one form of energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline, Thermal
Petroleum
Fuel Sources
Coal Natural Gas Biomass
converting the chemical energy in the gasoline into motion energy
that makes the car move. Old-fashioned windmills changed the kinetic How a Thermal Power Plant Works
energy of the wind into motion energy to grind grain. Solar cells change 1. Fuel is fed into a boiler, where it is burned to release thermal energy.
radiant energy into electrical energy. Petroleum Coal Natural Gas Biomass
2. Water is piped into the boiler and heated, turning it into steam.
Energy can change form, but the total quantity of energy in the How a Thermal Power Plant Works
3. The steam travels at high pressure through a steam line.
universe remains the same. The only exception to this law is when a 1. Fuel is fed into a boiler, where it is burned to release thermal energy.
small amount of matter is converted into energy during nuclear fusion 4. The high pressure steam turns a turbine, which spins a shaft.
and fission. 5. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of magnets.
3. The
Thissteam
createstravels at highfield,
an electric pressure through
producing a steam line.
electricity.
Energy Transformations 4.
6. The high pressure
Electricity steam
is sent to turns a turbine,
a switchyard, wherewhich spins a shaft.
a transformer increases the voltage,
allowing
5. Inside theitgenerator,
to travel through
the shaftthe electric
spins coils ofgrid.
copper wire inside a ring of magnets.
This creates an electric field, producing electricity.
6. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage,
allowing it to travel through the electric grid.
Chemical Motion Chemical Motion
Radiant Chemical Electrical Thermal
e Introduction to Energy
Sources of Energy
Renewable energy sources include biomass, geothermal, hydropower,
People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of
solar, and wind. They are called renewable energy sources because their
years ago, early humans burned wood to provide light, heat their living
supplies are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines,
spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used the wind to move their
the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources
boats from place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using
mainly to make electricity.
falling water to make electricity.
Is electricity a renewable or nonrenewable source of energy? The
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for
answer is neither. Electricity is different from the other energy sources
a multitude of tasks and our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our
because it is a secondary source of energy. That means we have to
homes are comfortable and full of useful and entertaining electrical
use another energy source to make it. In the United States, coal is the
devices. We communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live
number one fuel for generating electricity.
longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it on television
and the internet.
The ten major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad
groupsnonrenewable and renewable.
Nonrenewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas,
U.S. Energy Consumption by Source, 2013
propane, and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat
our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacture products from candy NONRENEWABLE, 90.47% RENEWABLE, 9.52%
bars to cell phones.
These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be
replenished in a short period of time. Petroleum, a fossil fuel, for example,
was formed hundreds of millions of years ago, before dinosaurs existed. Petroleum 35.20% Biomass 4.73%
It was formed from the remains of ancient sea life, so it cannot be made Uses: transportation, Uses: electricity, heating,
manufacturing transportation
quickly. We could run out of economically recoverable nonrenewable
resources some day.
Measuring Energy Natural Gas 26.59%

Uses: electricity, heating,
Hydropower 2.62%
Uses: electricity
manufacturing
You cant compare apples and oranges, the old saying
goes. That holds true for energy sources. We buy gasoline in
gallons, wood in cords, and natural gas in cubic feet. How
can we compare them? With British thermal units (Btu),
thats how. The energy contained in gasoline, wood, or other Coal 18.52% Wind 1.63%
energy sources can be measured by the amount of heat in Uses: electricity, manufacturing Uses: electricity
Btu it can produce.
One Btu is the amount of thermal energy needed to raise the

temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. A
single Btu is quite small. A wooden kitchen match, if allowed
Uranium 8.47% Solar 0.31%
to burn completely, would give off about one Btu of energy. Uses: electricity Uses: electricity, heating
One ounce of gasoline contains almost 1,000 Btu of energy.
Every day the average American uses about 847,000 Btu. We

use the term quad (Q) to measure very large quantities of
energy. A quad is one quadrillion (1,000,000,000,000,000 or
Propane 1.69% Geothermal 0.23%
1015) Btu. The United States uses about one quad of energy Uses: electricity, heating
Uses: heating, manufacturing
approximately every 3.7 days. In 2007, the U.S. consumed
101.296 quads of energy, an all-time high. Data: Energy Information Administration
*Total does not equal 100% due to independent rounding.

Energy Use Energy Use and Prices
Imagine how much energy you use every day. You wake up to an Several decades ago, in 1973, Americans faced a major oil price shock
electric alarm clock and charge your cell phone. You take a shower with due to an oil embargo. People didnt know how the country would
water warmed by a hot water heater using electricity or natural gas. react. How would Americans adjust to skyrocketing energy prices?
How would manufacturers and industries respond? We didnt know
You listen to music on your MP3 player as you dress. You catch the
the answers.
bus to school. And thats just some of the energy you use to get you
through the first part of your day! Now we know that Americans tend to use less energy when energy
prices are high. We have the statistics to prove it. When energy prices
Every day, the average American uses about as much energy as is
increased sharply in the early 1970s, energy use dropped, creating
stored in six and a half gallons of gasoline. Thats every person, every
a gap between actual energy use and how much the experts had
day. Over a course of one year, the sum of this energy is equal to
thought Americans would be using.
about 2,400 gallons of gasoline per person. This use of energy is called
energy consumption. The same thing happened when energy prices shot up again in 1979,
1980, and more recently in 2008people used less energy. When
Energy Users prices started to drop, energy use began to increase.

We dont want to simplify energy demand too much. The price of
The U.S. Department of Energy uses categories to classify energy
energy is not the only factor in the equation. Other factors that
usersresidential, commercial, industrial, and transportation. These
affect how much energy we use include the publics concern for the
categories are called the sectors of the economy.
environment and new technologies that can improve the efficiency
Residential/Commercial and performance of automobiles and appliances.
Residences are peoples homes. Commercial buildings include office Most reductions in energy consumption in recent years are the result of
buildings, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and schools. Residential and improved technologies in industry, vehicles, and appliances. Without
commercial energy use are lumped together because homes and these energy conservation and efficiency technologies, we would be
businesses use energy in the same waysfor heating, air conditioning, using much more energy today.
water heating, lighting, and operating appliances.
In 2013, the United States used 29 percent more energy than it did in
The residential/commercial sector of the economy consumed 40.21 1973. That might sound like a lot, but the population has increased by
percent of the total energy supply in 2013, more energy than either over 49 percent and the nations gross domestic product was 2.413
of the other sectors, with a total of 39.32 quads. The residential sector times that of 1973.
consumed 21.27 quads and the commercial sector consumed 18.04
You may wonder why the 1970s are importantit was so long ago.
quads.
However, the energy crisis during this decade taught us a valuable
lesson. If every person in the United States today consumed energy at
Industrial
the rate we did in the 1970s, we would be using much more energy than
The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining,
we areperhaps as much as double the amount. Energy efficiency
farming, fishing, and forestry. This sector consumed 31.20 quads
technologies have made a huge impact on overall consumption since
of energy in 2013, which accounted for 31.90 percent of total
the energy crisis of 1973.
consumption.
Transportation
The transportation sector refers to energy consumption by cars, buses, U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector, 2013
trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes. In 2013, the U.S. consumed 27.27
quads of energy for transportation. 92.01 percent of this energy was
INDUSTRIAL 31.90% TRANSPORTATION 27.89%
Top Industrial Sources: Top Transportation Sources:
from petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. Petroleum Petroleum
Natural Gas Biomass
Biomass Natural Gas
COMMERCIAL 18.45% RESIDENTIAL 21.76%

Top Commercial Sources: Top Residential Sources:
Natural Gas Natural Gas
Petroleum Petroleum
Biomass Biomass
Biomass Biomass at a Glance, 2013
Classification: Major Uses:
renewable electricity, transportation
fuel, heating
What Is Biomass? U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
Biomass is any organic matterwood, crops, seaweed, animal wastes 4.613 Q 4.614 Q
that can be used as an energy source. Biomass is probably our oldest 4.73% 5.63%
source of energy after the sun. For thousands of years, people have
burned wood to heat their homes and cook their food. (Most electricity from biomass is for cogeneration, and is not
included in these numbers.)
Biomass gets its energy from the sun. All organic matter contains
stored energy from the sun. During a process called photosynthesis, Data: Energy Information Administration
sunlight gives plants the energy they need to convert water and carbon
dioxide into oxygen and sugars. These sugars, called carbohydrates,
supply plants and the animals that eat plants with energy. Foods rich in
carbohydrates are a good source of energy for the human body.
Photosynthesis
In the process of photosynthesis, plants convert radiant
Biomass is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not
energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of
limited. We can always grow trees and crops, and waste will always exist.
glucose (or sugar).
CARBON DIOXIDE
Types of Biomass RADIANT
ENERGY
We use several types of biomass today, including wood, agricultural OXYGEN
products, solid waste, landfill gas and biogas, and biofuels. The uses for
alcohol fuels, like ethanol, will be discussed in depth in the coming pages.
Wood RADIANT ENERGY

Most biomass used today is home grown energy. Woodlogs, chips, bark, OXYGEN
and sawdustaccounts for about 46 percent of biomass energy. But any
organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources can
include agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corncobs. WATER
CARBON
Wood and wood waste are used to generate electricity. Much of the GLUCOSE DIOXIDE
electricity is used by the industries making the waste; it is not distributed WATER
by utilities, it is a process called cogeneration. Paper mills and saw mills
use much of their waste products to generate steam and electricity for
their use. However, since they use so much energy, they need to buy
additional electricity from utilities.
Increasingly, timber companies and companies involved with wood
products are seeing the benefits of using their lumber scrap and U.S. Sources of Biomass, 2013
sawdust for power generation. This saves disposal costs and, in some
areas, may reduce the companies utility bills. In fact, the pulp and paper
WOOD AND BIOFUELS 43.36%
industries rely on biomass to meet 63 percent of their energy needs. WOOD WASTE
Other industries that use biomass include lumber producers, furniture 46.35%
manufacturers, agricultural businesses like nut and rice growers, and
liquor producers.
Solid Waste GARBAGE AND

Burning trash turns waste into a usable form of energy. One ton (2,000 LANDFILL WASTE
pounds) of garbage contains about as much heat energy as 500 pounds
10.32%
of coal. Garbage is not all biomass; perhaps half of its energy content
comes from plastics, which are made from petroleum and natural gas.
it from coal and other energy sources. The main advantage of burning
Power plants that burn garbage for energy are called waste-to-energy solid waste is that it reduces the volume of garbage dumped in landfills
plants. These plants generate electricity much as coal-fired plants do, by up to 90 percent, which in turn reduces the cost of landfill disposal. It
except that combustible garbagenot coalis the fuel used to fire also makes use of the energy in the garbage, rather than burying it in a
their boilers. Making electricity from garbage costs more than making landfill, where it remains unused.

Landfill Gas and Biogas
Bacteria and fungi are not picky eaters. They eat dead plants and U.S. Biomass Consumption by Sector, 2013
animals, causing them to rot or decay. A fungus on a rotting log is
converting cellulose to sugars to feed itself. Although this process is
INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORTATION
slowed in a landfill, a substance called methane gas is still produced
47.63% 27.14%
as the waste decays.
Regulations require landfills to collect methane gas for safety and RESIDENTIAL 12.57%
environmental reasons. Methane gas is colorless and odorless, but it
is not harmless. The gas can cause fires or explosions if it seeps into
nearby homes and is ignited. Landfills can collect the methane gas, COMMERCIAL 2.58%
purify it, and use it as fuel to generate electricity.
ELECTRICITY 10.08%
Methane, the main ingredient in natural gas, is a good energy
source. Most gas stoves and furnaces use methane supplied by
utility companies. In 2003, East Kentucky Power Cooperative began
recovering methane from three landfills. The utility now uses the gas
at six landfills to generate enough electricity to power about 9,000
Kentucky homes.
Using Biomass Energy
Today, a small portion of landfill gas is used to provide energy. Most Usually we burn wood and use its energy for heating. Burning,
is burned off at the landfill. With todays low natural gas prices, this however, is not the only way to convert biomass energy into a
higher-priced biogas is rarely economical to collect. Methane, usable energy source. There are four ways:
however, is a more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. It
Fermentation: There are several types of processes that can
is better to burn landfill methane and change it into carbon dioxide
produce an alcohol (ethanol) from various plants, especially
through combustion than to release it into the atmosphere.
corn. The two most commonly used processes involve using
Methane can also be produced using energy from agricultural and yeast to ferment the starch in the plant to produce ethanol. One
human wastes. Biogas digesters are airtight containers or pits lined of the newest processes involves using enzymes to break down
with steel or bricks. Waste put into the containers is fermented without the cellulose in the plant fibers, allowing more ethanol to be
oxygen to produce a methane-rich gas. This gas can be used to made from each plant, because all of the plant tissue is utilized,
produce electricity, or for cooking and lighting. It is a safe and clean- not just the starch.
burning gas, producing little carbon monoxide and no smoke.
Burning: We can burn biomass in waste-to-energy plants to
Biogas digesters are inexpensive to build and maintain. They can be produce steam for making electricity, or we can burn it to
built as family-sized or community-sized units. They need moderate provide heat for industries and homes.
temperatures and moisture for the fermentation process to occur. For
Bacterial Decay: Bacteria feed on dead plants and animals,
developing countries, biogas digesters may be one of the best answers
producing methane. Methane is produced whenever organic
to many of their energy needs. They can help reverse the rampant
material decays. Methane is the main ingredient in natural gas,
deforestation caused by wood-burning, reduce air pollution, fertilize
the gas sold by natural gas utilities. Many landfills are recovering
over-used fields, and produce clean, safe energy for rural communities.
and using the methane gas produced by the garbage.
Use of Biomass Conversion: Biomass can be converted into gas or liquid fuels
Until the mid-1800s, wood gave Americans 90 percent of the energy by using chemicals or heat. In India, cow manure is converted
used in the country. Today, biomass provides 4.73 percent of the to methane gas to produce electricity. Methane gas can also be
total energy we consume. Biomass has largely been replaced by coal, converted to methanol, a type of alcohol made from fermenting
natural gas, and petroleum. wood. Methane and methanol each have only one carbon atom.
Almost half of the biomass used today comes from burning wood and
wood scraps such as saw dust. More than 43 percent is from biofuels,
principally ethanol, that are used as a gasoline additive. The rest comes
Biomass and the Environment
from crops, garbage, and landfill gas. Environmentally, biomass has some advantages over fossil fuels such
Industry is the biggest user of biomass. Almost 48 percent of biomass is as coal and petroleum. Biomass contains little sulfur and nitrogen, so
used by industry. Electric utilities use 10 percent of biomass for power it does not produce the pollutants that can cause acid rain. Growing
generation. Biomass produces 1.48 percent of the electricity we use. plants for use as biomass fuels may also help keep carbon dioxide
levels balanced. Plants remove carbon dioxidea greenhouse gas
Transportation is the next biggest user of biomass; over 27 percent of from the atmosphere when they grow.
biomass is used by the transportation sector to produce biofuels like
ethanol and biodiesel (see pages 12-13).
The residential sector uses over 12 percent of the biomass supply.
About one-tenth of American homes burn wood for heating, but few
use wood as the only source of heat. Most of these homes burn wood
in fireplaces and wood stoves for additional heat.
Biofuels: Ethanol U.S. Consumption of Biofuels, 2013
15 Billion Gallons
What Is Ethanol? 12
Ethanol is an alcohol fuel (ethyl alcohol) made by fermenting the sugars
and starches found in plants and then distilling them. Any organic 9 Ethanol
material containing cellulose, starch, or sugar can be made into ethanol. Biodiesel
The majority of the ethanol produced in the United States comes from 6
corn. New technologies are producing ethanol from cellulose in woody
fibers from trees, grasses, and crop residues. 3
Today nearly all of the gasoline sold in the U.S. contains around 10
percent ethanol and is known as E10. In 2011, the U.S. Environmental 0
Protection Agency (EPA) approved the introduction of E15 (15 percent
ethanol, 85 percent gasoline) for use in passenger vehicles from model
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13
year 2001 and newer. Fuel containing 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent
gasoline (E85) qualifies as an alternative fuel. There are more than 10
million flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) on the road that can run efficiently
on E85 or E10. However, just under 10 percent of these vehicles use E85
regularly. Environmental Impacts
Characteristics of Ethanol Ethanol is both water soluble and biodegradable. If a fuel spill occurs,
the effects are less environmentally severe than with gasoline. Because
With one of the highest octane ratings of any transportation fuel, ethanol contains oxygen, using it as a fuel additive results in lower
ethanol increases the energy efficiency of an engine. When using carbon monoxide emissions. The E10 blend results in 12 to 25 percent
ethanol blends, vehicles have comparable power, acceleration, payload less carbon monoxide emissions than conventional gasoline. E10 is
capacity, and cruising speed to those using gasoline. However, because widely used in areas that fail to meet the EPAs air quality standards
ethanol contains less energy per gallon than gasoline, vehicle range for carbon monoxide. However, some research indicates that under
(the distance a vehicle can travel on a tank of fuel) can be slightly less. common driving conditions E10 can increase ozone concentrations.
Ethanol is also less flammable than gasoline; it is safer to store, transport, Breathing ozone in unhealthy concentrations can result in damage
and refuel. to the lungs and cause coughing and shortness of breath. In contrast
Vehicle maintenance for ethanol-powered vehicles is similar to those to E10, E85 reduces ozone-forming volatile organic compounds and
using gasoline. Oil changes, in fact, are needed less frequently. Due to carbon monoxide.
its detergent properties, ethanol tends to keep fuel lines and injectors Compared to gasoline, the production and use of corn ethanol could
cleaner than gasoline. Because ethanol has a tendency to absorb result in little to no carbon dioxide (CO2) reductions in the near future.
moisture, using ethanol fuel can help reduce the possibility of fuel-line- This is because an increased demand for ethanol may lead to converting
freeze-up during the winter. forests and grasslands to crop land for fuel and food. This conversion
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When these factors are
Distribution of Ethanol taken into account, switching to corn ethanol from gasoline would
In 2013, ethanol plants in the U.S. produced more than 13 billion gallons provide little or no climate change benefit in the next 50 years. By
of ethanol. There are 187 plants operating nationwide. These plants are comparison, the production and use of cellulosic ethanol could reduce
located mostly in the Midwest. Many new plants are in the planning CO2 emissions by 18 to 25 percent compared to gasoline, even when the
stages. There are currently nearly 2,700 E85 fueling stations in 47 states. impacts from clearing land for crops are considered.
Ethanol fuels for heavy-duty applications are available only through
bulk suppliers.
Land Use and Ethanol
One concern with the use of corn ethanol is that the land required to grow
Economics of Ethanol the corn might compete with land needed to grow food. If this is true,
the increased demand for corn could cause food prices to rise. Poultry
The Federal Government mandated that by 2012, 12 billion gallons of
farmers and ranchers are concerned that the cost of feed for their animals
renewable fuels be produced per year. The U.S. is exceeding this mark,
would rise. A global spike in food prices in 2008 was partially caused by
producing more than 13 billion gallons of ethanol alone in 2013. For
increased demand for ethanol. Though it was only a small component of
comparison, however, the U.S. consumed over 120 billion gallons of
the price spike, it has caused concern that greatly increasing the use of
gasoline in 2013. Today, it costs more to produce ethanol than gasoline,
corn ethanol could affect food prices more significantly.
however, federal and state tax advantages make ethanol competitive in
the marketplace. A study by the Department of Energy and the Department of Agriculture
concluded that by 2030 it would be possible to replace 30 percent of our
Since it is the second largest use of corn, ethanol production adds value
gasoline use with ethanol without increasing demands on crop land.
to crops for farmers. As new technologies for producing ethanol from all
While we cant sustainably meet all of our transportation fuel needs with
parts of plants and trees become cost-effective, the production and use
ethanol, in the future it could significantly decrease our dependence on
of ethanol will increase dramatically.
petroleum.
BIODIESEL-POWERED GARBAGE TRUCK
Biofuels: Biodiesel
What Is Biodiesel?
Biodiesel is a fuel made by chemically reacting alcohol with vegetable
oils, animal fats, or greases, such as recycled restaurant grease. Most
biodiesel today is made from soybean oil. Biodiesel is most often blended
with petroleum diesel in ratios of two percent (B2), five percent (B5), or
20 percent (B20). It can also be used as neat (pure) biodiesel (B100).
Biodiesel fuels are compatible with and can be used in unmodified
diesel engines with the existing fueling infrastructure. It is one of the
fastest growing alternative transportation fuels in the U.S.
Image courtesy of NREL
Biodiesel contains virtually no sulfur, so it can reduce sulfur levels in
the nations diesel fuel supply, even compared with todays low sulfur Any vehicle that operates on diesel fuel can switch to B100 or a
biodiesel blend without changes to its engine. Many state fleets and
fuels. While removing sulfur from petroleum-based diesel results in school districts are switching from diesel to biodiesel blends to reduce
poor lubrication, biodiesel is a superior lubricant and can reduce the emissions and improve air quality.
friction of diesel fuel in blends of only one or two percent. This is an
important characteristic because the Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Impacts
now requires that sulfur levels in diesel fuel be 97 percent lower than Biodiesel is renewable, nontoxic, and biodegradable. Compared to
they were prior to 2006. diesel, biodiesel (B100) reduces sulfur oxide emissions by 100 percent,
particulates by 48 percent, carbon monoxide by 47 percent, unburned
Characteristics of Biodiesel hydrocarbons by 67 percent, and hydrocarbons by 68 percent. Emissions
of nitrogen oxides, however, increase slightly (10 percent). Biodiesel
Biodiesel exceeds diesel in cetane number, resulting in superior ignition. The
blends generally reduce emissions in proportion to the percentage of
cetane number is the performance rating of diesel fuel. Biodiesel also has a
biodiesel in the blend.
higher flash point, or ignition temperature, making it more versatile where
safety is concerned. Horsepower, acceleration, and torque are comparable When biodiesel is burned it releases carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a
to diesel. Biodiesel has the highest Btu content of any alternative fuel, major contributor to climate change. However, biodiesel is made from
though it is slightly less than that of diesel. This might have a small impact crops that absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. This cycle would
on vehicle range and fuel economy. maintain the balance of CO2 in the atmosphere, but because of the
CO2 emissions from farm equipment and production of fertilizer and
Distribution of Biodiesel pesticides, biodiesel adds more CO2 to the atmosphere than it removes.
Biodiesel is available throughout the United States, mainly through Compared to diesel, the production and use of soybean biodiesel could
commercial fuel distributors. There are relatively few public pumps that result in little to no CO2 reductions in the near future. This is because
offer biodiesel. With only a few more than 800 biodiesel fueling stations, it an increased demand for biodiesel may lead to converting forests and
is a more practical fuel for fleets with their own fueling facilities. Availability grasslands to crop land for fuel and food. This conversion releases carbon
for consumers is steadily expanding as demand grows. dioxide into the atmosphere. When these factors are taken into account,
switching to soy biodiesel from petroleum diesel would provide little
Economics of Biodiesel or no climate change benefit in the next 50 years. By comparison, the
production of and use of biodiesel from recycled waste oils could reduce
Today, B99-B100 costs about $4.21 a gallon, but costs can vary
CO2 emissions by over 80 percent compared to petroleum diesel.
depending on region, the base crop, purchase volume, and delivery
costs. Historically, all biodiesel blends cost more than diesel. In 2005, a Land Use and Biodiesel
Biodiesel Excise Tax Credit went into effect. Blenders of biodiesel receive
tax credits for the biodiesel they blend with diesel, allowing them to One concern with the use of biodiesel is that the land required to grow
make biodiesel fuel available at a lower cost. This incentive expired at the increased amount of soybeans might compete with land needed
the end of 2013, but was extended through December 31, 2014. to grow food. If this is true, the increased demand for soybeans could
cause food prices to rise. A study by the Department of Energy and the
Because it is stored in existing infrastructure and can fuel vehicles without
Department of Agriculture concluded that by 2030 it would be possible
modification, biodiesel has emerged as a popular alternative fuel for
to replace 30 percent of our gasoline and diesel use with biofuels
fleets regulated by the Energy Policy Act (EPACT). The cost difference
without increasing demands on cropland. This would be accomplished
will likely decrease in the future due to production improvements in the
by using mostly agricultural and forestry waste and perennial crops
biodiesel industry. In addition, many states are considering legislation
grown on marginal lands.
that will encourage greater use of biodiesel fuels to improve air quality.
Biodiesel is a domestic, renewable fuel that can improve air quality. The
Another economic consideration is the agriculture industry. The
expanded use of biodiesel by fleets, as well as individual consumers,
expanded use of biodiesel in the nations fleets will require the
has the potential to reduce the importation of foreign oil and promote
agriculture industry to substantially increase production of soybeans
national security.
and other oilseed crops that can be used as feedstocks for biodiesel.
Farmers will have new crops and markets to support economic stability.
Coal at a Glance, 2013
Coal Classification: Major Uses:
nonrenewable electricity, industry
U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:

18.084 Q 19.988 Q
24.39%
What Is Coal? 18.52%
Coal is a fossil fuel created from the remains of plants that lived and
died about 100 to 400 million years ago when parts of the Earth were
covered with huge swampy forests. Coal is classified as a nonrenewable History of Coal
energy source because it takes millions of years to form.
Native Americans used coal long before the first settlers arrived in the
The energy we get from coal today comes from the energy that plants New World. Hopi Indians, who lived in what is now Arizona, used coal to
absorbed from the sun millions of years ago. All living plants store solar bake the pottery they made from clay. European settlers discovered coal
energy through a process known as photosynthesis. When plants die, in North America during the first half of the 1600s. They used very little
this energy is usually released as the plants decay. Under conditions at first. Instead, they relied on water wheels and wood to power colonial
favorable to coal formation, however, the decay process is interrupted, industries.
preventing the release of the stored solar energy. The energy is locked
Coal became a powerhouse by the 1800s. People used coal to
into the coal.
manufacture goods and to power steamships and railroad engines. By
Millions to hundreds of millions of years ago, plants that fell to the the American Civil War, people also used coal to make iron and steel.
bottom of the swamp began to decay as layers of dirt and water were And by the end of the 1800s, people even used coal to make electricity.
piled on top. Heat and pressure from these layers caused a chemical
When America entered the 1900s, coal was the energy mainstay for
change to occur, eventually creating coal over time.
the nations businesses and industries. Coal stayed Americas number
Seams of coalranging in thickness from a fraction of an inch to one energy source until the demand for petroleum products pushed
hundreds of feetmay represent hundreds or thousands of years of petroleum to the front. Automobiles needed gasoline. Trains switched
plant growth. One seam, the seven-foot thick Pittsburgh seam, may from coal power to diesel fuel. Even homes that used to be heated by
represent 2,000 years of rapid plant growth. One acre of this seam coal turned to oil or natural gas furnaces instead.
contains about 14,000 tons of coal.
How Coal Was Formed

Before the dinosaurs lived and died, many
giant plants died in swamps.
Over millions to hundreds of millions of
years, these plants were buried under water
and dirt.
Heat and pressure turned the dead plants
into coal.

Coal production reached its low point in 1961. Since then, coal
production has increased by more than 160 percent, reaching a record
high in 2008. Today, coal supplies just over 18 percent of the nations Surface Mining Deep Mining
total energy needs, mostly for electricity production.
Coal Mining
There are two ways to remove coal from the groundsurface and
underground mining. Surface mining is used when a coal seam is COA
LS EAM EAM
LS
relatively close to the surface, usually within 200 feet. The first step in COA
surface mining is to remove and store the soil and rock covering the Topsoil
coal, called the overburden. Workers use a variety of equipment Overburden
draglines, power shovels, bulldozers, and front-end loadersto expose
the coal seam for mining.
After surface mining, workers replace the overburden, grade it, cover
it with topsoil, and fertilize and seed the area. This land reclamation is
required by law and helps restore the biological balance of the area
and prevent erosion. The land can then be used for croplands, wildlife
habitats, recreation, or as sites for commercial development. Types of Coal
About one-third of the nations coal is obtained through surface mining.
Surface mining is typically much less expensive than underground Coal is classified into four main types, depending on the amount
mining. With new technologies, surface mining productivity has almost of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present. The higher the carbon
doubled since 1973, but decreased slightly from 2012 to 2013. content, the more energy the coal contains.
Underground (or deep) mining is used when the coal seam is buried Lignite is the lowest rank of coal, with a heating value of 4,000
several hundred feet below the surface. In underground mining, workers to 8,300 British thermal units (Btu) per pound. Lignite is crumbly
and machinery go down a vertical shaft or a slanted tunnel called a slope and has high moisture content. Most lignite mined in the United
to remove the coal. Mine shafts may sink as deep as 1,000 feet. States comes from Texas. Lignite is mainly used to produce
electricity. It contains 25 to 35 percent carbon. A little less than
One method of underground mining is called room-and-pillar mining.
eight percent of the coal mined in 2013 was lignite.
With this method, much of the coal must be left behind to support
the mines roofs and walls. Sometimes as much as half the coal is left Subbituminous coal typically contains less heating value than
behind in large column formations to keep the mine from collapsing. bituminous coal (8,300 to 13,000 Btu per pound) and more
moisture. It contains 35 to 45 percent carbon. Forty-five percent
A more efficient and safer underground mining method, called
of the coal mined in 2013 in the U.S. was subbituminous.
longwall mining, uses a specially shielded machine that allows a
mined-out area to collapse in a controlled manner. This method is Bituminous coal was formed by added heat and pressure on
called longwall mining because huge blocks of coal up to several lignite. Made of many tiny layers, bituminous coal looks smooth
hundred feet wide can be removed. and sometimes shiny. It is the most abundant type of coal found
in the United States and has two to three times the heating value
Processing and Transporting Coal of lignite. Bituminous coal contains 11,000 to 15,500 Btu per
pound. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity and is an
After coal comes out of the ground, it typically goes on a conveyor important fuel for the steel and iron industries. It contains 45 to
belt to a preparation plant that is located at the mining site. The plant 86 percent carbon. Nearly forty-seven percent of the coal mined
cleans and processes coal to remove dirt, rock, ash, sulfur, and other in 2013 was bituminous coal.
impurities, increasing the heating value of the coal.
Anthracite was created where additional pressure combined
After the coal is mined and processed, it is ready to go to market. It is with very high temperature inside the Earth. It is deep black and
very important to consider transportation when comparing coal with looks almost metallic due to its glossy surface. It is found primarily
other energy sources because sometimes transporting the coal can in 11 northeastern counties of Pennsylvania. Like bituminous
cost more than mining it. coal, anthracite coal is a big energy producer, containing nearly
Underground pipelines can easily move petroleum and natural gas to 15,000 Btu per pound. It contains 86 to 97 percent carbon. Less
market. But thats not so for coal. Huge trains transport most coal (over than one percent of coal mined in 2013 was anthracite.
70 percent) for at least part of its journey to market.
It is cheaper to transport coal on river barges, but this option is not
always available. Coal can also be moved by trucks and conveyors if the
coal mine is close by. Ideally, coal-fired power plants are built near coal
mines to minimize transportation costs.
Coal
Coal Reserves Coal Production

When scientists estimate how much coal, petroleum, natural gas, or Coal production is the amount of coal mined and taken to market.
other energy sources there are in the United States, they use the term Where does mining take place in the United States? Today, coal is mined
reserves. Reserves are deposits that can be harvested using todays in 25 states. More coal is mined in western states than in eastern states,
methods and technology. a marked change from the past when most coal came from eastern
underground mines.
Experts estimate that the United States has over 256 billion tons of
recoverable coal reserves. If we continue to use coal at the same rate In the 1950s and 1960s, the East mined approximately 95 percent
as we do today, we will have enough coal to last 180 to 250 years, of the coal produced in the U.S. As of the early 1970s, the amount of
depending on consumption rates. This vast amount of coal makes the coal produced by western mines steadily increased. In 2013, the West
United States the world leader in known coal reserves. provided 59 percent of total production, and states east of the Mississippi
River provided 41 percent.
Where is all this coal located? Coal reserves can be found in 31 states.
Montana has the most coalabout 75 billion mineable tons. Coal is also Total U.S. production of coal was 985 million tons in 2013, a 65 percent
found in large quantities in Illinois, Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky, increase since the early 1970s. The leading coal producing states are
Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Western coal generally contains less sulfur than Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. These five
eastern coal. states produce almost 70 percent of the coal in the U.S.
The Federal Government is by far the largest owner of the nations Some coal produced in the United States is exported to other countries.
coalbeds. In the West, the Federal Government owns 60 percent of the In 2013, foreign countries bought about 6 percent of all the coal
coal and indirectly controls another 20 percent. Coal companies must produced in the U.S. The biggest foreign markets for U.S. coal are the
lease the land from the Federal Government in order to mine this coal. Netherlands, the United Kingdom, China, Brazil, and South Korea.
U.S. Coal Consumption by Sector, 2013 How Coal Is Used

The main use of coal in the United States is to generate electricity. In
ELECTRICITY 92.78% 2013, almost 93 percent of all the coal in the United States was used for
electricity production. Coal generates about 39 percent of the electricity
used in the U.S. Other energy sources used to generate electricity include
INDUSTRY 7.01%
natural gas, uranium (nuclear power), hydropower, biomass, and wind.
Another major use of coal is in iron and steelmaking. The iron industry
RESIDENTIAL &
COMMERCIAL uses coke ovens to melt iron ore. Coke, an almost pure carbon residue of
(HEATING) 0.21% coal, is used as a fuel in smelting metals. The United States has the finest
coking coals in the world. These coals are shipped around the world for
use in coke ovens. Coal is also used by other industries. The paper, brick,
limestone, and cement industries all use coal to make products.
Top Coal Producing States, 2013 Coal is no longer a major energy source for heating American homes or
other buildings. Less than one-third of one percent of the coal produced
in the U.S. today is used for heating. Coal furnaces, which were popular
years ago, have largely been replaced by oil or gas furnaces or by electric
5 heat pumps.
1 PENNSYLVANIA
WYOMING
4
Illinois 2
WEST VIRGINIA
3
KENTUCKY

Coal and the Environment
As the effects of pollution became more noticeable, Americans decided
it was time to balance the needs of industry and the environment.
Cleaner Coal Technology
Over a century ago, concern for the environment was not at the Coal is the United States most plentiful fossil fuel, but traditional
forefront of public attention. For years, smokestacks from electrical and methods of burning coal produce emissions that can reduce air
industrial plants emitted pollutants into the air. Coal mining left some and water quality. Using coal can help the United States achieve
land areas barren and destroyed. Automobiles, coming on strong after domestic energy security if we can develop methods to use coal
World War II, contributed noxious gases to the air. that wont damage the environment.
The Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act require industries to reduce The Clean Coal Technology Program is a government and
pollutants released into the air and the water. Laws also require industry funded program that began in 1986 in an effort to
companies to reclaim the land damaged by surface mining. Progress resolve U.S. and Canadian concern over acid rain. Clean coal
has been made toward cleaning and preserving the environment. technologies remove sulfur and nitrogen oxides before, during,
and after coal is burned, or convert coal to a gas or liquid fuel.
The coal industrys largest environmental challenge today is removing
Clean coal technologies are also more efficient, using less coal to
organic sulfur, a substance that is chemically bound to coal. All fossil
produce the same amount of electricity.
fuels, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, contain sulfur. Low
sulfur coal produces fewer pollutants. Fluidized Bed Combustor: One technique that cleans coal as it
burns is a fluidized bed combustor. In this combustor, crushed
When these fuels are burned, the organic sulfur is released and
coal is mixed with limestone and suspended on jets of air inside
combines with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is an
a boiler. The coal mixture floats in the boiler much like a boiling
invisible gas that has been shown to have adverse effects on air quality.
liquid. The limestone acts like a sponge by capturing 90 percent
The coal industry is working to solve this problem. One method uses of the organic sulfur that is released when the coal is burned.
devices called scrubbers to remove the sulfur in coal smoke. Scrubbers The bubbling motion of the coal also enhances the burning
are installed at coal-fired electric and industrial plants where a water process.
and limestone mixture reacts with sulfur dioxide to form sludge.
Combustion temperatures can be held to 1,500 degrees
Scrubbers eliminate up to 98 percent of the sulfur dioxide. Utilities that
Fahrenheit, about half that of a conventional boiler. Since this
burn coal spend millions of dollars to install these scrubbers.
temperature is below the threshold where nitrogen pollutants
The coal industry has made significant improvements in reducing form, a fluidized bed combustor keeps both sulfur and nitrogen
sulfur emissions. Since 1989, coal-fired plants in the United States oxides in check.
have lowered sulfur dioxide emissions per ton by two-thirds and have
Coal Gasification: Another clean coal technology bypasses the
increased efficiency significantly by modernizing their plants.
conventional coal burning process altogether by converting coal
Coal plants also recycle millions of tons of fly ash (a coal by-product) into a gas. This method removes sulfur, nitrogen compounds,
into useful products such as road building materials, cement additives and particulates before the fuel is burned, making it as clean as
and, in some cases, pellets to be used in rebuilding oyster beds. natural gas.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released when coal is burned, just as it is Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage: Research and
released from the human body during respiration. CO2 combines with demonstration projects are underway around the U.S. and the
other gases, such as those emitted from automobiles, to form a shield world to capture carbon dioxide from power plants and use it or
that allows the suns light through the atmosphere, but doesnt let store it deep underground in geologic formations. Researchers
the heat that is produced out of the atmosphere. This phenomenon are investigating the best ways to capture carbon dioxide, either
is called the greenhouse effect. Without this greenhouse effect, the before or after coal is combusted. The carbon dioxide will then
Earth would be too cold to support life. be compressed, converting the gas to a liquid. It can then be
There is concern that human activities are causing major changes in utilized by industry or transported via pipeline to appropriate
greenhouse gas levels in the Earths atmosphere that are responsible storage sites. Three different types of locations have been
for a change in the Earths climate. identified as being able to hold carbon dioxide: 1) deep saline
formations, 2) oil and gas reservoirs that are near depletion or
Most scientists believe the Earth is already experiencing a warming
have been depleted, and 3) unmineable coal seams.
trend due to the greenhouse effect. Long-term studies by scientists
in many countries are being conducted to determine the effect of
changing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. Scientists are also
researching new technologies to help mitigate changes to the global
climate.
Geothermal
Geothermal at a Glance, 2013
What Is Geothermal Energy? renewable electricity, heating
Geothermal energy comes from the heat within the Earth. The word U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
geothermal comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and 0.221 Q 0.221 Q
therme, meaning heat. People around the world use geothermal energy 0.23% 0.27%
to produce electricity, to heat homes and buildings, and to provide hot Data: Energy Information Administration
water for a variety of uses.
The Earths core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the Earths surface. The
double-layered core is made up of very hot molten iron surrounding a
solid iron center. Estimates of the temperature of the core range from
5,000 to 11,000 degrees Fahrenheit (oF).
The Earths Interior
Surrounding the Earths core is the mantle, thought to be partly rock CRUST
and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick. The outermost
layer of the Earth, the insulating crust, is not one continuous sheet of MANTLE
rock, like the shell of an egg, but is broken into pieces called plates. magma & rock
These slabs of continents and ocean floor drift apart and push against
OUTER CORE
each other at the rate of about two centimeters per year in a process magma
called plate tectonics. This process can cause the crust to become
faulted (cracked), fractured, or thinned, allowing plumes of magma to INNER
CORE
rise up into the crust.
This magma can reach the surface and form volcanoes, but most
remains underground where it can underlie regions as large as huge
mountain ranges. The magma can take from 1,000 to 1,000,000 years to
cool as its heat is transferred to surrounding rocks. In areas where there is
underground water, the magma can fill rock fractures and porous rocks.
The water becomes heated and can circulate back to the surface to
create hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles, or it can become trapped
underground, forming deep geothermal reservoirs.
Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source because the Where Is Geothermal Energy Found?
water is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is continuously produced
Geologists use many methods to find geothermal reservoirs. They study
within the Earth by the slow radioactive decay of particles that naturally
aerial photographs and geological maps. They analyze the chemistry of
occur in all rocks.
local water sources and the concentration of metals in the soil. They may
measure variations in gravity and magnetic fields. Yet the only way they
History and Uses of Geothermal Energy can be sure there is a geothermal reservoir is by drilling an exploratory
Many ancient peoples, including the Romans, Chinese, and Native well.
Americans, used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking, and heating. The hottest geothermal regions are found along major plate boundaries
Water from hot springs is now used worldwide in spas, for heating where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the worlds
buildings, and for agricultural and industrial uses. Many people believe geothermal activity occurs in an area known as the Ring of Fire, which
hot mineral springs have natural healing powers. rims the Pacific Ocean and is bounded by Indonesia, the Philippines,
Today, we drill wells into geothermal reservoirs deep underground and Japan, the Aleutian Islands, North America, Central America, and South
use the steam and heat to drive turbines in electric power plants. The hot America.
water is also used directly to heat buildings, to increase the growth rate
of fish in hatcheries and crops in greenhouses, to pasteurize milk, to dry
foods products and lumber, and for mineral baths.

