Thermodynamics I

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

THE ENTROPY OF THE UNIVERSE TENDS TO A MAXIMUM

This statement is best known phrasing of the second law. Because of the looseness of its
language, e.g. universe, as well as lack of specific conditions, e.g. open, closed or isolated, many
people take this simple statement to mean that the second law of thermodynamics applies
virtually to every subject imaginable. This, of course, is not true; this statement is only a
simplified version of a more extended and precise description.
Thermodynamics is concerned with transformations of energy, and the laws of
thermodynamics describe the bounds within which this transformation are observed to occur. The
first law reflects the observation that energy is conserved, but it imposes no restriction on the
process direction. Yet, all experience indicates the existence of such a restriction, the concise
statement of which constitutes the second law.
The first law of thermodynamics provides the basic definition of internal energy, associated
with all thermodynamic systems, and states the rule of conservation of energy. The second law of
is concerned with the direction of natural processes. It asserts that a natural process runs only in
one sense, and is not reversible.

The differences between the two forms of energy, heat and work, provide some insight into
the second law. In an energy balance both work and heat are included as simple additive terms,
implying that one unit of heat, a joule is equivalent to the same unit of work. Although this is true
with respect to an energy balance, experience teaches that there is a difference of kind between
heat and work.
Work is readily transformed into other forms of energy: for example, into potential energy
by elevation of weight, into kinetic energy by acceleration of a mass, into electrical energy by
operation of generator. These process can be made to approach a conversion efficiency of 100%
by elimination of friction, a dissipative process that transform work into heat. Indeed, work is
readily transformed completely into heat, as demonstrated by Joules experiments.
On the other hand, all efforts to devise a process for the continuous conversion of heat
completely into work or into mechanical or electrical energy have failed. Regardless of
improvements to the devices employed, conversion efficiencies do not exceed about 40%.
Evidently, heat is a form of energy intrinsically less useful and hence less valuable than an equal
quantity of work or mechanical or electrical energy.
Through our experiences, we know that the flow of heat between two bodies always takes
place from the hotter to the cooler body, and never in the reverse direction. This fact is of such
significance that its restatement serve as an acceptable expression of the second law.

STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW

The second law is equally well expressed in two statements that describe this restriction:
Statement 1: No apparatus can operate in such a way that its only effect (in system and
surroundings) is to convert heat absorbed by a system completely into work done by the
system.
Statement 2: No process is possible which consists solely in the transfer of heat from one
temperature level to a higher one.

Statement 1 does not say that heat cannot be converted into a work: only that the process cannot
leave both the system and its surroundings unchanged. If an ideal gas in a piston/cylinder assembly
expands reversibly and isothermally to a lower pressure. Example is equation 2.3, requires that
Ut = Q+W. For an ideal gas, Ut = 0, and therefore, Q = -W. The heat absorbed by the gas from
the surroundings is equal to the work transferred to the surroundings by the reversible expansion
of the gas. This might seem a contradiction of statement 1, because in the surroundings the result
is the complete conversion of heat into work. However this statement requires in addition no
change in the system, a requirement that is not met owing to change in pressure.
The process is limited in another way, because the pressure of the gas ultimately reaches that of
the surroundings and expansion ceases. Therefore the continuous production of work from heat
are impossible.
If the original state of the system is restored so as to comply with the requirements of statement 1,
energy from the surroundings in the form of work is needed to compress the gas back to its original
pressure.
At the same time energy as heat is transferred to the surroundings to maintain the constant
temperature.
This reverse process require at least the amount of work gained from the expansion; hence no
network is produced.
Evidently statement 1 may be expressed in an alternative way:
Statement 1a: It is impossible by a cyclic process to convert the heat absorbed by a system
completely into work done by the system.
The word cyclic requires that the system be restored periodically to its original state. In the case of
gas in a piston/cylinder assembly, an initial expansion may be followed by steps that restore the
original state, thus producing a complete cycle.
If the process is repeated, it becomes a cyclic process. The restriction to a cyclic process in a
statement, amounts to the same limitation as that introduced by the words only effect in statement
1.
Therefore, the second law of thermodynamics does not prohibit the production of work from feat,
but it does place a limit on how much of the heat directed into a cyclic process can be converted
into work done by the process.
With the exception of water and wind power, the partial conversion of heat into work is the basis
for nearly all commercial production of water. The development of a quantitative expression for
the efficiency of this conversion is the next in the treatment of the second law.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can only
increase overtime. It can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in steady state
(equilibrium) or undergoing a reversible process. The increase in entropy accounts for the
irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past.
Historically, the second law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of
thermodynamic theory. Statistical thermodynamics, classical or quantum, explains the
microscopic origin of the law.
The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation is credited to the French
scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824, who showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of
conversion of heat to work in a heat engine.