High Temperature: Producing Electricity
When geothermal reservoirs are located near the surface, we can Ring of Fire
reach them by drilling wells. Some wells are more than two miles
deep. Exploratory wells are drilled to search for reservoirs. Once a
reservoir has been found, production wells are drilled. Hot water and
steamat temperatures of 250oF to 700oF (150 - 370oC)are brought N O RT H
to the surface and used to generate electricity at power plants near ASIA AMERICA
the production wells. There are several different types of geothermal AT L A N T I C
power plants: OCEAN
PA C I F I C
Flash Steam Plants OCEAN SOUTH
Most geothermal power plants are flash steam plants. Hot water AMERICA
from production wells flashes (explosively boils) into steam when it AUSTRALIA
is released from the underground pressure of the reservoir. The force
of the steam is used to spin the turbine generator. To conserve water
and maintain the pressure in the reservoir, the steam is condensed into
water and injected back into the reservoir to be reheated.
Dry Steam Plants Hot Spring Bathing and Spas

A few geothermal reservoirs produce mostly steam and very little
For centuries, people have used hot springs for cooking and bathing.
water. In dry steam plants, the steam from the reservoir shoots directly
The early Romans used geothermal water to treat eye and skin diseases
through a rock-catcher into the turbine generator. The rock-catcher
and, at Pompeii, to heat buildings. Medieval wars were even fought
protects the turbine from small rocks that may be carried along with
over lands for their hot springs.
the steam from the reservoir.
Today, many hot springs are still used for bathing. And around the
The first geothermal power plant was a dry steam plant built at
world, millions of people visit health spas to soak in the mineral-rich
Larderello in Tuscany, Italy, in 1911. The original buildings were
water.
destroyed during World War II, but they have since been rebuilt and
expanded. The Larderello field is still producing electricity today. Agriculture and Aquaculture
The Geysers dry steam reservoir in northern California has been Water from geothermal reservoirs is used in many places to warm
producing electricity since 1960. It is the largest known dry steam field greenhouses that grow flowers, vegetables, and other crops. Natural
in the world and, after 50 years, still produces enough electricity to warm water can also speed the growth of fish, shellfish, reptiles, and
supply a city the size of San Francisco. amphibians. In Japan, aqua-farms grow eels and alligators. In the U.S.,
aqua-farmers grow tropical fish for pet shops. Iceland raises market
Binary Cycle Power Plants species such as Arctic char and Atlantic salmon through aquaculture.
Binary cycle plants transfer the thermal energy from geothermal hot
water to other liquids to produce electricity. The geothermal water is Industry
passed through a heat exchanger in a closed pipe system, and then The heat from geothermal water is used worldwide for dying cloth,
reinjected into the reservoir. The heat exchanger transfers the heat to drying fruits and vegetables, washing wool, manufacturing paper,
a working fluidusually isobutane or isopentanewhich boils at a pasteurizing milk, and drying timber products. It is also used to help
lower temperature than water. The vapor from the working fluid is used extract gold and silver from ore. In Klamath Falls, OR, hot water is piped
to turn the turbines. under sidewalks and bridges to keep them from freezing in winter.
Binary systems can, therefore, generate electricity from reservoirs with Heating
lower temperatures. Since the system is closed, there is little heat loss The most widespread use of geothermal resourcesafter bathingis
and almost no water loss, and virtually no emissions. to heat buildings. In the Paris basin in France, geothermal water from
shallow wells was used to heat homes 600 years ago. More than 150,000
Hybrid Power Plants
homes in France use geothermal heat today.
In some power plants, flash and binary systems are combined to make
use of both the steam and the hot water. The Puna Geothermal Venture Geothermal district energy systems pump hot water from a reservoir
Facility produces 38 megawatts of powera little more than 10 percent through a heat exchanger that transfers the heat to separate water pipes
of the electricity needed by the big island of Hawaii. that go to many buildings. The geothermal water is then reinjected into
the reservoir to be reheated.
Low Temperature: Direct Use or Heating The first district heating system in the U.S. was built in 1893 in Boise,
ID, where it is still in use. There are many other systems in use in the
Only in the last century have we used geothermal energy to produce
country today. Because it is clean and economical, district heating
electricity, but people have used it to make their lives more comfortable
is becoming increasingly popular. In Iceland, almost 90 percent of
since the dawn of humankind.
residents use geothermal energy for heat and hot water. In Reykjavik,
Iceland, a district heating system provides heat for 95 percent of the
buildings.
Geothermal
Geoexchange Systems: Heating and Cooling If a large lake or pond is nearby, the pipes can be buried in the water.
The water must be at least six feet deep, though, or the temperature of
Once you go about twenty feet below the Earths surface, the the water will change too much. Deep, flowing water provides especially
temperature is remarkably constant year round. In temperate regions, good heat exchange for a geothermal system.
the temperature below ground stays about 52 degrees Fahrenheit. In
Geothermal systems cost more to install than conventional heating
tropical regions, it can range as high as 65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit,
and cooling systems. Over the life of the system, however, they can
while certain arctic regions stay near freezing all year.
produce significant cost savings. They can reduce heating costs by 30
For most areas, this means that soil temperatures are usually warmer to 70 percent, and cooling costs by 20 to 50 percent. If the cost of the
than the air in winter and cooler than the air in summer. Geothermal installation is spread out over several years, users see savings from the
exchange systems use the Earths constant temperatures to heat and day they begin using the system. In addition, there is a Federal Tax Credit
cool buildings. These heat pumps transfer heat from the ground into incentive of up to 30 percent of the cost for homeowners that install
buildings in winter and reverse the process in the summer. qualified ENERGY STAR geothermal heat pumps by the end of 2016.
A geothermal exchange system doesnt look like a traditional furnace or Geothermal systems are low maintenance and should last twice as long
air conditioner. For one thing, most of the equipment is underground. as conventional systems. The pumps should last 25 years, since they are
A liquidusually a mixture of water and antifreezecirculates through located inside, away from the weather. And most of the energy they use
a long loop of pipe buried in the ground. This liquid absorbs heat from is free. Electricity is used only to move the heat, not to produce it.
the ground and carries it into the building. It also absorbs heat from
Today, more than a million homes and buildings in the United States use
the building during warmer months, and carries it out of the building,
geothermal heat exchange systems. They are an efficient, economical
reducing the load of an air conditioner.
alternative to conventional heating and cooling systems. The U.S.
One advantage of a geothermal exchange system is that it doesnt have Environmental Protection Agency has rated geothermal heat pump
to manufacture heat. The heat is free, renewable, and readily available systems among the most efficient heating and cooling technologies.
in the ground. The only energy this system needs is the electricity to
pump the liquid through the pipes and deliver the conditioned air to Geothermal Production
the building. The pump itself is usually a small unit located inside the
building. Geothermal energy is put to work in many places around the world. The
best-known geothermal energy sources in the United States are located
The geothermal exchange pipes can be buried in several ways. If space in western states and Hawaii.
is limited, holes for the pipe can be dug straight into the ground as
far down as 300 feet. In very rocky areas, this method might not be an Geothermal power plants operate in California, Nevada, Utah, Hawaii,
option. Idaho, and Oregon. Today, the total installed capacity of geothermal
power plants in the United States is around 3,400 megawatts (MW).
If there is land available, the pipes can be buried horizontally in shallow There are over 100 projects in development in 15 states that could add
trenches four to six feet underground, where the ground remains at about 1,000 MW to geothermals capacity.
approximately the same temperature all of the year. Once the pipes are
in place, the surface can be used as a front lawn, football field, or parking In 2013, geothermal energy produced about 16.517 billion kilowatt-
lot. The pipes are very durable and should last up to 50 years without hours (kWh) of electricity, or 0.41 percent of the electricity used in this
maintenance. country. This is enough to serve the electricity needs of about one and
a half million households. California generates more electricity from
geothermal energy than any other state.
Top Geothermal Producing States, 2013

Residential Geoexchange Units
VERTICAL LOOP HORIZONTAL LOOP
5
Idaho
2
1 NEVADA 3
CALIFORNIA UTAH
Shallow Underground Pipes

Deep Underground Pipes 4
HAWAII

Geothermal Economics only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean
natural-gas-fueled power plant produces, and very little, if any, of the
Geothermal power plants can produce electricity as cheaply as many nitrous oxide or sulfur-bearing gases. Binary cycle plants, which are
conventional power plants. Operating and maintenance costs range closed cycle operations, release essentially no emissions.
from one to three cents per kWh at a geothermal power plant, while
Geothermal power plants are compatible with many environments.
the electric power generated sells for about five cents per kWh. In
They have been built in deserts, in the middle of crops, and in mountain
comparison, new coal-fired and natural gas plants produce electricity
forests. Development is often allowed on federal lands because it
at about 3.5 cents per kWh.
does not significantly harm the environment. Geothermal features
Initial construction costs for geothermal power plants are high because in national parks, such as geysers and fumaroles in Yellowstone and
geothermal wells and power plants must be constructed at the same Lassen Volcanic National Parks, are protected by law, so geothermal
time. But the cost of producing electricity over time is lower because reservoirs are not tapped in these areas.
the price and availability of the fuel is stable and predictable. The fuel
does not have to be imported or transported to the power plant. The
power plant literally sits on top of its fuel source. Hydrothermal Resources
Geothermal power plants are excellent sources of baseload power. The Earth has no shortage of geothermal activity, but not all
Baseload power is power that electric utility companies must deliver geothermal resources are easy or economical to use. Hydrothermal
all day long. Baseload geothermal plants can sell electricity any hour, resourcesreservoirs of steam or hot waterare available primarily
day or night. in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. However, geothermal energy
can be tapped almost anywhere with geoexchange systems and
direct-use applications. Other enormous and world-wide geothermal
Geothermal Energy and the Environment resourceshot dry rock and magma, for exampleare awaiting
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that does little further technology development.
damage to the environment. Geothermal steam and hot water do In 2012, there were geothermal power plants in 25 countries,
contain naturally occurring traces of hydrogen sulfide (a gas that generating 73.4 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. Direct uses of
smells like rotten eggs) and other gases and chemicals that can be geothermal reservoirs amount to over 50,000 megawatts of thermal
harmful in high concentrations. energy in 78 countries.
Geothermal power plants use scrubber systems to clean the air
of hydrogen sulfide and the other gases. Sometimes the gases are
converted into marketable products, such as liquid fertilizer. Future Geothermal Resources
Geothermal power plants are clean. Energy can be extracted without Today, geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources
burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil. Geothermal fields produce (hydro = water, therme = heat). Three other kinds of geothermal
resourceshot dry rock, magma, and geopressuredare often
called near-future geothermal resources. Researchers from the
U.S. Department of Energy are studying ways to develop these
Geothermal Power Plant resources for electricity production.
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Resources underlie much of the
worlds surface. The U.S. is especially rich in these resources.
POWER PLANT Some scientists believe the resource base of hot dry rock in the
2 U.S. far exceeds worldwide fossil fuel resources. Using hot dry
3 INJECTION WELL rock resources to produce electricity requires drilling holes deep
1 into the rock, pumping in cold water at high pressure to fracture
PRODUCTION WELL the rock, and then accessing the heated water and steam from
an adjacent well. The water can be used repeatedly, and there
are no emissions into the air. This process has been successfully
demonstrated by research projects in the United States, Japan, and
Europe.
LL
MAA
M
OO T
T HHEERROOIIRR Magma Geothermal Energy has been called the ultimate energy
GGEE SSEERRVV source. A magma power plant would use a process similar to
RREE
GGMMAA hot dry rockwater would be injected directly into the magma,
MAA
M cooling and hardening the rock around the well. The resulting
steam would be pumped out through a pipe in the well.
1. Production Well: Geothermal fluids, such as hot water and steam, are Geopressured Resources are reservoirs of hot water and natural
brought to the surface and piped into the power plant. gas (primarily methane) locked in deep sedimentary rocks, under
2. Power Plant: Inside the power plant, the geothermal fluid turns the turbine great pressure from the overlying sediments. The heat, pressure,
blades, which spins a shaft, which spins magnets inside a large coil of wire to and natural gas can be used to produce electricity. In the U.S.,
generate electricity. geopressured resources occur along the Texas and Louisiana
3. Injection Well: Used geothermal fluids are returned to the reservoir. coasts.
Hydropower
Hydropower at a Glance, 2013
What Is Hydropower? Classification:
renewable
Major Uses:
electricity
Hydropower (from the Greek word hydor, meaning water) is energy that
comes from the force of moving water. The fall and movement of water U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
is part of a continuous natural cycle called the water cycle. 2.561 Q 2.561 Q
2.62% 3.13%
Energy from the sun evaporates water in the Earths oceans and rivers
and draws it upward as water vapor. When the water vapor reaches the Data: Energy Information Administration
cooler air in the atmosphere, it condenses and forms clouds. The moisture
eventually falls to the Earth as rain or snow, replenishing the water in the
oceans and rivers. Gravity drives the moving water, transporting it from
high ground to low ground. The force of moving water can be extremely The Water Cycle
powerful.
Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because the water on
Earth is continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water SOLAR ENERGY
cycle continues, we wont run out of this energy source.
History of Hydropower
CONDENSATION
Hydropower has been used for centuries. The Greeks used water wheels
(Gas to Liquid)
to grind wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago. In the early 1800s,
American and European factories used the water wheel to power
machines.
The water wheel is a simple machine. The water wheel is located below
PRECIPITATION
a source of flowing water. It captures the water in buckets attached to (Liquid or Solid)
the wheel and the weight of the water causes the wheel to turn. Water
EVAPORATION EVAPORATION
(Liquid to Gas) (Liquid to Gas)
wheels convert the potential energy (gravitational potential energy) of
the water into motion. That energy can then be used to grind grain, drive
sawmills, or pump water.
In the late 19th century, the force of falling water was used to generate OCEANS, LAKES, RIVERS
electricity. The first hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in (Liquid)
Appleton, WI in 1882. In the following decades, many more hydroelectric
plants were built. At its height in the early 1940s, hydropower provided
33 percent of this countrys electricity.
By the late 1940s, the best sites for big dams had been developed.
Inexpensive fossil fuel plants also entered the picture. At that time, A dam serves two purposes at a hydropower plant. First, a dam increases
plants burning coal or oil could make electricity more cheaply than the head, or height, of the water. Second, it controls the flow of water.
hydro plants. Soon they began to underprice the smaller hydroelectric Dams release water when it is needed for electricity production. Special
plants. It wasnt until the oil shocks of the 1970s that people showed a gates called spillway gates release excess water from the reservoir
renewed interest in hydropower. during heavy rainfalls.
Hydro Dams Hydropower Plants

It is easier to build a hydropower plant where there is a natural waterfall. As people discovered centuries ago, the flow of water represents a huge
Thats why both U.S. and Canada have hydropower plants at Niagara supply of kinetic energy that can be put to work. Water wheels are
Falls. Dams, which are artificial waterfalls, are the next best way. useful for generating motion energy to grind grain or saw wood, but
Dams are built on rivers where the terrain will produce an artificial lake they are not practical for generating electricity. Water wheels are too
or reservoir above the dam. Today there are about 84,000 dams in the bulky and slow.
United States, but less than three percent (2,200) were built specifically Hydroelectric power plants are different. They use modern turbine
for electricity generation. Most dams were built for recreation, flood generators to produce electricity, just as thermal (coal, natural gas,
control, fire protection, and irrigation. nuclear) power plants do, except they do not produce heat to spin the
turbines.
How a Hydropower Plant Works
A typical hydropower plant is a system with three parts: Hydropower Plant GENERATOR view from above
MAGNETS
a power plant where the electricity is produced;
COPPER COILS
a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and RESERVOIR ROTATING
SHAFT
a reservoir (artificial lake) where water can be stored.
Intake
AIL
To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates to allow water from the DAM
DET
reservoir above to flow down through large tubes called penstocks. At GENERATOR
1 SWITCHYARD
the bottom of the penstocks, the fast-moving water spins the blades PEN
STO
CK 4
of turbines. The turbines are connected to generators to produce 2 5
electricity. The electricity is then transported via huge transmission
lines to a local utility company. 3
6 RIVER
TURBINE
Head and Flow

1. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam flows through an intake screen,
The amount of electricity that can be generated at a hydro plant is which filters out large debris, but allows fish to pass through.
determined by two factors: head and flow. Head is how far the water
drops. It is the distance from the highest level of the dammed water to 2. The water travels through a large pipe, called a penstock.
the point where it goes through the power-producing turbine. 3. The force of the water spins a turbine at a low speed, allowing fish to pass
through unharmed.
Flow is how much water moves through the systemthe more water
that moves through a system, the higher the flow. Generally, a high- 4. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of
magnets. This creates an electric field, producing electricity.
head plant needs less water flow than a low-head plant to produce the
same amount of electricity. 5. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage,
allowing it to travel through the electric grid.
Storing Energy 6. Water flows out of the penstock into the downstream river.
One of the biggest advantages of a hydropower plant is its ability to

store energy. The water in a reservoir is, after all, stored energy. Water
can be stored in a reservoir and released when needed for electricity
production.
Hydropower Production
How much electricity do we get from hydropower today? Depending
During the day when people use more electricity, water can flow
on the amount of rainfall, hydro plants produce from five to ten percent
through a plant to generate electricity. Then, during the night when
of the electricity produced in this country. In 1997, 10.21 percent of
people use less electricity, water can be held back in the reservoir.
electricity came from hydropowera historical high. However, in the
Storage also makes it possible to save water from winter rains for last 15 years, electricity has ranged as low as 5.81 percent in 2001 to
generating power during the summer, or to save water from wet years 7.79 percent in 2011, a recent high. In Oregon, Washington, and Idaho,
for generating electricity during dry years. hydropower accounts for more than half (56 to 69 percent) of each
states electricity generation.
Pumped Storage Systems Today, there is about 78,000 megawatts of conventional hydro
generating capacity in the United States, and about 98,000 megawatts
Some hydropower plants use pumped storage systems. A pumped
when including pumped storage. Thats equivalent to the generating
storage system operates much like a public fountain does; the same
capacity of 80 large nuclear power plants. The biggest hydro plant in
water is used again and again.
the U.S. is located at the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River
At a pumped storage hydropower plant, flowing water is used to make in northern Washington State. The U.S. also gets some hydropower
electricity and then stored in a lower pool. Depending on how much generated electricity from Canada. Some New England utilities buy this
electricity is needed, the water may be pumped back to an upper pool. imported electricity.
Pumping water to the upper pool requires electricity so hydro plants
What does the future look like for hydropower? The most economical
usually use pumped storage systems only when there is peak demand
sites for hydropower dams in the U.S. have already been developed, so
for electricity.
the development of new, large hydro plants is unlikely.
Pumped hydro is the most reliable energy storage system used by
Existing plants can be modernized with turbine and generator upgrades,
American electric utilities. Coal and nuclear power plants have no
operational improvements, and adding generating capacity. Plus, many
energy storage systems. They must turn to gas- and oil-fired generators
flood-control dams not equipped for electricity production could be
when people demand lots of electricity. They also have no way to store
retrofitted with generating equipment. The National Hydropower
any extra energy they might produce during normal generating periods.
Association estimates 60,000 megawatts of additional generating
capacity could be developed in the United States by 2025.
Hydropower
Hydropower for Baseload Power

Demand for electricity is not steady; it goes up and down. People use
U.S. Electricity Net Generation, 2013
more electricity during the day when they are awake and using electrical Coal 39.08%
appliances and less at night when they are asleep. People also use more
electricity when the weather is very cold or very hot. Natural Gas 27.44%
Electric utility companies have to produce electricity to meet these Uranium 19.44%
NONRENEWABLE
changing demands. Baseload power is the electricity that utilities have
Petroleum 0.66%
to generate all the time. For that reason, baseload power should be cheap
and reliable. Hydropower meets both of these requirements. Generating Other 0.60%
electricity with hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity in
Hydropower 6.52%
the U.S., and the fuel supplyflowing wateris always available.
Wind 4.13%
Hydro plants are more energy efficient than most thermal power plants,
too. That means they waste less energy to produce electricity. In thermal Biomass 1.48% RENEWABLE
power plants, a lot of energy is lost as heat. Hydro plants are about 90
Geothermal 0.41%
percent efficient at converting the kinetic energy of the moving water
into electricity. Solar 0.23%
* Total does not equal 100%, due to independent rounding.

Economics of Hydropower ** Other: non-biogenic waste, fossil fuel gases.
Hydropower is the cheapest way to generate electricity today. No other
energy source, renewable or nonrenewable, can match it. Today, it costs
less than one cent per kilowatt-hour (kWh) to produce electricity at a Top Hydropower Producing States, 2013
typical hydro plant. In comparison, it costs coal plants about four cents per
kWh and nuclear plants about three cents per kWh to generate electricity. 1
WASHINGTON
Producing electricity from hydropower is cheap because, once a dam
has been built and the equipment installed, the energy sourceflowing 2 3
OREGON
wateris free. NEW YORK
Hydropower plants also produce power cheaply due to their sturdy

structures and simple equipment. Hydro plants are dependable and 4
long-lived, and their maintenance costs are low compared to coal or CALIFORNIA
nuclear plants.
One requirement may increase hydropowers costs in the future. The
5
Alabama
procedure for licensing and relicensing dams has become a lengthy
and expensive process. Many environmental impact studies must be
undertaken and multiple state and federal agencies must be consulted.
It takes up to seven years to get a license to build a hydroelectric dam or
a relicense to continue operations.
Hydropower and the Environment

Hydropower dams can cause several environmental problems, even Hydropower has advantages, too. Hydropowers fuel supply (flowing
though they burn no fuel. Damming rivers may permanently alter river water) is clean and is renewed yearly by snow and rainfall. Furthermore,
systems and wildlife habitats. Fish, for one, may no longer be able to hydro plants do not emit pollutants into the air because they burn no
swim upstream. fuel. With growing concern over greenhouse gas emissions and increased
Hydro plant operations may also affect water quality by churning demand for electricity, hydropower may become more important in the
up dissolved metals that may have been deposited by industry long future.
ago. Hydropower operations may increase silting, change water Hydropower facilities offer a range of additional benefits. Many dams
temperatures, and change the levels of dissolved oxygen. are used to control flooding and regulate water supply, and reservoirs
Some of these problems can be managed by constructing fish ladders, provide lakes for recreational purposes, such as boating and fishing.
dredging the silt, and carefully regulating plant operations.

Tidal Barrage
Hydrokinetic Technologies
Tidal Energy TIDAL FLOW
DIRECTION
DAM
The tides rise and fall in eternal cycles. The waters of the oceans are in
constant motion. We can use some of the oceans energy, but most of
it is out of reach. The problem isnt harnessing the energy as much as
transporting it. Generating electricity in the middle of the ocean just TURBINE
doesnt make sensetheres no one there to use it. We can only use the
energy near shore, where people need it. Tidal water is captured at high tide behind a dam.
Tidal energy is the most promising source of ocean energy for today and When the tide turns, the water is released to the sea,
the near future. Tides are changes in the level of the oceans caused by passing through a set of turbines.
the rotation of the Earth and the gravitational pull of the moon and sun.
Near shore water levels can vary up to 40 feet, depending on the season Another way to produce energy is to bend or focus the waves into a
and local factors. Only about 20 locations have good inlets and a large narrow channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be
enough tidal rangeabout 10 feetto produce energy economically. channeled into a catch basin, like tidal plants, or used directly to spin
turbines.
Tidal energy plants capture the energy in the changing tides. A low dam,
called a barrage, is built across an inlet. The barrage has one-way gates Other ways to produce electricity using wave energy are currently
called sluices that allow the incoming flood tide to pass into the inlet. When under development. Some devices are anchored to the ocean floor
the tide turns, the water flows out of the inlet through huge turbines built while others float on top of the waves.
into the barrage, producing electricity. The oldest and largest tidal plant There arent any big commercial wave energy plants, but there are a
La Rance in Francehas been successfully producing electricity since few small ones. Wave-energy devices power the lights and whistles on
1966. buoys. Small, on-shore sites have the best potential for the immediate
Tidal plants have very high development costs. It is very expensive future, especially if they can also be used to protect beaches and harbors.
and takes a long time to build the barrages, which can be several miles They could produce enough energy to power local communities. Japan
long. Also, tidal plants produce electricity less than half of the time. The has an active wave-energy program. The first wave power station in the
seasons and cycles of the moon affect the leveland the energyof United States was approved for construction in 2012 off the Oregon
the tides. The tides are very predictable, but not controllable. coast, but the project was put on hold in 2014. Currently, the only wave
power projects in the U.S. are those in experimental studies.
On the other hand, the fuel is free and non-polluting, and the plants
have very low operating costs. The plants should run for a hundred
years with regularly scheduled maintenance.
OTEC
The energy from the sun heats the surface water of the ocean. In
Tidal power is a renewable energy source. The plants do affect
tropical regions, the surface water can be much warmer than the
the environment, though they produce no air pollution. During
deep water. This difference can be used to produce electricity. Ocean
construction, there are major short-term changes to the ecology of
Thermal Energy Conversion, or OTEC, has the potential to produce
the inlet. Once the plants go into operation, there can be long-term
more energy than tidal, wave, and wind energy combined, but it is a
changes to water levels and currents. The plants in operation have
technology for the future.
reported no major environmental problems.
The warm surface water is turned into steam under pressure, or used
The United States has only a few sites where tidal energy could be
to heat another fluid into a vapor. This steam or vapor spins a turbine
produced economically. In 2012, Maine deployed the countrys first
to produce electricity. Pumps bring cold deep water to the surface
commercial tidal power system connected to the grid. It is located in
through huge pipes. The cold water cools the steam or vapor, turning
the Bay of Fundy and could eventually power 2,000 homes. France,
it back into liquid form, and the closed cycle begins again. In an open
England, Canada, and Russia have much more potential for tidal energy.
system design, the steam is turned into fresh, potable water, and new
The keys to a successful tidal energy project are to lower construction
surface water is added to the system.
costs, increase output, and protect the environment.
An OTEC system is only about 3 percent efficient. Pumping the water
Wave Energy is a giant engineering challenge. In addition, the electricity must be

transported to land. OTEC systems work best with a temperature
There is also tremendous energy in waves. Waves are caused by the difference of at least 20C to operate. This limits its use to tropical
wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. In many areas of the regions where the surface waters are very warm. Hawaii, with its tropical
world, the wind blows with enough consistency and force to provide climate, has experimented with OTEC systems since the 1970s.
continuous waves. The west coasts of the United States and Europe and
Today, there are several OTEC plants in design, development, and
the coasts of Australia and southern Africa are good sites for harnessing
experimental phases. However, none of these plants are operating as
wave energy.
commercialized power production facilities. It may take several years
There are several ways to harness wave energy. The motion of the waves before the technology is available to produce energy economically
can be used to push and pull air through a pipe. The air spins a turbine from OTEC systems. OTEC will have the potential to produce non-
in the pipe, producing electricity. polluting, renewable energy.
Natural Gas
What Is Natural Gas? History of Natural Gas

Natural gas is generally considered a nonrenewable fossil fuel. (There The ancient peoples of Greece, Persia, and India discovered natural gas
are some renewable sources of methane, the main ingredient in natural many centuries ago. The people were mystified by the burning springs
gas, also discussed in this fact sheet.) Natural gas is considered a fossil fuel created when natural gas seeping from cracks in the ground was ignited
because natural gas was formed from the remains of tiny sea animals and by lightning. They sometimes built temples around these eternal flames
plants that died 300 to 400 million years ago. so they could worship the mysterious fire.
When these tiny sea animals and plants died, they sank to the bottom About 2,500 years ago, the Chinese recognized that natural gas could be
of the oceans where they were buried by layers of sediment that turned put to work. The Chinese piped the gas from shallow wells and burned it
into rock. Over the years, the layers of sedimentary rock became under large pans to evaporate seawater for the salt.
thousands of feet thick, subjecting the energy-rich plant and animal Natural gas was first used in America in 1816 to illuminate the streets
remains to enormous pressure. Most scientists believe that the pressure, of Baltimore with gas lamps. Lamplighters walked the streets at dusk to
combined with the heat of the Earth, changed this organic mixture into light the lamps.
petroleum and natural gas. Eventually, concentrations of natural gas
became trapped in the rock layers like a sponge traps water. Soon after, in 1821, William Hart dug the first successful American
natural gas well in Fredonia, NY. His well was 27 feet deep, quite shallow
Raw natural gas is a mixture of different gases. The main ingredient is compared to todays wells. The Fredonia Gas Light Company opened its
methane, a natural compound that is formed whenever plant and animal doors in 1858 as the nations first natural gas company.
matter decays. By itself, methane is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. As
a safety measure, natural gas companies add a chemical odorant called By 1900, natural gas had been discovered in 17 states. In the past 40
mercaptan (it smells like rotten eggs) so escaping gas can be detected. years, the use of natural gas has grown. Today, natural gas accounts for
Natural gas should not be confused with gasoline, which is made from almost 27 percent of the energy we use.
petroleum.