I. ENTROPY & ENTROPY BALANCES

1.0 ENTROPY DEFINITION

The term entropy was first used by Rudolf Clasius to state the second law of
thermodynamics.
It is taken from a Greek word tropee which means transformation.
Defined as the quantitative measure of disorder or randomness in a system. The
concept comes out of thermodynamics, which deals with the transfer of heat energy
within a system.
Unit of measurement is J/K (Joule per degree Kelvin).
Entropy is denoted by S, while specific entropy is denoted by s in all
mathematical calculations.

1.1 CALCULATING ENTROPY

In an is isothermal process, the change in entropy (delta-S) is the change in heat (Q)
divided by the absolute temperature (T):

delta-S = Q/T
 In any reversible thermodynamic process, it can be represented in calculus as the
integral from a process initial state to its final state of dQ/T.

In a more general sense, entropy is a measure of probability and the molecular disorder
of a macroscopic system. In a system that can be described by variables, there are a
certain number of configurations those variables may assume. If each configuration is
equally probable, then the entropy is the natural logarithim of the number of
configurations, multiplied by Boltzmanns constant.

S=KB In W

Where S is entropy, kB is Boltzmanns constant, In is the natural logarithm and W

represents the the number of possible states. Boltzmanns constant is equal to 1.38065
x 10-23 J/K

1.2 UNITS OF ENTROPY

Entropy is considered to be an extensive property of matter that is expressed in terms
of energy divided by temperature. The SI units of entropy are J/K (joules/degrees
Kelvin)

1.3 MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT ENTROPY

This view of the of the second law of thermodynamics is very popular, and it has been
misused. Some argue that the second law of thermodynamics means that a system can
never become more orderly. Not true, It just means that in order to become more orderly
(for entropy to decrease), you must transfer energy from somewhere outside the system,
such as when a pregnant women draws energy from food to cause the fertilized egg to
become a complete baby, completely in line with the second lines provisions

2.0 PRINCIPLES OF ENTROPY

Form the Clausius inequality, Q / T 0

As the entropy is a property of the system, therefore the cyclic integral of a property is zero
and the above equation can also be written as:
Q / T dS
SQ / T dS
dS Q / T
for isolated system, SQ = 0

therefore
(dS)iso 0
For a reversible process: (dS) iso = 0
Or
S = constant
For an irreversible process: dS) iso > 0 or entropy increases.

Thus it may be concluded that entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. It always
increases with every irreversible process and remains constant when the process is reversible.
This is known as principle of entropy increase or in other words the entropy of principle.
3.0 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3.1 What is the change in entropy when 100 grams of ice at 0 o C melt into 100 grams of water
at 0 o C?

Solution:

Using the 8,000 calories calculated above and converting the temperature of 0 o C into 273 K,
we find temperature change in the heat of the system change in entropy =

S = Q = 8,000 cal = 29.3 cal/K

T 273K

3.2 Calculate the standard-state entropy of reaction for the following reactions and explain the
sign of S for each reaction.

(a) Hg(l) Hg(g)

(b) 2NO2(g) N2O4(g)

(c) N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)

Solution:

(a) Using a standard-state entropy data table, we find the following information:

Compound S(J/mol-K)

Hg(l) 76.02

Hg(s) 174.96

The balanced equation states that 1 mole of mercury vapor is produced for each mole of liquid
mercury that boils. The standard-state entropy of reaction is therefore calculated as follows:

So = So(products) - So(reactants)

= [1 mol Hg(g) x 174.96 J/mol-K] - [1 mol Hg(l) x 76.02 J/mol-K]

= 98.94 J/K

The sign of So is positive because this process transforms a liquid into a gas, which is
inherently more disordered.

(b) Using a standard-state entropy data table, we find the following information:

Compound S(J/mol-K)

NO2(g) 240.06

N2O4(g) 304.29

In this equation, 1 mole of N2O4 is formed for every mole of NO2 consumed, and the value
of So is calculated as follows:
 So = So(products) - So(reactants)

= [1 mol N2O4(g) x 304.29 J/mol-K] - [2 mol NO2(l) x 240.06 J/mol-K]

3.3 Determine if the entropy change will be positive or negative for the following reactions:

A) (NH4)2Cr2O7(s) Cr2O3(s) + 4 H2O(l) + CO2(g)

B) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

C) PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2(g)

Solution:

Entropy of a reaction refers to the positional probabilities for each reactant. An atom in gas
phase has more options for position than the same atom in a solid phase. This is why gases
have more entropy than solids.

In reactions, the positional probabilities must be compared for all the reactants to the
products produced.

If the reaction involves only gases, the entropy is related to the total number of moles on
either side of the reaction. A decrease in the number of moles on the product side means
lower entropy. An increase in the number of moles on the product side means higher entropy.

If the reaction involves multiple phases, the production of a gas typically increases the
entropy much more than any increase in moles of a liquid or solid.

Reaction A

(NH4)2Cr2O7(s) Cr2O3(s) + 4 H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The reactant side contains only one mole where the product side has six moles produced.

The was also a gas produced. The change in entropy will be positive.

Reaction B

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

There are 3 moles on the reactant side and only 2 on the product side. The change in entropy
will be negative.

Reaction C

PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2(g)

There are more moles on the product side than on the reactant side, therefore the change in
entropy will be positive.

ANSWERS:

Reactions A and C will have positive changes in entropy.

Reaction B will have negative changes in entropy.

= -175.83 J/K
 The sign of So is negative because two molecules combine in this reaction to form a larger,
more ordered product.

(c) Using a standard-state entropy data table, we find the following information:

Compound S(J/mol-K)

NO(g) 210.76

N2(g) 191.61

O2(g) 205.14

The balanced equation for this reaction indicates that 2 mole of NO are produced when 1
mole of N2 reacts with 1 mole of O2 . Thus, the standard-state entropy of reaction is
calculated as follows:

So = So(products) - So(reactants)

= [2 mol NO x 210.76 J/mol-K] - [1 mol N2 x 191/61 J/mol-K + 1 mol O2 x

205.14 J/mol-K]

= 24.77 J/K

So for this reaction is small but positive because the product of the reaction (NO) is slightly
more disordered that the reactants ( N2 and O2).

4.0 ENTROPY BALANCE DEFINITION

an expression of the second law of thermodynamics that is particularly convenient for
thermodynamic analysis
a basic equation for non-equilibrium thermodynamics
The increase of entropy principle is expressed as
Entropy change = Entropy transfer + Entropy generation

Ssystem Stransfer Sgen

This is called the entropy balance.
This equation shows the relation between the three thermodynamic quantities: the
entropy change, the entropy production and the entropy flow. The entropy change is
the time derivative of the entropy of the system, S/t, and is given as the sum of two
integrals (the entropy production and the entropy flow) taken over the system:

5.0 CALCULATION OF ENTROPY BALANCE EQUATION

5.1 ENTROPY BALANCE ON OPEN SYSTEMS

Q j
ds
m isi m ese s gen
m
dt Tj

Rate at which the entropy of the system changes

=
Rate at which entropy changes due to heat transfer into or out of the system
+
Rate at which entropy flows into the system
 -
Rate at which entropy flows out of the system
+
Rate at which entropy is generated within the system

5.2 ENTROPY BALANCE ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

Qj
s m s
gen
Tj

6.0 ENTROPY TRANSFER

Entropy can be transferred to or from a system by two mechanisms: heat transfer and mass
flow. Note that no entropy is transferred by work.

Entropy can be transferred to or from a system by two mechanisms: heat transfer and mass
flow. Note that no entropy is transferred by work.

6.1 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy of the system, and heat transfer out of a
system decreases the entropy of the system.