Top Natural Gas Producing States, 2013
Natural Gas at a Glance, 2013
nonrenewable heating, industry,
electricity 5
WYOMING
U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production: 2
PENNSYLVANIA
25.954 Q 24.991 Q
26.59% 30.50%
4
OKLAHOMA
3
Producing Natural Gas LOUISIANA
Natural gas can be difficult to find since it is usually trapped in porous Data: Energy Information Administration
ration
rocks deep underground. Geologists use many methods to find natural
gas deposits. They may look at surface rocks to find clues about
underground formations. They may set off small explosions or drop
heavy weights on the Earths surface and record the sound waves as Locations of Natural Gas
they bounce back from the sedimentary rock layers underground. They
also may measure the gravitational pull of rock masses deep within the Coal Bed Methane
Earth.
If test results are promising, the scientists may recommend drilling Conventional
to find the natural gas deposits. Natural gas wells average more than Associated Gas
8,600 feet deep and can cost hundreds of dollars per foot to drill, so its Seal
important to choose sites carefully. Conventional
Non-associated Gas Sandstone Oil
In the past few years, around 60 percent of the exploratory wells Tight Sand Gas
produced gas. The others came up dry. The odds are better for
developmental wellswells drilled on known gas fields. Over 90 Gas-rich Shale
percent of the developmental wells drilled recently yield gas. Natural
gas can be found in pockets by itself or in petroleum deposits.
After natural gas comes out of the ground, it goes to a processing
plant where it is cleaned of impurities and separated into its various
components. Approximately 90 percent of natural gas is composed of
methane, but it also contains other gases such as propane and butane.
Natural Gas Distribution System
Natural gas may also come from several other sources. One source is
coalbed methane, natural gas found in seams of coal. Until recently,
coalbed methane was just considered a safety hazard to miners, but Compressor Compressor
now it is a valuable source of natural gas. Five percent of the total natural Station Station
gas produced in the last few years came from coalbeds. 50-100 15 MPH
Miles
Another source of natural gas is the methane produced in landfills.
Landfill gas is considered a renewable source of methane since it comes
from decaying garbage. This biogas recovered from landfills is usually A machine called a compressor increases the pressure of the gas,
burned on the landfill site to generate electricity for the facility itself. forcing the gas to move along the pipelines. Compressor stations,
which are spaced about 50 to 100 miles apart, move the gas along the
Today, natural gas is produced in 32 states, but the top five states
pipelines at about 15 miles per hour.
Texas, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Wyomingproduce 70
percent of the total. Altogether, the U.S. produces about one-fifth of the Some gas moved along this subterranean highway is temporarily
worlds natural gas each year. stored in huge underground reservoirs. The underground reservoirs
are typically filled in the summer so there will be enough natural gas
during the winter heating season.
Transporting and Storing Natural Gas Eventually, the gas reaches the city gate of a local gas utility. The
How does natural gas get to you? Usually by pipeline. Over two million pressure is reduced and an odorant is added so leaking gas can be
miles of underground pipelines link natural gas wells to cleaning detected. Local gas companies use smaller pipes to carry gas the last
plants to major cities across the United States. Natural gas is sometimes few miles to homes and businesses. A gas meter measures the volume
transported thousands of miles by pipeline to its final destination. of gas a consumer uses.
Natural Gas
Natural Gas Use
Just about everyone in the United States uses natural gas. Natural gas ranks new coal plants and produce it with fewer emissions. Many coal plants
second in energy consumption, after petroleum. Over one-quarter of the in the U.S. have, in fact, been converted to natural gas plants to meet
energy we use in the United States comes from natural gas. the higher EPA air quality standards. Today, natural gas generates 27.44
Industry uses a little more than one-third of the natural gas consumed percent of the electricity in the U.S.
in the U.S., mainly as a heat source to manufacture goods. Industry also Compressed natural gas is often used as a transportation fuel. Natural
uses natural gas as an ingredient in fertilizer, photographic film, ink, gas can be used in any vehicle that has been modified with a special
glue, paint, plastics, laundry detergent, and insect repellents. Synthetic carburetor and fuel tank. Natural gas is cleaner burning than gasoline,
rubber and man-made fibers like nylon also could not be made without costs less, and has a higher octane (power boosting) rating. Today, nearly
the chemicals derived from natural gas. 120,000 vehicles run on natural gas in the United States.
Homes and businessesthe residential/commercial sectorconsume
just under one-third of the natural gas in the country. Over half of Natural Gas Reserves
homes use natural gas for heating. Many homes also use gas water People in the energy industry use two special terms when they talk
heaters, stoves, and clothes dryers. Natural gas is used so often in homes about how much natural gas there isresources and reserves. Natural
because it is clean burning. Commercial use of natural gas is mostly for gas resources include all the deposits of gas that are still in the ground
indoor space heating of stores, office buildings, schools, churches, and waiting to be tapped. Natural gas reserves are only those gas deposits
hospitals. that geologists know, or strongly believe, can be recovered given todays
Just over 30 percent of natural gas consumed is used to make electricity. prices and drilling technology.
It is the second largest producer of electricity after coal. Natural gas The United States has large reserves of natural gas. Most reserves are
power plants are cleaner than coal plants and can be brought on-line in the Gulf of Mexico and in the following states: Texas, Wyoming,
very quickly. Natural gas plants produce electricity more efficiently than Oklahoma, Colorado, Louisiana, New Mexico, West Virginia, and
Pennsylvania. If we continue to use natural gas at the same rate as we
use it today, the United States has about an 85 year supply at current use.
U.S. Natural Gas Consumption by Sector, 2013 The U.S. natural gas proved reserves increased by almost 10 percent in
2013 to 338 trillion cubic feet (Tcf ). Since the late 1990s, proved reserves
ELECTRICITY INDUSTRY have steadily increased due to improvements in shale gas exploration
31.13% 34.05% and production technologies.
COMMERCIAL
12.56% Natural Gas Prices
RESIDENTIAL TRANSPORTATION Since 1985, natural gas prices have been set by the market. The Federal
18.82% 3.44% Government sets the price of transportation for gas that crosses state
lines. State public utility commissions will continue to regulate natural
gas utility companiesjust as they regulate electric utilities. These
commissions regulate how much utilities may charge and monitor the
utilities policies.
Measuring Natural Gas How much does it cost to heat your home with natural gas? Compared
to other energy sources, natural gas is an economical choice, though
Gasoline is sold in gallons, coal in pounds, and wood in cords.
the price varies regionally. It is about two and a half times cheaper than
Natural gas is sold in cubic feet. We can measure the heat contained
electricity and fuel oil, both of which are common fuels used to heat U.S.
in all these energy sources by one common unit of measure. The
homes.
heat stored in a gallon of gasoline, a pound of coal, or a cubic foot
of natural gas can all be measured in British thermal units or Btu.
Natural Gas and the Environment
One Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
All the fossil fuelscoal, petroleum, propane, and natural gasrelease
of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. One candy bar (an
pollutants into the atmosphere when burned. The good news is that
energy source for the human body) has about 1,000 Btu. One cubic
natural gas is the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel.
foot of natural gas has about 1,023 Btu. Natural gas is usually sold
to pipeline companies in standard measurements of thousands of Burning natural gas produces less sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen than
cubic feet (Mcf ). One thousand cubic feet of natural gas would fit burning other fossil fuels. Natural gas also emits little ash particulate into
into a box that is 10 feet deep, 10 feet long, and 10 feet wide. Most the air when it is burned.
residential customers are billed by the number of therms of natural Like all fossil fuels, burning natural gas produces carbon dioxide, a
gas they use each month. A therm is a measure of the thermal greenhouse gas. Most scientists believe that increasing levels of carbon
energy in the gas and is equal to about 98 cubic feet. dioxide in the atmosphere, caused in large part by fossil fuel use, could
have long-term effects on the global climate.

Future of Natural Gas
Shale Gas Location of Shale Gas Plays
Shale gas is natural gas that is trapped in shale formations. Shale is Shale Gas Plays Major Shale Gas Plays
essentially a common form of sedimentary rock. It is formed by the
compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles. Shale formations are MARCELLUS
found all over the world. The Energy Information Administration projects
BAKKEN
that by 2040, production of shale gas will make up 53 percent of the U.S.
natural gas supply. In 2013, shale gas accounted for 39 percent of U.S.
MONTEREY
natural gas production, and those numbers are expected to rise. FAYETTEVILLE UTICA
WOODFORD
SHALE GAS PRODUCTION
Horizontal Drilling: A vertical well is drilled to the formation that has
BARNETT
been identified as a natural gas reservoir. Then the drill bit can be turned
up to a 90 degree angle so that the well parallels the natural gas reservoir. HAYNESVILLE-BOSSIER
This allows the maximum amount of natural gas to be recovered.
Hydraulic Fracturing: Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, uses water, silica EAGLE FORD
(sand), and chemical compounds piped several thousand feet below the
Earths surface, creating cracks or fissures in shale formations. This allows
natural gas to be released and flow into the well. Hydraulic fracturing can
be used along with horizontal drilling. Once the shale area is reached, the
Likely Methane Hydrate Deposits
water, chemicals, and sand are pumped in to unlock the hydrocarbons in
the shale.
BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES

There are benefits to natural gas development. When burned, it is
cleaner than coal or oil, and releases fewer emissions. Advancements in
drilling and fracturing techniques have made the extraction of shale gas
possible to meet increasing demand for natural gas.
Development of natural gas from shale plays using hydraulic fracturing
presents some challenges, including the need for access to water for
use in the process, and the need to protect local drinking water and
other natural resources. In some areas, development of shale gas brings Biogases
drilling operations closer to local residential communities too, making Depending on how the gas is obtained and used, methane from
land and homeowner cooperation and collaboration a high priority for biogases can be classified as a natural gas. Biogases are fuel sources
companies engaged in development of these resources. derived from plant and animal waste (see Biomass, page 10).
Continued technological innovations promise to make shale gas an Today, we can drill shallow wells into landfills to recover the methane
important part of the United States energy future. gas. Landfills are already required to collect methane gas as a safety
measure. Typically, landfills collect the gas and burn it to get rid of it;
Methane Hydrates
but the gas can be put to work. In 2014, landfill gas generated 15 billion
Buried in the sediments of the ocean floor is a reserve of methane so
kilowatt-hours of electricity.
vast it could possibly fuel the entire world. In sediments on the ocean
floor, tiny bacteria continuously break down the remains of sea animals There are other ways to convert biomass into natural gas. One method
and plants, producing methane gas. Under the enormous pressure and converts aquatic plants, such as sea kelp, into methane gas. In the future,
cold temperatures at the bottom of the sea, this methane gas dissolves huge kelp farms could also produce renewable gas energy.
and becomes locked in water molecules to form crystals. These crystals
Liquefied Natural Gas
cement together the ocean sediments into solid layerscalled
Another successful development has been the conversion of natural gas
methane hydratesthat can extend down into the sea floor.
into a liquid. As a liquid, natural gas is called LNG, or liquefied natural
Scientists also suspect that huge deposits of free methane gas are gas. LNG is made by cooling natural gas to a temperature of -260F. At
trapped beneath the hydrate layer. Researchers estimate there is more that temperature, natural gas becomes a liquid and its volume is reduced
carbon trapped in hydrates than in all the fossil fuels; however, they 600 times. Liquefied natural gas is easier to store than the gaseous form
arent sure how to capture this methane. When a hydrate breaks down, since it takes up much less space. LNG is also easier to transport. People
it loses its solidity and turns to mush, causing major landslides and can put LNG in special tanks and transport it on trucks or ships. Today,
other disturbances to the ocean floor, as well as an increase in methane more than 100 LNG facilities are operating in the United States.
escaping into the atmosphere.
Petroleum at a Glance, 2013
Petroleum Classification:
nonrenewable
Major Uses:
transportation, industry
U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:

34.368 Q 15.797 Q
What Is Petroleum? 35.20% 19.28%
Petroleum, often known as oil, is a fossil fuel. It is called a fossil fuel
because it was formed from the remains of tiny sea plants and animals
that died hundreds of millions of years ago, before dinosaurs lived. When
the plants and animals died, they sank to the bottom of the oceans. They
were buried by thousands of feet of sediment and sand that turned into
History of Oil
rock. People have used naturally available crude oil for thousands of years.
The ancient Chinese and Egyptians, for example, burned oil to produce
Over time, this organic mixture was subjected to enormous pressure
light.
and heat as the layers increased. The mixture changed chemically,
breaking down into compounds made of hydrogen and carbon Before the 1850s, Americans often used whale oil for light. When whale
atomshydrocarbons. Finally, an oil-saturated rockmuch like a wet oil became scarce, people began looking for other oil sources. In some
household spongewas formed. places, oil seeped naturally to the surface of ponds and streams. People
skimmed this oil and made it into kerosene. Kerosene was commonly
All organic material buried underground does not turn into oil. Certain
used to light Americas homes before the arrival of the electric light bulb.
geological conditions must exist within the rock formations for the
transformations to occur. First, there must be a trap of non-porous rock that As demand for kerosene grew, a group of businessmen hired Edwin
prevents the material from seeping out, and a seal (such as salt or clay) to Drake to drill for oil in Titusville, PA. After much hard work and slow
keep the material from rising to the surface. Even under these conditions, progress, he discovered oil in 1859. Drakes well was 69.5 feet deep, very
only about two percent of the organic material is transformed into oil. shallow compared to todays wells.
A typical petroleum reservoir is mostly sandstone or limestone in which Drake refined the oil from his well into kerosene for lighting. Gasoline
oil is trapped. The oil in it may be as thin as gasoline or as thick as tar. and other products made during refining were simply thrown away
It may be almost clear or black. Petroleum is called a nonrenewable because people had no use for them.
energy source because it takes hundreds of millions of years to form. We In 1892, the horseless carriage, or automobile, solved this problem since
cannot make more oil in a short time. it required gasoline. By 1920, there were nine million motor vehicles in
this country and gas stations were opening everywhere.

Producing Oil
Although research has improved the odds since Edwin Drakes days, Products Produced From a Barrel of Oil, 2013
petroleum exploration today is still a risky business. Geologists study
underground rock formations to find areas that might yield oil. Even with 2.27% Heating Oil
advanced methods, only around 60 percent of exploratory wells find oil. 2.27% Heavy Fuel Oil
Developmental wells fare much better; over 90 percent can find oil.
4.55% Liquefied
When the potential for oil production is found on shore, a petroleum Petroleum Gases
company brings in a 50 to 100-foot drilling rig and raises a derrick
that houses the drilling tools. Todays oil wells average over 6,000 feet 9.09% Jet Fuel
deep and may sink below 20,000 feet. The average well produces 10.6
13.64% Other Products
barrels of oil a day.
To safeguard the environment, oil drilling and oil production are 25.00% Diesel
regulated by state and federal governments. Oil companies must
get permission to explore for oil on new sites. Experts believe
that much of our remaining oil reserves are on land owned by the
Federal Government. Oil companies lease the land from the Federal
Government, which, in return, receives rental payments for the mineral
43.18% Gasoline
rights as well as percentage payments from each barrel of oil.
Texas produces more oil than any other state. The other top producing
states are North Dakota, California, Alaska, and Oklahoma. These five
states account for about 64 percent of all U.S. crude oil production. In * Total does not equal 100% due to independent rounding.
all, 31 states produce petroleum.
From Well to Market Top Petroleum Producing States, 2013

We cannot use crude oil exactly as it comes out of the ground. The
process is a little more complicated than that. So, how does thick, black 2
NORTH DAKOTA
crude oil come out of the ground and eventually get into your car as a
thin, amber-colored liquid called gasoline?
Oils first stop after being pumped from a well is an oil refinery. A 3
refinery is a plant where crude oil is processed. Sometimes, refineries CALIFORNIA
are located near oil wells, but usually the crude oil has to be delivered 5
OKLAHOMA
to the refinery by ship, barge, pipeline, truck, or train.
After the crude oil has reached the refinery, huge round tanks store 1
the oil until it is ready to be processed. Tank farms are sites with many 4 TEXAS
ALASKA
storage tanks.
An oil refinery cleans and separates the crude oil into various fuels
and by-products. The most important one is gasoline. Some other
petroleum products are diesel fuel, heating oil, and jet fuel.
Refineries use many different methods to make these products. One Pump stations, which are spaced 20 to 100 miles apart along the
method is a heating process called distillation. Since oil products have underground pipelines, keep the petroleum products moving at
different boiling points, molecule sizes, and densities, the end products a speed of about five miles per hour. At this rate, it takes two weeks
can be distilled, or separated. For example, asphalts have a higher to move a shipment of gasoline from Houston, TX to New York City.
boiling point than gasoline, allowing the two to be separated. Petroleum is transported over water via tanker.
Refineries have another job. They remove contaminants from the oil.
A refinery removes sulfur from gasoline, for example, to increase its
efficiency and to reduce air pollution.
Distribution
Companies called jobbers handle the wholesale distribution of oil.
Not all of the crude oil sent to a refinery is turned into product. Up
They sell just about everything that comes out of a barrel of crude oil.
to nine percent of the energy in the crude oil is used to operate the
Jobbers fill bulk orders for petroleum products from gasoline stations,
refinery facility.
industries, utility companies, farmers, and other consumers.
The retailer is the next link in the chain. A retailer may be a gasoline
Shipping Oil Products station or a home heating oil company. The last link is when you pump
Pipelines are the safest and cheapest way to move large quantities gasoline into your car, and the engine converts the gasolines chemical
of crude oil or refined petroleum across land. About 95,000 miles of energy into motion to move your car.
small gathering lines and large trunk lines move crude oil from wells
to refineries.
Petroleum
Demand for Oil Imported Oil
Since World War II, petroleum has replaced coal as the leading source The United States uses more petroleum than it produces. Today, we
of energy consumed in the United States. Petroleum supplies about import about 41 percent of our crude oil supply from other countries.
35 percent of total U.S. energy demand. Natural gas supplies about 27 Many Americans believe this dependence on imported petroleum is
percent, and coal supplies about 18 percent of our total energy needs. problematic and reduces Americas energy security and the ability to
America uses about 18.7 million barrels of oil (almost 841 million gallons) withstand disruption of supply. We were first alerted to that reality
every day of the year. And experts say we will continue to be using more in 1973 when a group of Arab countries stopped supplying oil (called
oil, especially for transportation, in the coming years. an oil embargo) to the United States. These countries belonged to
an international trade group called the Organization of Petroleum
Even now, we use about 47 percent more oil than we did in 1973, when
Exporting Countries, or OPEC for short. OPEC member countries often
the first oil crisis hit the U.S. This is true even though todays vehicles
set production levels for petroleum. As a rule, the less oil they produce,
get almost twice as many miles per gallon as their 1970s counterparts,
the higher the price of oil on the world market.
because there are almost twice as many vehicles on the road today
than in 1973. Today, 71.5 percent of U.S. oil consumption is used for The next shock came in 19781979 when the Iranian Revolution cut off
transportation. oil production. Again, world oil prices increased. Another major price
increase resulted from the Persian Gulf War in 19901991, and again
after events like the September 11, 2001 attacks, and Hurricane Katrina
Top Oil Producing Countries, 2013 in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005.
As many countries in the Middle East and North Africa experience
3 political change, petroleum prices may increase temporarily resulting in
5
higher prices for gasoline and other products. Many people believe that
1 8 7 4 prices are less related to oil supply and more related to how petroleum is
9 2 6 traded (bought and sold) as a commodity.
10
The U.S. continues to work to increase energy security and maintain
domestic supplies of petroleumincluding the purchase and storage
of three months of supply in the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR).
Established in 1975, the SPR is only to be tapped during an energy
emergency. The SPR was first tapped in 1991, during the first Persian Gulf
1. United States 4. China 7. Iran War, and has since been tapped following events like Hurricanes Rita and
2. Saudi Arabia 5. Canada 8. Iraq Katrina in 2005, and the Libyan civil conflict in 2011.
3. Russia 6. United Arab Emirates 9. Mexico
10. Kuwait The United States imports oil from both non-OPEC and OPEC countries.
Today, we import more oil from Canada than any other country (32
percent) followed by Saudia Arabia (13 percent). The United States
is a major consumer in the global energy economy and access to
Top Sources of U.S. Imported Oil, 2013 petroleum resources continues to be a high priority for providing the
energy resources needed for transportation and for making many of our
5 consumer goods and products. As countries like China and India grow,
1
their demand for petroleum and petroleum products increases as well.
Global demand for oil continues.
3 2
4 There are steps we can take to help ensure our energy security and
reduce the impact of high oil prices. Some experts believe the most
important step is to decrease our demand for oil through increased
conservation, reducing the oil we use, and increasing the efficiency of
our vehicles and transportation.
1. Canada, non-OPEC 3. Mexico, non-OPEC 5. Russia, non-OPEC Some people believe we should increase oil production in the United
2. Saudi Arabia, OPEC 4. Venezuela, OPEC States, particularly in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in
Percentage of Imports from the Middle East Region: 20.27% northern Alaska and in offshore areas. Others say we should increase
Percentage of Imports from OPEC Nations: 37.74% our use of other transportation fuels. Many people agree that the
United States must increase production from domestic sources, increase
Data: Energy Information Administration efficiency, and continue development of non-petroleum transportation
fuels.

Offshore Oil Reserves
There are rich deposits of petroleum and natural gas on the outer U.S. Petroleum Consumption by Sector, 2013
continental shelf (OCS), especially off the Pacific coasts of California and
Alaska and in the Gulf of Mexico. Thirty basins have been identified that TRANSPORTATION 71.50%
could contain enormous oil and gas reserves. It is estimated that 30 percent INDUSTRIAL 23.26%
of undiscovered U.S. gas and oil reserves are contained in the OCS.
COMMERCIAL 1.73%
Today, there are more than 4,000 drilling platforms, servicing thousands
of wells. OCS production supplies approximately 6 percent of the RESIDENTIAL 2.88%
nations natural gas production and 17.5 percent of its oil production.
Most of the active wells are in the central and western Gulf of Mexico, ELECTRICITY 0.63%
with additional wells off the coast of California. Data: Energy Information Administration
Although there are no producing wells in other areas, there is believed

to be significant oil potential in the Beaufort Sea off Alaska, as well as
natural gas potential in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and in certain basins
off the Atlantic Coast. U.S. Oil and Gas Basins
The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) grants permission to use
offshore lands through lease sales. After companies pay for a lease,
they apply for U.S. DOI permits to develop energy resources from the
lease. A lease is generally nine square miles. Currently, the entire Pacific
Coast, parts of the Gulf of Mexico, the entire Atlantic Coast, and parts of
Alaska are restricted from new lease sales, due to a Presidential mandate
through 2017. Leases and new production still occur in unblocked areas
of the Gulf of Mexico and Alaskan Coast.
Offshore Production
Offshore production is costlymany times more expensive than land-
based production. To reach oil buried in shallow water, drilling platforms
stand on stilt-like legs that are imbedded in the ocean floor. These huge
platforms hold all the drilling equipment needed, as well as housing and Data: Energy Information Administration
storage areas for the work crews. Once the well has been drilled, the
platforms also hold the production equipment. drive more miles. Urban air quality suffers. With the recent return of high
Floating platforms are used for drilling in deeper waters. These self- oil prices, the sale of large cars and SUVs has decreased dramatically.
propelled vessels are anchored to the ocean bottom with huge cables.
Once the wells have been drilled from these platforms, the production Oil and the Environment
equipment is lowered to the ocean floor and sealed to the well casings
In the United States, we use more petroleum than any other energy
to prevent leakage. Wells have been drilled in 10,000 feet of water using
source. Petroleum productsgasoline, fertilizers, plastics, medicines
these floating rigs.
have brought untold benefits to Americans and the rest of the world.
In 2010, the Macondo (Deepwater Horizon) well accident released oil We depend on these products, and, as consumers, we demand them.
into the Gulf of Mexico for several months. The companies involved in Petroleum production, distribution, and consumption can also
developing Macondo, the Coast Gaurd, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy contribute to air and water pollution.
Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) quickly began
Drilling for and transporting oil can endanger wildlife and the
work to determine the cause of the accident and to improve production
environment if it spills into rivers or oceans. Leaking underground storage
and safety standards as a result.
tanks can pollute groundwater and create noxious fumes. Processing oil
Oil Prices at the refinery can contribute to air and water pollution. Burning gasoline
to fuel our cars contributes to air pollution. Even the careless disposal of
Most of the world moves on petroleumgasoline for cars, jet fuel for waste oil drained from the family car can pollute rivers and lakes.
planes, and diesel fuel for trucks. Then there are the petroleum products
Many advances have been made in protecting the environment since
needed to run factories and manufacture goods. Thats why the price of
the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970. Oil companies have redesigned
oil is so important. In 1998, the average price of a barrel of oil dropped as
their refineries to reduce emissions into the air and water. Gasolines have
low as $11 a barrel; in the spring and summer of 2008, the price shot up
been reformulated to burn cleaner, dramatically cutting the levels of lead,
to over $130 a barrel, the highest price in history.
nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons released into the air.
Low oil prices are good for the consumer and the economy, acting as a
The production, transportation, distribution, and consumption of
check on inflation. The oil industry, however, does not prosper during
petroleum are strictly regulated to minimize the negative effects on
periods of low oil prices. Oil industry workers lose their jobs, many small
the environment. Our increasing dependence on petroleum presents a
wells are permanently sealed, and the exploration for new oil sources
continuing challenge. The future must balance the growing demand for
drops off. Low oil prices have another side effect. People use more
petroleum products with protection of the global environment.
petroleum products when crude oil is cheap. They buy bigger cars and
Propane Propane at a Glance, 2013
nonrenewable industry, heating,
transportation
What Is Propane?
Propane is a gas found mixed in natural gas and petroleum deposits. U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
To obtain propane, it must be separated from natural gas and crude oil 1.652 Q 3.601 Q
when they are processed for their final uses. Propane is called a fossil 1.69% 4.39%
H
fuel because it was formed hundreds of millions of years ago from the H H
remains of tiny sea animals and plants. When the plants and animals C
H H
died, they sank to the bottom of the oceans and were buried by layers of PROPANE = C3H8 C C
sediment and sand that turned into rock. Over time, the layers became
H H
thousands of feet thick.
H
The layers were subjected to enormous heat and pressure, changing the Data: Energy Information Administration
energy-rich remains into petroleum and natural gas deposits. Eventually,
pockets of these fossil fuels became trapped in rocks, similar to the way
a wet sponge holds water.
Just as water can change its physical state and become a liquid or a gas
Propane is one of the many fossil fuels included in the liquefied (steam vapor), so can propane. Under normal atmospheric pressure and
petroleum gas (LPG) family. Because propane is the type of LPG most temperature, propane is a gas. Under moderate pressure and/or lower
commonly used in the United States, propane and LPG are often used temperatures, however, propane changes into a liquid. Propane is easily
synonymously. The chemical formula for propane is C3H8. Butane is stored as a liquid in pressurized tanks. Think of the small tank you see
another LPG often used in lighters. attached to a gas barbecue grill, for example.

Propane takes up much less space in its liquid form. It is 270 times more
compact in its liquid state than it is as a gas. A thousand gallon tank Sources of U.S. Propane
holding gaseous propane would provide a family enough cooking fuel
for one week. A thousand gallon tank holding liquid propane would
NATURAL GAS
provide enough cooking fuel for more than five years!
PROCESSING 45.02%
When propane vapor (gas) is drawn from a tank, some of the liquid in
the tank instantly vaporizes to replace the vapor that was removed. IMPORTED 9.96%
Propane is nicknamed the portable gas because it is easier to store and
transport than natural gas, which requires pipelines. PETROLEUM REFINING
Like natural gas, propane is colorless and odorless. An odorant called 45.02%
mercaptan is added to propane (as it is to natural gas) to serve as a
warning agent for escaping gas. And, like all fossil fuels, propane is a
nonrenewable energy source. We cant make more propane in a short
period of time.
Propane Truck
History of Propane
Propane does not have a long history. It wasnt discovered until 1912
when people were trying to find a way to store gasoline. The problem
with gasoline was that it evaporated when stored under normal
conditions.
Dr. Walter Snelling, directing a series of experiments for the U.S. Bureau Bobtail trucks can carry up to 3,000 gallons of
of Mines, discovered that several evaporating gases could be changed liquid propane to local distributors.
into liquids and stored at moderate pressure. The most plentiful of
those gases was propane. Dr. Snelling developed a way to bottle
the liquid gas. One year later, the propane industry began heating
American homes. By 1915, propane was being used in torches to cut Liquefied Propane
through metal. ,
As a gas
propane 270
Producing Propane occupies re
o
Propane comes from natural gas and petroleum wells. About forty- times m n
a ce th a
sp
five percent of the propane used in the United States is extracted from is
when it ed
raw natural gas. Raw natural gas contains about 90 percent methane, pressuriz id.
u
five percent propane, and five percent other gases. The propane is into a liq
separated from the raw natural gas and the other gases at a natural gas
processing plant.
About forty-five percent of propane is extracted from crude petroleum.
Petroleum is separated into its various products at a processing plant
called a refinery. Approximately 10 percent of the propane we use
ropane
in the U.S. is imported from other countries, mostly from Canada and Liquid P gallon
1
Propane Volume =
Mexico. Gaseous 70 gallons
2
Volume =
Transporting Propane
How does propane get from natural gas processing plants and oil After storage at distribution terminals, propane is transported by
refineries to the consumer? Usually, propane first moves through railroad tank cars, transport trucks, barges, and tanker ships to bulk
underground pipelines to distribution terminals across the nation. plants. A bulk plant is where local propane dealers fill their small tank
There are about 70,000 miles of pipeline in the United States moving trucks, called bobtails.
propane to bulk storage and distribution terminals.
People who use very little propanebackyard barbecuers, for
Distribution terminals, which are operated by propane companies, examplemust bring their propane cylinders to a dealer to be filled.
function like warehouses that store merchandise before shipping it There are about 25,000 propane dealers, such as hardware stores and
to stores and shops. Sometimes, especially in the summer when less gas stations, in the U.S. today.
energy is needed for heating, propane is stored in large underground
storage caverns.
Propane
How Propane Is Used RESIDENTIAL TANK
Propane is a clean-burning, versatile fuel. It is used by nearly everyone
in the United Statesin homes, on farms, by business, and in industry
mostly for producing heat and operating equipment.
Homes
Homes and businesses use less than one-fifth of the propane consumed
in the U.S. Propane is used mostly in homes in rural areas that do not
have natural gas service, as well as in manufactured (mobile) homes.
Millions of homes use propane to meet some of their energy needs.
Nearly six million households use propane as their main heating source.
Less than one-eighth of mobile homes use propane for heating.
Propane is also used in homes for air conditioning, heating water,
cooking and refrigerating foods, drying clothes, lighting, and fueling
fireplaces.
Homes that use propane as a main energy source usually have a large
propane tank outside of the house that stores propane under pressure
as a liquid. Propane dealers deliver propane to the residences in trucks, How Propane Is Used
filling the tanks several times a year as needed. The average residential
propane tank holds between 500 and 1,000 gallons of liquid fuel.
Millions of backyard cooks use propane-powered gas grills for cooking.
Recreational vehicles (RVs) usually have propane-fueled appliances,
giving them a portable source of energy for cooking, hot water, and
refrigeration. To heat homes To make products
and fuel industry
Farms
Many of Americas farms use propane to help meet their energy needs.
Farmers use propane to dry crops such as corn, soybeans, grains,
tobacco, apples, peanuts, and onions. Propane is also used to ripen fruit,
heat water, and refrigerate foods.
Propane flamethrowers are used to control weeds. Propane is also used
to heat barns, chicken houses, stock tanks, nurseries, greenhouses,
orchards, and incubators. To heat barns and
To fuel backyard grills operate farm equipment
Propane is one fuel farmers use to operate a variety of farm equipment,
including tractors, weeders, irrigation pumps, stand-by generators, and
seedling planters.
Business
About one million business and commercial establishmentssuch as
hotels, schools, hospitals, restaurants, and laundromatsuse propane To fuel machinery
To fuel fleet vehicles
for heating and cooling air, cooking and refrigerating food, heating that is used indoors
water, and lighting.
Industry
Industry uses more than four-fifths of the propane consumed in the
U.S. Some industries find propane well suited to their special needs.
Metal workers use propane tanks to fuel their cutting torches and other
equipment. Industries also use propane for soldering, vulcanizing, and
other processes that need a ready heat source.
To fuel hot air To fuel appliances
balloons

PROPANE POWERED FORKLIFT
Portable propane heaters provide a convenient source of heat for

construction and road workers in cold weather. Propane also is
used to heat asphalt for highway construction and repairs. Propane
heaters at construction sites are used to dry concrete, plaster, and
fuel pitch. And because propane is a very low-emission fuel, forklift
trucks powered by propane can operate safely inside factories and
warehouses.
Propane is also a valuable feedstock for the chemical industry. Almost
half of the propane used today is as a raw material for making plastic
bags, nylon, and other products.
Propane Today
The United States uses more propane gas than any other country in
the world. Propane supplies 1.69 percent of our total energy needs
and ranks as the seventh most important energy source.
About 90 percent of the propane used in this country is produced
in the United States from petroleum and natural gas but, since we
import 41 percent of the petroleum we use, about 18 percent of the
propane we produce here is made from imported fuel. U.S. Propane Consumption by Sector, 2013
CHEMICAL AND INDUSTRIAL
Propane and the Environment 80.66%
Propane is a very clean burning fossil fuel, which explains its use TRANSPORTATION
in indoor settings. It was approved as an alternative fuel under the 0.90%
Clean Air Act, as well as the National Energy Policy Act of 1992. COMMERCIAL
4.71%
RESIDENTIAL
13.73%
Propane as a Transportation Fuel

Did you know that propane has been used as a transportation fuel for
more than half a century? Taxicab companies, government agencies,
and school districts often use propane, instead of gasoline, to fuel A delivery van that runs on
their fleets of vehicles. Today, about one percent of total propane propane fuel.
consumption is used for transportation.
Propane-fueled engines produce less air pollution than gasoline
There are some interesting characteristics about propane that make
engines. Carbon monoxide emissions from engines using propane
it an ideal engine fuel. First, propane is cleaner burning than gasoline.
are 20 to 90 percent lower than emissions from gasoline-fueled
Propane leaves no lead, varnish, or carbon deposits that cause the
engines. Total hydrocarbon emissions are 40 to 80 percent lower.
premature wearing of pistons, rings, valves, and spark plugs. The
engine stays clean, free of carbon and sludge. This means less So why isnt propane used as a transportation fuel more often? For
maintenance and an extended engine life. one reason, propane is not as conveniently available as gasoline.
Second, an automobile engine has to be adjusted to use propane
Also, propane is all fuel. It doesnt require the additives that are
fuel, and the cost of converting an engine to use propane is often
usually blended into gasoline. Even without additive boosters,
propanes octane rating of 110 is equal to and, in most cases, higher Chemical
prohibitive. Third, there is a slightand
drop Industrial
in miles traveled per gallon
when propane is used to fuel vehicles.
than available gasoline. 52%
Solar at a Glance, 2013
Solar Classification: Major Uses:
renewable light*, heat*, electricity
What Is Solar Energy? U.S. Energy Consumption:

0.307 Q
U.S. Energy Production:
0.307 Q
Solar energy is radiant energy that is produced by the sun. Every day 0.31% 0.37%
the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun *Most of the solar energy we use for light and passive solar heating
radiates more energy in one day than the world uses in one year. For this cannot be measured and is not included in this data. Only harnessed
reason, we consider to be a renewable resource. energy is included.
Where does the energy come from that constantly radiates from the sun? Data: Energy Information Administration
It comes from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball
of gasesmostly hydrogen and helium atoms. The hydrogen atoms in
the suns core combine to form helium and generate energy in a process
called nuclear fusion.
Fusion
The process of fusion most commonly involves hydrogen isotopes combining to
During nuclear fusion, the suns extremely high pressure and temperature form a helium atom with a transformation of matter. This matter is emitted as
cause nuclei to separate from their electrons. At this extremely energized radiant energy.
state, the nuclei are able to fuse, or combine. Hydrogen nuclei fuse to
become one helium atom of a higher atomic number and greater mass, Hydrogen Isotope
and one neutron remains free. This new helium atom, however, contains Hydrogen Isotope
less mass than the combined masses of the hydrogen isotopes that fused.
Energy
This transmutation of matter results in some mass being lost. The lost
Neutron Helium
matter is emitted into space as radiant energy. The process of fusion
occurs most commonly with lighter elements like hydrogen, but can also
occur with heavier nuclei, until iron (Fe) is formed. Because iron is the
lowest energy nucleus, it will neither fuse with other elements, nor can it
be fissioned (split) into smaller nuclei.
It can take hundreds of thousands of years for the energy in the suns Solar Collector
core to make its way to the solar surface, and then just a little over eight On a sunny day, a closed car becomes a solar collector. Light energy passes
minutes to travel the 93 million miles to Earth. The solar energy travels through the window glass, is absorbed by the cars interior, and converted into
to the Earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, the speed of light heat energy. The heat energy becomes trapped inside.
(3.0x108 meters per second).
SOLAR ENERGY
Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes
the Earth, one part in two billion. Yet this amount of energy is enormous. TRAPPED HEAT
Each hour the sun provides enough energy to supply our nations energy
needs for one year.
Where does all this energy go? About 30 percent of the suns energy that
hits the Earth is reflected back into space. Another 25 percent is used
to evaporate water, which, lifted into the atmosphere, produces rainfall.
Solar energy is also absorbed by plants, the land, and the oceans. The
rest could be used to supply our energy needs.
History of Solar Energy

People have harnessed solar energy for centuries. As early as the seventh
century B.C., people used simple magnifying glasses to concentrate the
light of the sun into beams so hot they would cause wood to catch fire.
More than 100 years ago in France, a scientist used heat from a solar The public and world governments remained largely indifferent to the
collector to make steam to drive a steam engine. In the beginning of possibilities of solar energy until the oil shortages of the 1970s. Today, people
this century, scientists and engineers began researching ways to use use solar energy to heat buildings and water and to generate electricity.
solar energy in earnest. One important development was a remarkably
efficient solar boiler invented by Charles Greeley Abbott, an American Solar Collectors
astrophysicist, in 1936. Heating with solar energy is not as easy as you might think. Capturing
The solar water heater gained popularity at this time in Florida, California, sunlight and putting it to work is difficult because the solar energy that
and the Southwest. The solar industry started in the early 1920s and was reaches the Earth is spread out over such a large area.
in full swing just before World War II. This growth lasted until the mid-
The sun does not deliver that much energy to any one place at any
1950s when low-cost natural gas became the primary fuel for heating
one time. How much solar energy a place receives depends on several
American homes.
conditions. These include the time of day, the season of the year, the
latitude of the area, and the cloudiness of the sky. equipment, such as pumps and blowers, and an outside source of
energy to help heat the house when solar energy is not enough.
A solar collector is one way to collect heat from the sun. A closed car
on a sunny day is like a solar collector. As sunlight passes through the Active solar systems use special solar collectors that look like boxes
cars glass windows, it is absorbed by the seat covers, walls, and floor covered with glass. Dark-colored metal plates inside the boxes absorb
of the car. the sunlight and change it into heat. (Black absorbs more sunlight
than any other color.) Air or a liquid flows through the collectors and is
The light that is absorbed changes into heat. The cars glass windows let
warmed by this heat. The warmed air or liquid is then distributed to the
light in, but dont let all the heat out. This is also why greenhouses work
rest of the house just as it would be with an ordinary furnace system.
so well and stay warm year-round. A greenhouse or solar collector:
Solar collectors are usually placed high on a roof where they can collect
allows sunlight in through the glass (or plastic);
absorbs the sunlight and changes it into heat; and the most sunlight. They are also put on the south side of the roof in a
location where no tall trees or tall buildings will shade them.
traps most of the heat inside.
Solar Space Heating Storing Solar Heat

Space heating means heating the space inside a building. Today, The challenge confronting any solar heating systemwhether passive,
many homes use solar energy for space heating. There are two general active, or hybridis heat storage. Solar heating systems must have
types of solar space heating systems: passive and active. Hybrid solar some way to store the heat that is collected on sunny days to keep
systems are a combination of passive and active systems. people warm at night or on cloudy days.
Passive Solar Homes In passive solar homes, heat is stored by using dense interior materials
In a passive solar home, the whole house operates as a solar collector. A that retain heat wellmasonry, adobe, concrete, stone, or water. These
passive house does not use any special mechanical equipment such as materials absorb surplus heat and radiate it back into the room after
pipes, ducts, fans, or pumps to transfer the heat that the house collects dark. Some passive homes have walls up to one foot thick.
on sunny days. Instead, a passive solar home relies on properly oriented In active solar homes, heat can be stored in one of two waysa large
windows. Since the sun shines from the south in North America, passive tank filled with liquid can be used to store the heat, or rock bins beneath
solar homes are built so that most of the windows face south. They have a house can store the heat by heating the air in the bins.
very few or no windows on the north side.
Houses with active or passive solar heating systems may also have
A passive solar home converts solar energy into heat just as a closed car furnaces, wood-burning stoves, or other heat producing devices to
does. Sunlight passes through a homes windows and is absorbed in the provide heat during extremely cold temperatures or long periods of
walls and floors. To control the amount of heat in a passive solar home, cold or cloudy weather. These are called backup systems.
the doors and windows are closed or opened to keep heated air in or to
let it out. At night, special heavy curtains or shades are pulled over the
windows to keep the daytime heat inside the house. Solar Water Heating
In the summer, awnings or roof overhangs help to cool the house by Solar energy is also used to heat water. Water heating is usually the
shading the windows from the high summer sun. second leading home energy expense. Heating water can cost the
average family over $350 per year.
Heating a house by warming the walls or floors is more comfortable
than heating the air inside a house. It is not so drafty. Passive buildings Depending on where you live, and how much hot water your family
are quiet, peaceful places to live. A passive solar home can get 30 to 80 uses, a solar water heater can reduce your water heating bill 50 to 80
percent of the heat it needs from the sun. Many homeowners install percent. A well-maintained system can last 20 years, longer than a
equipment (such as fans to help circulate air) to get more out of their conventional water heater.
passive solar homes. When special equipment is added to a passive A solar water heater works in the same way as solar space heating. A
solar home, the result is called a hybrid solar system. solar collector is mounted on the roof, or in an area of direct sunlight.
It collects sunlight and converts it to heat. When the collector becomes
Active Solar Homes
hot enough, a thermostat starts a pump. The pump circulates a fluid,
Unlike a passive solar home, an active solar home uses mechanical
called a heat transfer fluid, through the collector for heating.
The heated fluid then goes to a storage tank where it heats water. The
Passive Solar Home hot water may then be piped to a faucet or showerhead. Most solar
SOLAR WATER HEATER
SUMMER SUN
WINTER SUN
Overhang
creates shade HEAT CIRCULATION
STORAGE OF HEAT IN THE FLOOR AND WALLS
South North
water heaters that operate in winter use a heat transfer fluid, similar to
antifreeze, that will not freeze when the weather turns cold.
Concentrated Solar Power
Like solar cells, solar thermal systems use solar energy to make electricity.
In addition to heating homes and water, solar energy can be used to
Concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies focus heat in one area to
produce electricity. Two ways to generate electricity from solar energy
produce the high temperatures required to make electricity. Since the
are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.
solar radiation that reaches the Earth is so spread out and diluted, it must
Photovoltaic Cells be concentrated to produce the high temperatures required to generate
electricity. There are several types of technologies that use mirrors or
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and volt, a other reflecting surfaces to concentrate the suns energy up to 2,000
measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV times its normal intensity.
cells or solar cells for short. You are probably already familiar with solar
Parabolic troughs use long reflecting troughs that focus the sunlight
cells. Solar-powered calculators, toys, and telephone call boxes all use
onto a pipe located at the focal line. A fluid circulating inside the pipe
solar cells to convert light into electricity.
collects the energy and transfers it to a heat exchanger, which produces
There are four major steps involved in generating electricity from the steam to drive a turbine. The worlds largest parabolic trough power
silicon in PV cells (see page 41). Current PV cell technology is not very plant is located in the Mojave Desert in California. This plant has a total
efficient. Todays PV cells convert only about 1824 percent of the radiant generating capacity of 354 megawatts, one-third the size of a large
energy into electrical energy. Fossil fuel plants, on the other hand, nuclear power plant.
convert about 35 percent of their fuels chemical energy into electrical
Solar power towers use a large field of rotating mirrors to track the sun
energy.
and focus the sunlight onto a thermal receiver on top of a tall tower.
The cost per kilowatt-hour to produce electricity from PV cells can The fluid in the receiver collects the heat and either uses it to generate
sometimes be as much as three times as expensive as from conventional electricity or stores it for later use. The worlds largest solar thermal
sources. However, PV cells make sense for many uses today, such as power tower system is also located in California. The Ivanpah Solar
providing power in remote areas or other areas where electricity is Electric Generation Station can generate enough electricity to power
difficult to provide. Scientists are researching ways to improve PV cell 140,000 homes per year.
technology to make it more competitive with conventional sources,
Dish/engine systems are like satellite dishes that concentrate sunlight
and costs per kilowatt-hour from PV cells are expected to continue to
rather than signals, with a heat engine located at the focal point to
decrease.
generate electricity. These generators are small mobile units that can be
operated individually or in clusters, in urban and remote locations.
Solar Power Tower
Concentrated solar power technologies require a continuous supply
RECEIVER PANEL of strong sunlight, like that found in hot, dry regions such as deserts.
has fluid inside Developing countries with increasing electricity demand may look to
that collects heat.
use CSP technologies on a large scale.
ROTATING MIRRORS
focus sunlight
Solar Energy and the Environment
onto receiver panel. Using solar energy produces no air or water pollution, and it is a free and
widely available energy source. Manufacturing the photovoltaic cells
to harness that energy, however, consumes silicon and produces some
waste products. In addition, large solar thermal farms can harm desert
ecosystems if not properly managed. Most people agree, however, that
solar energy, if it can be harnessed economically, is one of the most viable
energy sources for the future.
SOLAR HOUSE
Top Solar States (Net Generation), 2013
4 3
1 NEVADA NEW JERSEY
CALIFORNIA
2
ARIZONA
5
NORTH CAROLINA

How a Photovoltaic Cell Works
From Silicon to Electricity
Step 1
A location that can accept an electron
A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of
the slab is very thinly diffused with an n dopant such as phosphorous. Free electron
On the base of the slab a small amount of a p dopant, typically boron, Proton
is diffused. The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker than the Tightly-held electron
phosphorous side. Dopants are similar in atomic structure to the
primary material. The phosphorous has one more electron in its outer STEP 1
shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants help create NEGATIVE CHARACTER
the electric field that motivates the energetic electrons out of the cell n-type silicon
created when light strikes the PV cell.
The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; p-type silicon
POSITIVE CHARACTER
it has a negative character. This is called the n-type silicon (n = negative).
The n-type silicon is not chargedit has an equal number of protons
and electronsbut some of the electrons are not held tightly to the STEP 2
atoms. They are free to move to different locations within the layer. POSITIVE CHARGE
electric field
n-type
The boron gives the base of the silicon a positive character, because p-n junction
it has a tendency to attract electrons. The base of the silicon is called
p-type
p-type silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal number NEGATIVE CHARGE
of protons and electrons; it has a positive character but not a positive
charge.
STEP 3 PHOTONS SUN
Step 2 POSITIVE CHARGE
electric field
Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from n-type
the n-layer flow into the p-layer for a split second, then form a barrier to
p-n junction
prevent more electrons from moving between the two sides. This point
of contact and barrier is called the p-n junction. p-type
NEGATIVE CHARGE
When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is a negative charge
in the p-type section of the junction and a positive charge in the n-type
STEP 4 SUN
sun
section of the junction due to movement of the electrons and holes at FREE ELECTRON
electric field
the junction of the two types of materials. This imbalance in electrical

charge at the p-n junction produces an electric field between the p-type
and n-type silicon. load
Step 3
If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in
the p-n junction and energize them, knocking them free of their atoms.
These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-type silicon
and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type silicon. Most photon- PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
electron collisions actually occur in the silicon base.
Step 4
A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an electrical load,
such as a light or battery, and then back to the n-type silicon, forming a
complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type silicon
they repel each other because they are of like charge. The wire provides
a path for the electrons to move away from each other. This flow of
electrons is an electric current that travels through the circuit from the
n-type to the p-type silicon.
In addition to the semiconducting materials, solar cells consist of a
top metallic grid or other electrical contact to collect electrons from
the semiconductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back
contact layer to complete the electrical circuit.
Uranium (Nuclear)
Uranium at a Glance, 2013
nonrenewable
What Is Uranium? electricity
Uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive element, that is very hard U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
and heavy and is classified as a metal. It is also one of the few elements 8.268 Q 8.268 Q
that is easily fissioned. It is the fuel used by nuclear power plants. 8.47% 10.09%
Uranium was formed when the Earth was created and is found in rocks
all over the world. Rocks that contain a lot of uranium are called uranium Lighter
Atom Splits Element
ore, or pitch-blende. Uranium, although abundant, is a nonrenewable
energy source. Neutron
Three isotopes of uranium are found in nature, uranium-234, FISSION Neutron

Uranium
235 + Energy
Neutron
uranium-235, and uranium-238. These numbers refer to the number of
neutrons and protons in each atom. Uranium-235 is the form commonly
Lighter
used for energy production because, unlike the other isotopes, the Element
nucleus splits easily when bombarded by a neutron. During fission, the

uranium-235 atom absorbs a bombarding neutron, causing its nucleus
to split apart into two atoms of lighter mass.
The first nuclear power plant came online in Shippingport, PA in 1957.
At the same time, the fission reaction releases thermal and radiant Since then, the industry has experienced dramatic shifts in fortune.
energy, as well as releasing more neutrons. The newly released neutrons Through the mid 1960s, government and industry experimented with
go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself demonstration and small commercial plants. A period of rapid expansion
over and over. This is called a chain reaction. followed between 1965 and 1975.
No new plants, however, were ordered after the 1970s until recently, as
What Is Nuclear Energy? a result of public opposition, as well as building costs, problems with
Nuclear energy is energy that comes from the nucleus of an atom. siting a waste repository, and lower demand for power. Today, there is
Atoms are the particles that make up all objects in the universe. Atoms renewed interest in nuclear power to meet future demand for electricity
consist of neutrons, protons, and electrons. and plans for new plants are underway.
Nuclear energy is released from an atom through one of two processes:

nuclear fusion or nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released Uranium Fuel Cycle
when the nuclei of atoms are combined or fused together. This is how The stepsfrom mining the uranium ore, through its use in a nuclear
the sun produces energy (see Solar, page 38). reactor, to its disposalare called the uranium fuel cycle.
In nuclear fission, energy is released when the nuclei of atoms are split
apart. Nuclear fission is the only method currently used by nuclear plants
Mining
Uranium ore can be mined using conventional surface and underground
to generate electricity.
mining methods, but these techniques is no longer used in the U.S.
Uranium can also be mined using solution mining techniques. In situ
History of Nuclear Energy leaching, or solution mining, dissolves uranium ore while it is still in
Compared to other energy sources, nuclear energy is a very new way to the ground using a weak chemical solution. The chemical-ore solution
produce energy. It wasnt until the early 1930s that scientists discovered is then pumped to the surface. In 2013, six in situ leach plants were
that the nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons. Then operating in the United States.
in 1938, two German scientists split the nucleus of the atom apart by
bombarding it with a neutrona process called fission. Soon after,
Milling
At the mill, conventionally mined ore is crushed and treated with an acid
a Hungarian scientist discovered the chain reaction and its ability to
solution that separates the uranium ore from the rock. If in situ leaching
produce enormous amounts of energy.
was used, the uranium is already dissolved in solution. The chemical-
During World War II, nuclear fission was first used to make a bomb. After ore solution undergoes further treatments to separate the uranium as
the war, nuclear fission was developed for generating electricity. a precipitate. Uranium is collected and dried as uranium oxide (U3O8)
concentrate. The concentrate is a powder called yellowcake. This
process of removing uranium from the ore is called uranium milling.

Conversion
The next step in the cycle is the conversion of the solid yellowcake into
a gas called uranium hexafluoride, or UF6. The uranium hexafluoride is
Uranium Fuel Cycle
then shipped to a gaseous diffusion plant for enrichment.
Enrichment
Because less than one percent of uranium ore contains uranium-235,
the form used for energy production, uranium must be processed to
increase its concentration. This processcalled enrichmentincreases
the percentage of uranium-235 from 0.7 to three to five percent, the
percentage required for reactor fuel. It typically takes place at a gaseous
diffusion plant where the uranium hexafluoride is pumped through
filters that contain very tiny holes. Because uranium-235 has three
fewer neutrons and is one percent lighter than uranium-238, it moves
through the holes more easily. This method increases the percentage
of uranium-235 as the gas passes through thousands of filters. The
enriched fuel is then converted into uranium dioxide (UO2) in the form
Spent fuel is stored In the future the spent fuel may be reprocessed
of a black powder. at the power plant site or stored in an underground repository
Fuel Fabrication
The enriched uranium is taken to a fuel fabrication plant where it is spent fuel is usually stored near the reactor in a deep pool of water
prepared for the nuclear reactor. Here, the uranium is made into a solid called the spent fuel pool. The spent fuel cools and loses most of its
ceramic material and formed into small, barrel-shaped pellets. These radioactivity through radioactive decay. In three months, the spent fuel
ceramic fuel pellets can withstand very high temperatures, just like the will lose 50 percent of its radiation; in one year, 80 percent; in 10 years,
ceramic tiles on the space shuttle. Fuel pellets are about the size of a 90 percent. The spent fuel pool was intended as a temporary method
pencil eraser, yet each one can produce as much energy as 149 gallons for storing used nuclear fuel. However, there is no permanent storage
of oil. The pellets are sealed in 12-foot metal tubes called fuel rods. solution yet for spent fuel, and space in fuel pools is running out.
Finally, the fuel rods are bundled into groups called fuel assemblies. The nuclear industry has designed dry cask storage as another
temporary solution. Now, the spent fuel stays in the pool for five to seven
Nuclear Reactor
years. Then, it is moved elsewhere on the nuclear power plant site to be
The uranium fuel is now ready for use in a nuclear reactor. The reactor
stored in vaults or dry casks. Each of these methods for managing spent
is the center of the nuclear power plant. Fissioning takes place in the
nuclear fuel puts the fuel into airtight, steel and concrete structures.
reactor core. Surrounding the core of the reactor is a shell called the
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has stated that it is safe to
reactor pressure vessel. To prevent heat or radiation leaks, the reactor
store spent fuel on site for at least 120 years. Eventually, the spent fuel
core and the vessel are housed in an airtight containment building
will be reprocessed and/or transported to a permanent federal disposal
made of steel and concrete several feet thick.
site, although no permanent facilities exist at this time.
The reactor core houses about 200 fuel assemblies. Spaced between
the fuel assemblies are movable control rods. Control rods absorb Reprocessing
neutrons and slow down the nuclear reaction. Water also flows through Spent fuel contains both radioactive waste products and unused
the fuel assemblies and control rods to remove some of the heat from nuclear fuel. In fact, the vast majority of the nuclear fuel remains
the chain reaction. unused when the fuel rod must be replaced. Reprocessing separates
the unused nuclear fuel from the waste products so that it can be used
The nuclear reaction generates heat energy just as burning coal or oil
in a reactor again.
generates heat energy. Likewise, the heat is used to boil water into
steam that turns a steam generator to produce electricity. Afterward, Currently, American nuclear power plants store the spent fuel in spent
the steam is condensed back into water and cooled. Some plants use fuel poolswithout reprocessing. Reprocessing is more expensive than
a local body of water for cooling; others use a structure at the power making new fuel from uranium ore. If uranium prices rise significantly
plant called a cooling tower. or storage becomes a bigger problem, reprocessing may gain favor.
Other countries, like France, reprocess some of their spent nuclear fuel.
Spent (Used) Fuel Storage
Like most industries, nuclear power plants produce waste. One of the
main concerns about nuclear power plants is not the amount of waste Spent Fuel Repository
created, which is quite small compared to other industries, but the Most scientists believe the safest way to store nuclear waste is in rock
radioactivity of some of that waste. The fission process creates radioactive formations deep underground called geological repositories. In 1982,
waste products. After about three cycles, these waste products build up Congress passed the Nuclear Waste Policy Act. This law directed the
in the fuel rods, making the chain reaction more difficult to carry out. Department of Energy to site, design, construct, and operate Americas
Utility companies generally replace one-third of the fuel rods every 12 to first repository by 1998. The same law also established the Nuclear
18 months to keep power plants in continuous operation. Waste Fund to pay for a permanent repository. People who used
The fuel that is taken out of the reactor is called spent fuel. This used electricity from nuclear power plants would be charged 1/10 of one
fuel contains both radioactive waste products and unused fuel. The cent for each kilowatt-hour of electricity they used.
Uranium (Nuclear)
The Department of Energy (DOE) originally looked at Yucca Mountain,
Nevada, to be the site of a national spent nuclear fuel repository. In 2010,
What Is Radiation? the DOE withdrew its Yucca Mountain application with the intention of
pursuing new long-term storage solutions. A Blue Ribbon Commission
Radiation is energy released by atoms. It is very powerful and moves was formed in January 2010. The commissions job is to provide
very fast. Not all atoms are radioactive. Some atomsthe radioactive recommendations for managing used nuclear fuel in the United States.
oneshave more neutrons than protons, making them unstable. Until a final storage solution is found, nuclear power plants will continue
In a natural process called radioactive decay, these atoms give up storing used fuel at their sites in spent fuel pools or dry cask storage. In
their energy and nuclear particles and become stable. the meantime, a federal appeals court ruled in 2013 that the Department
Radiation cannot be touched, seen, or heard, but it is around us of Energy must stop collecting money for the Nuclear Waste Fund until a
all the time. Natural sources of radiation include cosmic rays from national repository site is chosen and construction has begun.
outer space, minerals in the ground, and radon in the air. Man-made
sources of radiation include the x-ray equipment used by doctors, Nuclear Energy Use
smoke detectors, old color television sets, and luminous dial clocks.
Nuclear energy is an important source of electricitythird after coal and
Nuclear waste is another kind of man-made radiation that usually
natural gasproviding 19.44 percent of the electricity in the U.S. today.
contains higher than natural concentrations of radioactive atoms.
There are 100 nuclear reactors in operation at 62 power plants in 31
Atoms emit radiation in the form of tiny particles, called alpha and states. Two new reactors are expected to come online in 2017 and 2018.
beta radiation, and in the form of rays, called gamma radiation.
Nuclear energy now provides about 10.9 percent of the worlds
Alpha radiation is the slowest moving type of radiation and can be
electricity. The U.S., France, Russia, South Korea, Germany, China, and
blocked by a sheet of paper or the outer layer of skin on your body.
Canada are world leaders. France generates over 75 percent of its
Beta radiation is faster and lighter than alpha radiation and can pass
electricity with nuclear power. Japan was a former leader in worldwide
through about an inch of water or skin. Gamma radiation is different
nuclear production, but has significantly decreased nuclear generation
from alpha and beta radiation because it is an electromagnetic
following the Fukushima incident (see page 45).
wave, just like radio waves, light, and x-rays. Gamma radiation has
no weight and moves much faster than alpha and beta radiation.
It takes several inches of lead, several feet of concrete, or a large Licensing Nuclear Power Plants
amount of water to stop gamma rays. It can easily pass through the
Nuclear power plants must obtain permits to start construction and
human body as medical x-rays do.
licenses to begin operation. Researchers conduct many studies to find
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation are called ionizing radiation the best site for a nuclear power plant. Detailed plans and reports
because they can produce electrically charged particles, called ions, are submitted to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Federal
in the things that they strike. (Visible light and radio waves are non- Government agency responsible for licensing nuclear power plants and
ionizing forms of radiation.) Ionizing radiation can be harmful to overseeing their construction and operation.
living things because it can damage or destroy cells. The used fuel
When the builders of a nuclear power plant apply for a license, local
from nuclear power plants is called high-level nuclear waste because
hearings are held so people can testify and air their concerns and
of its dangerous levels of radiation.
opinions. After a plant is built, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The unit used to measure radiation is the rem and millirem (1/1000 of places inspectors at the site to assure the plant is operating properly.
one rem). The average American is exposed to about 360 millirem a
year from natural and man-made sources, a harmless amount. About
260 millirem of this total comes from natural (background) sources
Economics of Nuclear Energy
of radiation such as soil, rocks, food, and water. Another 55 millirem Much of the cost of producing electricity at a nuclear plant comes not
comes from medical x-rays and about 10 millirem from a variety of from the fuel sourceuranium is a very small part of the operating cost
sources including mineral mining, burning fossil fuels, and consumer but from the cost of building and monitoring the plant. Nuclear plants
products such as old televisions and luminous dial clocks. Newer LCD have very high up-front costs because of the licensing, construction, and
or plasma televisions do not emit radiation. Radiation emitted from inspection requirements.
nuclear power plants accounts for only a tiny amount of exposure, If you consider only the fuel costs and operating costs, nuclear electricity
only about 0.01 millirem of exposure per year. is about two and a half cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). In comparison, the
cost of producing electric power from new coal plants is approximately
ALPHA BETA GAMMA three and a half cents per kWh.
Uranium is an abundant natural resource that is found all over the
world. Because uranium is an extremely concentrated fuel source, it
requires far less mining and transportation than other fuel sources for
the energy it furnishes. At current rates of use, uranium resources could

U.S. Nuclear Power Reactors, 2013
Nuclear Safety
The greatest potential risk from nuclear power plants is the
release of high-level radiation and radioactive material. In
the United States, plants are specifically designed to contain
radiation and radioactive material in the unlikely case of an
accident. Emergency plans are in place to alert and advise
nearby residents if there is a release of radiation into the local
environment. Nuclear power plants have harnessed the energy
from the atom for over 50 years in the United States.
In 1979, at the Three Mile Island facility in Pennsylvania, the
top half of the uranium fuel rods melted when coolant to one
reactor was cut off in error. A small amount of radioactive
material escaped into the immediate area before the error
Data: Energy Information Administration was discovered. Due to the safety and containment features of
the plant design, multiple barriers contained almost all of the
radiation and no injuries or fatalities occurred as a result of the
error. In response to the incident at Three Mile Island, the U.S.
States with the Largest Percentage of nuclear industry made upgrades to plant design and equipment
Electricity Generated by Nuclear Energy, 2013 requirements. Operator and staff training requirements were
strengthened, and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
73.76% took on a greater role in emergency preparedness and routine
VERMONT
inspections. Lessons learned from Three Mile Island were shared
56.72% with the international nuclear industry.
NEW HAMPSHIRE
In 1986, in the Ukraine (former Soviet Union) at the Chernobyl
51.15% nuclear power plant, two steam explosions blew the top off of
NEW JERSEY
Unit 4. A lack of containment structures and other design flaws
56.07% caused the release of a large amount of radioactive material into
SOUTH CAROLINA the local community. More than 200,000 people were evacuated
from their homes and about 200 workers were treated for
49.16% radiation sickness and burns. Several people were killed
ILLINOIS immediately or died shortly thereafter, with others suffering
Data: Energy Information Administration longer term medical ailments.
On March 11, 2011, an earthquake and resulting tsunami
last over 100 years. A process called breeding, which converts uranium struck Japan, killing and injuring tens of thousands of people.
into plutoniuman even better fuelcould extend uranium reserves for Prior to that time, Japan generated a large percentage of its
thousands of years. Breeder reactors were tested in France, but they are electricity from nuclear power. In the Fukushima prefecture
not planned for use in this country. (community), the Daiichi nuclear plant shut down as a result
of the earthquake but suffered extraordinary damage from
Nuclear Energy and the Environment the tsunami. This damage included the loss of back-up power
generation necessary to keep the reactor and the fuel rods
Nuclear power plants have very little impact on the environment. contained in it cool. The release of some radioactive material
Generating electricity from nuclear power produces no air pollution required that residents within a 12 mile radius of the plant be
because no fuel is burned. Most of the water used in the cooling process evacuated. Residents living between 12 and 19 miles from the
is recycled. affected power plant were asked to evacuate voluntarily. The
In the future, using nuclear energy may become an important way to Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, the International
reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels Atomic Energy Agency, health organizations, and the nuclear
and biomass. Carbon dioxide is considered the major greenhouse gas. energy industry continue to investigate the area and restore it
for residents. These groups are also monitoring the impact of the
People are using more and more electricity. Some experts predict that radiation released from the Daiichi nuclear power plant both on
we will have to use nuclear energy to produce the amount of electricity the local environment and around the world.
people need at a cost they can afford.
Nuclear energy remains a major source of electricity in the
Whether or not we should use nuclear energy to produce electricity has United States and around the globe. The safe operation of
become a controversial and sometimes highly emotional issue. nuclear power plants is important to quality of life and to the
health and safety of individuals worldwide.
Wind
Wind at a Glance, 2013
nd Breeze
What Is Wind? Classification: Major Uses:
renewable electricity
Wind is simply air in motion. It is produced by the uneven heating of the
Earths surface by energy from the sun. Since the Earths surface is made of U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:
very different types of land and water, it absorbs the suns radiant energy at 1.595 Q 1.595 Q
different rates. Much of this energy is converted into heat as it is absorbed 1.63% 1.95%
by land areas, bodies of water, and the air over these formations.
On the coast, for example, the land heats up more quickly than the
water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier,
cooler air over the water rushes in to take its place, creating a convection Wind is called a renewable energy source because wind will continually
current of moving air, or wind. In the same way, the large atmospheric be produced as long as the sun shines on the Earth. Today, wind energy
winds that circle the Earth are produced because the Earths surface near is mainly used to generate electricity.
the Equator receives more of the suns energy than the surface near the
North and South Poles.
The History of Wind
Throughout history, people have harnessed the wind in many ways.
Land Breeze Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind power to sail their
ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind their grain.
The earliest known windmills were in Persia (Iran). These early windmills
looked like large paddle wheels.
Centuries later, the people of Holland improved the basic design of the
windmill. They gave it propeller-type blades made of fabric sails and
invented ways for it to change direction so that it could continually face
the wind. Windmills helped Holland become one of the worlds most
industrialized countries by the 17th century.
American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, pump water,
Sea Breeze and cut wood. As early as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to
generate electricity in rural areas without electric service. When power
lines began to transport electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local
windmills were used less and less, though they can still be seen on some
Western ranches.
The oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy picture for the country
and the world. It created an environment more open to alternative
energy sources, paving the way for the re-entry of the windmill into the
American landscape to generate electricity.
Monitoring Wind Direction

A weather vane, or wind vane, is a device used to monitor the direction
Windmill Weather Vane Anemometer of the wind. It is usually a rotating, arrow-shaped instrument mounted
on a shaft high in the air. It is designed to point in the direction of the
source of the wind.
Wind direction is reported as the direction from which the wind blows,
not the direction toward which the wind moves. A north wind blows
from the north, toward the south.

Wind Velocity
It is important to know how fast the wind is blowing. Wind speed is
Sample Power Curve of a Wind Turbine
important because the amount of electricity that wind turbines can ELECTRICAL
ECTRICAL POWER OUTPUT
600
00 kW
generate is determined in large part by wind speed, or velocity. A
doubling of wind velocity from the low range to optimal range of a 500
00
turbine can result in eight times the amount of power produced. This
is a huge difference and helps wind companies decide where to site 00
400
wind turbines.
Wind speed can be measured with wind gauges and anemometers. 300
00
One type of anemometer is a device with three arms that spin on top of
200
00
a shaft. Each arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin
the shaft. The harder the wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device 00
100
inside counts the number of rotations per minute and converts that
figure into miles per hour (mph). A display on the anemometer shows 0
the speed of the wind. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind Velocity (mph)
Modern Wind Machines
Today, wind is harnessed and converted into electricity using turbines
called wind turbines. The amount of electricity that a turbine produces
depends on its size and the speed of the wind. Most wind turbines have
Wind Turbine Diagram
the same basic parts: blades, a tower, and a gear box. These parts work
Blade
together to convert the winds kinetic energy into motion energy that
generates electricity through the following steps:
1. The moving air spins the turbine blades.
2. The blades are attached to the turbine by a hub. The hub is
Rotor Hub Low-speed shaft
Low
connected to a low-speed shaft. When the blades spin, the shaft Gear box
turns.
High-speed shaft
3. The low-speed shaft is connected to a gear box. Inside, a large
slow-moving gear turns a small gear quickly.
4. The small gear turns another shaft at high speed.
Nacelle
de
5. The high-speed shaft is connected to a generator. As the shaft

Bla
turns the generator, it produces electricity.

6. The electric current is sent through cables down the turbine tower
to a transformer that changes the voltage of the current before it is Tower Generator
sent out on transmission lines.
Wind turbines are most efficient when they are built where winds blow
consistently, at least 8 miles per hour. Faster winds generate more
electricity, but if the wind speed is too fast, generation declines. High
above ground winds are stronger and steadier. Wind turbines today are Wind Power Plants
typically placed on top of towers that are about 80 meters (260 feet) tall.
Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines
There are many different types of wind turbines with different blade grouped together to produce large amounts of electricity. Choosing
shapes. Different types of turbines operate most efficiently at different the location of a wind farm is known as siting a wind farm. To build
wind speeds. While one turbine might operate efficiently in winds as a wind farm, wind speed and direction must be studied to determine
low as five miles per hour, another may need winds up to 45 miles per where to put the turbines. As a rule, wind speed increases with height
hour. and over open areas with no windbreaks. The site must have strong,
Wind turbines also come in different sizes, based on the amount of steady winds. Scientists measure the wind in an area for several years
electric power they can generate. Small turbines may produce only before choosing a site.
enough electricity to power a few appliances in one home. Large The best sites for wind farms are on hilltops, the open plains, through
turbines are often referred to as utility-scale because they generate mountain passes, and near the coasts of oceans or large lakes. Turbines
enough power for utilities, or electric companies, to sell. The largest are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing wind. Placing turbines
turbines in the U.S. produce 1.5 to 7.5 megawatts (MW), enough too far from each other wastes space. If turbines are too close together
electricity to power 375 to 1,875 homes. Large turbines are grouped they block each others wind.
together into wind farms, which provide bulk power to the electrical
grid.
Wind
There are many factors to consider when siting a wind farm, such as: Some wind farms are being constructed offshore in shallow water
What is the weather like? Do tornadoes, hurricanes, or ice storms where there is consistent wind speed much of the time. The wind blows
affect the area? Any of these may cause expensive damage to the wind stronger and steadier over water than land. There are no obstacles on
turbines. the water to block the wind. There is a lot of wind energy available
offshore. Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow waters off the
Is the area accessible for workers? Will new roads need to be built? coast of major lakes and oceans. While offshore turbines produce more
New roads are expensive to build. electricity than turbines on land, they cost more to build and operate.
Can the site be connected to the power grid? It is expensive to lay Offshore construction is difficult and expensive. The cables that carry the
long-distance transmission lines to get electricity to where people live, so electricity must be buried deep under the water.
wind farms should be located near the areas where electricity is needed. The first offshore wind farm in the U.S., Cape Wind Energy Project,
Will the wind farm impact wildlife in the area? Developers building a wind received final approval from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
farm need to get permission from the local community and government Regulation and Enforcement in April 2011. Construction has yet to
before building. There are strict building regulations to follow. begin on this project, but is expected to begin off the coast of Cape Cod
following the resolution of legal and logistical concerns.
Wind plants need a lot of land. Each turbine requires about 0.25 acres of
land. A wind power plant can cover hundreds of acres of land, plus each After a plant has been built, there are ongoing maintenance costs. In
tower should be five to ten turbine diameters away from each other, some states, these costs are offset by tax breaks given to power plants
depending on the number of turbines. On the plus side, most of the land that use renewable energy sources.
is still available for other uses. Ranchers, for example, can grow grain or Unlike coal or nuclear plants, many wind plants are not owned by public
graze cattle around the turbines once they have been installed. utilities. Instead they are owned and operated by business people who
OFFSHORE WIND FARM sell the electricity produced to electric utilities. These private companies
are known as independent power producers (IPPs). The Public Utility
Regulatory Policies Act, or PURPA, requires utility companies to purchase
electricity from independent power producers at rates that are fair.
Wind Resources
Where is the best place to build a wind plant? There are many good sites
for wind plants in the United States including California, Alaska, Hawaii,
the Great Plains, and mountainous regions. An average wind speed of 13
miles per hour (mph) is needed to convert wind energy into electricity
economically. Currently, wind generates electricity in 37 states. Texas
leads the nation, producing over one-fifth of the wind-generated
electricity in the country.
Average Wind Speed at 80 Meters Altitude

Faster than 9.5 m/s (faster than 21.3 mph)
7.6 to 9.4 m/s (17 to 21.2 mph) Top Wind States (Net Electricity Generation),
5.6 to 7.5 m/s (12.5 to 16.9 mph)
0 to 5.5 m/s (0 to 12.4 mph)
2013
2
IOWA 5
3 ILLINOIS
CALIFORNIA
4
OKLAHOMA
1
TEXAS
Data: National Renewable Energy Laboratory Data: Energy Information Administration

Wind Production Small Wind Systems
How much energy can we get from the wind? There are two terms to Wind turbines are not only on wind farms or offshore, they can also
describe basic electricity production: efficiency and capacity factor. be found on the property of private residences, small businesses, and
Efficiency refers to how much useful energy (electricity, in this case) we schools. A typical home uses approximately 900 kilowatt-hours of
can get from an energy source. A 100 percent energy efficient machine electricity each month. Many people are choosing to install small wind
would change all the energy put into it into useful energy. It would not turbines to lower or eliminate their electricity bills.
waste any energy. Siting a small wind turbine is similar to siting large turbines. Potential
There is no such thing as a 100 percent energy efficient machine. Some small wind users need to make sure that there is plenty of unobstructed
energy is always lost or wasted when one form of energy is converted to wind. The tip of the turbine blade needs to be at least nine meters (30
another. The lost energy is usually in the form of heat, which dissipates feet) higher than the tallest wind obstacle. Sometimes this can be a
into the air and cannot be used again economically. challenge for installing a residential wind turbine if local zoning laws
have height limitations. The turbine also requires open land between
How efficient are wind turbines? Wind turbines are just as efficient as
the turbine and the highest obstacle. Depending on the size of the
most other plants, such as coal plants. Wind turbines convert 25 to 45
turbine, this may require a 70 to 150 meter (250 to 500 foot) radius.
percent of the winds kinetic energy into electricity. A coal-fired power
Specific siting recommendations can be obtained from the turbine
plant converts about 35 percent of the chemical energy in coal into
manufacturer.
usable electricity.
Capacity refers to the capability of a power plant to produce electricity.
A power plant with a 100 percent capacity rating would run all day, Wind Economics
every day at full power. There would be no down time for repairs or On the economic front, there is a lot of good news for wind energy. First,
refueling, an impossible goal for any plant. Coal plants typically have a a wind plant is less expensive to construct than a conventional coal or
65 to 75 percent capacity factor since they can run day or night, during nuclear plant. Wind plants can simply add wind turbines as electricity
any season of the year. demand increases.
Wind power plants are different from power plants that burn fuel. Wind Second, the cost of producing electricity from the wind has dropped
plants depend on the availability of wind, as well as the speed of the dramatically. Electricity generated by the wind cost 80 cents per kWh
wind. Therefore, wind turbines cannot operate 24 hours a day, 365 days in 1980, but now costs about five cents per kWh or lower. New turbines
a year. are lowering the cost even more.
A wind turbine at a typical wind farm operates 65 to 90 percent of the Installing a wind turbine on a residential property can be expensive.
time, but usually at less than full capacity because the wind speed is The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 created energy
not at optimum levels. Therefore, its capacity factor is 30 to 35 percent. tax incentives to encourage large and small companies, along with
Economics also plays a large part in the capacity of wind turbines. individuals, to make energy improvements and invest in renewable
Turbines can be built that have much higher capacity factors, but it is energy. Included in this bill is an extension and modification to the
not economical to do so. The decision is based on electricity output per Residential Energy Efficient Property Credit. Through December 31,
dollar of investment. 2016, individuals can receive a 30 percent tax credit for installing a
small wind system, up to 100 kilowatts. Some states and utilities offer
One 2.5 megawatt turbine can produce about 7.7 million kilowatt-
additional incentives to residents to install renewable energy systems.
hours (kWh) of electricity a year. That is enough electricity for more
than 700 homes per year. In this country, wind turbines produce 167.7
billion kWh of energy a year. Wind energy provides 4.13 percent of Wind Energy and the Environment
the nations electricity, which is enough electricity to serve at least 15 Wind energy offers a viable, economical alternative to conventional
million households. power plants in many areas of the country. Wind is a clean fuel; wind
Wind is the fastest growing energy technology in the world today. In farms produce no air or water pollution because no fuel is burned.
the last four years, wind capacity worldwide has nearly doubled. In The most serious environmental drawbacks to wind turbines may be
2013 China was the largest installer of new wind capacity. The United their negative effect on wild bat populations and the visual impact
States, Germany, Spain, and India join China as the countries with the on the landscape. To some, the glistening blades of windmills on the
most installed wind capacity. horizon are an eyesore; to others, theyre a beautiful alternative to
Investment in wind energy is increasing because its cost has come conventional power plants.
down and the technology has improved. Wind is now one of the most
competitive sources for new generation. Another hopeful sign for the
wind industry is consumer demand for green pricing. Many utilities
around the country now allow customers to voluntarily choose to pay
more for electricity generated by renewable sources.
Climate Change Major Gases in the Atmosphere (Dry)
78.08% NITROGEN
Earths Atmosphere 20.95% OXYGEN
Our Earth is surrounded by layers of gases called the atmosphere. 0.93% ARGON
Without these gases in the atmosphere, the Earth would be so cold that
almost nothing could live. It would be a frozen planet. Our atmosphere 0.03% CO2
keeps us alive and warm. 0.01% CH4, N20, 03, CFCs, FLUORINATED GASES
The atmosphere is made up of many different gases. Most of the atmosphere Note: These percentages represent atmospheric composition for a completely dry
atmosphere. Water vapor is nearly always present, but concentration varies based
(99 percent) is comprised of oxygen and nitrogen gases. Less than half of on location. Atmospheric composition changes with the addition of water vapor.
one percent is a mixture of heat-trapping gases. These heat-trapping gases Data: NASA
are mostly water vapor mixed with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
and F-gases. These are called greenhouse gases (GHG).