During a process 1-2 of a system as defined above, If heat transfer Q happens at the system
boundary which has an absolute temperature T, the entropy transfer associated with this heat
transfer process is

If the entire boundary temperature remains as a constant T, the above equation can be
simplified as

Sheat = Q/T

where Q = total heat transfer during process 1-2

When the temperature T is not a constant, but a function of its location, the entropy
change can be approximated as

where
Qk = heat transfer at boundary location k
Tk = temperature at boundary location k
 6.2 Mass Transfer

Mass contains entropy as well as energy. Mass m, which has a specific entropy s, contains
a total entropy of ms. When a mass flows in a system, the entropy increase in the system
is ms. In the same manner, mass m flowing out of a system will result in a decrease of
entropy in amount of ms in the system.

Smass = ms

6.0 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

6.1 Saturated liquid water at 100 C is contained in a pistoncylinder assembly. The water
undergoes a process to the corresponding saturated vapor state, during which the piston
moves freely in the cylinder. There is no heat transfer with the surroundings. If the change
of state is brought about by the action of a paddle wheel, determine the network per unit
mass, in kJ/kg, and the amount of entropy produced per unit mass, in kJ/kg.K.

Assumptions:
1 The water in the pistoncylinder assembly is a closed system.
2 There is no heat transfer with the surroundings.
3 The system is at an equilibrium state initially and finally. PE = KE = 0.

Solution:
The network can be calculated by using the law:
U + KE + PE = Q W
That is simplifies to:
U = W

On a unit mass basis, the energy balance becomes:

W / m = (ug uf)
From Table A4,
W / m = 2087.6 kJ/kg
The negative sign indicates that the work input by the stirring is greater than the work
done by the water as it expands.

Using an entropy balance, the amount of entropy produced can be found. Since there is
no heat transfer,

On a unit mass basis, this becomes:

Using Table A4
Sgen / m = 6.048 kJ / kg.K Ans.
 6.2 Steam enters a turbine with a pressure of 3 MPa, a temperature of 400 C, and a
velocity of 160 m/s. Saturated vapor at 100 C exits with a velocity of 100 m/s. At
steadystate, the turbine develops work equal to 540 kJ/kg. Heat transfer between the
turbine and its surroundings occur at an average outer surface temperature of 350 K.
Determine the rate at which entropy is produced within the turbine per kg of steam
flowing, in kJ/kg.K. Neglect the change in potential energy between inlet and exit.

Assumptions:
1 Steady state operation in CV. PE = 0.
2 Turbine outer surface is at a specified average temperature.

Solution:
From the mass balance, we know that m = m1 = m2
Since the process is steadystate, one can write:

The heat transfer occurs at Tb = 350 K, the first term of the right hand side of the entropy
balance reduces to Q/ Tb

We need to calculate the rate of heat transfer. The first law (energy balance) can be used
to find the heat transfer rate. Combining the mass balance and the first law, one finds:

From Table A6, h1 = 3230.9 kJ/kg, and From A4 h2 = 2676.1 kJ/kg. After substitution,
and converting the units, one finds:

22.6 kJ / kg

From Table A4, s2 = 7.3549 kJ/kg.K and from Table A6, s1 = 6.9212 kJ/kg.K. Inserting
values into the expression for entropy production:

0.4983 kJ / kg Ans.

References:
Engineering Thermodynamics by P K Nag
https://www.thoughtco.com/entropy-definition-calculation-and-misconceptions-2698977
https://www.thoughtco.com/entropy-change-problem-609481
http://petrowiki.org/Second_law_of_thermodynamics
http://www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy
 II. HEAT ENGINES AND REFRIGERATORS

1.0 Heat Engines

A machine that produces work from heat in a cyclic process

Closed system that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding an that operates in
cycles

A heat engine is composed of a high internal energy (high temperature) reservoir and a low
internal energy reservoir. The flow of heat from the high temperature reservoir to the low
temperature reservoir is used to do mechanical work. It's kind of like how the flow of water
downstream turns the wheel of a watermill, but not nearly as picturesque.

A basic heat engine consists of a gas confined by a piston in a cylinder. If the gas is heated,
it expands, moving the piston. This wouldn't be a particularly practical engine, though, because
once the gas reaches equilibrium the motion would stop. A practical engine goes through cycles;
the piston has to move back and forth. Once the gas is heated, moving the piston up, it can be
cooled and the piston will move back down. A cycle of heating and cooling will move the piston
up and down.