Water vapor (H2O) is produced naturally through evaporation. It is
the most abundant and important GHG. Human activities have little production. The presence of F-gases in the atmosphere is due to human
influence on the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere. activities. Certain types of F-gases (CFCs and HCFCs) have been or will
However, a warmer climate increases evaporation and allows the be phased out internationally, due to their long atmospheric lifetimes
atmosphere to hold higher concentrations of water vapor. and their role in ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced naturally through plant, animal, and
human respiration and volcanic eruptions. Carbon dioxide is mostly Sunlight and the Atmosphere
produced through human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels Rays of sunlight (radiant energy) shine down on the Earth every day.
and biomass, industrial processes, and deforestation. Some of these rays bounce off of molecules in the atmosphere and are

Methane (CH4) is produced naturally when organic matter decays reflected back into space. Some rays are absorbed by molecules in the
during wildfires, and from animals. Human activities are responsible for atmosphere and are turned into thermal energy.
methane emissions from the production and transport of fossil fuels, About half of the radiant energy passes through the atmosphere
managing livestock waste, and landfill decay. and reaches the Earth. When the sunlight hits the Earth, most of it is

Nitrous oxide (N2O) comes from the bacterial breakdown of nitrogen converted into heat. The Earth absorbs some of this heat; the rest flows
in soil and the oceans. Human activities contribute to nitrous oxide back out toward the atmosphere. This outward flow of heat keeps the
emissions through agricultural and industrial activities, the combustion Earth from getting too warm.
of fossil fuels, and sewage treatment. When this out-flowing heat reaches the atmosphere, most of it is

Tropospheric, or ground-level, ozone (O3) is produced in the absorbed. It cant pass through the atmosphere as readily as sunlight.
atmosphere when chemicals from human activities interact with Most of the heat becomes trapped and flows back toward the Earth
sunlight. These emissions are from automobiles, power plants, and again. Most people think it is sunlight that heats the Earth, but actually it
other industrial sources. is this contained heat that provides most of the warmth.

F-gases are synthetically sourced substances, also known as fluorinated
gases. This group of chemicals is made of bonded halogen and carbon The Greenhouse Effect
atoms and depending on the combination, can have a variety of uses,
We call the trapping of thermal energy by the atmosphere the
including insecticides, coolants, solvents, propellants, and electricity
greenhouse effect. A greenhouse is a building made of clear glass or
GREENHOUSE plastic in which we can grow plants in cold weather. The glass allows
the sunlight to pass through, and it turns into heat when it hits objects
inside. The heat becomes trapped. The radiant energy can pass through
the glass; the thermal energy cannot.
What is in the atmosphere that allows radiant energy to pass through but
traps thermal energy? It is the presence of greenhouse gasesmostly
carbon dioxide and methane. These gases are very good at absorbing
heat in the atmosphere, where it can flow back toward Earth.
According to studies conducted by NASA, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, and many other researchers around the world,
the concentration of carbon dioxide has increased over 40 percent since
the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. Climate change experts
have concluded that this increase is due primarily to the expanding use
of fossil fuels.
In addition to the increase in the level of carbon dioxide, there has also
been a substantial rise in the amount of methane in the atmosphere.
While there is much less methane in the atmosphere than carbon
dioxide, it is 21 times more effective than carbon dioxide at trapping
The Greenhouse Effect
heat. However, it does not remain intact as long in the atmosphere, only
Radiant energy (light rays) shines on the Earth. Some radiant
about 12 years.
energy reaches the atmosphere and is reflected back into
Fluorinated gases are the best GHGs at trapping heat. While their space. Some radiant energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and
concentrations are very low, they are 140 to 23,900 times more is transformed into thermal energy (dark arrows).
effective at absorbing heat than carbon dioxide. Fluorinated gases have
extremely long atmospheric lifetimes, up to 50,000 years. In addition, Half of the radiant energy that is directed at Earth passes
scientists expect concentrations of fluorinated gases to increase faster through the atmosphere and reaches the Earth, where it is
than other GHGs. transformed into thermal energy.
The Earth absorbs some of this thermal energy.

Global Climate Change
Most of the thermal energy flows back into the air. The
Increased levels of greenhouse gases are trapping more heat in the
atmosphere traps the thermal energy.
atmosphere. This phenomenon is called global climate change or
global warming. According to NASA, the average temperature of Very little of the thermal energy escapes back into space.
the Earth has risen by about 0.83C (1.4 F) since 1880. This increase
in average temperature has been the major cause of a 17 centimeter The trapped thermal energy flows back toward the Earth.
rise in sea level over that time period, as well as an increase in extreme
precipitation events. Sea levels are rising because sea water expands as The Greenhouse Effect
it warms and land-based ice is melting in the Arctic, Antarctic, and in
SUN
glaciers. Regions such as the Gulf Coast of the United States and several
Pacific islands have already experienced losses to their coastlines.
Recent research has also linked the increased severity of hurricanes and s p he re
typhoons to global warming. Atmo
RA
Climate scientists use sophisticated computer models to make DI
AN
predictions about the future effects of climate change. Because of TE
NE
the increased level of carbon dioxide and other GHGs already in the RG
atmosphere, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Y
forecasts at least another 2.5 degree Fahrenheit temperature increase
over the next century. The climate models predict more floods in some HEAT
places and droughts in others, along with more extreme weather, such
as powerful storms and hurricanes. They predict an additional rise in
sea level of up to two feet in some areas, which would lead to the loss
HEAT
of low-lying coastal areas. EARTH
These predictions have led many scientists to call for all countries to
act now to lower the amount of carbon dioxide they emit into the
atmosphere. Countries around the world are working to determine
ways to lower the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, while
minimizing negative impacts on the global economy. countries. These nations argue that since current climate change was
primarily caused by emissions from the developed, industrialized
International Awareness countries, those countries should bear the responsibility of lowering
emissions. They see limits on GHGs as a limit to their development and
Climate change is impacting every person around the globe, so their efforts to bring millions of their citizens out of poverty. While the
climate change is an international issue. There has been a history developed nations accept that they need to curb their emissions, they
of the international community coming together to try and make feel that developing nations will have an unfair economic advantage
plans to combat rising levels of greenhouse gases. In 1997, the Kyoto if they are not regulated. An international conference in Copenhagen,
Protocol was the first step in coming to an international agreement Denmark in 2009 ended without a strong agreement on how to regulate
on greenhouse gas levels. The United States did not ratify the Kyoto emissions globally. Many, but not all, countries made commitments to
Protocol because it did not include targets or timetables outlined for specific GHG targets, but there is no international system to monitor
developing nations as well as industrialized nations. or regulate their efforts. Meetings are continuing in hopes of crafting a
This agreement expired in 2012 and, in an attempt to continue strong international treaty. In 2011, the United Nations hosted climate
international efforts, world leaders are meeting periodically. One of talks in Durban, South Africa. Participating countries agreed to come to
the main roadblocks is regulating GHG emissions from developing a legally binding agreement by the close of 2015.
Hydrogen
What Is Hydrogen? Every day we use more fuel, principally coal, to produce electricity.
Electricity is a secondary source of energy. Secondary sources of energy
Hydrogen is the simplest element known to exist. An atom of hydrogen energy carriersare used to store, move, and deliver energy in an
has one proton and one electron. Hydrogen has the highest energy easily usable form. We convert energy to electricity because it is easier for
content of any common fuel by weight, but the lowest energy content us to transport and use. Try splitting an atom, building a dam, or burning
by volume. It is the lightest element and a gas at normal temperature coal to run your television. Energy carriers make life easier.
and pressure.
Hydrogen is one of the most promising energy carriers. It is a high
Hydrogen is also the most abundant gas in the universe, and the source efficiency, low polluting fuel that can be used for transportation, heating,
of all the energy we receive from the sun. The sun is basically a giant and power generation in places where it is difficult to use electricity.
ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In a process called fusion, hydrogen
nuclei combine to form one helium atom, releasing energy as radiation.
How Is Hydrogen Made?
This radiant energy is our most abundant energy source. It gives us light
and heat and makes plants grow. It causes the wind to blow and the rain Since hydrogen gas is not found on Earth, it must be manufactured. There
to fall. It is stored as chemical energy in fossil fuels. Most of the energy we are several ways to do this. Industry produces the hydrogen it needs by
use originally came from the sun. a process called steam reforming. High-temperature steam separates
hydrogen from the carbon atoms in methane. The hydrogen produced
Hydrogen as a gas (H2), however, doesnt exist naturally on Earth. It is by this method isnt used as a fuel, but for industrial processes. This is
found only in compound form. Combined with oxygen, it is water (H2O). the most cost-effective way to produce hydrogen today, but it uses fossil
Combined with carbon, it forms organic compounds such as methane fuels both in the manufacturing process and as the heat source.
(CH4), coal, and petroleum. It is found in all growing thingsbiomass.
Hydrogen is also one of the most abundant elements in the Earths crust. Another way to make hydrogen is by electrolysissplitting water
into its basic elementshydrogen and oxygen. Electrolysis involves
Most of the energy we use today comes from fossil fuels. Only about passing an electric current through water to separate the atoms
nine percent comes from renewable energy sources. Usually renewable (2H2O + electricity = 2H2 + O2). Hydrogen collects at the cathode and
sources are cleaner, and can be replenished in a short period of time. oxygen at the anode.
Hydrogen can come from either renewable or nonrenewable resources.
Hydrogen produced by electrolysis is extremely pure, and electricity
from renewable sources can power the process, but it is very expensive at
this time. Today, hydrogen from electrolysis is 12 times more costly than
natural gas and 1.5 times more costly than gasoline per Btu.
Hydrogen Life Cycle On the other hand, water is abundant and renewable, and technological
Primary Renewable Energy Source advances in renewable electricity could make electrolysis a more
attractive way to produce hydrogen in the future.
Hydrogen Production There are also several experimental methods of producing hydrogen.
Photoelectrolysis uses sunlight to split water molecules into its
Hydrogen
Water components. A semiconductor absorbs the energy from the sun and
Oxygen acts as an electrode to separate the water molecules.
Storage and In biomass gasification, wood chips and agricultural wastes are super-
Environment heated until they turn into hydrogen and other gases. Biomass can also
Transport
be used to provide the heat.
Oxygen
Water Scientists have also discovered that some algae and bacteria produce
Hydrogen hydrogen under certain conditions, using sunlight as their energy
source. Experiments are underway to find ways to induce these microbes
Hydrogen Utilization
to produce hydrogen efficiently.
Useful Energy Nearly every region of the country (and the world) has one or more
resources that can be used to produce hydrogen. It can be produced at
large central facilities or at small distributed facilities for local use. One of
its main advantages is its flexibility.

Hydrogen Uses SPACE SHUTTLE
The U.S. hydrogen industry currently produces almost 4 million cubic
feet of hydrogen every day. Most of this hydrogen is used for industrial
applications such as refining, treating metals, and food processing.
Liquid hydrogen is the fuel that once propelled the space shuttle and
other rockets. Hydrogen fuel cells powered the shuttles electrical
systems, producing pure water, which was used by the crew as drinking
water.
In the future, however, hydrogen will join electricity as an important
energy carrier, since it can be made safely from renewable energy
sources and is virtually non-polluting. It can also be used as a fuel
for zero-emissions vehicles, to heat homes and offices, to produce
electricity, and to fuel aircraft. Cost is the major obstacle.
The first widespread use of hydrogen will probably be as an additive
to transportation fuels. Hydrogen can be combined with compressed
natural gas (CNG) to increase performance and reduce pollution.
Adding 20 percent hydrogen to CNG can reduce nitrogen oxide (NOX) NASA once used hydrogen to fuel the space shuttle. Hydrogen
emissions by 50 percent in todays engines. An engine converted to batteriescalled fuel cellspowered the shuttles electrical systems.
burn pure hydrogen produces only water and minor amounts of NOX
as exhaust. Hydrogen Fuel Cell
A few hydrogen-powered vehicles are on the road today, but it will be A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte
some time before you can walk into your local car dealer and drive away membrane sandwiched between
two catalyst-coated electrodes ELECTRICITY OUT
in one. Today 13 hydrogen fuel stations are operating in 3 states, but
(anode and cathode). Oxygen (air)
not all are open to the public. With 11 stations, California has 85 percent passes through one electrode and
of the nations hydrogen fuel stations. hydrogen through the other,
Can you imagine how huge the task would be to quickly change the generating electricity, water, and
gasoline-powered transportation system we have today? Just think of
heat.
the thousands of filling stations across the country and the production
and distribution systems that serve them. Change will come slowly to
MEMBRANE
C AT H O D E
this industry, but hydrogen is a versatile fuel; it can be used in many
ANODE
HYDROGEN IN AIR IN
ways.
Fuel cells (batteries) provide another use option, just as they were
utilized by NASA. Fuel cells basically reverse electrolysishydrogen
and oxygen are combined to produce electricity. Hydrogen fuel cells
are very efficient and produce only water as a by-product, but they are
expensive to build.
With technological advances, small fuel cells could someday power
electric vehicles and larger fuel cells could provide electricity in remote WATER AND HEAT OUT
areas. Because of the cost, hydrogen will not produce electricity on a
wide scale in the near future. It may, though, be added to natural gas to Future of Hydrogen
reduce emissions from existing power plants.
Before hydrogen can make a significant contribution to the U.S. energy
As the production of electricity from renewables increases, so will the picture, many new systems must be designed and built. There must
need for energy storage and transportation. Many of these sources be large production and storage facilities and a distribution system.
especially solar and windare located far from population centers Consumers must have the technology to use it.
and produce electricity only part of the time. Hydrogen may be the
The use of hydrogen raises concerns about safety. Hydrogen is a volatile
perfect carrier for this energy. It can store the energy and distribute it to
gas with high energy content. Early skeptics had similar concerns about
wherever it is needed.
natural gas and gasolineeven about electricity. People were afraid to
let their children too near the first light bulbs. As hydrogen technologies
develop, safety issues will be addressed. Hydrogen can be produced,
stored, and used as safely as other fuels.
As a domestically produced fuel, hydrogen has the potential to reduce
our dependence on foreign oil and provide clean, renewable energy
for the future.
Electricity
Electricity at a Glance, 2013
Secondary Source of Energy, Energy Carrier
Major Energy Sources Used to Generate Electricity:
coal, natural gas, uranium, hydropower
The Nature of Electricity U.S. Energy Consumption:

39.23%
Electricity is a little different from the other sources of energy that
Net U.S. Electricity Generation:
we talk about. Unlike coal, petroleum, or solar energy, electricity is a
4,058.209 billion kWh
secondary source of energy. That means we must use other primary
sources of energy, such as coal or wind, to make electricity. It also means Major Uses of Electricity:
we cant classify electricity as a renewable or nonrenewable form of manufacturing, heating, cooling, lighting
energy. The energy source we use to make electricity may be renewable
or nonrenewable, but the electricity is neither. Data: Energy Information Administration
Making Electricity
Almost all electricity made in the United States is generated by large,
Moving Electricity
central power plants. There are about 7,000 power plants in the U.S. We are using more and more electricity every year. One reason that
Most power plants use coal, nuclear fission, natural gas, or other energy electricity is used by so many consumers is that its easy to move from
sources to superheat water into steam in a boiler. The very high pressure one place to another. Electricity can be produced at a power plant and
of the steam (its 75 to 100 times normal atmospheric pressure) turns moved long distances before it is used. Lets follow the path of electricity
the blades of a turbine. (A turbine turns the linear motion of the steam from a power plant to a light bulb in your home.
into circular motion.) The blades are connected to a generator, which First, the electricity is generated at the power plant. Next, it goes by wire
houses a large magnet surrounded by coiled copper wire. The blades to a transformer that steps up the voltage. A transformer steps up
spin the magnet rapidly, rotating the magnet inside the coil producing the voltage of electricity from the 2,300 to 22,000 volts produced by a
an electric current. generator to as much as 765,000 volts (345,000 volts is typical). Power
The steam, which is still very hot but now at normal pressure, is piped companies step up the voltage because less electricity is lost along the
to a condenser, where it is cooled into water by passing it through pipes lines when the voltage is high.
circulating over a large body of water or cooling tower. The water then The electricity is then sent on a nationwide network of transmission
returns to the boiler to be used again. Power plants can capture some lines made of aluminum. Transmission lines are the huge tower lines
of the heat from the cooling steam. In old plants, the heat was simply you may see when youre on a highway connected by tall power towers.
wasted. The lines are interconnected, so should one line fail, another will take
Not all power plants use thermal energy to generate electricity. over the load.
Hydropower plants and wind farms use motion energy to turn turbines, Step-down transformers located at substations along the lines reduce
turning a generator, which produces electricity. Photovoltaic plants use the voltage to 12,000 volts. Substations are small buildings in fenced-
radiant energy to generate electricity directly. in areas that contain the switches, transformers, and other electrical
equipment. Electricity is then carried over distribution lines that bring
electricity to your home. Distribution lines may either be overhead or
U.S. Electricity Production, 2013 underground. The overhead distribution lines are the electric lines that
RENEWABLES you see along streets.
URANIUM
19.44% 12.77% Before electricity enters your house, the voltage is reduced again at
HYDROPOWER, 6.52% another transformer, usually a large gray can mounted on an electric
NATURAL GAS
27.44% WIND, 4.13% pole. This neighborhood transformer reduces the electricity to 240 and
OTHER 120 volts, the amount needed to run the appliances in your home.
NONRENEWABLES BIOMASS, 1.48%
Electricity enters your house through a three-wire cable. The live wires
1.26%
are then brought from the circuit breaker or fuse box to power outlets
COAL GEOTHERMAL, 0.41%
and wall switches in your home. An electric meter measures how much
39.08% SOLAR, 0.23% electricity you use so the utility company can bill you. The time it takes
*Total does not add to 100% due to independent rounding
for electricity to travel through these stepsfrom power plant to the
light bulb in your homeis a tiny fraction of one second.

Transporting Electricity Transmission lines
carry electricity
Power plant long distances
Distribution lines
generates electricity carry electricity
to houses
Power
Transformer Tower Step-down
steps up voltage transformer Neighborhood transformer
for transmission reduces voltage on pole
(substation) steps down voltage
before entering house
Power to the People

Everyone knows how important electricity is to our lives. All it takes is hydropower and can be put into operation in minutes. The more this
a power failure to remind us how much we depend on it. Life would be equipment is used, the higher our utility bills. By managing the use of
very different without electricityno more instant light from flicking a electricity during peak hours, we can help keep costs down.
switch, no more television, no more refrigerators, or stereos, or video The use of power pools is another way electric companies make their
games, or hundreds of other conveniences we take for granted. We systems more reliable. Power pools link electric utilities together so
depend on it, business depends on it, and industry depends on it. You they can share power as it is needed. A power failure in one system
could almost say the American economy runs on electricity. can be covered by a neighboring power company until the problem
It is the responsibility of electric utility companies to make sure is corrected. There are eight regional power pool networks in North
electricity is there when we need it. They must consider reliability, America. The key is to share power rather than lose it.
capacity, baseload, peak demand, and power pools. The reliability of U.S. electric service is excellent, usually better than 98
Reliability is the capability of a utility company to provide electricity percent. In some countries, electric power may go out several times a
to its customers 100 percent of the time. A reliable electric service is day for several minutes or several hours at a time. Power outages in
without blackouts or brownouts. To ensure uninterrupted service, laws the United States are usually caused by such random occurrences as
require most utility companies to have 15 to 20 percent more capacity lightning, a tree limb falling on electric wires, or a fallen utility pole.
than they need to meet peak demand. This means a utility company
whose peak demand is 12,000 megawatts (MW) must have 14,000 MW
of installed electrical capacity. This ensures that there will be enough
electricity to meet demand even if equipment were to break down on
Peak Demand
a hot summer afternoon.
Electricity use
Capacity is the total quantity of electricity a utility company has on-line
and ready to deliver when people need it. A large utility company may
operate several power plants to generate electricity for its customers. A
utility company that has seven 1,000 MW plants, eight 500 MW plants, BASELINE
and 30 100 MW plants has a total capacity of 14,000 MW.
Baseload power is the electricity generated by utility companies MORNING AFTERNOON EVENING NIGHT
around-the-clock, using the most inexpensive energy sourcesusually 6 a.m. to 12 p.m. 12p.m. to 6 p.m. 6 p.m. to 12 a.m. 12 a.m. to 6 a.m.
coal, nuclear, and hydropower. Baseload power stations usually run at
Peak demand, also called peak load, is the maximum load
full or near capacity.
during a specified period of time.
When many people want electricity at the same time, there is a peak
demand. Power companies must be ready for peak demands so there
is enough power for everyone. During the days peak, between 12:00
noon and 6:00 p.m., additional generators must be used to meet
the demand. These peaking generators run on natural gas, diesel, or
Electricity
Demand-Side Management Generating Electricity

Demand-side management is all the things a utility company does to
affect how much people use electricity and when. Its one way electric Three basic types of power plants generate most of the electricity
companies manage peak load periods. In 2012, through energy in the United Statesfossil fuel, nuclear, and hydropower. There are
efficiency and load management, electric utilities saved over 139 billion also wind, geothermal, waste-to-energy, and solar power plants,
killowatt-hours. but together they generate only 6.25 percent of the electricity
produced in the United States.
We can reduce the quantity of electricity we use by using better
conservation measures and by using more efficient electrical appliances Fossil Fuel Power Plants: Fossil fuel plants burn coal, natural gas,
and equipment. or petroleum. These plants use the chemical energy in fossil fuels to
superheat water into steam, which drives a steam generator. Fossil
Whats the difference between conservation and efficiency? Conserving
fuel plants are sometimes called thermal power plants because
electricity is turning off the water in the shower while you shampoo your
they use heat to generate electricity. Coal is the fossil fuel of choice
hair. Using electricity more efficiently is installing a better showerhead
for most electric companies, producing 39.08 percent of total U.S.
to decrease water flow.
electricity. Natural gas plants produce 27.44 percent. Petroleum
Demand-side management can also affect the timing of electrical produces 0.66 percent of the electricity in the U.S.
demand. Some utility companies give rebates to customers who allow
Nuclear Power Plants: Nuclear plants generate electricity much as
the utility company to turn off their hot water heaters or set their
fossil fuel plants do, except that the furnace is a reactor and the fuel
thermostats (via radio transmitters) during extreme peak demand
is uranium. In a nuclear plant, a reactor splits uranium atoms into
periods, which occur perhaps 12 times a year.
smaller elements, producing a great amount of heat in the process.
The heat is used to superheat water into high-pressure steam,
Americas Electric Grid which drives a turbine generator. Like fossil fuel plants, nuclear
When you walk into a room and flip the switch on the wall, the lights power plants are thermal plants because they use heat to generate
come right on, just as you expected. But did you ever think how the electricity. Nuclear energy produces 19.44 percent of the electricity
electricity got to your house to give you the power for those lights and in the U.S.
the many electrical appliances and products you use at home, ranging Hydropower Plants: Hydropower plants use the gravitational force
from your DVD player to your refrigerator? of falling water to generate electricity. Hydropower is the cheapest
Today there are more than 3,200 electric distribution utilities and about way to produce electricity in this country, but there are few places
19,000 generating units all over America that produce and distribute where new dams can be built economically. There are many existing
electricity to homes, businesses, and other energy users. dams that could be retrofitted with turbines and generators.
Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because it is
To get electricity to its users, there are more than 160,000 miles of high-
renewed continuously during the natural water cycle. Hydropower
voltage electric transmission lines across the U.S. They take the electricity
produces five to ten percent of the electricity in the U.S., depending
produced at power plants to transformers that step up the voltage to
upon the amount of precipitation. In 2013, hydropower generated
reduce energy loss while it travels along the grid to where it is going to
6.52 percent of U.S. electricity.
be used.
TRANSMISSION LINES
The Continental U.S. Electric Grid

These transmission and distribution lineswhether they are located on importance of the countrys electric grid, many new governmental
poles above ground or buried undergroundmake up the most visible regulations increase the time needed to plan and install additional
part of what is called the electric grid. The grid consists of the power equipment to meet todays demands.
generators, the power lines that transmit electricity to your home, the In the past few years, many parts of the country have experienced brief
needed components that make it all work, your family, and the other brown outs or longer periods of power outages, increasing public
homes and businesses in your community that use electricity. concern about the future of the system we use today. Think about this:
The process starts at the power plant that serves your community, and right now, our electric grid is actually 98 percent reliable, meaning the
ends with wires running from the distribution lines into your home. power is usually there when we want it. But that very tiny percentage
Outside your home is a meter with a digital read-out or an analog of time when the grid isnt working at its full capability costs consumers
series of dials that measure the flow of energy to determine how much an estimated $119 billion each year, including stoppages in automated
electricity you are using. Of course, there are many more parts to this equipment, computers that crash, and even the brief interruptions in
process, ranging from substations and wires for different phases of the flow of energy and information in todays digital world that affect
current to safety devices and redundant lines along the grid to ensure our work and our leisure activities.
that power is available at all times. You can see why the U.S. National For many years, Americas electric grid has been a shining example of
Academy of Engineering has called Americas electric grid the greatest our technology and ability, and a major part of the countrys prosperity,
engineering achievement of the 20th century. comfort, and security. To meet the countrys growing electricity needs
While this basic system of electricity transmission has worked well today and in the future, changes need to be made to the grid and the
since the late 1880s, the increase in electric use in recent years has put a equipment it uses.
strain on the countrys electric grid. The grid we use today was designed
and put into place in the 1950s and 1960s, with much of the equipment
planned to handle far smaller electrical use. More than 50 years later, a
Economics of Electricity
great deal of the equipment is reaching the end of its lifespan. At the How much does electricity cost? The answer depends on the cost to
same time, our electricity use has increased tremendously, putting a generate the power (58 percent), the cost of transmission (11 percent),
huge load on the system. Just look around your home at the TV sets, and local distribution (31 percent). The average cost of electricity is
DVD players, computers, gaming consoles, lamps, air conditioners, and about twelve cents per kWh (12.12) for residential customers, about
all the other appliances found in the typical home today, and youll ten cents (10.29) for commercial custmers, and a little under seven
see a tremendous demand for electricity far above the basic lights and cents (6.82) for industrial customers. A major key to cost is the fuel
products used in homes back when todays system was set up. used to generate the power. Electricity produced from natural gas,
for example, costs more than electricity produced from uranium or
The surge in demand for electricity has far exceeded the creation of new
hydropower. Location plays a part in electricity costs. Hawaii and New
transmission facilities and equipment over the years. Compounding
York residents can pay 37 cents and 19 cents per kWh, while residents
the problem is the fact that about two-thirds of the electricity produced
of Washington State pay only 9 cents per kWh.
in our power plants never reaches potential users because of losses in
energy conversion and transmission. Because of the complexity and Another consideration is how much it costs to build a power plant. A
plant may be very expensive to construct, but the cost of the fuel can
make it competitive to other plants, or vice versa. Nuclear power plants,
Average Residential Price for Electricity, for example, are very expensive to build, but their fueluranium
2013 is very cheap. Coal-fired plants, on the other hand, are much less
expensive to build than nuclear plants, but their fuelcoalis more
PRICE PER KILOWATT-HOUR
expensive.
< 9.5 / kWh 11 to 12 / kWh
9.5 to 11 / kWh 12 to 15 / kWh > 15.00 / kWh When calculating costs, a plants efficiency must also be considered. In
theory, a 100 percent energy efficient machine would change all the
energy put into the machine into useful work, not wasting a single
WASH. N.H. unit of energy. But converting a primary energy source into electricity
MONT. N.D. MINN. VT.
MAINE involves a loss of usable energy, usually in the form of thermal energy.
ORE. N.Y. MASS.
S.D. WIS. In general, it takes three units of fuel to produce one unit of electricity
IDAHO MICH. R.I.
WYO.
IOWA PA. CONN. from a thermal power plant.
NEV. NEB. IND. OHIO N.J.
UTAH ILL. W.VA. VA.
COLO. DEL. In 1900, most power plants were only four percent efficient. That
KAN. MO. KY.
N.C. MD. means they wasted 96 percent of the fuel used to generate electricity.
TENN.
N.M. OKLA. ARK.
ALA. S.C. Todays thermal power plants are over eight times more efficient with
CALIF. ARIZ.
MISS. GA. efficiency ratings around 35 percent. Still, this means 65 percent of the
LA.
TEXAS initial thermal energy used to make electricity is lost. You can see this
FLA. waste heat in the clouds of steam pouring out of giant cooling towers
ALASKA on newer power plants. A modern coal plant burns about 4,500 tons of
coal each day, and about two-thirds of the energy in this is lost when
WASHINGTON, D.C. the chemical energy in coal is converted into thermal energy, then into
HAWAII electrical energy. A hydropower plant, on the other hand, is about 90
Data: Energy Information Administration percent efficient at converting the kinetic energy of moving water into
electricity.
Electricity
But thats not all. Between three and eight percent of the electricity As a result, the price of a kilowatt-hour of electricity to residential
generated at a power plant must be used to run equipment. And customers varied widely among the states and utilities, from a high of 16
then, even after the electricity is sent over electrical lines, another cents to a low of four cents. The price for large industrial users varied, too.
seven percent of the electrical energy is lost in transmission. Of course, The types of generating plants, the cost of fuel, taxes, and environmental
consumers pay for all the electricity generated, lost or not. regulations were some of the factors contributing to the price variations.
The cost of electricity is affected by what time of day it is used. During In the 1970s, the energy business changed dramatically in the aftermath
a hot summer afternoon from noon to 6 p.m., there is a peak of usage of the Arab oil embargos, the advent of nuclear power, and stricter
when air-conditioners are working harder to keep buildings cool. Electric environmental regulations. Independent power producers and
companies charge their industrial and commercial customers more for cogenerators began making a major impact on the industry. Large
electricity during these peak load periods because they must turn to consumers began demanding more choice in providers.
more expensive ways to generate power. In 1992, Congress passed the Energy Policy Act to encourage the
development of a competitive electric market with open access to
Deregulation and Competition transmission facilities. It also reduced the requirements for new non-
Beginning in the 1930s, most electric utilities in the U.S. operated under utility generators and independent power producers.
state and federal regulations in a defined geographical area. Only one The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) began changing
utility provided service to any one area. Consumers could not choose rules to encourage competition at the wholesale level. Utilities and
their electricity provider. In return, the utilities had to provide service to private producers could, for the first time, market electricity across state
every consumer, regardless of profitability. lines to other utilities.
Under this model, utilities generated the power, transmitted it to the
point of use, metered it, billed the customer, and provided information
on efficiency and safety. The price was regulated by the state. Efficiency of a Power Plant
Most thermal power plants are about 35 percent efficient. Of the 100 units of energy
that go into a plant, 65 units are lost as one form of energy is converted to other forms.
Measuring Electricity The remaining 35 units of energy leave the plant to do usable work.
THERMAL ENERGY
Power is the rate (time) of doing work. A watt is a measure of the FUEL SUPPLY FUEL BURNING ELECTRICITY
electric power an electrical device uses. Most electrical devices ELECTRICITY GENERATION TRANSMISSION
require a certain number of watts to work correctly. Light bulbs, 3 STEAM LINE
100 units of GENERATOR
for example, are rated by watts (13, 32, 60, 75, 100 watts), as are BOILER
energy go in TURBINE SWITCHYARD
appliances, such as a 1500-watt hairdryer. 2 5 6
CHEMICAL 4
A kilowatt is 1,000 watts. A kilowatt-hour is the amount of ENERGY
FEED 35 units of
electricity used in one hour at a rate of 1,000 watts. Visualize adding WATER CONDENSER
water to a pool. In this analogy, a kilowatt is the rate at which water 1 energy
MOTION ENERGY come out
is added to the pool; a kilowatt-hour is the amount of water added
to the pool in a period of time. Fuel Sources
Just as we buy gasoline in gallons or wood in cords, we buy
electricity in kilowatt-hours. Utility companies charge us for the
kilowatt-hours we use during a month. If an average family of four Petroleum Coal Natural Gas Biomass
uses 900 kilowatt-hours in one month, and the utility company How a Thermal Power Plant Works
charges 12 cents per kilowatt-hour, the family will receive a bill for
1. Fuel is fed into a boiler, where it is burned to release thermal energy.
$108.00. (900 x $0.12 = $108.00)
Electric utilities use megawatts and gigawatts to measure large
amounts of electricity. Power plant capacity is usually measured 3. The steam travels at high pressure through a steam line.
in megawatts. One megawatt is equal to one million watts or one 4. The high pressure steam turns a turbine, which spins a shaft.
thousand kilowatts.
5. Inside the generator, the shaft spins coils of copper wire inside a ring of magnets.
Gigawatts are often used to measure the electricity produced in an This creates an electric field, producing electricity.
entire state or in the United States. One gigawatt is equal to one
6. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage,
billion watts, one million kilowatts, or one thousand megawatts. allowing it to travel through the electric grid.

Some state regulators are encouraging broker systems to provide a
clearinghouse for low-cost electricity from under-utilized facilities.
This power is sold to other utilities that need it, resulting in lower costs Independent Power Producers
to both the buyer and seller. This wholesale marketing has already
brought prices down in some areas. The business of generating electricity once was handled
Many states now have competition in the electric power industry. This solely by electric utility companies, but today many others
competition can take many forms, including allowing large consumers are generatingand sellingelectricity. Independent power
to choose their provider and allowing smaller consumers to join producers, sometimes called private power producers or non-
together to buy power. utility generators, generate electricity using many different
energy sources.
In some states, individual consumers have the option of choosing their
electric utility, much like people can choose their telephone carrier or Independent power producers (IPPs) came on strong after
internet service provider. Their local utility would distribute the power the oil crisis of the 1970s. At that time, Congress wanted to
to the consumer and maintain the infrastructure. encourage greater efficiency in energy use and the development
This competition created new markets and new companies when a of new forms of energy. In 1978, Congress passed the Public
utility would separate its operation, transmission, and retail operations Utility Regulatory Policies Act or PURPA. This law changed the
into different companies. relationship between electric utilities and smaller IPPs. Under the
law, a public utility company cannot ignore a nearby IPP. A utility
Future Demand must purchase power from an IPP if the utility has a need for the
electricity, and if the IPP can make electricity for less than what it
Home computers, microwave ovens, and video games have invaded would cost the utility to make it.
our homes and they are demanding electricity! Electronic devices are
The relationship between IPPs and utilities varies from state to
part of the reason why Americans use more electricity every year.
state. Some utilities welcome the IPPs because they help them
The U. S. Department of Energy predicts the nation will need to increase meet the growing demand for electricity in their areas without
its current generating capacity of 1,063,033 megawatts by one-fifth in having to build new, expensive power plants. Other utilities worry
the next 20 years. Demand for electricity is projected to increase in the that power from IPPs will make their systems less reliable and
future despite technological energy efficiency improvements in electric increase their costs. They fear that this may cause industries to
devices and appliances. think twice before locating to their areas.
Some parts of the nation, especially California, have begun experiencing For different reasons, some environmentalists also worry that
power shortages. Utilities can resort to rolling blackoutsplanned IPPs may not be subject to the same pollution control laws as
power outages to one neighborhood or area at a timebecause of the public utilities. In reality, the opposite is true. Because they are
limited power. Utilities often warn that there will be increasing outages generally the newest plants, IPPs are subject to the most stringent
nationwide during the summer months even if consumers implement environmental controls. In any case, most experts predict that
energy conservation techniques. However, well planned and managed IPPs will produce more and more electricity. Today, IPPs generate
energy efficiency and conservation programs can help avoid these 37.27 percent of the nations electricity.
electricity shortages.
A special independent power producer is a cogenerator
Conserving electricity and using it more efficiently will help, but (combined heat and power, CHP)a plant that produces
everyone agrees we need more power plants now. Thats where the electricity and uses the waste heat to manufacture products.
challenge begins. Should we use coal, natural gas, or nuclear power to Industrial plants, paper mills, and fast-food chains can all be
generate electricity? Can we produce more electricity from renewable cogenerators. These types of plants are not new. Thomas Edisons
energy sources such as wind or solar? And where should we build plant was a cogenerator. Plants generate their own electricity
new power plants? No one wants a power plant in his backyard, but to save money and ensure they have a reliable source of energy
everyone wants the benefits of electricity. that they can control. Now, some cogenerators are selling the
Right now, most new power generation comes from natural gas and electricity they do not use to utilities. The electric utilities supply
wind. Natural gas is a relatively clean fuel and is abundant in the United that energy to their customers. So, even though your familys
States. Natural gas combined-cycle turbines use the waste heat they electric bill comes from a utility company, your electricity may
generate to turn a second turbine. Using this waste heat increases have been made by a local factory. Today, 3.90 percent of the
efficiency to 50 or 60 percent, instead of the 35 percent efficiency of electricity produced in the U.S. is cogenerated.
conventional power plants.
Electricity
Smart Grids The smart grid system will include two-way interaction between the
utility company and consumers. During peak demand when power
Another way to meet future demand is to update the electric grid and generation is reaching its limit, the utility company can contact
create a smart grid. The existing electric grid has worked well for many consumers to alert them of the need to reduce energy until the demand
years, but developing a new, more efficient grid will help meet growing decreases. The smart grid would alert the power producer to an outage
electricity demand. Updating the current grid and transmission lines or power interruption long before the homeowner has to call the
would not only improve current operations, but would also open new producer to let them know the power is out.
markets for electricity generated by renewable energy sources.
Developing the smart grid would offer a variety of technologies that
will help consumers lower their power usage during peak periods, allow
power producers to expand their use of photovoltaics, wind, and other
renewable energy technologies, provide system back-up to eliminate
power outages during peak times, and save money while reducing
Research and Development carbon dioxide emissions.
Electricity research didnt end with Edison and Westinghouse.

Scientists are still studying ways to make electricity work better. Monitoring Electricity Use
The dream is to come up with ways to use electricity more Homes and apartment buildings are equipped with meters so that
efficiently and generate an endless supply of electricity. One utilities can determine how much electricity and natural gas each
promising technology is superconductivity. residence consumes. Many homes, apartment buildings, and commercial
Superconductivity was discovered in the laboratory about 100 buildings in the U.S. have analog electric meters. These meters contain
years ago, long before there was any adequate theory to explain an aluminum disk. As electricity enters the house it passes through a
it. Superconductivity is the loss of virtually all resistance to the pair of loops that creates a magnetic field. This creates an eddy current
passage of electricity through some materials. Scientists found in the disk and causes the disk to rotate. The speed the disk rotates is
that as some conducting materials are cooled, the frictional proportional to the amount of power being consumed. As the disk spins,
forces that cause resistance to electric flow suddenly drop to hands on dials move to record how much electricity has been consumed.
almost nothing at a particular temperature. In other words, Once a month the utility reads the meter and charges the customer for
electricity remains flowing without noticeable energy loss even their electricity usage. Other homes are equipped with digital meters
after the voltage is removed. that work in a similar fashion.
Until just a few years ago, scientists thought that With once a month meter readings it is difficult for the consumer to
superconductivity was only possible at temperatures below monitor their electricity usage. Consumers can adjust their electricity
-419oF. That temperature could only be maintained by using usage after they receive their bills, but its too late to change their
costly liquid helium. But new ceramic-like materials are behaviors to affect their current bill. When electricity is generated it has
superconducting at temperatures as high as -211oF. These new to be used. If it is not used, that electricity is lost. Monitoring electricity
materials can maintain their superconducting state using liquid usage once a month doesnt help the utilities either. In order to better
nitrogen. The economics of superconductivity is becoming gauge how much electricity is needed at a given time, engineers have
practical. As helium reserves continue to diminish, costs of designed new meters that more accurately measure energy usage. This
helium continue to rise. Its many high-tech uses will need to technology will allow utilities to generate enough electricity to meet
find substitutes. For superconductivity, liquid nitrogen may be their customers needs. In the future it will also allow utilities to more
a better bet than helium. 100 cubic feet of liquid nitrogen could effectively employ renewable energy resources. These meters are called
cost researchers or companies 30 cents to $2.00 per 100 cubic smart meters.
feet, whereas helium could cost 8 cents to $1.50 per cubic foot. Smart meters measure electricity usage much like the analog or digital
Some obstacles remain in the way of incorporating this meters. What makes these meters smart is the addition of two-way
new technology into commercial products, however. First, wireless communication between the meter and the utility. Rather
researchers have conducted most experiments using only very than sending a meter reader to read meters once a month, the smart
small samples of the new ceramic materials, which tend to be meter sends data to the utility every hour. Consumers can log on to
very brittle and difficult to shape. Second, researchers are still secure web sites to monitor their energy usage on an hourly basis as
not sure the ceramic materials can carry large electric currents well. Seeing near real-time data allows consumers to make changes to
without losing their superconductivity. Still, the development their energy usage, which will have a direct impact on their energy bill.
of the new superconductors has the potential to dramatically Many utilities implementing smart meters offer services that will e-mail
change, perhaps even revolutionize, the electronics, electric or text consumers when their electricity usage is nearing a price bracket,
power, and transportation industries. allowing consumers to adjust their electricity usage accordingly.
Smart meters allow customers to more closely monitor their energy
usage and make changes to conserve energy. In 2013, more than 25
percent of all U.S. electric customers had smart meters.
History of Electricity
Starting with Ben Mr. Edison and His Light

Many people think Benjamin In 1879, Thomas Edison
Franklin discovered electricity focused on inventing a
with his famous kite-flying practical light bulb, one that
experiments in 1752. That isnt would last a long time before
the whole story. Electricity was burning out. The challenge
not discovered all at once. was finding a strong material
to be used as the filament, the
Electricity is an actionnot
small wire inside the bulb that
really a thingso different
conducts the electricity.
forms of electricity had been
known in nature for a long Finally, Edison used ordinary
time. Lightning and static cotton thread that had been
electricity were two forms. soaked in carbon. The filament
did not burninstead, it
In the early years, electricity Image courtesy of NOAA Photo Library Image courtesy of U.S. Library of Congress
became incandescent; that Thomas Edison in his lab in 1901.
became associated with light.
is, it glowed. These new lights
After all, electricity lights up the sky during a thunderstorm. Likewise,
were battery-powered, though, and expensive.
static electricity creates tiny, fiery sparks. People wanted a cheap and
safe way to light their homes, and scientists thought electricity could The next obstacle was developing an electrical system that could
do it. provide people with a practical, inexpensive source of energy. Edison
went about looking for ways to make electricity both practical and
A Different Kind of Power: The Battery inexpensive. He engineered the first electric power plant that was able
to carry electricity to peoples homes.
The road to developing a
Edisons Pearl Street Power Station started up its generator on
practical use of electricity was
September 4, 1882, in New York City. About 85 customers in lower
a long one. Until 1800, there
Manhattan received enough power to light 5,000 lamps. His customers
was no dependable source of
paid a lot for their electricity. In todays dollars, the electricity cost $5
electricity for experiments. It
per kilowatt-hour! Todays electricity costs about twelve cents per
was in this year that an Italian
kilowatt-hour.
scientist named Alessandro
Volta soaked some paper in salt
water, placed zinc and copper The Question: AC or DC?
on alternate sides of the paper,
The turning point of the electric age came a few years later with the
and watched the chemical
development of AC (alternating current) power systems. Now power
reaction produce an electric
plants could transport electricity much farther than before. In 1895,
current. Volta had created the
George Westinghouse and his associates opened a major power plant
first electric cell.
at Niagara Falls that used AC power. While Edisons DC (direct current)
By connecting many of these Image courtesy of Teylers Museum plant could only transport electricity within one square mile of his
cells together, Volta was able Pearl Street Power Station, the Niagara Falls plant was able to transport
to string a current and create a battery. (It is in honor of Volta that electricity over 200 miles!
we rate batteries in volts.) Finally, a safe and dependable source of
Electricity didnt have an easy beginning. While many people were
electricity was available, making it easy for scientists to study electricity.
thrilled with all the new inventions, some people were afraid of
The electric age was just around the corner!
electricity and wary of bringing it into their homes. They were afraid to
let their children near this strange new power source. Many social critics
A Current Began of the day saw electricity as an end to a simpler, less hectic way of life.
Poets commented that electric lights were less romantic than gaslights.
English scientist Michael Faraday was the first to realize that an electric
Perhaps they were right, but the new electric age could not be dimmed.
current could be produced by passing a magnet through copper wiring.
Both the electric generator and the electric motor are based on this In 1920, about two percent of U.S. energy was used to make electricity.
principle. A generator converts motion energy into electricity. A motor In 2013, with the increasing use of technologies powered by electricity,
converts electrical energy into motion. it was almost 40 percent.
Measuring Electricity
Electricity makes our lives easier, but it can seem like a mysterious force.
Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it. We are
Resistance
familiar with terms such as watt, volt, and amp, but we do not have a Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons. Using the
clear understanding of these terms. We buy a 100-watt light bulb, a tool water analogy, resistance is anything that slows water flow, such as a
that requires 120 volts, or an appliance that uses 8.8 amps, but we dont smaller pipe or fins on the inside of a pipe.
think about what those units mean. In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on the
Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier to properties of the metal used to make the wire and the wires diameter.
understand. The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water flowing Copper, aluminum, and silvermetals used in conducting wireshave
through a hose. If you could look into a hose at a given point, you would different resistance.
see a certain amount of water passing that point each second. The Resistance is measured in units called ohms (). There are devices called
amount of water depends on how much pressure is being applied resistors, with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits to reduce
how hard the water is being pushed. It also depends on the diameter or control the current flow. Any device placed in a circuit to do work is
of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger the diameter of the called a load. The light bulb in a flashlight is a load. A television plugged
hose, the more water passes each second. The flow of electrons through into a wall outlet is also a load. Every load has resistance.
a wire depends on the electrical pressure pushing the electrons and on
the cross-sectional area of the wire.
Ohms Law
Voltage George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials,
especially metals, the current that flows through a material is proportional
The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage. Using the
to the voltage. He found that if he doubled the voltage, the current also
water analogy, if a tank of water were suspended one meter above the
doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the current dropped by half.
ground with a 1-centimeter pipe coming out of the bottom, the water
The resistance of the material remained the same.
pressure would be similar to the force of a shower. If the same water
tank were suspended 10 meters above the ground, the force of the water
would be much greater, possibly enough to hurt you. Voltage
Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to make
them move. It is a measure of the strength of the current in a circuit and is
Water Tank
measured in volts (V). Just as the 10-meter tank applies greater pressure
than the 1-meter tank, a 10-volt power supply (such as a battery) would
apply greater pressure than a 1-volt power supply.
AA batteries are 1.5 volts; they apply a small amount of voltage for
lighting small flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt batteryit
applies more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the
radio or defroster. The standard voltage of wall outlets is 120 voltsa
dangerous voltage. An electric clothes dryer is usually wired at 240 10 m
voltsa very dangerous voltage.
Current Water Tank
The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The water
1m
current is the number of molecules of water flowing past a fixed point;
electric current is the number of electrons flowing past a fixed point.
Electric current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two points
having a difference in voltage. Current is measured in amperes or amps
(A). One ampere is 6.25 x 1018 electrons per second passing through a rrent
circuit.
With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount
of water that can flow through it. With electricity, conducting wires take
Water Tank Water Tank
the place of the pipe. As the cross-sectional area of the wire increases, so
does the amount of electric current (number of electrons) that can flow
through it.
1 cm diameter 10 cm diameter
pipe pipe

This relationship is called Ohms Law and can be described using a
simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you can Resistance
calculate the third using the following formula:
voltage = current x resistance
V = IxR or V = Ax
Water Tank Water Tank
Electric Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work, or the rate at which
energy is converted. Electric power is the rate at which electricity is
produced or consumed. Using the water analogy, electric power is
the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of flow
(current) that results in the ability to do work.
A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at a
height of 10 meters has much greater force (voltage) than at a height
of one meter. The power of water flowing through a 1-centimeter
No
pipe from a height of one meter is much less than water through a Resistance Resistance
10-centimeter pipe from 10 meters.
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing due
to an applied voltage. It is the amount of electricity required to start or Electric Power
operate a load for one second. Electric power is measured in watts (W).
The formula is:
power = voltage x current Water Tank
P= VxI or W = VxA 10 cm pipe
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy introduces the concept of time to electric power. In
the water analogy, it would be the amount of water falling through 10 m
the pipe over a period of time, such as an hour. When we talk about
using power over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our
water example, we could look at how much work could be done by Water Tank
the water in the time that it takes for the tank to empty.
1m 1 cm pipe
The electrical energy that an appliance or device consumes can be
determined only if you know how long (time) it consumes electric
power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy The same applies with electric power. You would not say you used 100
consumed, you multiply the rate of energy consumption (measured watts of light energy to read your book, because a watt represents the
in watts) by the amount of time (measured in hours) that it is being rate you use energy, not the total energy used. The amount of energy
consumed. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh). used would be calculated by multiplying the rate by the amount of
time you read.
energy = power x time
E=Pxt or E = W x h = Wh If you read for five hours with a 100-W light bulb, for example, you
would use the formula as follows:
Another way to think about power and energy is with an analogy to
energy = power x time (E = P x t)
traveling. If a person travels in a car at a rate of 40 miles per hour (mph),
energy = 100 W x 5 hour = 500 Wh
to find the total distance traveled, you would multiply the rate of travel
by the amount of time you traveled at that rate. One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually, we
measure electric power in larger units called kilowatt-hours (kWh)
If a car travels for 1 hour at 40 miles per hour, it would travel 40 miles.
or 1,000 watt-hours (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is the unit
distance = 40 mph x 1 hour = 40 miles that utilities use when billing most customers. The average cost of a
If a car travels for 3 hours at 40 miles per hour, it would travel 120 miles. kilowatt-hour of electricity for residential customers is about $0.12.
distance = 40 mph x 3 hours = 120 miles To calculate the cost of reading with a 100-W light bulb for five hours,
you would change the watt-hours into kilowatt-hours, then multiply
The distance traveled represents the work done by the car. When we the kilowatt-hours used by the cost per kilowatt-hour, as shown below:
look at power, we are talking about the rate that electrical energy is
500 Wh x 1 kW = 0.5 kWh
being produced or consumed. Energy is analogous to the distance 1,000W
traveled or the work done by the car. 0.5 kWh x $0.12/kWh = $0.06
A person wouldnt say he took a 40-mile per hour trip because that
Therefore, it would cost about six cents to read for five hours with a
is the rate. The person would say he took a 40-mile trip or a 120-mile
100-W light bulb.
trip. We would describe the trip in terms of distance traveled, not rate
traveled. The distance represents the amount of work done.
OFF
Energy Consumption
The U.S. Department of Energy divides the way we use energy into Heating oil is the third leading fuel for home heating and is widely used
categoriesresidential, commercial, industrial, and transportation. in northeastern states. In 1973, the average home used 1,294 gallons of
These are called sectors of the economy. oil a year. Today, that figure is 551 gallons, an almost 60 percent decrease.
This decrease in consumption is a result of improvements in oil furnaces.
Residential and Commercial Sector Not only do todays burners operate more efficiently, they also burn
more cleanly. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, new
The residential and commercial sectorhomes and buildings
oil furnaces operate as cleanly as natural gas and propane burners. A new
consumes 40.21 percent of the energy used in the United States today. We
technology under development would use PV cells to convert the bright,
use energy to heat and cool our homes and buildings, to light them, and
to operate appliances and office machines. In the last 40 years, Americans white oil burner flame into electricity.
have significantly reduced the amount of energy we use to perform these
tasks, mostly through technological improvements in the systems we use, Saving Energy on Heating and Cooling
as well as in the manufacturing processes to make those systems.
The four most important things a consumer can do to reduce heating
Heating and Cooling and cooling costs are:
The ability to maintain desired temperatures is one of the most Maintenance

important accomplishments of modern technology. Our ovens, Maintaining equipment in good working order is essential to reducing
freezers, and homes can be kept at any temperature we choose, a energy costs. A certified technician should service systems annually,
luxury that wasnt possible 100 years ago. and filters should be cleaned or replaced on a regular schedule by the
Keeping our living and working spaces at comfortable temperatures homeowner.
provides a healthier environment, but uses a lot of energy. Forty-eight
percent of the average homes energy consumption is for heating and Programmable Thermostats
cooling rooms. Programmable thermostats regulate indoor air temperature
automatically, adjusting for time of day and season. They can be used
The three fuels used most often for heating are natural gas, electricity, with both heating and cooling systems and can lower energy usage
and heating oil. Today, about half (48.8%) of the nations homes are appreciably.
heated by natural gas, a trend that will continue, at least in the near
future. Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel. Most natural gas furnaces Insulation
used in the 1970s and 1980s were about 60 percent efficientthey Most heat enters and escapes from homes through the ceilings and
converted 60 percent of the energy in the natural gas into usable heat. walls. Adequate insulation is very important to reduce heat loss and air
Some of these furnaces might still be in use today. Depending on infiltration. The amount of insulation required varies with the climate of
maintenance and homeowner use, these furnaces could last for over the region in which the house is located.
20 years.
New furnaces manufactured today can reach efficiency ratings of 98 Caulking and Weather Stripping
percent, since they are designed to capture heat that used to be lost Preventing the exchange of inside air with outside air is very important.
up the chimney. These furnaces are more complex and costly, but they Weather stripping and caulking around doors and windows can
save significant amounts of energy. significantly reduce air leakage. Keeping windows and doors closed
when systems are operating is also a necessity.
The payback period for a new high-efficiency furnace is between four
and five years, resulting in considerable savings over the life of the
furnace. Payback period is the amount of time a consumer must use District Energy Systems
a system before beginning to benefit from the energy savings because
Where there are many buildings close together, like on a college campus,
of the higher initial investment cost. it is sometimes more efficient to have a central heating and cooling
Electricity is the second leading source of energy for home heating and facility, which is called a district energy system. A district system can
provides almost all of the energy used for air conditioning. The efficiency reduce equipment and maintenance costs, as well as produce energy
of air conditioners and heat pumps has increased 50 percent in the last savings.
35 years. If the system relies on a fossil fuel cogeneration plant for heat, the overall
In the 1970s, air conditioners and heat pumps had an average Seasonal efficiency of the plant can increase from 35 to 80 percent. Cogeneration
Energy Efficiency Ratio, or SEER, of 7.0. Today, the new units must have can also reduce emissions per unit of energy produced by 50 percent.
a SEER of 13, and high-efficiency units are available with SEER ratings as If the district energy system uses a renewable energy source, such as
high as 18. These highly-rated units are more expensive to buy, but their geothermal energy or waste heat, emission levels can be reduced even
payback period is only three to five years. more. A major benefit of district heating is its ability to use materials as
fuel that would otherwise be waste products. These fuels may include
biomass, such as waste from the forest product industry, straw, garbage,
industrial waste heat, and treated sewage.
District Heating System Residential Geoexchange Units
VERTICAL LOOP HORIZONTAL LOOP
Supply
Individual Units
Heat
Source
Return
Shallow Underground Pipes
Deep Underground Pipes
Geoexchange Systems
There are only a few areas in the country that have high temperature
geothermal reservoirs, but low temperature geothermal resources are
everywhere. Geothermal heat pumps, or geoexchange units as they Lighting Efficiency
are often called, can use low temperature geothermal energy to heat
and cool buildings. descent
1879 Incandescent 14 MAXIMU LUMENS PER WATT
MAXIMUM
Geothermal systems cost more to install than conventional systems, Todays Incandescent
descent 15
but over the life of the system, they can save a significant amount of
money and energy. They can reduce heating costs by 30-70 percent Todays Halogen
alogen 20
and cooling costs by 20-50 percent. Until 2016, there is a federal tax
credit of up to 30 percent of the cost of the system. Today, there are
Todays
ys CFL 73
more than one million geothermal systems in homes and buildings. Todays
ys LED 78
Building Design Linear Fluorescent 108
The placement, design, and construction materials used can affect the Data: U.S. Department of Energy
energy efficiency of homes and buildings. Making optimum use of the
light and heat from the sun is becoming more prevalent, especially in electricity they use to produce light; the other 90 percent is converted
commercial buildings. into heat. With new technologies, such as better filament designs and
Many new buildings are situated with maximum exposure to the sun, gas mixtures, these bulbs are more efficient than they used to be. In
incorporating large, south-facing windows to capture the energy in 1879, the average bulb produced 14 lumens per watt, compared to up
winter, and overhangs to shade the windows from the sun in summer. to 17 lumens per watt today. By adding halogen gases, this efficiency
Windows are also strategically placed around the buildings to make use can be increased to 22 lumens per watt. Energy-wasting, traditional
of natural light, reducing the need for artificial lighting during the day. incandescents have been phased out, beginning in 2012 with the
Using materials that can absorb and store heat can also contribute to 100-watt and 75-watt bulbs. 60-watt and 40-watt incandescent
the energy efficiency of buildings. bulbs followed in 2014. Halogen and energy efficient varieties of
incandescents are still available for consumers.
The Department of Energys National Renewable Energy Lab has
developed computer programs to design energy efficient buildings Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL) are more common in homes
for any area of the country, taking into account the local climate and now. They are more expensive, but they last up to ten times longer
availability of building materials. than incandescents and use much less energy, producing significant
savings over the life of the bulb. New fluorescent bulb technology has
For existing houses and buildings, there are many ways to increase
made more dramatic advances in lighting efficiency. Some of the new
efficiency. Adding insulation and replacing windows and doors with
fluorescent systems have increased the efficiency of these bulbs to as
high efficiency models can significantly reduce energy costs. Adding
high as 70 lumens per watt.
insulated draperies and blinds, and using them wisely, can also result
in savings. Even planting trees that provide shade in the summer and Most commercial buildings have converted to linear fluorescent
allow light in during the winter can make a big difference. lighting, which costs more to install, but uses much less energy to
produce the same amount of light. Buildings with fluorescent lighting
Lighting already installed can lower lighting costs by updating to more efficient
fluorescent systems.
Lighting is essential to a modern society. Lights have revolutionized the
Light emitting diodes (LED) are another efficient lighting choice. Even
way we live, work, and play. Lighting accounts for about five percent of
more efficient than CFLs, these bulbs last two and a half times longer
the average homes energy bill, but for stores, schools, and businesses,
than CFLs and have many tech-friendly applications.
the figure is much higher. On average, the commercial sector uses
about 20 percent of its energy for lighting. Most light bulbs are used in some kind of fixture. The design of fixtures
can have a major impact on the amount of light required in buildings.
Some homes still use the traditional incandescent light bulbs
Good fixture designs that capture all of the light produced and direct it
invented by Thomas Edison. These bulbs convert only 10 percent of the
to where it is needed can reduce energy costs significantly.
OFF
Energy Consumption
Outdoor lighting consumes a lot of energy, too. Most of our major Most consumers set the temperature on their water heaters much
highways and residential streets have streetlights, as well as many too high. Lowering the temperature setting can result in significant
parking lots. In the 1970s, most streetlights were inefficient incandescent energy savings. Limiting the amount of hot water usage with low-flow
and mercury vapor lights. It was at this time that the Federal Government showerheads and conservation behaviors also contributes to lower
began replacing these lights with high-pressure sodium lights, which energy bills.
produce about three times as much light per watt. Automatic sensors
were also installed to reduce energy use. Refrigerators
Refrigerators have changed the way we live and have brought health
Consumers should make use of fluorescent bulbs wherever feasible and
benefits to our lives. With these appliances, we can safely store foods for
use only the amount of light they need for the task at hand. Automatic
long periods of time. Since refrigerators involve heat exchange, they also
turn-off and dimmer switches can also contribute to energy savings.
consume a significant amount of electricity each year.
Keeping light bulbs free of dust is an energy-saver, too. Some of the most
important actions consumers can take is to turn off lights they arent New refrigerators are many times more efficient than early models.
using, buy lamps that are suited to their needs in different rooms, and Manufacturers have improved the insulation and the seals, or gaskets,
make energy conservation a priority in their daily lives. After CFLs have to hold in the cold air better. The industry has also made technological
completed their lifespan, they can be recycled. advances in defrost systems, as well as in more energy efficient motors
and compressors.
Appliances The appliance industry has worked with the chemical industry to
In the last 100 years, appliances have revolutionized the way we spend develop refrigerants that are not harmful to the ozone layer, as the early
our time at home. Tasks that used to take hours are now accomplished CFCs were. As with all appliances, the most efficient models are more
in minutes, using electricity most of the time instead of human energy. expensive to purchase but produce energy savings over the life of the
In 1990, Congress passed the National Appliance Energy Conservation refrigerator.
Act, which requires appliances to meet strict energy efficiency standards.
Washers and Dryers
Water Heating Before washers and dryers, doing the laundry meant hard physical work
Heating water uses more energy than any other task, except for home all day, no matter what the weather. Today, the most difficult thing about
heating and cooling. Most water heaters use natural gas or electricity laundry is deciding which cycle to use. Todays machines have many
as fuel. New water heaters are much more energy efficient than earlier innovations that save energy. Dryers with automatic sensors can tell
models. Many now have timers that can be set to the times when hot when clothes are dry.
water is needed, so that energy is not being used 24 hours a day. New
systems on the market combine high efficiency water heaters and High-efficiency washing machines are being designed with either a
furnaces into one unit to share heating responsibilities. Combination horizontal axis or the traditional top-load design. These machines use
systems can produce a 90 percent efficiency rating. 35 percent less water and 20 percent less energy than a regular washer.
They also have higher capacity; they can wash large items such as
In the future, expect to see water heaters that utilize heat that is usually comforters and sleeping bags.
pumped outside as waste heat. Systems will collect the waste heat and
direct it into the water heater, resulting in efficiency ratings three times Appliance Efficiency Ratings
those of conventional water heaters. We use many other appliances every day. Some use less than 10 cents
worth of electricity a year, while others use much more. Have you
noticed that those appliances that produce or remove heat require the
Refrigerator Efficiency most energy?
2,500 kWh per year When purchasing any appliance, consumers should define their needs
and pay attention to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) included on the
2,000 2,215 kWh yellow label of every appliance. The EER allows consumers to compare
not just purchase price, but operating cost as well, to determine which
appliance is the best investment.
1,500
Usually, more energy efficient appliances cost more to buy, but result
in significant energy savings over the life of the appliance. Buying the
1,000 cheapest appliance is rarely a bargain in the long run.
In the next few years, consumers will have the choice of many smart
appliances that incorporate computer chip technology to operate more
500
efficiently, accurately, and effectively.
420 kWh
0
REFRIGERATORS 2014 ENERGY STAR
MADE BEFORE 1980 QUALIFIED
REFRIGERATORS
Data: ENERGY STAR

Industrial Sector PETROLEUM REFINERY
The United States is a highly industrialized society. We use a lot of

energy. Industry consumed 31.90 percent of the energy in 2013, but
U.S. industry produces about 20 percent of the worlds manufacturing
output. Advanced technologies have allowed industry to do more
with less. Industry has also been a leader in developing cogeneration
technology. Cogenerators produce electricity and use the waste heat
for manufacturing, increasing overall energy efficiency by 35 percent.
Every industry uses energy, but there are six energy-intensive industries
that use the majority of the energy consumed by the industrial sector.
Petroleum Refining
Refineries need energy to convert crude oil into transportation fuels,
heating fuels, chemicals, and other products. Enormous amounts of Photo courtesy of BP
heat are required to separate crude oil into its components, such as
The pulp and paper industry has reduced its fossil fuel consumption per
gasoline, diesel, aviation fuel, and important gases. Heat is also needed
ton of paper by about 30 percent in the last 20 years, mostly through the
to crack, or break, big hydrogen and carbon molecules into lighter,
use of better technology and cogeneration systems. Over 63 percent of
more valuable petroleum products.
the fuel the industry uses to power the cogeneration equipment comes
Refineries use a mixture of fuels to operate, including by-product from wood waste, a renewable energy source.
gases made during the refining process. On a per barrel basis, todays
refineries use about 30 percent less energy than they did in the 1970s.
Chemical Manufacturing
Steel Manufacturing Chemicals are essential to our way of life. We use chemicals in our
medicines, cleaning products, fertilizers, and plastics, as well as in many
The steel industry consumes about two percent of total U.S. energy of our foods. The chemical industry uses natural gas, coal, and oil to
demand. The energy is used to convert iron ore and scrap metal into power the equipment they use to manufacture chemicals. Chemical
hundreds of products we use daily. The cost of energy represents 15 manufacturing also needs a hydrocarbon source of raw materials, or
percent of the manufacturing cost of steel. Most of this energy comes feedstock, to process into chemical products. Petroleum, propane,
directly from the heating of coal, and natural gas, and also from and natural gas are the major feedstocks.
electricity generated by coal or natural gas plants.
Improved technology has made the chemical industry about 50 percent
Since 1990, the steel industry has reduced its energy consumption more energy efficient today than it was 30-40 years ago. Technology
by 30 percent per ton of steel. This increase in efficiency has been has allowed the industry to use less energy, as well as produce more
accomplished through advanced technologies, the closing of older product from an equivalent amount of feedstock.
plants, and the increased use of recycled steel.
The increased use of recycled steel also saves energy. It requires 75 Cement Manufacturing
percent less energy to recycle steel than to make it from iron ore. Today,
Some people think the United States is becoming a nation of concrete.
steel is one of the nations leading recycled products, with two-thirds of
New roads and buildings are being built everywhere, every day.
new steel being manufactured from recycled scrap.
Concrete is made from cement, water, and crushed stone. Making
cement is an energy-intensive industry because of the extremely high
Aluminum Manufacturing temperatures requiredup to 3,400 degrees Fahrenheit (more than
It takes huge amounts of electricity to make aluminum from bauxite, 2,000oC).
or aluminum ore. It requires six to seven kilowatt-hours of electricity Thirty years ago, cement plants all burned fossil fuels to produce this
to convert bauxite into one pound of aluminum. The cost of electricity heat. Today, the industry has reduced its energy consumption by more
accounts for one-third of the total manufacturing cost. than one-third using innovative waste-to-energy programs.
Today, it requires 20 percent less energy to produce a pound of Sixty-eight percent of the cement plants in the U.S. now use some type
aluminum than it did 20 years ago, mostly because of the growth of of waste by-product for fuel, including used printing inks, dry cleaning
recycling. Aluminum recycling has grown substantially over the last 4 fluids, and used tiresall of which have high energy content. One
decades. Using recycled aluminum requires 95 percent less energy than pound of used tires, for example, has more energy than one pound of
converting bauxite into aluminum. coal.
Today, a modern cement plant can meet between 20 and 70 percent of
Paper Manufacturing its energy needs by burning waste materials that otherwise would not
The U.S. uses enormous amounts of paper every day and energy is be used for their energy value.
required in every step of the papermaking process. Energy is used to
chip, grind, and cook the wood into pulp, and more is needed to roll
and dry the pulp into paper. Paper and paper products manufacturing
is the third largest energy consumer in the industrial sector.
OFF
Energy Consumption
Transportation Sector
America is a nation on the move. Almost 28 percent of the energy we use manufacturer. Today, passenger cars are required to achieve a combined
every day goes to transporting people and goods from one place to another. city and highway mileage of 36.2 miles per gallon (mpg).
When gas prices were low, consumers made no great effort to buy fuel-
The Automobile efficient vehicles. In 2004, for example, sales of the ten most efficient cars
The people in the United States have always had a love affair with the and ten most efficient trucks totaled less than one percent of total sales.
automobile. Until the oil embargoes of the 1970s, Americans drove On the other hand, sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and light trucks made up
without thought of fuel economy or environmental impacts. half of total passenger vehicle sales.
In 1973, there were 125 million vehicles on the road, driving an average Many car manufacturers are producing hybrid vehicles powered by a
of 10,000 miles a year. Today, there are more than 240 million vehicles, combination of gasoline and electricity. These vehicles are much more
driving 11,000 miles a year. Even with the scares of the oil embargoes, fuel efficient than their gasoline-only counterparts because they are
political unrest in oil-producing areas, and damaging storms in the Gulf designed to run on only electricity during periods of low power demand.
of Mexico, we are driving more cars, more miles. Its a good thing were In many states, commuters driving hybrid vehicles are allowed in limited
doing it more efficiently and cleanly. access lanes and are given tax deductions.
Although the oil crises didnt alter Americans driving habits much, they NHTSA has proposed CAFE standards for 2017-2025 for passenger
did bring about changes in vehicle design. Automakers downsized many cars and light trucks (including subcompact cars, large sedans, station
large and mid-sized models and significantly reduced vehicle weight. wagons, crossover utility vehicles, SUVs, minivans, and pickup trucks).
Aerodynamic designs were incorporated and engine size reduced. More The proposed standards require over 41.0 miles per gallon in model year
important, engines were improved to increase fuel efficiency with fuel 2021, and 49.7 mpg in model year 2025.
injectors and electronic transmissions. All of these improvements have
As the nations automakers re-invent themselves, energy efficiency is a
resulted in almost doubling the fuel efficiency for vehicles since the
major consideration of future auto makes and models.
1970s.
Mileage Requirements Alternative Fuels
Most of the improvements in automobile efficiency have been the There is also a push to develop vehicles that run on fuels other than
result of mandates by the Federal Government such as CAFE standards. petroleum products or on blended fuels. Today, there are vehicles that
First enacted by Congress in 1965, the purpose of Corporate Average run on electricity, natural gas, propane, biodiesel, ethanol, and hydrogen.
Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards is to reduce energy consumption by In the 1970s, there were only a few vehicles that ran on alternative
increasing the fuel economy of cars and light trucks. The National Highway fuels. Today, there are more than 1.1 million in the United States, and
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) sets fuel economy standards that figure is over 25% higher than last year. The largest barriers to
for cars and light trucks sold in the U.S., while the U.S. Environmental widespread acceptance are:
Protection Agency (EPA) calculates the average fuel economy for each Refueling Infrastructure: Manufacturers are now capable of producing
a large volume of alternative fuel vehicles, but there needs to be a
convenient infrastructure for obtaining the fuels. Not many people are
Average Fuel Economy of New Passenger Cars willing to drive 15 miles or more to refuel.
and Light Trucks 41.6*
37.8
35 Miles per Gallon
33.7 Alternative Fuel Fleet Vehicles in Use Since 1992
30 28.0 28.5 700,000 Vehicles
25 24.3 600,000
500,000
20
450,000
400,000
15 13.4
350,000 Ethanol (E85)
10
300,000
5 250,000
Propane
0
1973 1980 1990 2000 2010 2016 2018 200,000
*By 2018, new model cars and light trucks will have to meet a 41 mpg fuel economy standard. 150,000 CNG
Data: U.S. Department of Energy 100,000
Electric
50,000
LNG Hydrogen
0
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