A necessary component of a heat engine, then, is that two temperatures are involved. At one
stage the system is heated, at another it is cooled.

In a full cycle of a heat engine, three things happen:

1. Heat is added. This is at a relatively high temperature, so the heat can be called QH.
2. Some of the energy from that input heat is used to perform work (W).
3. The rest of the heat is removed at a relatively cold temperature (QC)

Applying conservation of energy, QH = W + QC.

An important measure of a heat engine is its efficiency: how much of the input energy ends
up doing useful work? The efficiency is calculated as a fraction (although it is often stated as a
percentage):

Efficiency: e = work done / input heat = W /QH

Work is just the input heat minus the rejected heat, so:

e = (QH-QC) / QH = 1- QC /QH

Note that this is the maximum possible efficiency for an engine. In reality there will be other losses
(to friction, for example) that will reduce the efficiency.

1.1 Carnot's Principle

How can an engine achieve its maximum efficiency?

It must operate using reversible processes: a reversible process is one in which the system
and the surroundings can be returned to state they were in before the process began. If energy is
lost to friction during a process, the process is irreversible; if energy is lost as heat flows from a
hot region to a cooler region, the process is irreversible. The efficiency of an engine using
irreversible processes can not be greater than the efficiency of an engine using reversible processes
that is working between the same temperatures. This is known as Carnot's principle, named after
Sadi Carnot, a French engineer.

The Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by
physical laws. It consists of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. When
the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used
to do work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can be
so used.

In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat engine cycle
must be reversible and involve no change in entropy. This means that the Carnot cycle is an
idealization, since no real engine processes are reversible and all real physical processes involve
some increase in entropy.

The temperatures in the Carnot efficiency expression must be expressed in Kelvins.

The efficiency of a heat engine cycle is given by

For the ideal case of the Carnot cycle, this efficiency can be written

Using these two expressions together:

2.0 REFRIGERATORS

The second law of thermodynamics says that heat can flow from high temperature
reservoir to low temperature reservoir only, however, if you want to move the heat from low
temperature to high temperature reservoir, then the external work has be supplied.
Refrigerators are devices that will transfer heat from a low temperature environment to a
high temperature environment. Normally, heat will only flow from a hotter environment to a
colder environment. This makes it seem like the concept of a refrigerator breaks the second law
of thermodynamics.

From the diagram it can be seen that a refrigerator consist of four basic components. These are:
-a compressor
-a condenser
-an expansion valve (also known as a throttling valve)
-an evaporator.

Refrigeration is a process of maintaining low temperature in comparison to surrounding

temperature. It is also the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, and rejecting it
elsewhere for the primary purpose of lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or
substance and then maintaining that lower temperature.
It is usually done with the aid of a mechanical device (heat
pump) using a substance (refrigerant) which absorbs heat from low
temperature and releases heat elsewhere at high temperatures,

2.1 COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE

The coefficient of performance represents the amount of
heat removed in comparison to work in, and the higher the
number the better that refrigerator is performing. It is also
defined as the ratio of the refrigerating effect (QL) to the work added to the system
(Wnet). This number can be greater than 1, which means that this number doesn't
represent the efficiency of the refrigerator and should not be confused with efficiency.
The coefficient of performance, which indicates how well the refrigerator is functioning,
can be calculated by using:
QC QC 1
COPR where:
Wnet QH QC QH COPR = Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator
1 Wnet = net work done by the refrigerator
QC
QC = heat rejected TC = lower temperature
TC 1 QH = heat absorbed TH = higher temperature
COPR
TH TC TH
1 Manipulation of given data can be used to find other
TC
missing values.

2.2 PROCESS OF REFRIGERATION

Work is input into the compressor to compress the refrigerant to a high pressure as it enters
the condenser, which is the network of tubes seen on the back of the refrigerator. While the
refrigerant is being compressed to a high pressure, the temperature also increases to a higher
temperature then the environment outside of the refrigerator, which in turn will cause the outside
environment to act like a sink. After the refrigerant has gone through the condenser it will reach
the expansion valve. The expansion valve will cause the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant to drop drastically. The temperature of the refrigerant will now be lower than the
environment inside refrigerator. The cooled refrigerant will then enter the evaporator, which
is a series of tubes inside of the refrigerator. As the refrigerant flows through the evaporator, the
refrigerators environment will act like a source and heat will be transferred into the refrigerator
causing it to evaporate. The refrigerant, which is now a gas, will enter the compressor again,
where it will be compressed back into a liquid at a high pressure and temperature, and the
process will repeat.

3.0 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3.1 A vapor compression refrigeration system has to handle a cooling load of 2 tons. Find
the power of the compressor in kW if the COP is given as 3.5

3.2 A Carnot cycle operates between thermal reservoirs at 55C and 560C. Calculate the
COP if it is a refrigerator. Determine if the COP is good or bad. Explain.

3.3 In the set-up, the heat lost is 25000kJ/kg and the COP is 1.6. Find
the net work in MW.

III. ENTROPY BALANCES OF FLOW PROCESSES

1.0 Reversible Steady-flow Work

The energy balance for a steady-flow device

(nozzle, compressor, turbine and pump) with
one inlet and one exit is:

Its differential form is:

q - w = dh + dke + dpe
One-inlet-one-exit Nozzle
If the device undergoes an internally
reversible process, the heat transfer term q
can be replaced by dh - vdP since

qrev = Tds
Tds = dh - vdP (the second Tds relation)

Then the energy balance becomes

dh - vdP - wrev = dh + dke + dpe

By rearranging the above equation, the

reversible steady-flow work can be expressed
as

- wrev = vdP + dke + dpe

 Integrating it form location 1 to location 2
yields,

The above equation is the relation for the

reversible work output associated with an
internally reversible process in a steady-flow
device. When the changes in kinetic and
potential energies are negligible, the relation
reduces to

Water Flowing through a Hydraulic

Turbine The above equation states that the larger the
specific volume, the larger the reversible work
produced or consumed by a steady-flow
device. To minimize the work input during a
compression process, one should keep the
specific volume of the working fluid as small
as possible. In the same manner, to maximize
the work output during an expansion process,
one should keep the specific volume of the
working fluid as large as possible.
One needs to know the relationship between
the specific volume v and the pressure P for
the given process to perform the integration in
the above relation. If an incompressible fluid
is used as the working fluid, the specific
volume v is a constant. The relation for the
reversible work output associated with an
internally reversible process in a steady-flow
device is simplified to give

wrev = -v(P2 - P1) - ke - pe

Power Generated by Hydraulic Turbine
Hydraulic turbines used in hydroelectric
power plants run in a steady-flow process with
incompressible fluid, i.e., water, as the
working fluid.
If no work interactions are involved, like
nozzle or pipe section, the above equation is
reduced to

The Bernoulli Equation

where V is the velocity of the fluid. This
 equation is known as the Bernoulli equation in
fluid mechanics.

Reversible Steady-flow Devices produce Most

and Consume Least Work

The steady-flow devices deliver the most and

consume the least work when it undergoes a
reversible process. Consider two steady-flow
devices, one is reversible and the other is
irreversible (actual process), operating
between the same inlet and exit states. The
differential forms for the energy balance of
these two devices are

qact - wact = dh + dke + dpe

qrev - wrev = dh + dke + dpe

The right hand sides of these two equations

are the same. It gives,

qact - wact = qrev - wrev

Rearranging this equation gives,

wrev - wact = qrev - qact

Since qrev = Tds, the above equation

becomes,

wrev - wact = Tds - qact

the increase of entropy principle gives

Reversible Turbine Delivers more Work
than Actual Turbine

Thus,

wrev - wact 0 or wrev wact

That is, for the same inlet and exit conditions,

when the device undergoes a reversible
process, a work-produce device like turbine
produces the most work (w is positive), or a
work-consuming device like compressor
consumes the least work (w is negative).
A hydroelectric power plant is to be built in
a mountain region. Water flows from the
elevated reservoir through pipes to a
hydraulic turbine, whose shaft is connected
to a electric generator. Thus, the
mechanical energy of water is converted to
electrical energy. A designer orders some
0.5-m-diameter-pipes but he needs the
engineer to specify the exact number of
intake pipes.

What is known:

The water surface in the reservoir is

105 m higher than the turbine.
The entrance to the intake pipes is
located 5 m below the water surface
in the reservoir.
Water enters the intake pipe at 1
m/s and exhausts to a river directly
after exiting the turbine with almost
the same velocity.
The ambient pressure is 1 bar.
The pipe diameter is 0.5 m.
The power output is 1 MW.

Question

How many intake pipes are to be installed?

Approach

Take the system from point 1 to 2

shown on the left as a control
volume.
Consider the power plant works in
reversible and steady flow
conditions. Then the power output
from the power plant equals the
reversible steady-flow work of the
turbine.

A Hydroelectric Power Plant

Schematic of the Power Plant

Solution:
A small power plant using hydraulic
turbines is planned. The number of
intake pipes which intake water from
a reservoir to the turbines needs to be
determined.

Assumptions:

Model the water as

incompressible substance
with a density = 1000
kg/m3.
Assume water flows through
the pipes and turbines
steadily, and the process is
reversible.

The schematic of the power plant is shown on the

left. Take the pipes and the turbines together as a
control volume. Denote the inlet of the intake
pipes as 1 and the outflow of the turbine as 2.The
reversible steady-flow work generated by this
power plant is

Schematic of the Power Plant

where

The first term on the left-hand side is the pressure

term. Point 1 is located 5 meter under the water
surface in reservoir. So pressure P1 is

P1 = gh + Patm= 1000(9.8)(5) +100,000

=149,000 Pa = 1.49 bar

Point 2 is located at the outflow of the power

plant. Its pressure equals the ambient pressure,

P2 = 1.0 bar

The second term on the left-hand side is the

kinetic energy term. Water enters the pipes with a
velocity of 1 m/s and leaves the turbine as the
same velocity. Hence, there is no kinetic energy
change when water flows from point 1 to point 2.
That is,
 KE = 0

The third term on the left-hand side is the

potential energy term. Water flowing from point 1
(100 m higher than point 2) to point 2 experiences
a potential energy change of

Substituting the three terms into the expression

for reversible steady-flow work gives

This power plant needs to generate 1 MW power,

hence,

= 1,000,000 W

Substituting this to the expression of the

reversible steady-flow work gives

1,000,000 = 1,029,000
= 0.97 m3/s

Water enters the intake pipe with a velocity of 1

m/s. The flow rate through each 0.5 m diameter
pipe is

= (3.14)(0.25)2(1) = 0.196 m3/s

In order to intake 0.97 m3 of water through the

pipes per second, the number of the pipes needed
is

N= = 0.97/0.196 = 5

Entropy Change of Pure

Substance

In engineering analysis, isentropic efficiency is a

parameter to measure the degree of degradation of
energy in steady-flow devices. It involves a
comparison between the actual performance of a
device and the performance that would be
 achieved under idealized circumstances for the
same inlet and exit states. Although there exits
heat transfer between the device and its
surroundings, most steady-flow devices are
intended to operate under adiabatic condition.
Hence, normally an isentropic process is chosen to
serve as the idealized process.

Recall, if the inlet is denoted by subscript 1 and

exit is denoted by subscript 2, the energy
balance for a one-inlet-one-exit control volume is

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

For an adiabatic turbine which undergoes a steady-

flow process, its inlet and exit pressures are fixed.
Hence, the idealized process for turbine is
an isentropic process between the inlet and exit
pressures. The desired output from a turbine is the
work output. Hence, the definition of isentropic
efficiency of turbine is the ratio of the actual work
output of the turbine to the work output of the
turbine if the turbine undergoes an isentropic
process between the same inlet and exit pressures.

T = Actual turbine work/Isentropic turbine

work
= wa/ws
Schematic of a Turbine
wa and ws can be obtained from the energy
balance of the turbine. Usually the kinetic and
potential energies associated with a process
through a turbine is negligible compared with the
enthalpy change of the process. In this case,
the energy balance of the turbine is reduced to

The isentropic efficiency of turbine can then be

written as
The h-s Diagram of the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
T (h2a - h1)/(h2s - h1)
Turbine
where
h1 = enthalpy at the inlet
h2a = enthalpy of actual process at the exit
h2s = enthalpy of isentropic process at the exit

Isentropic Efficiency of Compressors and Pumps

 Compressors and pumps, when undergo a steady-
flow process, consume power. The isentropic
efficiency of a compressor or pump is defined as
the ratio of the work input to an isentropic process,
to the work input to the actual process between the
same inlet and exit pressures.

C = Isentropic compressor (pump)

work/Actual compressor (pump) work
= ws/wa

wa and ws can be obtained from the energy

balance of the compressors or pumps. When the
kinetic and potential energies associated with a gas
flowing through a compressor are negligible
compared with the enthalpy change of the gas, the
energy balance of the compressor is reduced to

Schematic of a Compressor

The isentropic efficiency of a compressor becomes

C (h2s - h1)/(h2a - h1)

Pumps are used to handle liquid instead of gas.

Since liquid is incompressible and the process is
anisentropic process, the enthalpy change from
inlet to exit is

The h-s Diagram of the Actual and

Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
Compressor or Pump

If the kinetic and potential energies are negligible,

the isentropic efficiency of a pump is reduced to

P v(P2 - P1)/(h2a - h1)

IN practice, compressors are intentionally cooled

to minimize the work input. In those cases, a
reversible isothermal process is served as the
idealized process for compressors which are
intentionally cooled, and then an isothermal
efficiency is defined instead of the isentropic
efficiency. The isothermal efficiency is defined as
the ratio of the work input to the isothermal
process, to the work input to the actual process
Schematic of a Pump between the same inlet and exit pressures.

C = Reversible isothermal
compressor work/Actual compressor
work
= wt/wa

Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles

 Nozzles are devices used to accelerate the fluid
velocity at the cost of pressure. The isentropic
efficiency of nozzles is defined as the ratio of the
actual kinetic energy at exit to the kinetic energy
at the exit when the process is isentropic for the
same inlet and exit pressures.

N = Actual KE at exit/Isentropic KE at exit

Schematic of a Nozzle

There is no work interaction involved in nozzles

and the potential energy change of the fluid is
small. If the inlet velocity is small relatively to the
exit velocity, theenergy balance of a nozzle is
reduced to

The h-s Diagram of the Actual and

Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic
Nozzle
Then the isentropic efficiency of nozzles becomes

N (h1 - h2a)/(h1 - h2s)

Problem No. 4

Mr. Williams has a small swimming pool

in his backyard. The pump that pumps
water from a well to the pool is broken.
However, he found a used pump in a
second-hand electric utility store. To insure
that the pump matches his motor, he needs
to figure out the power required to run the
pump.

What is known:

The pump is capable of increasing

the pressure of water up to 300 kPa.
The flow rate through the pump is
20 kg/min.
The pump has an isentropic
efficiency of 85%.
 Question

What is the required power input to the

pump?

Approach

Take the pump as a control volume.

Model the pump as an adiabatic
pump.
Use the definition of isentropic
efficiency of pump to calculate the
enthalpy change of the process.
Use the energy balance to calculate
the power input to the pump.

Solution:
A used pump must match the motor in Mr.
Williams' swimming pool. The power
required to run the pump needs to be
determined.

Assumptions:

Model the pump as an adiabatic one.

The flow process in the pump is
steady.
The kinetic and potential energies
associated with water flowing
through the pump are negligible.
The pump operates at ambient
temperature.

Take the pump as a control volume,

shown on the left. Denote the inlet by
subscript 1 and exit by subscript 2. The
definition of isentropic efficiency of pump
is:

P v(P2 - P1)/(h2 - h1)

It is assumed that the pump operates at

The Control Volume ambient temperature. Hence the specific
volume of water is

v = 0.001 m3/kg

The pump increases the pressure of the

water up to 300 kPa, which means the
pressure difference of water between the
exit and inlet is 300 kPa. That is

P2 - P1 = 300 kPa
 Substituting the given efficiency, which is
85%, and the pressure difference above to
the definition of isentropic efficiency
gives,

h2 - h1 = v(P2 - P1)/ P
= 0.001(300,000)/0.85 = 352.9
J/kg

With the assumptions that the pump is

The Pumping Process on the h-s Diagram adiabatic and the kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, the energy balance
of the pump reduces to

The mass flow rate is given as 20 kg/min.

Substituting the enthalpy difference and
the mass flow rate to the energy balance
yields,

= -20/60(352.9) = -117.6 W

The negative sign means the pump needs

power input.
Reference:
http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=06.0