Consumer Education: Most Americans know very little about
alternative fuel vehicles. Consumers must be educated about
environmental and other benefits of these vehicles before they will U.S. Freight, by Mode of Transportation, 2012
consider them a choice. MILLIONS OF TONS PER YEAR
If these barriers can be removed, alternative fuel vehicles can develop a Truck 8,190.1
strong niche market in the U.S. New technologies are being developed Rail 1,851.3
to make these vehicles more practical and convenient for consumers.
Waterways 510.7
Commercial Transportation Air 4.7

The United States is a large country. We use a lot of energy moving Multi-mode* 347.8
goods and groups of people from one place to another. Passenger * Multi-mode includes any combination of truck, rail, air, and waterway.
vehicles consume about two-thirds of the transportation fuel and Data: Bureau of Transportation Statistics
commercial vehicles consume the remaining third. The fuel efficiency
of trains, trucks, buses, and planes has increased significantly in the last
an F/A-18 fighter jet on a 50/50 jet fuel/biofuel blend. These tests are
40 years, as well as the number of miles traveled.
demonstrating that biofuels can be blended with existing fuels and not
Trucks impact an airplanes performance. Work is continuing to set production
Trucks use more transportation fuel than any other commercial vehicle. standards and certification requirements for alternative fuels.
Almost all products are at some point transported by truck. In the
early 1970s, the average tractor-trailer traveled 5.5 miles on a gallon
Railroads
Since the 1970s, the fuel efficiency of freight trains has increased by
of fuel. New trucks manufactured today can travel about seven miles
more than half. This reduction in energy use was accomplished by
on a gallon of fuel. This increase in fuel efficiency is due mainly to
using longer trains with less handling and fewer changes and stops. The
improvements in engine design and computerized electronic controls.
equipment is stronger and lighter to handle more cargo. There have
New diesel engines can convert about 45 percent of the energy in also been major improvements in rail technology that have contributed
the fuel into vehicle movement, while gasoline engines can convert to ease of movement.
only about 30 percent. Federal research is aimed at improving diesel
The trucking and marine shipping industries work with the railroad
efficiency to 55 percent, by redesigning engines, redesigning braking
industry to move cargo efficiently. More freight is being transported on
systems to use air flow to help slow down vehicles, and engineering
trains directly in truck trailers and uniform containers so that there is
tires to roll more easily.
less handling. Today, containers often travel by ship, rail, and truck in
Planes one shipment called multi-mode or intermodal transportation.
Since 1980, the number of passengers on planes has more than In the future, there will be an increase in the use of AC motors on
doubled. Planes all use petroleum products for fuel, which is the largest diesel electric engines on locomotives. With AC motors, there are fewer
cost item for air transport after labor. The airline industry has been a moving parts, so less heat is generated, resulting in more efficient use
leader in efficiency. of fuel. A train that today requires six locomotives might require only
Since the 1970s, airlines have increased their fuel efficiency 70 four with this new technology.
percent. Many factors have led to better efficiencynewer engines,
better flight routing, single engine taxiing, and design modifications.
Mass Transit: Public Transportation
Mass transit is the system of public transportation for moving people
Boeings newest plane, the 787 Dreamliner, is touted to be 20
on buses, trains, light rail, and subways. In 1970, nine percent of workers
percent more efficient than comparable sized planes by using new
who traveled to work used public transit systems, two-thirds on buses.
engines, lighter weight materials, improvements in aerodynamics,
Today, only five percent of commuters use public transportation, half
and other engineering advances. The International Air Transport
on buses. Why this decrease? Americans love cars. Most families own
Association has set a goal of improving fuel efficiency another
more than one. As more people have moved from cities into suburbs,
25 percent by 2020.
public transportation has not been economically feasible for many
Airlines are also considering alternative fuels for airplanes. Airbus dispersed locations.
flew an A380 with one engine powered by a gas-to-liquid fuel in
The average American spends 38 hours each year delayed by traffic
2008. The same year Virgin Atlantic flew a Boeing 747-400 with one
congestion. Building more roads isnt the only answer, especially with
engine operating on a 20 percent biofuel blend. In 2009, Continental
environmental concerns over vehicle emissions and the higher cost of
Airlines conducted a successful Boeing 737 test flight using jet fuel
blended with algae oil and jatropha. Other airlines have been running transportation fuels.
similar tests, mixing biofuels with jet fuel. In 2010, the U.S. Navy flew
OFF
Efficiency and Conservation
Introduction Energy Efficiency and Conservation
The United States uses a lot of energy over two million dollars worth Energy is more than numbers on a utility bill; it is the foundation of
of energy each minute, 24 hours a day, every day of the year. With less everything we do. All of us use energy every dayfor transportation,
than five percent of the worlds population, we consume a little less than cooking, heating and cooling rooms, manufacturing, lighting, water-use,
one-fifth (18.49 percent) of the worlds energy. We are not alone among and entertainment. We rely on energy to make our lives comfortable,
industrialized nations; average-world energy use per person continues productive, and enjoyable. Sustaining this quality of life requires that we
to grow at a rate of approximately 10% per year, while population also use our energy resources wisely. The careful management of resources
continues to increase. includes reducing total energy use and using energy more efficiently.
The average American consumes 4.153 times the world average per The choices we make about how we use energyturning machines off
capita consumption of energy. Every time we fill up our vehicles or open when not in use or choosing to buy energy efficient applianceswill
our utility bills, we are reminded of the economic impacts of energy. have increasing impacts on the quality of our environment and lives.
There are many things we can do to use less energy and use it more
wisely. These things involve energy conservation and energy efficiency.
Selected Countries and Energy Consumption, 2012 Many people use these terms interchangeably; however, they have
Country Population Total Energy per different meanings.
(millions) Primary Energy capita (MBtu/
Consumption (QBtu) person)
Energy conservation includes any behavior that results in the use of less
energy. Energy efficiency involves the use of technology that requires
China 1,350.70 114.85 85.03
less energy to perform the same function. A compact fluorescent light
India 1,236.69 31.28 25.29 bulb that uses less energy to produce the same amount of light as an
United States 314.28 84.95 270.29 incandescent light bulb is an example of energy efficiency. The decision
Indonesia 246.86 8.48 34.33 to replace an incandescent light bulb with a compact fluorescent is an
Brazil 198.66 11.18 56.27 example of energy conservation.
Pakistan 179.16 3.40 19.00 As individuals, our energy choices and actions can result in a significant
Nigeria 168.83 5.31 31.44 reduction in the amount of energy used in each sector of the economy.
Russia 143.53 30.02 209.18
Japan 127.55 17.95 140.71 Residential/Commercial
Mexico 117.05 7.48 63.87 Households use about one-fifth of the total energy consumed in the
Germany 81.92 12.40 151.39 United States each year. The typical U.S. family spends $2,200 a year on
Iran 76.42 8.71 114.03 utility bills. About 70 percent is in the form of electricity, the remainder is
Thailand 66.79 5.02 75.20 mostly natural gas and oil.
France 65.43 10.01 153.04 Much of this energy is not put to use. Heat, for example, pours out of
United Kingdom 63.71 7.63 119.73 homes through doors and windows and under-insulated attics, walls,
floors, and basements. Some idle appliances use energy 24 hours a day.
South Africa 52.28 5.56 106.27
The amount of energy lost through poorly insulated windows and doors
South Korea 50.00 10.45 209.08
equals the amount of energy flowing through the Alaskan oil pipeline
Canada 34.88 9.97 285.70 each year.
Saudi Arabia 28.29 7.95 280.91
Energy efficient improvements cannot only make a home more
Australia 23.13 5.09 220.07 comfortable, they can yield long-term financial rewards. Many utility
Netherlands 16.75 3.12 186.17 companies and energy efficiency organizations provide energy audits
Chile 17.40 1.48 84.86 to identify areas where homes are poorly insulated or energy inefficient.
Honduras 7.94 0.20 25.39 This service may be free or at low cost.
Haiti 10.17 0.16 15.88 The residential and commercial sectors generate 9.72 percent of
Libya 6.16 0.68 110.48 greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global climate change.
Iraq 32.58 1.79 54.86 The three main sources of greenhouse gas emissions from homes are
electricity use, space heating, and waste. Using a few inexpensive, energy
Dominican Republic 10.28 0.30 29.14
efficient measures can reduce your energy bill and, at the same time,
Kuwait 3.25 1.37 422.60
reduce air pollution.
*2013 Global Data not yet available for all nations.
Data: Energy Information Administration, The World Bank

Window Ratings
Heating and Cooling Single pane-

POOR U-value = 1.1
Heating and cooling systems use more energy than any other systems aluminum frame
in American homes. Natural gas and electricity are used to heat most
American homes, electricity to cool almost all. Typically, 48 percent of GOOD = 0.49 Double pane-wood frame
the average familys utility bills goes to keeping homes at a comfortable air-filled space
temperature.
With all heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems, you can Double pane-wood frame
save money and increase comfort by installing proper insulation, BETTER = 0.38 argon-filled air space
maintaining and upgrading equipment, and practicing energy efficient
behaviors. By combining proper maintenance, upgrades, insulation, 2 argon-filled air spaces
BEST = 0.22
weatherization, and thermostat management, you can reduce energy 2 layers of polyester film
1 8 argon-filled space between film
bills and emissions by half.
A seven to ten degree adjustment to your thermostat setting for eight
hours a day can lower heating bills by ten percent. Programmable
Diagram from the Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings
thermostats can automatically control temperature for time of day and by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.
season for maximum efficiency.
Insulation and Weatherization

Warm air leaking into your home in cooling seasons and out of your Home Energy Usage, 2013
home in heating seasons can waste a substantial amount of energy.
You can increase home comfort and reduce heating and cooling HEATING WATER HEATING
needs by up to 20 percent by investing a few hundred dollars in 42% 18%
proper insulation and weatherization products. Insulation is rated
using an R-value that indicates the resistance of the material to heat
flow. You need a minimum R-value of 26, or more than three inches of COOLING COMPUTERS/
insulation, in ceilings and walls. In very cold climates, a higher R-value 6% ELECTRONICS
is recommended. COOKING,
REFRIGERATION CLEANING, &
Insulation wraps your house in a nice warm blanket, but air can still leak
in or out through small cracks. Often the effect of the many small leaks
5% LIGHTING 5% OTHER 24%
in a home is equivalent to a wide open door. One of the easiest money- Data: U.S. Department of Energy
saving measures you can perform is to caulk, seal, and weather strip all
seams, cracks, and openings to the outside. You can save 10 percent or must meet requirements tailored for the countrys three broad climate
more on your energy bill by reducing the air leaks in your home. regions. Windows in the northern states must have a U-factor of 0.30 or
less; in the central climate, a U-factor of 0.35 or less; and in the southern
Doors and Windows climate, a U-factor of 0.60 or less. They must also meet other criteria that
About one-quarter of a typical homes heat loss occurs around and
measure the amount of solar energy that can pass through them.
through the doors and windows. Energy efficient doors are insulated
and seal tightly to prevent air from leaking through or around them. If If you cannot replace older windows, there are several things you
your doors are in good shape and you dont want to replace them, make can do to make them more efficient. First, caulk any cracks around
sure they seal tightly and have door sweeps at the bottom to prevent the windows and make sure they seal tightly. Add storm windows or
air leaks. Installing insulated storm doors provides an additional barrier sheets of clear plastic to create additional air barriers. You can also hang
to leaking air. insulated drapes. During heating seasons, open them on sunny days
and close them at night. During cooling seasons, close them during the
Most homes have more windows than doors. Replacing older windows
day to keep out the sun.
with energy efficient ones can significantly reduce air leaks and utility
bills. The best windows shut tightly and are constructed of two or more Landscaping
pieces of glass separated by a gas that does not conduct heat well. The Although it isnt possible to control the weather, certain landscape
National Fenestration Rating Council has developed a rating factor for practices can modify its impact on home environments. By strategically
windows, called the U-factor, that indicates the insulating value of placing trees, shrubs, and other landscape structures to block the wind
windows. The lower the U-factor, the better the window is at preventing and provide shade, residents can reduce the energy needed to keep
heat flow through the window. their homes comfortable during heating and cooling seasons. If the
Windows, doors, and skylights are part of the government-backed landscaping is well done, residents receive the additional benefits of
ENERGY STAR program that certifies energy efficient products. To beauty and increased real estate values. A well-planned landscape is
meet ENERGY STAR requirements, windows, doors, and skylights one of the best investments a homeowner can make.
OFF
Appliances
In 1987, Congress passed the National Appliance Energy Conservation
Appliance Energy Consumption Act. The Act required certain home appliances to meet minimum
Average Yearly Annual energy efficiency standards. The Act set standards for seven major home
Appliance Usage in kWh Cost* appliances that were already required to have EnergyGuide labels, plus
it set standards for heat pumps, central air conditioners, and kitchen
Coffee Maker 54 $6.48
ranges. Most of the standards took effect in 1990. Appliances that
Clothes Dryer 898 $107.70 contribute significantly to a typical households energy consumption,
Hair Dryer 80 $9.60 are refrigerators, laundry machines, and cooking appliances.
Refrigerator 525 $63.00
When you shop for new appliances, you should think of two price tags.
Television, Digital HD <40 110 $13.20 The first one covers the purchase priceconsider it a down payment.
DVR/Cable Box 387 $46.41 The second price tag is the cost of operating the appliance during its
Microwave 131 $12.60 lifetime. Youll be paying that second price tag on your utility bill every
Laptop PC 149 $17.85 month for the next 10 to 20 years, depending on the appliance. Many
Video Game Console 41 $3.90 energy efficient appliances have higher initial purchase costs, but they
save significant amounts of money in lower energy costs. Over the life of
Data: U.S. Department of Energy: Buildings Energy Data Book, and Energy an appliance, an energy efficient model is always a better deal.
Savers Book When you shop for a new appliance, look for the ENERGY STAR logo
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
your assurance that the product saves energy. ENERGY STAR appliances
ENERGY STAR
have been identified by the Environmental Protection Agency and U.S.
*Average yearly consumption data accounts for devices used in different
modes, i.e. idle, charging, etc.
Washing Machine Payback Period COST O

$1,500
Spending a little bit
ENERGY STAR Logo more money on an
energy efficient
appliance could save you
Energy efficient products are labeled with the
several hundred dollars
ENERGY STAR logo. Appliances include the over the lifetime of the $1,000
EnergyGuide label allowing for easy energy product. The payback
comparisons between products. period could be shorter
than you think!
EnergyGuide Label WASHER 1 WASHER 2 WASHER 3 $500

Original Cost $379 $497 $999
Estimated Annual Electricity Use 427 kWh 160 kWh 102 kWh
Price of Electricity (per kWh) $0.12 $0.12 $0.12
Operating Cost per Year $51.24 $19.20 $12.24
$0
Washing Machine Payback Period COST OVER THE LIFETIME OF THE MACHINE
$1,500
Data: NEED analysis of washing machine EnergyGuide labels
Spending a little bit Washer 3 becomes more economical
more money on an than Washer 1 after 16 years
energy efficient
appliance could save you Washer 3
ORIGINAL COST: $999
several hundred dollars
over the lifetime of the $1,000
product. The payback
period could be shorter Washer 2
than you think! ORIGINAL
COST: $497
WASHER 1 WASHER 2 WASHER 3 $500
Original Cost $379 $497 $999
Estimated Annual Electricity Use 427 kWh 160 kWh 102 kWh Washer 1 Washer 2 becomes more economical
ORIGINAL COST: $379 than Washer 1 after three years
Price of Electricity (per kWh) $0.12 $0.12 $0.12
Operating Cost per Year $51.24 $19.20 $12.24
$0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Data: NEED analysis of washing machine EnergyGuide labels YEARS
Data: NEED analysis of washing machine EnergyGuide labels

Department of Energy as the most energy efficient products in their Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are one of the most energy efficient
classes. These appliances incorporate advanced technologies that lighting choices available today. They use even less energy than a
use 10-50 percent less energy and water than standard models. A list CFL and last 25 times longer than traditional incandescent bulbs. This
of these appliances can be found on the ENERGY STAR website at means life cycle emissions for an LED will be far fewer than any other
www.energystar.gov. type of bulb. LEDs are also the most expensive lighting technology
today. As with other electronics, prices are expected to come down as
Another way to determine which appliance is more energy efficient
more products enter the market.
is to compare energy usage using EnergyGuide labels. The Federal
Government requires most appliances to display bright yellow and Water Heating
black EnergyGuide labels. Although these labels do not tell you which Water heating is the largest energy expense in your home after
appliance is the most efficient, they will tell you the annual energy space heating and cooling. It typically accounts for about 18 percent
consumption and average operating cost of each appliance so you can of your utility bill. Heated water is used for showers, baths, laundry,
compare them. dishwashing, and general cleaning. There are four ways to cut your
Refrigerators, for example, account for about five percent of household water heating billsuse less hot water, turn down the thermostat on
energy use. Replacing an older refrigerator with a new energy efficient your water heater, insulate your water heater and pipes, and buy a new,
model can save significantly on energy bills, as well as emissions. With more efficient water heater.
older models, a large amount of electricity can be saved by setting the One of the easiest and most practical ways to cut the cost of heating
refrigerator temperature at 37 degrees, the freezer temperature at five water is to simply reduce the amount of hot water used. In most cases,
degrees, and making sure that the energy saver switch is operational this can be done with little or no initial cost and only minor changes
and in use. in lifestyle. A family of four uses roughly 260 gallons of water per
Refrigerators should also be airtight. Make sure the gaskets around the day. You can lessen that amount simply by using low-flow, aerating
doors are clean and seal tightly. Close the door on a piece of paperif showerheads and faucets. Other ways to conserve hot water include
you can easily pull out the paper when the door is closed, you need to taking showers instead of baths, taking shorter showers, fixing leaks in
replace the gaskets. faucets and pipes, and using the lowest temperature wash and rinse
settings on clothes washers.
Lighting
Most water heater thermostats are set much higher than necessary.
In the typical home, lighting accounts for
Lowering the temperature setting on your water heater can save
five percent of the total energy bill. Much
energy. A new, energy efficient tankless water heater can save $100 or
of this expense is unnecessary, caused by
more annually in water-heating costs. A solar water-heating system can
using inefficient incandescent light bulbs.
save up to $250 a year.
Only 10 percent of the energy consumed
by an incandescent bulb produces light; the
remainder is given off as heat.
To help combat this waste, the Energy
Independence and Security Act of 2007 changed
the standards for the efficiency of light bulbs Water Heater Comparison
used most often. By 2014, most general use
ANNUAL ENERGY COSTS PER YEAR
bulbs needed to be 30 percent more efficient
$400
than traditional, inefficient incandescent bulbs.
What do the new standards mean for consumers? The purpose of the $350
new efficiency standards is to give people the same amount of light
using less energy. There are several lighting choices on the market that $300
already meet the new efficiency standards.
Energy-saving, or halogen, incandescent bulbs are different than $250
traditional, inefficient incandescent bulbs because they have a capsule
around the filament (the wire inside the bulb) filled with halogen gas. $200
This allows the bulbs to last three times longer and use 25 percent less
energy. $150
Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs) provide an equivalent amount $100

of light as incandescents. Although CFLs cost more initially, they save
money in the long run because they use only one-quarter of the energy $50
of an equivalent incandescent bulb and last 10 times longer.
If every American household replaced one of its incandescent light $0
bulbs with an ENERGY STAR CFL, it would save enough energy to light STANDARD GAS ENERGY STAR
WATER HEATER QUALIFIED TANKLESS
three million homes for a year, save about $600 million, and prevent WATER HEATER
nine billion pounds of greenhouse emissions per year. Data: ENERGY STAR
OFF
Transportation
Americans own 15.6% of the worlds automobiles. The transportation Recently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
sector of the U.S. economy accounts for 27.89 percent of total energy announced that the CAFE standard for 2016 will be an average of 34.1
consumption and 71.50 percent of petroleum consumption each year. mpg for passenger cars and light trucks. By 2021, the standard will be
America is a country on the move. We love the freedom provided by our 41 mpg, and nearing 50 by 2025. The U.S. imports about 41 percent of
vehicles. The average price of gasoline in 2013 was $3.51 per gallon. If the oil we use. Our dependence on foreign oil for gasoline will be greatly
the average vehicle is driven 11,265 miles each year, with an average fuel lessened by these new standards.
efficiency of 23.3 miles per gallon, the average driver spends over $1,700
When buying a vehicle, significant savings can be achieved by selecting
per year on gasoline. A person driving a small, fuel-efficient car will
a fuel-efficient model. All new cars must display a mileage performance
spend as little as $1,200 per year, while a person driving a larger vehicle
label, or Fuel Economy Label, that lists estimated miles per gallon for
that is less efficient can spend $5,500 or more each year on fuel.
both city and highway driving. Compare the fuel economy ratings of the
Most people must use a personal vehicle. The key is to use it wisely. vehicles you are considering and make efficiency a priority. Over the life
When you are on the road, you can achieve 10 percent fuel savings by of the vehicle, you can save thousands of dollars and improve air quality.
improving your driving habits and keeping your car properly maintained.
Improvements in the average fuel economy of new cars and light
trucks from the mid-1970s through the mid-1980s were significant. The
average fuel economy of cars almost doubled in that time period and for
Fuel Economy
trucks it increased by more than 50 percent. These improvements were Follow these tips to increase fuel economy:
due mainly to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards Combine errands into one trip.
enacted in 1975. The standards were met largely through cost-effective Turn the engine off rather than letting it idle for more than a
technologies such as engine efficiency improvements and weight minute.
reduction, not downsizing. The safety and environmental performance Have your car serviced as described in the maintenance
of new vehicles improved along with fuel efficiency during this period. manual.
Keep tires inflated to recommended pressures.
Today CAFE standards are set at 36.2 miles per gallon for passenger cars,
Anticipate traffic stops.
which is double the fuel economy of 1974 passenger vehicles. Standards
for light trucks are lower at 26.6 mpg. Many manufacturers are exceeding
These behaviors lower fuel economy:
these standards. In fact, the average fuel economy of new cars today is
Quick acceleration.
35.2 mpg. Despite this, not all cars meet these standards. Manufacturers
Traveling at high speeds. Traveling at more than 60 mph
must pay a fine for each model that does not meet CAFE standards.
lowers fuel economy.
Carrying unnecessary weight in the vehicle.
Revving the engine.
Operating the vehicle with the suspension out of alignment
or with the wheels and tires out of balance.
Using electrical accessories that require high amperage
Fuel Economy Label when they are not needed.
U.S. Energy Consumption by Sector, 2013

INDUSTRIAL 31.90% TRANSPORTATION 27.89%
Top Industrial Sources: Top Transportation Sources:
Petroleum Petroleum
Natural Gas Biomass
Biomass Natural Gas
COMMERCIAL 18.45% RESIDENTIAL 21.76%

Top Commercial Sources: Top Residential Sources:
Natural Gas Natural Gas
Petroleum Petroleum
Biomass Biomass

Label source: www.fueleconomy.gov

Industry
Manufacturing the goods we use every day consumes an enormous Waste Generation Around the World
amount of energy. The industrial sector of the U.S. economy consumes COUNTRY POUNDS OF WASTE PER PERSON, PER DAY
almost one-third of the nations total energy demand. United States 4.34
In the industrial sector, energy efficiency and conservation measures
Switzerland 4.04
are not driven so much by consumers as by the market. Manufacturers
know that they must keep their costs as low as possible to compete in New Zealand 3.5
the global economy.
Russian Federation 2.89
Since energy is one of the biggest costs in many industries, manufacturers
Turkey 2.35
must use energy efficient technologies and conservation measures to
be successful. Their demand for energy efficient equipment has driven Mexico 2.23
much of the research and development of new technologies in the last
Brazil 1.63
decades as energy prices have fluctuated.
Individual consumers can, however, have an effect on industrial energy
China 1.51
consumption through the product choices we make and what we do Data: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
with the packaging and the products we no longer use.
A Consumer Society
Not only is America a consumer society, it is also a throw away society. Recycle
In 2012, the U.S. produced 250.89 million tons of solid waste. The Make it a priority to recycle all materials that you can. Using recycled
average citizen generates almost 1,600 pounds of trash each year. material as the feedstock for manufacturing almost always consumes
The most effective way for consumers to help reduce the amount of less energy than using virgin (raw) materials. Reprocessing used
energy consumed by the industrial sector is to decrease the amount materials reduces energy needs for mining, refining, and many other
of unnecessary products produced and to reuse or repair items in their manufacturing processes.
original form whenever possible. Purchasing only those items that are Recycling a pound of steel can save 1.25 pounds of iron ore. Recycling
necessary, as well as reusing and recycling products wherever possible, aluminum cans saves 95 percent of the energy required to produce
can significantly reduce energy use in the industrial sector. aluminum from bauxite. Recycling paper cuts energy usage by 60
The four Rs of an energy-wise consumer are easy to put into practice. percent.
Reducing waste saves money, energy, and natural resources, and it
helps protect the environment. Energy Sustainability
Reduce Efficiency and conservation are key components of energy
Buy only what you need. Purchasing fewer goods means less to throw sustainabilitythe concept that every generation should meet its
away. It also results in fewer goods being produced and less energy energy needs without compromising the needs of future generations.
being used in the manufacturing process. Buying goods with minimal Sustainability focuses on long-term energy strategies and policies that
packaging also reduces the amount of waste generated and the ensure adequate energy to meet todays needs as well as tomorrows.
amount of energy used. Sustainability also includes investing in research and development of
advanced technologies for producing conventional energy sources,
Reuse promoting the use of new and renewable energy sources, and
Buy products that can be used repeatedly. If you buy things that can
encouraging sound environmental policies and practices.
be reused rather than disposable items that are used once and thrown
away, you will save natural resources. Youll also save the energy used to
make them, and reduce the amount of landfill space needed to contain
the waste.
Savings also result when you buy things that are durable. They may cost
more initially, but they last a long time and dont need to be replaced
often, saving money and energy.
Repair
Many people throw away products when they break and buy new
ones. Many of these products could be easily and cheaply repaired.
Always consider repairing a product before throwing it away. It
saves energy, money, and natural resources.
a
b c
Glossary
a acid rain precipitation with a low pH; usually caused by man-made emissions that react with water
molecules in the atmosphere
active solar heating system a solar water or space-heating system that moves heated air or water using pumps or fans
alternating current (AC) an electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals or cycles; in the U.S. the standard
is 120 reversals or 60 cycles per second; typically abbreviated as AC
alternative fuel a popular term for non-conventional transportation fuels made from natural gas (propane,
compressed natural gas, methanol, etc.) or biomass materials (ethanol, methanol)
alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) a vehicle designed to operate on an alternative fuel (e.g., compressed natural gas, methane
blend, electricity); the vehicle could be either a vehicle designed to operate exclusively on
alternative fuel or a vehicle designed to operate on an alternative fuel and a traditional fuel
ampere (A) a unit of measure for an electric current; the amount of current that flows in a circuit at an
electromotive force of one volt and at a resistance of one ohm; abbreviated as amp
anemometer a device used to measure wind speed
appliance a piece of equipment, commonly powered by electricity, used to perform a particular energy-
driven function; examples of common appliances are refrigerators, clothes washers and
dishwashers, conventional ranges/ovens and microwave ovens, humidifiers and dehumidifiers,
toasters, radios, and televisions
atom a tiny unit of matter made up of protons and neutrons in a small dense core, or nucleus, with a
cloud of electrons surrounding the core
b barrage a man-made dam or channel to capture and direct tidal waters
baseload power the minimum amount of electricity a utility must have available to its customers round-the-
clock, using the most inexpensive sources
battery a device that stores chemical energy that can later be transformed into electrical energy
bauxite the ore that provides the principle source of aluminum
biodiesel an alternative fuel that can be made from any fat, grease, or vegetable oil; can be used in any
diesel engine with few or no modifications; although biodiesel does not contain petroleum, it
can be blended with diesel at any level or used in its pure form
biofuels liquid fuels and blending components produced from biomass (plant) feedstock, used primarily
for transportation
biogas a gas produced by the breakdown of organic matter
biogas digester containers or pits to deposit biogenic waste that ferments and produces a methane-rich gas,
which can then be harvested for electricity production
binary cycle plant type of power plant that transfers thermal energy from one reservoir to another to produce
electricity
biomass any organic (plant or animal) material that is available on a renewable basis, including agricultural
crops and agricultural wastes and residues, wood and wood wastes and residues, animal wastes,
municipal wastes, and aquatic plants
breeding a process used at a specific reactor creating extra fissile material
British thermal unit (Btu) the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree
Fahrenheit; equal to 252 calories; abbreviated as Btu
bulk plant a filling station for propane dealers
c capacity the amount of electric power a power plant can produce
carbohydrate an energy rich organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
carbon dioxide a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas with the formula CO2 that is present in the atmosphere;
it is formed by combustion and by respiration
cellulose an organic compound, typically the main component of plant cell walls, that is a long chain of
sugar molecules

chain reaction a self-sustaining nuclear reaction that takes place during fission; uranium absorbs a neutron and
divides, releasing additional neutrons that are absorbed by other fissionable nuclei, releasing
still more neutrons
chemical energy energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance and released during a chemical reaction
such as burning wood, coal, or oil
circuit(s) a conductor or a system of conductors through which electric current flows
climate change a term used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, but especially to significant change
from one prevailing climatic condition to another
coal a fossil fuel formed by the breakdown of plant material millions to hundreds of millions of years
ago; four types exist, but energy production focuses on subbituminous and bituminous because
of available amounts
cogeneration the production of electrical energy and another form of useful energy (such as thermal energy)
through the sequential use of energy
coke residue from coal that can be used to create other metals
combustion chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat
commercial sector (of the economy) the part of the economy having to do with the buying and selling of goods and services; the
commercial sector is made up of merchants, businesses, etc.
compact fluorescent light bulb a light bulb consisting of a gas-filled tube and an electronic ballast; electricity flows from the
ballast through the gas, causing it to give off ultraviolet light; the ultraviolet light causes a
white phosphor coating inside of the tube to emit visible light; a compact fluorescent light bulb
uses less energy and transforms a smaller fraction of that energy into thermal energy than a
comparable incandescent bulb
compressor a machine used to increase the pressure of a gas
concentrated solar power technologies that focus the energy from the sun onto one smaller area creating high
temperatures that can produce electricity
conservation reducing energy consumption
control rod rods contained in the fuel assembly of a nuclear reactor that absorb neutrons and slow the
reaction within the core
cooling tower structure used at thermal power plants to remove heat from the plant and extract it into the
surrounding atmosphere
core the innermost layer of the Earth composed of both solid and liquid contents under extreme heat
and pressure
crude oil see petroleum
crust the upper-most, brittle, thin layer of the Earth that is divided into moving plates
d derrick a frame tower that supports the drill equipment used to find oil and natural gas in the earth
developmental well a well drilled in an area proven to produce oil and natural gas resources
diesel fuel a fuel composed of distillates obtained in petroleum refining operation or blends of such
distillates with residual oil used in motor vehicles; the boiling point and specific gravity are
higher for diesel fuels than for gasoline
direct current (DC) an electric current that flows in only one direction through a circuit, as from a battery; typically
abbreviated as DC
dish/engine systems a form of concentrated solar power that relies on solar dishes and an engine to generate power
distillation process by which heat is added to a liquid to reach its boiling point and separate materials or
impurities
distribution terminal facility used by propane companies to store propane before shipping it to retailers
district energy system a centralized system, usually for heating and cooling multiple buildings in close proximity
dopant an element that is inserted into a substance to alter the conductivity or electrical properties
drilling rig equipment used for drilling and producing oil from an on-shore well
dry steam plant power plant that relies on steam produced from a geothermal reservoir, but uses very little
water in liquid form
e EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency; a government agency tasked with regulating
and protecting the environment
efficiency the ratio of useful energy delivered compared to energy supplied
elastic energy energy stored through the application of a force to stretch or compress an item
electric current the flow of charged particles like electrons through a circuit, usually measured in amperes
electric power see power
electrical energy the energy associated with electric charges and their movements
electricity a form of energy characterized by the presence and motion of elementary charged particles
generated by friction, induction, or chemical change; electricity is electrons in motion
electrolysis the process of splitting a water molecule into its basic elements
electromagnetic having to do with magnetism produced by an electric current
electron a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge; electrons form part of an atom and move
around its nucleus
emission a discharge or something that is given off; generally used in regard to discharges into the air or
releases of gases into the atmosphere from some type of human activity (cooking, driving a car,
etc.); in the context of global climate change, emissions consist of greenhouse gases (e.g., the
release of carbon dioxide during fuel combustion)
energy the ability to do work, produce change, or move an object; electrical energy is usually measured
in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat energy is usually measured in British thermal units (Btu)
energy consumption the use of energy as a source of heat or power or as a raw material input to a manufacturing
process
energy efficiency the ratio of energy input to output; energy transformations have varying levels of efficiency,
depending on the forms of energy involved; efficiency can be increased with the incorporation
or substitution of equipment
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) rating used to help determine efficiency of appliances; see also SEER
ENERGY STAR a program that tests and certifies products based on efficiency and features; labels help
consumers save money
EnergyGuide label a label on an appliance that shows how much energy the appliance uses in comparison to
similar appliances
ethanol a colorless liquid that burns to produce water and carbon dioxide; the vapor forms an explosive
mixture with air and can be used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, usually blended with
gasoline
exploratory well a well drilled by energy companies in an effort to locate a source of fuel, or geothermal activity
f F-gases synthetically sourced gases composed of bonded halogen and carbon atoms; these gases, also
known as fluorinated gases, have a multitude of uses but can be harmful to the atmosphere
Federal Energy Regulatory the Federal Government agency that regulates and oversees energy industries in the economic,
Commission (FERC) environmental, and safety interests of the American public
feedstock a raw material that can be used as a fuel or processed into a different fuel or product
fermentation
filament the fine metal wire in a light bulb that glows when heated by an electric current
fish ladder installations at dams that allow fish to travel upstream, over the dam, to spawn
fission the splitting of atomic nuclei; this splitting releases large amounts of energy and one or more
neutrons; nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms
flash steam plants electrical generation facilities where water explosively boils into steam to turn the turbine
generator; usually these plants must have water under high pressure
flow in hydropower, the amount of water moving through the dam or system

fossil fuels fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) that result from the compression of ancient plant and animal life
formed over hundreds of millions of years
free electrons electrons that are not held tightly to an atom and are likely to be donated
fuel cell a device used to generate electricity using hydrogen and oxygen, an electrolyte membrane, and
catalysts
fuel rods sealed metal tubes consisting of ceramic fuel pellets, which are bundled into assemblies for use
in nuclear reactors
fumarole an opening in the Earths crust that emits steam and other gases; often near a volcano
fusion when the nuclei of atoms are combined or fused together; the sun combines the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion; energy from the nuclei of atoms,
called nuclear energy, is released from fusion
g gaseous diffusion plant plant used to produce enriched uranium; uranium hexafluoride is forced (as a gas) through
membranes to separate and increase percentages of U-235
gasket a material used to make a joint or seal air or water tight
gasoline a complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons with or without small quantities of
additives, blended to form a fuel suitable for use in spark-ignition engines
generator a device that turns mechanical or motion energy into electrical energy; the motion energy is
sometimes provided by an engine or turbine
geoexchange unit see heat exchanger
geothermal energy the heat energy that is produced by natural processes inside the Earth; it can be taken from hot
springs, reservoirs of hot water deep below the ground, or by breaking open the rock itself
gigawatt unit of power used to measure large quantities of power; 109 watts
global warming an increase in the near surface temperature of the Earth; global warming has occurred in the
distant past as the result of natural influences, but the term is most often used today to refer to
the warming some scientists predict will occur as a result of increased man-made emissions of
greenhouse gases
gravitational potential energy energy of position or place
green pricing consumers can voluntarily choose to pay a higher cost for electricity generated by renewable
energy sources
greenhouse effect the trapping of heat from the sun by the atmosphere, due to the presence of certain gases; the
atmosphere acts like a greenhouse
greenhouse gases gases that trap the heat of the sun in the Earths atmosphere, producing the greenhouse effect;
the two major greenhouse gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide; lesser greenhouse gases
include methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrogen oxides
grid the layout of an electrical distribution system
gross domestic product (GDP) the market value of goods and services produced by a country
h head the distance water drops from the top of the dam
heat exchanger any device that transfers heat from one fluid (liquid or gas) to another or to the environment
heating value gross heat content, or number of British thermal units (Btu) produced by the combustion of a
volume of gas
hybrid solar systems a combination of passive and active solar systems
hydrocarbon an organic compound made entirely of hydrogen and carbon; hydrocarbons are found in crude
oil, natural gas, and other fossil fuels
hydroelectric power plant a power plant that uses moving water to power a turbine generator to produce electricity
hydrogen a colorless, odorless, highly flammable gaseous element; it is the lightest of all gases and the
most abundant element in the universe, occurring chiefly in combination with oxygen in water
and also in acids, bases, alcohols, petroleum, and other hydrocarbons
hydropower energy that comes from moving water
i in situ leaching a mining process for uranium where the uranium has been dissolved in solution and is separated
as a precipitate
incandescent light bulb a type of electric light in which light is produced by a filament heated by electric current
industrial sector (of the economy) the part of the economy having to do with the production of goods; the industrial sector is
made up of factories, power plants, etc.
insulation a material or substance used to separate surfaces to prevent the transfer of electricity, thermal
energy, or sound
ions atoms that have developed a positive or negative charge due to an imbalance in the number of
protons and electrons
isotope an atom of an element with a differing number of neutrons and atomic mass, but similar
chemical behavior
j jatropha genus of flowering plants, shrubs, and succulents
jobbers companies that handle wholesale distribution of oil and refined products to merchants,
industries, and utilities
k kerosene a thick oil obtained from petroleum and used as a fuel and solvent
kilowatt a unit of power, usually used for electric power or energy consumption (use); a kilowatt equals
1,000 watts
kilowatt-hour (kWh) a measure of electricity defined as a unit of work or energy, measured as 1 kilowatt (1,000 watts)
of power expended for 1 hour; one kWh is equivalent to 3,412 Btu
kinetic energy the energy of a body which results from its motion
l Law of Conservation of Energy the law governing energy transformations and thermodynamics; energy may not be created
or destroyed, it simply changes form, and thus the sum of all energies in the system remains
constant
light emitting diode (LED) energy saving light bulb that generates light through the use of a semiconductor
liquefied natural gas (LNG) natural gas that has been converted to a liquid by cooling it to temperatures below -260C;
when cooled to become LNG, natural gas volume is reduced 600 times
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) a group of hydrocarbon-based gases derived from crude oil refining or natural gas fractionation,
including: ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and others; for convenience
of transportation, these gases are liquefied through pressurization
load the power and energy requirements of users on the electric power system in a certain area or the
amount of power delivered to a certain point; the amount of power drawn by a device
longwall mining an automated form of underground coal mining with high recovery and extraction rates, possible
only in relatively flat-lying, thick, and uniform coal beds; a high-powered cutting machine is
passed across the exposed face of coal, shearing away broken coal, which is continuously hauled
away by a floor-level conveyor system
lumen a unit of luminous flux used, for example, to measure the total amount of visible light emitted
from a light bulb
m magma hot, liquid rock below the Earths surface
magnet any piece of iron, steel, etc., that has the property of attracting iron or steel
mantle the largest, middle layer of the Earth, composed of rock and magma
megawatt a unit of electric power equal to 1,000 kilowatts or one million watts
mercaptan an organic chemical compound that has a sulfur-like odor that is added to natural gas and
propane before distribution to the consumer, to give it a distinct, unpleasant odor (smells like
rotten eggs); this serves as a safety device by allowing it to be detected in the atmosphere, in
cases where leaks occur
methane a colorless, flammable, odorless hydrocarbon gas (CH4), which is the major component of
natural gas; it is also an important source of hydrogen in various industrial processes; methane
is a greenhouse gas
methane hydrates layers of ocean sediment containing methane gas that has dissolved and been locked within
water molecules that, due to pressure, have become crystalized
miles per gallon (mpg) a measure of vehicle fuel efficiency; mpg is computed as the ratio of the total number of miles
traveled by a vehicle to the total number of gallons consumed
molecule a particle that normally consists of two or more atoms joined together; an example is a water
molecule that is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
motion energy the displacement of objects and substances from one place to another
n n-type silicon layer of silicon in a solar cell that has been doped with phosphorus to have a negative character
and repel electrons
natural gas an odorless, colorless, tasteless, non-toxic, clean-burning fossil fuel; usually found in fossil fuel
deposits and used as a fuel
Newtons Laws of Motion three physical laws that govern the force and motion interaction of all bodies, for example, the
Law of Inertia
nitrogen oxide (NOx) a greenhouse gas and pollutant produced during combustion
nonrenewable fuels that cannot be easily made or replenished; we can use up nonrenewable fuels; oil, natural
gas, and coal are examples of nonrenewable fuels
nuclear energy energy stored in the nucleus of an atom that is released by the joining or splitting of the nuclei
Nuclear Regulatory Commission a federal agency responsible for monitoring and licensing the construction and operation of
(NRC) nuclear generation facilities
nucleus the positively charged core of an atom; contains protons and neutrons
o offshore the geographic area that lies seaward of the coastline; in general, the coastline is the line of
ordinary low water along with that portion of the coast that is in direct contact with the open
sea or the line marking the seaward limit of inland water
ohm the unit of resistance to the flow of an electric current
Ohms Law a mathematical relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in a circuit; Ohms
Law states the voltage across a load is equal to the current flowing through the load times the
resistance of the load (V = I x R)
oil a black, liquid fossil fuel found deep in the Earth; the raw material that petroleum products are
made from; gasoline and most plastics are made from oil
oil embargo often referred to as a crisis, where members of an oil exporting country or group of countries
halt commerce or trade of oil with another country or group of countries; embargoes result in
high prices and shortages in the nations affected; the U.S. has been affected by embargoes and
crises in the 1960s and 1970s
OPEC the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries organized for the purpose of negotiating
with oil companies on matters of oil production, prices, and future concession rights
OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, produces electricity using the temperature differential of
ocean water at the surface and at greater depths
outer continental shelf offshore federal domain where deposits of oil and natural gas can be found
overburden soil, rock, and earth materials that are removed in order to mine for materials at the surface of
the Earth
ozone also known as trioxygen, this unstable gas is created when chemicals from human activities in
the atmosphere react with sunlight; an ozone layer, however, in the atmosphere protects plants
and animals from ultraviolet light (UV) exposure
p p-n junction point of contact where wafers of doped silicon meet and form a barrier preventing electron
movement in a solar cell
p-type silicon layer of silicon in a solar cell that has been doped with boron to have a positive character and
attract electrons
parabolic trough a type of solar concentrator collector that has a linear parabolic shaped reflector that focuses the
suns radiation on a receiver at the focus of the reflector
passive solar heating system a means of capturing, storing, and using heat from the sun, without using specialized equipment
payback period the length of time a person must use a more expensive, energy efficient appliance before it
begins to save money in excess of the initial cost difference
peak demand a period when many consumers want electricity at the same time; peak demand often takes
place during the day, and may require additional generation by utilities to satisfy demand
penstock a large pipe that carries moving water from the reservoir to a turbine generator in a hydropower
plant
petroleum generally refers to crude oil or the refined products obtained from the processing of crude oil
(gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, etc.); petroleum also includes lease condensate, unfinished oils,
and natural gas plant liquids
photon a particle of light that acts as an individual unit of energy
photosynthesis the process by which green plants make food (carbohydrates) from water and carbon dioxide,
using the energy in sunlight
photovoltaic cell a device, usually made from silicon, which converts some of the energy from light (radiant
energy) into electrical energy; another name for a solar cell
pipeline a series of pipes that convey petroleum and natural gas from a refinery to their end consumer
porous having tiny openings or spaces in a material that can hold fluid
potential energy the energy stored within a body, due to place or position
power the rate at which energy is transferred; electrical energy is usually measured in watts; also used
for a measurement of capacity
power plant a facility where power is generated
power pool a group of electric utilities able to share power as needed
propane a normally gaseous, straight-chain hydrocarbon; it is a colorless paraffinic gas that boils at a
temperature of -43.67 degrees Fahrenheit; it is extracted from natural gas or refinery gas streams
pump stations stations located along pipelines that monitor and control the movement of petroleum and
natural gas products
pumped storage system a method of storing and producing electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water
between reservoirs at different elevations
q quadrillion Btu (Q) one quadrillion (1015) British thermal units (Btu), often referred to as a quad
r R-value a measure of a materials resistance to heat flow in units of Fahrenheit degrees x hours x square
feet per Btu; the higher the R-value of a material, the greater its insulating capability
radiant energy any form of energy radiating from a source in electromagnetic waves
radiation any high-speed transmission of energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves
radioactive decay a natural process where atoms give up energy and particles become stable; radioactive waste
from a power plant has not yet become stable and, thus, can be harmful
reactor part of a nuclear power station
recycling the process of converting materials that are no longer useful as designed or intended into a new
product
refinery an industrial plant that heats crude oil (petroleum) so that it separates into chemical components,
which are then made into more useful substances
reliability the ability of a utility provider to provide electricity to customers without disruption
renewable fuels that can be easily made or replenished; we can never use up renewable fuels; types of
renewable fuels are hydropower (water), solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass
repository a site for storage
reserves natural resources that are technically and economically recoverable
reservoir natural or artificial storage facility
residential sector (of the economy) the part of the economy having to do with the places people stay or live; the residential sector is
made up of homes, apartments, condominiums, etc.
resistance (R) a measure of the amount of energy per charge needed to move a charge through an electric
circuit, usually measured in ohms
Ring of Fire a region of high geothermal activity in the Pacific Ocean, located along several plate boundaries
rock-catcher implement used to separate steam and rocks from a geothermal reservoir
room-and-pillar mining method of coal mining where coal is left behind in column formations to prevent the mine from
collapsing
s scrubber air pollution control device that power plants use to remove particulate matter and gases from
their emissions
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio rating system used to compare efficiency of heat pumps and cooling systems (see also EER)
(SEER)

secondary source of energy also known as energy carriers, these sources require another source of energy to be created;
electricity is an example of a secondary source of energy
sedimentary a type of rock formed by deposits of earth materials, or within bodies of water; oil and gas
formations, as well as fossils are found within sedimentary rock formations; coal is a sedimentary
rock
semiconductor any material that has a limited capacity for conducting an electric current; semiconductors are
crystalline solids, such as silicon, that have an electrical conductivity between that of a conductor
and an insulator
smart meters digital two-way electric meters that allow for communication between the meter (consumer)
and the utility
smelting producing a metal from its ore, separating the metallic parts of an ore
solar cell an electric cell that changes radiant energy from the sun into electrical energy by the photovoltaic
process
solar energy the radiant energy of the sun, which can be converted into other forms of energy, such as
thermal energy or electricity
solar power tower the conceptual method of producing electrical energy from solar rays; involves the focusing of
a large number of solar rays on a single source (boiler), usually located on an elevated tower, to
produce high temperatures; a fluid located in or passed through the source changes into steam
and is used in a turbine generator to produce electrical energy
sound energy energy that travels in longitudinal waves
space heating the heating of an area for comfort
spent fuel irradiated fuel that is permanently discharged from a nuclear reactor
spillway gate a gate or apparatus at a dam that helps to control the water level of a reservoir; gates release
excess water following heavy rainfall
steam generator a generator in which the prime movers (turbines) are powered by steam
steam reforming a process to create hydrogen through the heating of a fuel (typically fossil fuels)
superconductivity having little to almost no electrical resistance
surface mining takes place within a few hundred feet of the surface; earth above or around the coal (overburden)
is removed to expose the coal bed, which is then mined with surface excavation equipment
sustainable describing a behavior or practice that is capable of being continued with minimal effects on the
environment
t tank farm an installation used by trunk and gathering pipeline companies, crude oil producers, and
terminal operators (except refineries) to store crude oil
thermal energy the total potential and kinetic energy associated with the random motions of the atoms and
molecules of a material; the more the molecules move and vibrate the more energy they possess
thermostat a device that adjusts the amount of heating and cooling produced and/or distributed by
automatically responding to the temperature in the environment
tide rising and falling of sea level due to the gravitational force of the moon and sun, as well as the
rotation of the Earth
transformer a device that converts the generators low-voltage electricity to higher-voltage levels for
transmission to the load center, such as a city or factory
transmission line a set of conductors, insulators, supporting structures, and associated equipment used to move
large quantities of power at high voltage, usually over long distances between a generating or
receiving point and major substations or delivery points
transmutation changing one element into another; can be accomplished through fusion
transportation sector (of the the part of the economy having to do with how people and goods are transported (moved)
economy) from place to place; the transportation sector is made up of automobiles, airplanes, trucks, ships,
trains, etc.
turbine a device with blades, which is turned by a force, such as that of wind, water, or high pressure
steam; the mechanical (motion) energy of the spinning turbine is converted into electricity by
a generator
u U-factor indicator of insulative capacity for windows
underground (deep) mining coal mining that takes place several hundred feet below the surface of the Earth; workers and
coal enter and exit through a vertical shaft; see longwall mining or room-and-pillar mining
uranium a heavy, naturally-occurring, radioactive element of which isotopes can be used for nuclear
fission
uranium fuel cycle the series of steps involved in supplying fuel for nuclear power reactors; it includes mining,
refining, the making of fuel elements, their use in a reactor, chemical processing to recover spent
(used) fuel, re-enrichment of the fuel material, and remaking into new fuel elements
v volt (V) the International System of Units (SI) measure of electric potential or electromotive force; a
potential of one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one ampere
flows through that resistance; reduced to SI base units, 1 V = 1 kg times m2 times s-3 times A-1
(kilogram meter squared per second cubed per ampere) 1 kgm2/s3A
voltage the difference in electric potential between any two conductors or between a conductor and
the ground; it is a measure of the electric energy per electron that electrons can acquire and/or
give up as they move between the two conductors
w waste-to-energy plant a power plant that generates electricity by burning garbage
water cycle water constantly moves through a vast global cycle, in which it evaporates from lakes and
oceans, forms clouds, precipitates as rain or snow, then flows back to the ocean; the energy of
this water cycle, which is driven by the sun, is tapped most efficiently with hydropower
watt a metric unit of power, usually used in electric measurements, which gives the rate at which
work is done or energy is used
well a hole drilled in the Earth for the purpose of finding or producing crude oil or natural gas, or
producing services related to the production of crude oil or natural gas
wind the term given to any natural movement of air in the atmosphere; a renewable source of energy
used to turn turbines to generate electricity
wind farm a series or group of wind turbines in the same location
wind turbine device powered by the wind that produces mechanical (motion) or electric power
y yellowcake a natural uranium concentrate that takes its name from its color and texture; yellowcake typically
contains 70 to 90 percent U3O8 (uranium oxide) by weight; used as feedstock for uranium fuel
enrichment and fuel pellet fabrication

Index
Acid Rain........................................................ 11, 17 Cogeneration............................................... 10, 64 Enrichment (uranium) .................................... 43
Active solar (home) system ........................... 39 Cogenerator ................................................ 58, 59 EPA.......................................................................... 28
Alcohol fuel ........................................................ 12 Coke ...................................................................... 16 Ethanol ................................................................. 12
Alpha radiation ................................................. 44 Combustion......................................................... 50 Exploratory well .................................. 19, 27, 31
Alternating current (AC).................................. 61 Commercial sector................... 9, 64-66, 70-73
Alternative fuel .................................................. 68 Compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL)............. F-Gases.................................................................. 50
Alternative fuel vehicle................................... 69 ....................................................................65-66, 73 Fabrication plant................................................ 43
Ampere................................................................. 62 Compressor ........................................................ 27 Faraday, Michael................................................ 61
Anemometer....................................................... 47 Concentrated solar power (CSP) ................. 40 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission... 58
Anthracite ........................................................... 15 Conservation of energy ................7, 56, 70, 75 Feedstock...................................................... 13, 67
Atmosphere......................................................... 50 Control rod .......................................................... 43 Fermentation ..................................................... 11
Atom.........................................................................6 Cooling tower ............................................. 43, 54 Filament................................................................ 61
Core (Earth) ......................................................... 18 Fish ladders.......................................................... 24
Barrage ................................................................. 25 Crude oil ........................................................30-33 Fission ...............................................................6, 42
Baseload power .................................. 21, 24, 55 Crust ...................................................................... 18 Flash steam plant.............................................. 19
Battery .................................................................. 61 Flow........................................................................ 23
Bauxite .................................................................. 67 Demand-side management ......................... 56 Fluidized bed combustor............................... 17
Beta radiation .................................................... 44 Deregulation.................................................58-59 Fluorinated gases.............................................. 50
Binary cycle plant ...................................... 19, 21 Derrick .................................................................. 31 Forms of energy ...............................................6-7
Biodiesel............................................................... 13 Developmental well.................................. 27, 31 Fossil fuel ........................................ 14, 26, 30, 34
Biofuel......................................................11, 12-13 Direct current (DC)............................................ 61 Fossil fuel power plant ................................... 56
Biogas...................................................... 11, 27, 29 Dish/engine system.......................................... 40 Franklin, Benjamin............................................ 61
Biogas digester .................................................. 11 Distillation ........................................................... 31 Free electron ...................................................... 41
Biomass ...................................................10-13, 29 Distribution terminal ...................................... 35 Fuel assembly..................................................... 43
Biomass gasification ........................................ 52 District energy system .......................19, 64-65 Fuel cell ................................................................ 53
Bituminous coal ................................................ 15 Dopant.................................................................. 41 Fuel economy ............................................. 68, 74
Breeding............................................................... 45 Drilling rig ........................................................... 31 Fuel rod................................................................. 43
British thermal unit (Btu) ...........................8, 28 Dry steam plant ................................................ 19 Fukushima............................................................ 45
Bulk plant............................................................. 35 Fumaroles............................................................. 18
Edison, Thomas.................................................. 61 Fusion .................................................6, 38, 42, 52
Capacity ........................................................ 49, 55 Efficiency (energy)................... 7, 49, 56, 70-75
Carbohydrates.................................................... 10 Elastic energy.........................................................6 Gamma radiation ............................................. 44
Carbon capture, utilization and storage... 17 Electric current .................................... 41, 54, 62 Gaseous diffusion plant ................................. 43
Carbon cycle ...................................................... 13 Electric power..................................................... 63 Gasket.................................................................... 66
Carbon dioxide..................................... 10, 17, 50 Electrical energy....................................... 6, 7, 63 Gasoline................................................................ 30
Cellulose .............................................................. 11 Electricity................................................... 7, 54-64 Generator ................................ 19, 23, 47, 54, 56
Ceramic fuel pellets ......................................... 43 Electrolysis .......................................................... 52 Geoexchange unit ..................................... 20, 65
Chain reaction ................................................... 42 Electromagnetic....................................................7 Geopressured resource .................................. 21
Chemical energy .............................................6, 7 Electrons..................................................................7 Geothermal energy ...................................18-21
Circuit.................................................................... 41 Emission......................................................... 13, 28 Geothermal heat pump .......................... 20, 65
Chernobyl (Ukraine) ........................................ 45 Energy.......................................................................6 Gigawatt............................................................... 58
Clean Air Act.......................................... 17, 33, 37 Energy carrier .............................................. 52, 53 Global warming ..........................................50-51
Clean Coal Technology Program ................. 17 Energy consumption.........................8, 9, 64-69 Gravitational potential energy....................... 6
Clean Water Act ................................................. 17 Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)......................... 66 Green pricing...................................................... 49
Climate change............................................50-51 Energy Policy Act .............................................. 58 Greenhouse effect ...............................17, 50-51
Coal ..................................................................14-17 ENERGY STAR..............................................71-73 Greenhouse gas ......................................... 11, 50
Coal gasification ............................................... 17 Energy transformation.......................................7 Grid...................................................................56-57
Coal bed methane............................................. 27 EnergyGuide label ......................................72-73 Gross domestic product (GDP)........................9
Head (waterfall) .......................................22, 23 N-type silicon..................................................41 Quadrillion Btu..................................................8
Heat exchanger ............................................. 19 National Appliance Energy
Heating oil........................................................ 64 Conservation Act ................................66, 72 R-Value..............................................................71
Heating value ................................................. 15 National Energy Policy Act of 1992........37 Radiant energy ..............................6, 7, 38, 50
High-head plant ............................................ 23 Natural gas .........................................26-29, 64 Radiation..........................................................44
Hybrid power plant...................................... 19 Negative character .......................................41 Radioactive decay.........................................44
Hybrid solar system ..................................... 39 Newtons Laws of Motion ........................... 7 Reactor ......................................................43, 56
Hydrocarbon.............................................30, 67 Nitrous Oxide...........................................50, 53 Recycle..............................................................75
Hydroelectric power plants....................... 22 Nonrenewable..8, 14, 26, 30, 35, 42, 52, 54 Refinery ..............................................31, 35, 67
Hydrogen................................................... 52-53 Nuclear..............................................................42 Reliability .........................................................55
Hydrogen life cycle ...................................... 52 Nuclear energy ................................... 6, 42-45 Rem ...................................................................44
Hydropower ............................................. 22-25 Nuclear fission .......................................... 6, 42 Renewable ...............8, 10, 18, 22, 46, 52, 54
Hydropower plant ........................... 22-23, 56 Nuclear fuel cycle ...................................42-43 Repository .......................................................43
Hydrothermal resource .............................. 21 Nuclear fusion .................................... 6, 38, 42 Reproessing ....................................................43
Nuclear power plant .......................44-45, 56 Reserves ....................................................16, 28
In situ leaching............................................... 42 Nuclear reactor ..............................................43 Reservoir ..........................................................22
Incandescent light bulb ................61, 65, 73 Nuclear Regulatory Commission ............44 Residential sector..................9, 64-66, 70-73
Independent power producer ................. 59 Nuclear Waste Policy Act ...........................43 Resistance........................................................62
Industrial sector..................................9, 67, 75 Nucleus............................................................. 42 Ring of Fire................................................18, 19
Insulation....................................................64, 71 Rock-catcher...................................................19
Ion....................................................................... 44 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion .......25 Room-and-pillar mining ............................ 15
Isotope.............................................................. 42 Offshore.....................................................33, 48
Ohm.............................................................62-63 Scrubbers .................................................17, 21
Jatropha............................................................ 69 Ohms Law..................................................62-63 Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER).64
Jobber ............................................................... 31 Oil embargo..................................9, 32, 58, 68 Secondary source of energy ......... 8, 52, 54
OPEC..................................................................32 Sedimentary......................................26, 30, 34
Kerosene........................................................... 30 Semiconductor ..............................................52
Kilowatt ............................................................ 58 Outer continental shelf...............................33
Overburden.....................................................15 Shale gas...........................................................29
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) ..............................58, 63 Smelting...........................................................16
Kinetic energy ....................................... 6, 7, 22 Ozone..........................................................12, 50
Smart grid........................................................60
Kyoto Protocol ............................................... 51 P-n junction ....................................................41 Smart meter....................................................60
Landfill gas ........................................11, 27, 29 P-type silicon ..................................................41 Solar cell ...........................................................40
Law of Conservation of Energy.................. 7 Parabolic trough ...........................................40 Solar collector...........................................38-39
Light emitting diode.............................65, 73 Passive solar (home) system .....................39 Solar energy .............................................38-41
Lignite ...............................................................15 Payback period ..............................................64 Solar power tower.........................................40
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) ......................29 Peak demand .................................................55 Solar thermal system...................................40
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).................34 Penstock ..........................................................23 Solid waste ...............................................10, 75
Liquid hydrogen ...........................................53 Petroleum...................................................30-33 Sound energy............................................. 6, 7
Load ............................................................41, 62 Photoelectrolysis ..........................................52 Space heating ................................................39
Longwall mining ...........................................15 Photon ..............................................................41 Spent nuclear fuel...................................43-44
Lumen...............................................................65 Photosynthesis .......................................10, 14 Spillway gates.................................................22
Photovoltaic (PV) ....................................40-41 Steam generator.....................................43, 56
Magma .............................................................18 Pipeline......................................................27, 31 Steam reforming ...........................................52
Magnet..............................................................54 Porous................................................................27 Step-down transformer .............................55
Mantle ..............................................................18 Positive character .........................................41 Step-up transformer ....................................55
Megawatt (MW) ............................................58 Potential energy ............................................. 6 Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) .........32
Mercaptan ................................................26, 35 Power..........................................................58, 63 Subbituminous coal ....................................15
Methane ............................................11, 26, 50 Power pool ......................................................55 Superconductivity ........................................60
Methane hydrate...........................................29 Programmable thermostat ................64, 71 Surface mining ..............................................15
Miles per gallon..............................................68 Propane ......................................................34-37 Sustainability.................................................. 75
Millirem ............................................................44 Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act 48, 59
Molecules........................................................... 6 Pump station ..................................................31 Tank farm..........................................................31
Motion energy.............................................. 6, 7 Pumped storage (hydro) system ............. 23 Thermal energy ....................................6, 7, 50
Thermal power plant ............................ 7, 56

Thermostat...............................................64, 71
Three mile island...........................................45
Tidal energy ....................................................25
Tides...................................................................25
Transformer ....................................................54
Transmission line ..........................................54
Transmutation................................................38
Transportation sector ............... 9, 68-69, 74
Turbine.............................................................. 54
U-factor.............................................................71
Underground mining ..................................15
Uranium .....................................................42-45
Uranium fuel cycle..................................42-43
Uranium milling............................................. 42
Volt...............................................................54, 62
Volta, Alessandro...........................................61
Voltage (volt) .....................................54, 61, 62
Waste-to-energy plants..............................10
Water cycle......................................................22
Watt.............................................................58, 63
Wave energy ..................................................25
Well.....................................................................19
Westinghouse, George................................61
Wind energy..............................................46-49
Wind farm ..................................................47-48
Wind turbine................................................... 47
Yellowcake ......................................................42
Yucca Mountain.............................................44
National Sponsors and Partners
American Electric Power Houston Museum of Natural Science Paxton Resources
Arizona Public Service Idaho Power PECO
Arizona Science Center Idaho National Laboratory Pecos Valley Energy Committee
Armstrong Energy Corporation Illinois Clean Energy Community Foundation Peoples Gas
Association of Desk & Derrick Clubs Independent Petroleum Association of Petroleum Equipment and Services Associa-
Audubon Society of Western Pennsylvania America tion
Barnstable County, Massachusetts Independent Petroleum Association of New Phillips 66
Robert L. Bayless, Producer, LLC Mexico PNM
BP America Inc. Indiana Michigan Power An AEP Company Providence Public Schools
Blue Grass Energy Interstate Renewable Energy Council Read & Stevens, Inc.
Boulder Valley School District James Madison University Renewable Energy Alaska Project
Brady Trane Kentucky Clean Fuels Coalition Rhode Island Office of Energy Resources
California State University Kentucky Department of Education River Parishes Community College
Cape Light CompactMassachusetts Kentucky Department of Energy Development RiverQuest
Chevron and Independence Robert Armstrong
Chugach Electric Association, Inc. Kentucky Power An AEP Company Roswell Geological Society
Colegio Rochester Kentucky River Properties LLC Salt River Project
Columbia Gas of Massachusetts Kentucky Utilities Company Sandia National Laboratory
ComEd Kinder Morgan Saudi Aramco
ConEdison Solutions Leidos Science Museum of Virginia
ConocoPhillips Linn County Rural Electric Cooperative C.T. Seaver Trust
Constellation Llano Land and Exploration Shell
Cuesta College Louisiana State University Cooperative Shell Chemicals
Extension
Daniel Math and Science Center Society of Petroleum Engineers
Louisville Gas and Electric Company
David Petroleum Corporation Society of Petroleum Engineers Middle East,
Maine Energy Education Project North Africa and South Asia
Desk and Derrick of Roswell, NM
Massachusetts Division of Energy Resources David Sorenson
Dominion
Michigan Oil and Gas Producers Education Southern Company
DonorsChoose
Foundation
Duke Energy Space Sciences Laboratory of the University of
Miller Energy California Berkeley
East Kentucky Power
Mississippi Development AuthorityEnergy Tennessee Department of Economic and
Eastern Kentucky University Division Community DevelopmentEnergy Division
Elba Liquifaction Company Mojave Environmental Education Consortium Tioga Energy
El Paso Corporation Mojave Unified School District Toyota
E.M.G. Oil Properties Montana Energy Education Council Tri-State Generation and Transmission
Encana NASA TXU Energy
Encana Cares Foundation National Association of State Energy Officials United States Energy Association
Energy Education for Michigan National Fuel University of Georgia
Energy Training Solutions National Grid United Way of Greater Philadelphia and
Eversource National Hydropower Association Southern New Jersey
Exelon Foundation National Ocean Industries Association University of NevadaLas Vegas, NV
First Roswell Company National Renewable Energy Laboratory University of North Carolina
FJ Management. Inc. Nebraska Public Power District University of Tennessee
Foundation for Environmental Education New Mexico Oil Corporation University of Texas - Austin
FPL New Mexico Landmans Association University of Texas - Tyler
The Franklin Institute Nicor Gas An AGL Resources Company U.S. Department of Energy
Frontier Associates Northern Rivers Family Services U.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Energy
Government of ThailandEnergy Ministry North Shore Gas Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Green Power EMC NRG Energy, Inc. U.S. Department of EnergyWind for Schools
Guilford County Schools North Carolina Offshore Energy Center U.S. Department of the InteriorBureau of
Gulf Power Offshore Technology Conference Land Management
Gerald Harrington, Geologist Ohio Energy Project U.S. Energy Information Administration
Granite Education Foundation Opterra Energy West Bay Exploration
Harvard Petroleum Oxnard School District West Virginia State University
Hawaii Energy Pacific Gas and Electric Company Yates Petroleum Corporation
2015 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org

Secondary Energy Infobook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Secondary Energy Infobook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Secondary Energy Infobook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

20

Science Social Studies

Math Language Arts

Teacher Advisory Board

Shelly Baumann Barbara Lazar

Amy Constant Leslie Lively Permission to Copy

Robert Griegoliet Tom Spencer

Printed on Recycled Paper

2 Secondary Energy Infobook

Next Generation Science Standards

Common Core State Standards

Individual State Science Standards

4 Secondary Energy Infobook

INTRODUCTORY Energy Games and Icebreakers

STEP ONE: Energy Flows

STEP TWO: Energy Enigma

Forms of Energy Q = Quad (1015 Btu) see Measuring Energy on page 8.

Data: Energy Information Administration

6 Secondary Energy Infobook

Radiant Chemical Electrical Thermal

Measuring Energy Natural Gas 26.59%

One Btu is the amount of thermal energy needed to raise the

Every day the average American uses about 847,000 Btu. We

8 Secondary Energy Infobook

Energy Users prices started to drop, energy use began to increase.

Natural Gas Biomass

Biomass Natural Gas

COMMERCIAL 18.45% RESIDENTIAL 21.76%

Data: Energy Information Administration

Wood RADIANT ENERGY

Solid Waste GARBAGE AND

10 Secondary Energy Infobook

U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production:

How Coal Was Formed

14 Secondary Energy Infobook

Coal Reserves Coal Production

U.S. Coal Consumption by Sector, 2013 How Coal Is Used

Data: Energy Information Administration

16 Secondary Energy Infobook

18 Secondary Energy Infobook

Dry Steam Plants Hot Spring Bathing and Spas

Top Geothermal Producing States, 2013

Shallow Underground Pipes

Data: Energy Information Administration

20 Secondary Energy Infobook

Hydro Dams Hydropower Plants

Head and Flow

One of the biggest advantages of a hydropower plant is its ability to

Hydropower for Baseload Power

* Total does not equal 100%, due to independent rounding.

Hydropower plants also produce power cheaply due to their sturdy

Hydropower and the Environment

24 Secondary Energy Infobook

Wave Energy is a giant engineering challenge. In addition, the electricity must be

What Is Natural Gas? History of Natural Gas

26 Secondary Energy Infobook

28 Secondary Energy Infobook

BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES

U.S. Energy Consumption: U.S. Energy Production: