2017 Commonsense Watching Gender Full Report

a common sense
research brief
WATCHING
GENDER
How Stereotypes in Movies and on TV Impact Kids' Development
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WATCHING GENDER:
How Stereotypes in Movies and on TV Impact Kids’ Development
common sense is grateful for the generous support and underwriting that funded this research report.
The Honorable John Delaney

Diana Nelson and John Atwater and April McClain-Delaney Eva and Bill Price
Delaney Family Fund
CREDITS
Director: Olivia Morgan, vice president of strategic programs, Common Sense
Authors: L . Monique Ward, Ph.D., professor of psychology, University of Michigan
Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Ph.D., associate professor of communication, University of Arizona
Editor: Michael B. Robb, Ph.D.
Copy editor: Jenny Pritchett
Designer: Chloe Leng
Suggested citation: Ward, L. M., & Aubrey, J. S. (2017). Watching gender: How stereotypes in movies and on TV impact kids’ development.
San Francisco, CA: Common Sense.
INTRODUCTION
By JAMES P. STEYER and AMY GUGGENHEIM SHENKAN
Decades of research, outlined in this report, demonstrate the power of media to shape
how children learn about gender, including how boys and girls look, think, and behave.
Depictions of gender roles in the media affect kids at all stages of their development,
from preschool all the way through high school and beyond. These media messages
shape our children’s sense of self, of their and others’ value, of how relationships should
work, and of career aspirations.
Tragically, that influence has served to perpetuate notions that boys have more value
than girls. Gender stereotypes riddle our movies, TV shows, online videos, games, and
more, telling our boys that it’s OK to use aggression to solve problems and our girls that James P. Steyer
their self-worth is tied to their appearance. These images are so deeply ingrained and Founder and CEO
pervasive that many of us don’t even notice the bias, making it more insidious because
we don’t even realize we’re exposing our children to it.
This matters because these rigid stereotypes are holding us back — politically, economically,
and socially. As the gender bias projected on the silver and digital screens bleeds into
real life, it robs our economy of talent and productivity. The Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimated last year that gender discrimination
costs the global economy up to $12 trillion annually in wasted potential.
Amy Guggenheim Shenkan
The repercussions aren’t limited to girls. They reach boys as well, with particularly President and
corrosive consequences. Masculine ideals, the type shown in abundance in movies, on Chief Operating Officer
TV shows, and in games, are associated with high-risk-taking behaviors in young men,
including alcohol and drug use and driving at excessive speeds, according to researchers
from the University of Michigan and Western Washington University. They also
constrain how boys view gender, steering them away from values such as nurturance
and compassion.
We at Common Sense view this moment in time as an opportunity to break the cycle
beginning with this generation of children. Luckily, our own kids are showing that they are
willing, if not eager, to break down barriers and create a new world for themselves. As a
mother, Amy has taught her daughter how to evaluate everything she sees and reads with
a critical eye. Now, her daughter continually points out gender bias in places that even
Amy overlooks because she’s become so inured to them in the decades she’s spent in
male-dominated corporate settings and consuming media.
Everyone can and must play a role in countering gender bias. Parents can choose media
that show a diversity of male and female characters in nontraditional roles contributing
equally to the storylines. They can help their children identify and reject the stereotypes
they encounter in movies, on TV shows, and elsewhere. Our children can, in turn, point
out the bias that our own eyes have missed. And content creators can abandon gender
tropes and create characters that fascinate us with their richness and complexity. This
takes thought and attention as well as more diversity within the very institutions that
create this content.
At Common Sense, we believe our role is threefold. First, we want to give parents tools to
evaluate gender bias in children’s media. This report is only the beginning. The findings will
be used to inform our media evaluation and review process and further train Common
Sense editors on how gender portrayals affect children at each stage of their development.
We’ll also refresh our Parent Concerns section to include facts and tips on gender bias
in the media and give parents resources to have informed, compassionate conversations
with their children on the topic.
Second, we want to encourage children’s content creators to reject gender stereotypes

and portray caregiving as valuable work that’s performed by both men and women, as
well as present counter-stereotypes. To advance this goal, this report includes specific
recommendations for media producers interested in portraying diverse gender roles based
on the developmental stages of their target audiences.
And, finally, through our Common Sense Kids Action arm, we will advocate for broad
policy changes such as child care benefits, paid sick days, family and medical leave, and
higher wages for child care providers to enhance the value of caregiving by both men
and women. When media shows caregiving as feminine work and devalues that work,
it undermines political and cultural support for paid family leave and affordable quality
child care. Policymakers need to step up and let parents of both genders be caregivers.
Stories play a powerful part in shaping how kids understand the world and their roles in it.
For our children to achieve their full potential, free of stereotypes that hold them back,
each of us needs to consciously weed out gender bias. Parents can help children think
critically about gender roles in the media. Content creators can be mindful of the messages
they project. And each of us can be an activist working to promote gender equality
everywhere. We can start by creating better role models — among ourselves and in
our media.
James P. Steyer Amy Guggenheim Shenkan

Founder and Chief Executive Officer President and Chief Operating Officer
Common Sense Common Sense
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Why Gender Equity Is Common Sense................................................................. 2
Key Findings...........................................................................................................7
Introduction..........................................................................................................14
The Development of Gender ..................................................................................... 15
How Are Men and Women Portrayed in Children’s Media?............................... 17
Early Childhood (Age 0–6)..........................................................................................17
Middle Childhood (Age 7–10).................................................................................... 18
Early Adolescence (Age 11–13)................................................................................... 19
Later Adolescence (Age 14–17)................................................................................ 20
Is There Any Evidence That Media Use Affects Children’s Gender Roles?..... 21
Early Childhood (Age 0–6)......................................................................................... 21
Middle Childhood (Age 7–10)....................................................................................23
Early Adolescence (Age 11–13)...................................................................................27
Later Adolescence (Age 14–17)................................................................................ 30
What Are the Implications of This Content for Children’s Lives?..................... 35
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 38
Resources................................................................................................. 39
Gender Equity Guidelines for Content Creators................................................40
References................................................................................................ 42
Essays.................................................................................................................. 50
The Reality of Representation: Gender Bias in the Industry............................50
Geena Davis: Why Numbers Matter................................................................ 50
Eun Yang: Spotlight on Gender............................................................................ 51
Gender Portrayals: Not Just a Girl Thing............................................................ 52
Gary Barker: Breaking Out of the Man Box.......................................................52
Kevin Clark: Diversity: Why It Matters..............................................................53
Why It Matters: Real-Life Impacts of Gender Portrayals.................................54
David Plouffe: Media and Politics: The 2008 Clinton Campaign................ 54
Reveta Bowers: Identity and Educational Success ..........................................55
Board of Directors.................................................................................... 56
Gender Equity Is Common Sense Advisory Council.. ...............................57
Acknowledgements.................................................................................. 57
WHY GENDER EQUITY IS COMMON SENSE
By OLIVIA MORGAN and CLAIRE SHIPMAN
The time has come to tackle gender equity in media. Despite expanding public
awareness of the need for both girls and boys to be able to navigate their lives
free of rigid gender rules, content producers have been slow to change their
fare for kids. Instead of helping to push boundaries by creating aspirational,
nonstereotypical characters, mainstream media too often falls back on tired
gender tropes.
This is unhealthy. Our comprehensive research review shows that children who are fed
Olivia Morgan gender stereotypes may internalize those roles, shaping their behavior for years to
Vice President, come. The effects on children of gendered media include: girls’ focus on their appearance
Strategic Programs, and value as sexual objects; more tolerant views of sexual harassment; the establishment
Common Sense of gendered behaviors in romantic and sexual relationships; riskier behavior in boys; and
career choices limited by gender norms.
For decades, sociologists such as Carol Gilligan have noted a break in the healthy emotional
development of girls beginning in adolescence and have studied social factors responsible
for a marked decline in their confidence beginning around age 9. For example, six out of
10 girls stop doing something they love during adolescence because of anxiety over their
appearance, according to a global study commissioned by the Dove Self-Esteem Project.
By age 14, girls drop out of competitive sports at twice the rate of boys because they
lack positive role models and because of a gender-related social stigma, according to the
Claire Shipman
Women’s Sports Foundation.
Chair, Gender Equity
Is Common Sense Our report shows that girls aren’t alone in their struggles with restrictive identity
Advisory Council
norms. One study cited in this report shows that young men feel society expects them
to behave in stereotypical ways — aggressive, dominant, always ready for sex — but
that they don’t agree with those standards of manhood. Another recent study reveals
that many adolescent boys are highly concerned about their weight and physique, and
their anxiety is correlated with depression, binge drinking, and drug use. Movies and
magazines display men with six-pack abs. Male action figures tied to film or TV properties
explode with an unrealistic amount of muscle. As clinical psychologist Raymond
Lemberg expressed in a 2014 Atlantic magazine article on body image, “The media
has become … an equal opportunity discriminator. Men’s bodies are not good enough
anymore either.”
Our research review also finds that, when it comes to media representations, children
of color face additional challenges unique to the intersections among race, ethnicity,
and gender. Studies show that some media content oriented toward African-American
youth, for example, contain higher-than-average levels of sexually objectifying portrayals
of women.
Gender stereotypes reinforced by the media have economic, as well as social, consequences.
Limiting how children see themselves professionally hurts us all economically. As our
2 WATCHING GENDER: HOW STEREOTYPES IN MOVIES AND ON TV IMPACT KIDS’ DEVELOPMENT © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
report shows, there is a relationship between values they hope to instill, and the role models they
the media kids watch and the careers to which look for on TV and in movies. Here’s a sample of what
they aspire. they shared with us:
According to a 2016 report from the National Center

for Education Statistics, despite women graduating BROOKE, a conservative mother
from college at higher rates, men still earn more and school teacher, said:
than women on average in the 10 largest occupation
groups. Why does it matter if women are paid less
than men? For one thing, most lower-income families “I do wish they showed more women being
depend primarily on a female breadwinner. At the more empowered than I think they are portrayed.
same time, the job sectors predicted to grow most I think that would be great. I wish they would
over the next decade — nursing, health care, retail, show more men taking care of their family and
and customer and food service — are currently doing those girly jobs like changing diapers
dominated by women. Those fields are also underpaid, and taking the kids to school.”
meaning more and more families will struggle to
get by in those professions. U.S. males have higher
unemployment than females, and their entry into a DIEGO, a moderate single father who
job sector tends to raise wages. If more males enter works as a translator, feels media
caregiving and service sectors, our economy and our messages sometimes undermine his
families benefit. efforts to instill gender equity in his
two children.
We believe gender equity is common sense; so
our Gender Equity Is Common Sense initiative is a
step toward concrete change. Using the resources “My son was watching a show that said he’s
developed for this report, parents can choose media supposed to be treating his sister like he’s the
that encourages kids — regardless of gender — to one in charge. I told him that’s not right.”
find their unique strengths and boost their confidence
in who they are. Educators can share curricula that
DEBORAH, a liberal academic
open students’ eyes to stereotypes and their effects.
administrator, is heartbroken over
And content creators can see how their work affects
what watching television means for
the kids who watch it, so they can embrace positive
her son.
gender representations and present counter-stereotypes.
For our initiative, we listened to many voices. We

“Every time he sees a black male on television,
began by conducting a survey of our users, the results
they’re going to jail, are a drug dealer or
of which show that parents care deeply about how
basketball player. That’s contradictory of what
gender is portrayed in the media their children
I’m trying to instill in him. I see very little news
consume. Ninety percent of our users believe the way
about black boys doing something positive.”
movies and TV portray girls and women and boys
and men influence how children see themselves and
their genders. Eighty percent consider such gender We then combined the findings from our survey
portrayals when choosing media for their children. of users with insights from these interviews to form
We followed up our user survey with deep-dive the foundation for a national survey of approximately
interviews with parents across the political spectrum 1,000 parents to explore their attitudes toward
about how they raise their children, the lessons and gender as it is reflected on television and in movies.
WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 3

We are excited to present findings from that Over only a few generations, we have witnessed a sea
survey in the infographic in this report, including change in gender roles. By creating characters who
these highlights: accurately portray the spectrum of today’s children
and tomorrow’s leaders, media can lead the way in
Parents believe media have great influence on
what can seem confusing times. By normalizing what
children, particularly girls. About 75 percent say girls
is already happening in and around families, media
are “very” or “extremely” influenced by TV shows and
can offer a vision of a healthy, equitable way forward
movies when it comes to “how they look,” versus 45
for all kids.
percent for boys. When it comes to “how to act in a
romantic relationship,” 56 percent of parents say TV This report combines our national survey results with
shows and movies are “very” or “extremely” influen- a comprehensive overview of decades of research on
tial for girls, versus 43 percent for boys. media’s role in gender socialization and presents 10
key findings gleaned from our analysis of more than
Parents are very concerned about their children
150 academic journal articles and numerous press
being exposed to violence and sex in TV and movie
articles. The research confirms many of the concerns
content. About 68 percent of parents are “very” or
parents articulated in our surveys and interviews.
“extremely” concerned when media portrayals of
For example:
women and girls involve violence. About 59 percent
are “very” or “extremely” concerned when males are •• Higher levels of TV viewing are associated
portrayed as “hyper-violent, aggressive or predatory.” with 4-year-olds being more likely to believe
others think boys and men are better than
Parents are dissatisfied with how the media portrays girls and women.
gender, race, ethnicity, and sexuality. One in three
•• Media use among early adolescents is
parents say they are unhappy with the way the media associated with more tolerant views of sexual
portrays African-Americans, Hispanics, and LGBTQ harassment and acceptance of dating violence.
people. Half agree there is a lack of nonwhite role
models in the media for both boys and girls. And •• Television exposure may be related to children’s
career aspirations, with girls who watch more
slightly more than half are concerned when minorities
clips showing female stereotypes expressing
are portrayed in negative ways. less interest in STEM careers than those who
And while most parents believe children today will are shown footage featuring female scientists.
grow up with equal opportunities, over a quarter The good news is that we also found ways to effectively
think boys will have better opportunities in life. combat harmful stereotypes and promote positive
Moms, especially, believe sons have brighter futures: gender representations. Working with media and
Thirty-one percent of moms think boys will have gender experts, we synthesized these findings into a
more opportunities, compared with only 6 percent single grid with practical applications for both content
who say the same about girls. creators and parents. It distills what we know about
At the same time, parents are unsettled by gender gender development by age group and provides
straying too far from norms in today’s culture. More concrete recommendations for parents about select-
than a third of parents surveyed say they are concerned ing media for their children, as well as how content
about boys acting in “girly” ways; about 28 percent creators can present healthy, balanced, and more
say the same about girls acting in “boyish” ways. And diverse gender portrayals.
while four out of five parents say they understand Using this grid, we’re also training our reviewers on a
what it means to be transgender, many of the parents new set of media-evaluation criteria that incorporates
we interviewed raised it as a topic of confusion. As ways to evaluate media representations of gender
Brooke said, “I get what it is, but I don’t get why.” roles. We hope those reviews will help parents find
media that reflect their values about gender and find
healthy, inspiring role models for their children.
What do Americans want for their kids in terms of

role models? From our survey, parents say the top
five qualities in female role models are intelligence,
confidence, kindness, skill at communicating, and
leadership. For male role models, parents want them
to be intelligent, confident, kind, humble, and good
at communicating. In other words, the ideal role
model looks much the same, regardless of gender
or ethnicity.
Content creators need to respond by creating role

models imbued with these common characteristics.
They can break ground by portraying complex
characters that are free of stereotypes that inhibit.
How about a nurturing boy who also happens to be
the cool kid? Or a girl who eschews makeup and likes
rugby as the compelling lead of a show? Content
creators have the power to make it easier for children
and their parents to imagine something different
and to grow in different ways, without fear of being
labelled an outcast.
This report, which examines the effects of film and

television content on gender behaviors and perceptions,
is a step toward making this a reality. But much work
remains to be done in other media, including video
games and social media, both of which make up a
significant portion of kids’ media diets.
Parents are clearly concerned about media portrayals

of gender, and many are hungry for characters that are
more complex, more diverse, and nonstereotypical.
Both research and common sense tell us that there is
power in positive media representations. It’s time that
content creators step up with role models that inspire
our next generation to reach their fullest potential,
free of gender constraints.

Movies and TV promote
the idea that being male is
more valuable than being
female. Boys learn early
on to embody masculine
traits and behaviors.
KEY FINDINGS
1 Media* reinforce the idea that masculine

traits and behaviors are more valued
than feminine traits and behaviors, and boys
This research brief draws on our backgrounds
in the fields of psychology and communication
and on our professional expertise exploring
who consume these media messages are
the intersections of child development, media,
more likely to exhibit masculine behaviors
and gender. In this brief we review scientific
and beliefs.
evidence examining how media use contributes
Adherence to gender stereotypes in early childhood to children’s understanding of gender roles,
tends to be more pronounced in and rewarded for including their assumptions about how girls
boys than girls (Bussey & Bandura, 1992; Slaby & and boys look, think, and behave. Our analysis
Frey, 1975). Higher levels of TV viewing are associated of media focuses primarily on television and
with 4-year-olds being more likely to believe that movies viewed on a variety of platforms. We
others think boys and men are better than girls and also examine the developmental trajectory of
women (Halim, Ruble, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2013). gender typing across four key developmental
Boys are attracted to masculine role models to learn phases of gender socialization: early childhood,
how to behave in masculine ways, and they are less middle childhood, early adolescence, and later
interested in media featuring feminine role models adolescence. This brief considers more than
(Luecke-Aleksa, Anderson, Collins, & Schmitt, 1995; 150 journal articles, press articles, interviews,
Slaby & Frey, 1975). In children’s films and on children’s and books and prioritizes research that has
television (e.g., superhero shows) and in media favored been published since 2000. We believe this
by older adolescents (e.g., reality shows, sports pro- work is critical to helping parents, educators,
gramming), masculinity is illustrated by characteristics media creators, and others support positive
such as aggression, power, dominance, status seeking, gender development, push back on unhelpful
emotional restraint, heterosexuality, and risk taking stereotypes and portrayals, and help children
(Baker & Raney, 2007; Coyne, Callister, & Robinson, develop their full potential.
2010; Stern, 2005). Moreover, research has suggested
that media exposure affects masculine attitudes and
behaviors. For example, preschool boys who are
frequent viewers of television programs about super-
heroes tend to engage in more male-stereotyped
toy play and more weapon play (Coyne, Lindner,
Rasmussen, Nelson, & Collier, 2014). Among older
male adolescents, sports TV viewing and reality TV
viewing are associated with stronger conformity with L. Monique Ward, Ph.D. Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Ph.D.
masculine beliefs (Giaccardi, Ward, Seabrook, Manago,
& Lippman, 2016).
View the full research report at:
commonsense.org/gender-research
* For the purposes of this report, “media” means primarily television shows and movies viewed on a variety of platforms.

2 Media promote the notion that girls should
be concerned about their appearance and
should treat their bodies as sexual objects for
4 Heavier viewing of gender-traditional
television content is associated with
children’s gender-typed career aspirations.
others’ consumption. Not only does media content show children what
The lesson that girls should be concerned with society expects of men and women, but also TV
their appearance and sexiness is communicated in exposure is related to children’s career aspirations.
media targeting youth, beginning in early childhood Girls who consume more traditional TV programs
(Baker & Raney, 2007; Hentges & Case, 2013; Smith, express more interest in certain traditional careers
Choueiti, Prescott, & Pieper, 2013). There is evidence for women (Wroblewski & Huston, 1987). Also,
that exposure to appearance-focused TV content media are often children’s chief source of information
increases body dissatisfaction among 5- to 8-year- for what scientists look like (Steinke, Lapinski, Crocker,
old girls (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006), and by early Zietsman-Thomas, Williams, Evergreen, & Kuchibhotla,
adolescence, media exposure is predictive of the 2007). Girls who are shown TV clips that feature
internalization of media-based appearance ideals for stereotypes of women’s behavior (e.g., talking about
both girls and boys (Trekels & Eggermont, 2017). their outfits) express less interest in STEM careers
Media messages teach girls that looking sexy is (e.g, scientist, architect) than girls who are shown
often preferred or expected and is equated with no content or who are shown clips featuring female
popularity and romantic success. One consequence scientists (Bond, 2016).
is self-objectification — i.e., viewing oneself as an
object whose external appearance matters more
than internal qualities (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).
Self-objectification is associated with many negative
outcomes, including diminished academic performance
(Pacilli, Tomasetto, & Cadinu, 2016), lowered body
5 The television programs and films that
children and adolescents watch reinforce
traditional gender stereotypes.
esteem, increased anxiety, lowered confidence in Research indicates that female and male characters
math ability (Grabe & Hyde, 2009), body shame, and adhere to disparate gender roles. For example, female
depressive symptoms (Tiggemann & Slater, 2015). characters are less active, less knowledgeable, less
dominant, and more deferential than their male
3
counterparts (Browne, 1998). Male characters are
In adolescence, media use is associated more physically aggressive (Leaper, Breed, Hoffman,
with more tolerant views of sexual & Perlman, 2002) and more obsessed with sex (Kim,
harassment and more support for the belief that Sorsoli, Collins, Zylbergold, Schooler, & Tolman,
women are at least partially responsible for their 2007; Ward, 1995); meanwhile, female characters
own sexual assaults. are obsessed with their appearance and sexiness
In early adolescent audiences, some evidence (Gerding & Signorielli, 2014; Stern & Mastro, 2004).
suggests that youth media promote sexist beliefs,
including the tolerance of sexual harassment, accep-
tance of dating violence, and the endorsement
of rape myths, a set of beliefs suggesting that women’s
behavior and choices are to blame for rape (Driesmans,
Vandenbosch, & Eggermont, 2015; Johnson, Adams,
Ashburn, & Reed, 1995; Strouse, Goodwin, & Roscoe,
1994). This research is important to consider in
adolescence because sexist attitudes are a risk factor
for sexist behavior and violence against women in
adult life (Martín, Vergeles, Acevedo, Sánchez, &
Visa, 2005; Russell & Trigg, 2004).
Girls are taught that their
bodies exist to be objectified,
sexualized, and consumed
by others. Teens who are
heavier media users are more
likely to believe that women
are partially responsible for
their own sexual assaults.

TV and movies that children watch
reinforce stereotypical gender roles,
from everyday behavior to career
aspirations to expectations about sex
and romantic relationships. Youth of
color may be particularly vulnerable to
the effects of gender typing in the media.
6 Youth of color may be particularly
vulnerable to the effects of media use
on gender-role development.
8 Accepting rigid stereotypes about the
roles and attributes of women and men
has consequences for development in childhood,
African-American and Latino youth often confront adolescence, and adulthood.
unique gendered stereotypes of their ethnic groups. Although conforming to society’s gender-role
Emerging data suggest that African-American and expectations may offer comfort or validation for
Latino youth do notice these stereotypes in the some, it also may put children into narrow boxes
media (e.g., Adams-Bass, Bentley-Edwards, & and keep some from experiencing their full intel-
Stevenson, 2014) and that exposure to them may lectual and professional potential. For example,
affect their beliefs about gender roles and sexual gender stereotypes are a prominent source of the
relationships (Jerald, Ward, Moss, Thomas, & gender disparity in participation in science, technol-
Fletcher, in press). Having a stronger ethnic identity ogy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields
may be a protective factor (e.g., Schooler, Ward, (Puchner, Markowitz, & Hedley, 2015). Indeed, from
Merriwether, & Caruthers, 2004). Findings also an early age, children associate brilliance more with
indicate that African-American and Latino youth boys than girls (Bian, Leslie, & Cimpian, 2017). In
consume media at higher levels than white youth addition, accepting stereotypes that highlight beauty
(Common Sense Media, 2015b) and that some media and sexiness for girls and danger, risk, and power
targeted at these populations, such as rap and hip-hop for boys is associated with young men’s greater
music videos, are especially high in sexually objecti- participation both in risk-taking behavior (Giaccardi,
fying images of women (e.g., Aubrey & Frisby, 2011; Ward, Seabrook, & Lippman, 2017) and in dating
Turner, 2011). violence and sexual violence (e.g., Murnen, Wright,
& Kaluzny, 2002); with boys’ having problems with
anger and acting out (O’Neil, Challenger, Renzulli,
Crasper, & Webster, 2013; O’Neil & Lujan, 2009);
7 Heavier viewing of gender-traditional

TV and film content is linked to the
expression of more rigid beliefs about what men
and with body-image concerns and mental health
disorders such as depression among girls (American
Psychological Association, 2007).
and women do and are and how they behave.
Children learn from the culture and people around
them about the activities, toys, occupations, and
traits linked with one gender over another. Research
indicates that gender-typed television portrayals
help teach some of these associations. Heavier
viewing of gender-traditional TV content is associated
with the expression of more rigid stereotypes about:
adult activities and occupations (Nathanson, Wilson,
McGee, & Sebastian, 2002), household chores
(Morgan & Rothschild, 1983; Signorielli & Lears,
1992), motherhood (Ex, Janssens, & Korzilius, 2002),
and the attributes that boys and girls should have
(Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Ward, Hansbrough, &
Walker, 2005). Frequent TV viewing is also linked
to the holding of more traditional attitudes about
gender roles in general (Rivadeneyra & Ward, 2005).

9 As children enter adolescence, media
provide lessons on how they are expected
to behave in romantic and sexual situations, and
10 There are several ways to combat
gender stereotypes and promote
positive gender representations, including
these lessons are strongly gendered. presenting counter-stereotypes, talking to
Early adolescents place value in idealized conceptions children about media content, and providing
of romantic relationships, and evidence suggests media-literacy education.
that movies with idealized romantic themes amplify Counter-stereotypical content tries to challenge
early beliefs in idealized romantic concepts, such gender stereotypes — for example, by presenting
as love at first sight (Driesmans, Vandenbosch, strong and capable female characters who are not
& Eggermont, 2016). Adolescents also are eager to obsessed with their appearance and with attracting
understand what is expected of them sexually. males, who initiate and lead, and who enjoy outdoor
Media provide different sexual lessons based on activities, sports, science, and technology. They
gender: Men are expected to actively pursue sexual also present male characters who collaborate with
relationships, treat women as sexual objects, and girls, respect them as equals, demonstrate empathy
avoid commitment and emotional attachment. and emotions, and resolve conflict in nonaggressive
Women are expected to set and enforce sexual limits, ways (Lemish, 2010). Additionally, children who hear
use their looks to attract men, prioritize relational comments from parents that counter stereotypes
commitment, and act sexually passive (Kim et al., express greater acceptance of nontraditional gender
2007). Evidence suggests that older adolescents roles (Nathanson et al., 2002). Lastly, media-literacy
learn these gender-based sexual scripts from a variety education can be used to activate and improve
of media sources, including television (Ward & children’s critical-thinking skills so they can be better
Friedman, 2006; Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2012a), prepared to analyze and challenge media messages.
music, and other sexually explicit media (ter Bogt, Research studies testing the effectiveness of several
Engels, Bogers, & Kloosterman, 2010). media-literacy programs have found participation
to be linked with a weaker internalization of media
ideals, increased awareness of discrimination in the
workplace, a greater ability to identify sexism in the
media, and an improved ability to respond to peers’
sexist comments (Pahlke, Bigler, & Martin, 2014;
Puchner et al., 2015; Wade, Wilksch, Paxton, Byrne,
& Austin, 2017).
Children can learn positive
lessons from stories that
challenge existing gender
stereotypes. Media literacy
is vital to children’s ability to
be savvy media consumers.

INTRODUCTION
The January 2017 cover of National Geographic boldly their lives, from which professions girls might aspire
suggested that we are in the midst of a “gender to, to beliefs about how boys should properly express
revolution.” Distinct from revolutions past — the their emotions. According to a Common Sense Media
sexual revolution and the women’s rights revolution poll of parents conducted in June 2016, 52 percent
in particular — the gender revolution is about chang- say that they think the ways television shows and
ing norms and expanding ideas about what gender movies portray girls and women and boys and men
means from biological, psychological, and social influence the way children see themselves and their
perspectives. In a recent survey, 50 percent of 1,000 genders “a great deal.” Another 38 percent say these
people age 18–34 (part of the so-called millennial media have at least “some” influence. In addition,
generation) reported that gender exists on a spec- 79 percent say they are concerned about how girls
trum rather than as a simple male-female binary and women are shown in gender-stereotyped roles
(Rivas, 2015). Moreover, since the 1990s, U.S. young in movies and on TV, and an almost equal proportion
adult women have become less likely to view them- — 80 percent — say they are concerned about how
selves as traditionally feminine, endorsing, instead, boys and men are portrayed in movies and on TV.
an androgynous self-view that is a blend of femininity
Indeed, if one were to base one’s beliefs about
and masculinity (Donnelly & Twenge, 2016).
gender on media targeting children and adolescents,
Whereas these trends point to widening views one might understand gender in traditional ways.
on gender identity, public opinion on gender roles For example, female characters are less active, less
appears rather mixed. In a 2016 survey, a nationally knowledgeable, less dominant, and more deferential
representative sample of U.S. adults revealed a than their male counterparts (Browne, 1998). Male
substantial gender divide when asked whether they characters are more physically aggressive (Leaper
thought society had become “too soft and feminine” et al., 2002) and obsessed with sex (Kim et al.,
(Jones & Cox, 2016). Only a slim majority of adults 2007; Ward, 1995); meanwhile, female characters
overall (53 percent) rejected this notion, and women are obsessed with their appearance and sexiness
(60 percent) were more likely to disagree with this (Gerding & Signorielli, 2014; Stern & Mastro, 2004).
idea than men (46 percent). Additionally, 55 percent Additionally, male characters continue to outnumber
of Americans rejected the idea that society is better female characters on television, in advertising, and in
off when men and women stick to more traditional movies at a rate of approximately 2:1 (Baker & Raney,
gender roles and tasks. There was more consensus 2007; Hentges & Case, 2013; Leaper et al., 2002;
about gender discrimination; sixty-eight percent Padilla-Walker, Coyne, Fraser, & Stockdale, 2013;
disagreed that discrimination against women is no Smith, Choueiti, Prescott, & Pieper, 2013; Smith,
longer a problem in the United States. Pieper, Granados, & Choueiti, 2010).
Against this backdrop of changing yet still divided In light of these findings, we review what research
views on gender and gender roles, our research brief tells us about how (or if) children’s and adoles-
reviews scientific evidence examining the contribu- cents’ gender development is affected by media.
tions of media to how children learn about gender, Specifically, this brief looks at the effects of media on
including how boys and girls look, think, and behave. gender typing, which includes the development of
Our analysis of media focuses primarily on television three aspects of gender:
and movies viewed on a variety of platforms. Parents
are concerned about the gender messages their
daughters and sons receive from popular culture and
1. Gender identity: The knowledge that one is
either a boy or a girl. It represents a person’s
internal sense of who they are as a gendered being.
how those messages will affect multiple aspects of
Children develop this sense over the first few years The Development of Gender
of life. One’s sense of being male or female largely
In understanding the development of gender, we
determines how people view themselves and
draw a distinction between biological sex and gender.
provides an important basis for their interactions
Whereas one’s biological sex refers to the sex
with others. We draw a distinction between gender
assigned at birth based on sex organs, gender is an
identity and sexual identity (i.e., to which gender one is
individual and social construct. Individually, a person
sexually attracted). Although sexual identity is often
has feelings about which gender fits their identity,
conflated with gender identity in popular discourse
and socially, people learn which roles and character-
(Levitt & Ippolito, 2013), they are distinct constructs,
istics are appropriate for women and men.
and this report focuses on gender identity.
The expectations of the male and female roles
2. Gender-role standards: Values, motives, or
categories of behavior that are considered
more appropriate for one gender over another. Under
are complex and multidimensional, and they vary
across culture and time. Researchers have identified
the following as core aspects of femininity in the
this umbrella term are also gender-role stereotypes,
Western world: investing in appearance, purity and
which are learned associations between character-
sexual fidelity, modesty, dependency/deference,
istics and behaviors and each gender (e.g., women
beauty and thinness, domesticity, caretaking, being
cook and sew; men fight and fix cars).
nice in relationships, and emotionality (Levant,
3. Gender-typed behavior: The tendency to

favor same-gender activities over those typi-
cally associated with the other gender.
Richmond, Cook, House, & Aupont, 2007; Mahalik
et al., 2005). Conversely, the following attributes
have been identified as core aspects of masculinity
in the Western world: emotional restrictiveness,
Furthermore, this report examines the developmental
self-reliance, aggression, risk taking, heterosexual
trajectory of gender typing, delineating four key
self-presentation, casual attitudes toward sex, anti-
developmental phases of gender socialization: early
femininity, status seeking, competition, the primacy
childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, and
of work, and displays of power over women (Mahalik
later adolescence. As such, we primarily limited our
et al., 2003; Parent & Moradi, 2009).
review to studies that utilized participants from these
developmental phases. This brief considers more Many believe that television and movies could
than 150 journal articles, press articles, interviews, be a prominent force in children’s gender typing,
and books, mostly with a social-scientific focus. We because of their accessibility, the amount of time
prioritize research that has been published since children consume television and movie content, and
2000. When a particular research question has the large number of female and male characters as
been only sparsely investigated, we include relevant potential role models. Many researchers argue that
research published in the 1980s and 1990s. For these TV exposure can activate and reinforce existing
studies it is important to keep in mind that portrayals gender stereotypes, making them more accessible.
of gender roles may be quite different from what The increased accessibility of particular stereotypes
they are today. When possible, we draw conclusions means that children will be more likely to attend to
about research consensus but also acknowledge and interpret elements of their social worlds using
that for some topics, the research evidence is rather these stereotypes. Thus, it is important to under-
sparse, especially for the early and middle childhood stand what children might learn about gender from
phases. Along with our review of research, we share television and movie exposure.
relevant quotations from parents who participated
in a series of in-depth interviews about gender
conducted by Common Sense, in collaboration with
Greenberg Inc., in January 2017. Their names have
been changed.

What About
Transgender Identities?
Perhaps no issue has served as a flash point for contemporary In addition, significant transgender representations have
understandings of gender as much as transgender identity appeared on two television shows targeting adolescent
and transgender rights. In April 2015, Bruce Jenner, Olympic audiences: Glee and Degrassi (Sandercock, 2015). Both shows
medalist and reality show star, came out as a transgender depict teen trans characters — Unique on Glee and Adam on
woman, Caitlyn Jenner, sending reverberations across Degrassi — as undergoing both ups and downs. They experi-
entertainment and sports. Then, in March 2016, a national ence discrimination and harassment, but they also experience
debate about transgender rights was ignited by the signing romantic relationships and friendships, disrupting the notion
of a controversial North Carolina state law (HB2) prohibiting that trans people are generally unhappy and insecure.
persons from using bathrooms in government buildings that
Research on the effects of exposure to transgender media
do not coincide with their biological sex (NC § 115-5 21.2,
representation is lacking (Bond, 2017), but because there
2016). (Portions of the law were repealed in March 2017.)
are so few portrayals of transgender people, the portrayal of
But transgender identity is about much more than bathroom trans characters in the media is consequential. Research sug-
rights. “Transgender” is an umbrella term to describe people gests that more quality, empathy-provoking representations
whose self-defined gender identity does not coincide with the of transgender people may promote more nuanced under-
combination of their biological characteristics: sex organs, standings of transgender identity. A recent content analysis
chromosomes, and hormones. In other words, what they look revealed that after Caitlyn Jenner’s 20/20 interview, news
like on the outside does not match whom they feel they are reports about transgender issues were more likely to mention
on the inside. (Transgender, or “trans,” identity contrasts with nonbinary gender discourses, acknowledge the complexity
“cisgender,” which is having a traditional gender presentation of transgender issues from the aspects of race, class, and
that matches one’s biological characteristics.) Transgender sexual identity, differentiate transgender identity from sexual
individuals typically express their desired gender through identity, and cover the issue in an in-depth way (Li, 2017).
a variety of means: cosmetic choices (clothing, makeup),
hormone replacement, and/or surgical sex reassignment
(Bond, 2017). Although gender identity is different from
sexual identity, this distinction is often obscured by the “[Transgender identity] has been brought to
linking of trans persons with lesbians, gays, and bisexuals light more, so we’re having greater acceptance.”
(the “T” in LGBTQ). Indeed, the terms “gender,” “sex,” and — Gwen, parent of girl
“sexual orientation” are often conflated in popular discourse
or mistakenly thought to determine one another (Levitt &
Ippolito, 2014). What does the attention to gender identity and transgender
characters in the media mean for parents? Among other
In an in-depth interview study, transgender people spoke of
things, it provides important opportunities to talk to children
how they lacked role models when they were struggling with
about the difference between biological sex and gender
their gender identities (Levitt & Ippolito, 2013), including
identity. When the White House announced guidelines
role models in the media. The representation of transgender
for how public schools should treat transgender students,
characters is not only important for providing role models
Loretta Lynch, former attorney general of the United States,
for transgender individuals; it also provides opportunities
had this to say to parents:
for education and understanding among cisgender people.
A watershed moment in transgender representation was “With all of this media attention, kids who are not [transgen-
undoubtedly the Caitlyn Jenner interview on ABC’s 20/20, der] may have questions about what this issue is really about.
which yielded the best ratings for the show in 15 years This can sometimes be a difficult topic for parents, in part
(Kenneally, 2015). In 2016, ABC’s popular family sitcom, because it involves having a conversation about genitalia. ...
Modern Family, featured an 8-year-old transgender boy, But this is a teachable moment. We should seize the moment
and the popularity and critical acclaim of adult shows with to discuss with our kids what gender identity is and what it
fully developed transgender main characters (e.g., Amazon means to be transgender ... and what it does not mean. Any
Prime’s Transparent and Netflix’s Orange Is the New Black) time we can help our children be more knowledgeable about
have also gone a long way to introducing transgender identity someone else’s life, we have the opportunity to also help
into popular consciousness. them be more compassionate and empathetic“ (as cited in
Brown, 2016, para. 2).
HOW ARE MEN AND WOMEN
PORTRAYED IN CHILDREN'S MEDIA?
One of our most consistent findings is that men and On television shows and in movies specifically
boys outnumber women and girls across the media targeting children, male characters outnumber
spectrum. The Geena Davis Institute on Gender female characters by a ratio of about 2:1. Male
in Media has conducted several important studies characters are represented more frequently on
examining gender representations in media (Smith et U.S. children’s television shows (2.6:1) (Smith et
al., 2010, 2013), even developing a software tool that al., 2010), in an international sample of children’s
allows researchers to track screen time and speaking television programming (2:1) (Götz & Lemish, 2012),
time using facial- and speech-recognition technology in children’s programming on child-oriented cable
(Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, 2016). networks (1.9:1) (Hentges & Case, 2013), in super-
Using this tool in a study of the top-grossing films hero cartoons (1.9:1) (Baker & Raney, 2007), and
of 2015, researchers found that male characters on adventure and comedy children’s shows (1.9:1)
had almost two times the amount of screen time as (Leaper et al., 2002). Similar gender ratios have
female characters (28.5 percent versus 16 percent) been documented in films targeting children: G-rated
and male characters spoke almost two times as movies (2.6:1, Smith et al., 2010), family films (2.5:1,
often as female characters (28.4 percent versus 15.4 Smith et al., 2013), and Disney films (2.5:1, Padilla-
percent). The disparity increased to the range of 3:1 Walker et al., 2013).
when the films featured male lead characters (screen
In television advertising, too, male characters are
time: 34.5 percent male versus 12.9 percent female;
more prevalent than female characters (Maher &
speaking time: 33.1 percent compared with 9.8
Childs, 2003; Stern & Mastro, 2004), and there are
percent) (see Figure 1).
significantly more single-gender commercials with
boy-only characters than girl-only characters (Larson,
FIGURE 1. Percent of screen time and speaking time 2001). However, some evidence points to a trend
for male and female characters in movies in of more balanced gender representation, at least in
2015 (Geena Davis Institute on Gender in children’s television advertising. Examining trends
Media, 2016). from nearly three decades (1973–2000), we found
that there were fewer male characters portrayed
Screen Time over time, which represents more movement toward
Male
28.5%
Female mixed gender portrayals (Maher & Childs, 2003).
16%
Speaking Time
Early Childhood (Age 0–6)
28.4%
15.4%
Even television and videos targeting infants and
toddlers are replete with gender stereotypes. The
adherence to disparate gender roles is demonstrated
Screen Time in Films Featuring Male Lead Characters
by the use of feminine appearance standards
34.5%
for female characters (e.g., gendered hairstyles,
12.9%
enlarged eyelashes, pink and purple clothing) and
Speaking Time in Films Featuring Male Lead Characters the portrayal of male characters in leading roles
33.1% offering solutions, instructions, and leadership to
9.8% other characters (Elias, Sulkin, & Lemish, in press).
In G-rated movies, female characters are more likely
to have good motives, be more intelligent, and be
more beautiful than male characters, whereas male
“I think a lot of shows are so degrading to
characters are more likely to be physically strong
men. It makes guys look so weak and dumb
and funnier than female characters (Smith et al.,
from my experience compared to when I was
2010). Additionally, male characters are more likely
to be shown in traditionally masculine occupations
growing up. ... I don’t want [my daughters] to
(e.g., firefighter, U.S. president), whereas female have that mentality, because I’d want them
characters are more likely to be shown in traditionally to love their husbands and respect them, and
feminine occupations (e.g., dancer, seamstress). An nowadays the media makes men look like
analysis of Disney princesses and princes in nine jokes.”
Disney films demonstrated that princes are portrayed — Abby, parent of three girls
with more physical strength than princesses, and
princesses are more likely to display affection, fear,
submission, nurturing behavior, grooming behavior, In U.S. cartoons, male characters are more indepen-
and crying (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011). dent, athletic, important, technical, and responsible
than female characters. In contrast, female char-
Still, preschool media provide opportunities for child acters are more emotional, romantic, affectionate,
viewers to see counter-stereotypical female char- sensitive, frail, attractive, and domestic than male
acters as well. For example, the main characters on characters (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Thompson &
Doc McStuffins (an African-American girl) and Dora Zerbinos, 1995). In children’s programming spanning
the Explorer (a Latina) occupy roles that are normally diverse genres, male characters are more likely to
reserved for white, male characters in children’s tele- demonstrate physical aggression and to be victims
vision (Keys, 2016). Doc and Dora are leaders and, as of physical aggression (Leaper et al., 2002). They
such, are heroic, inquisitive, and adventurous, which are less likely to be fearful or polite or to engage in
are attributes that counter the dominant stereotypes romantic behaviors than female characters.
of female characters generally and of minority female
characters more specifically. On television, when female characters appear in
male-dominated contexts, they are subordinate
to male characters. In superhero cartoons, female
Middle Childhood (Age 7–10) characters are more emotional than male characters,
Content analyses of media targeting children in more likely to get overexcited in a crisis, more likely
middle childhood suggest that stereotypes about to ask questions, and more likely to be a part of a
gender roles abound here as well. In children’s group (Baker & Raney, 2007). They also are more
advertising, several key themes emerge: Boys are likely to be mentored than male characters, and their
more likely to be portrayed in major roles (Davis, mentors are overwhelmingly male. On children’s
2003), they are portrayed as more adventurous and television science series, there are twice as many
active than girls (Browne, 1998; Davis, 2003; Larson, male adult scientists as female adult scientists, and
2001), and they are more likely to be seen in nondo- the majority of female adult scientists are portrayed
mestic settings such as the outdoors or occupational in secondary roles, such as lab assistants or students
settings (Davis, 2003; Larson, 2001). When male (Steinke & Long, 1996).
characters are portrayed in domestic roles, they are Finally, the appearance-based lessons based on
“humorously inept” at household chores (Scharrer, gender are communicated in media targeting school-
Kim, Lin, & Liu, 2006, p. 215). Additionally, boys are age children. An international study involving 24
depicted as more knowledgeable, more aggressive, countries that analyzed over 26,000 characters in
and less deferential than girls, and boys display over 6,000 children’s fictional programs for children
more nonverbal behaviors indicating dominance and under 12 years old documented the prevalence of the
control (Browne, 1998). unrealistically thin and sexualized body shape of ani-
mated girl characters and the large, muscular chest
shapes of animated boy characters (Götz & Lemish, Early Adolescence (Age 11–13)
2012). Moreover, on U.S. children’s television shows
Although early adolescents (often referred to as
and in family films, female characters are more likely
“tweens”) are in a distinct developmental stage for
to wear sexy attire and show exposed skin (Smith et
gender socialization, there is little research on media
al., 2013), more likely to worry about their appear-
specifically targeted to them. An analysis of nine
ance (Baker & Raney, 2007; Hentges & Case, 2013),
tween television programs targeting girls in particular
and thinner and more attractive than male characters
found that close to half of the characters (46.1
(Baker & Raney, 2007; Smith et al., 2013).
percent) were female, which represents a higher
It is important to keep in mind that whereas these proportion of female characters than previously seen
content analyses tend to focus on instances of in other types of children’s programming (Northrup &
gender differences, there also are instances in which Liebler, 2010). However, a “thin, white beauty ideal”
depictions do not differ between male and female (p. 273) was evident on these shows. This ideal was
characters. For example, in contrast to the findings demonstrated in several ways: 1). Among female
of Thompson and Zerbinos’ (1995) content analysis characters, white characters were overrepresented;
of children’s cartoons, Aubrey and Harrison’s (2004) 2). a majority of all female characters (87 percent)
study found no gender differences in characters’ were below average in weight; and 3). thin female
displays of physical aggression, verbal aggression, characters were the most likely to receive positive
affection, and leadership behaviors or their demon- comments about their appearance.
strations of bravery/rescue. Thus, the documentation
Another study of tween shows on Disney Channel,
of gender differences in children’s media may be
Nickelodeon, and Cartoon Network included “teen
influenced by the researchers’ decisions, such as
scene” programs that targeted a female tween
which shows they choose to analyze and the time
audience (e.g., Hannah Montana) and action-
period in which the shows are selected.
adventure programs that targeted a male tween
Furthermore, the documented gender differences do audience (e.g., Star Wars: The Clone Wars) (Gerding
not universally disadvantage girl or boy characters. & Signorielli, 2014). In this sample of shows, male
It is worth acknowledging that the girl characters characters outnumbered female characters almost
are not only associated with socially undesirable 2:1 (64 percent male versus 35 percent female), but
traits and nor are the portrayals of boys universally on action-adventure programs, the ratio increased
socially desirable. For example, boys are bossier to 3:1. The lesson that appearance is more valued
and more likely to fail at a goal (Aubrey & Harrison, and important for girls than for boys stood out as a
2004). Also, compared with male characters, female primary theme on tween shows. Female characters
characters are more likely to have good motives and were more attractive, more concerned about their
be more intelligent (Smith et al., 2010), more likely appearance (as demonstrated by their engagement
to be inquisitive (by asking more questions) (Baker & in primping behaviors), and more likely to receive
Raney, 2007), and more likely to be polite than male comments about their looks than male characters.
characters (Leaper et al., 2002). However, an encouraging sign of the tween shows
was that male and female characters did not differ in
how often they were shown demonstrating bravery
or how handy they were with technology. For these
behaviors, there seems to be more gender equality
on television programs targeting a tween audience, in
contrast to the stricter gender roles often shown on
children’s television.

Later Adolescence (Age 14–17) Female artists also are more likely than male artists
to include references to self-objectification in their
As they move into later adolescence, individuals
song lyrics (Flynn et al., 2016).
develop notions about gender roles that will shape
their eventual adult ideas about gender. As such,
content analyses of media targeting teens tend to
focus on the professional, parenting, and family- “I haven’t watched a (music) video in five
related roles that male and female characters occupy. or 10 years. ... You see women and guys
Female characters in prime-time television program- being something they’re not. I’ve always
ming are more likely to occupy romantic, family, and told (my daughter) ... I love a woman who
friend roles than male characters, whereas male has their own hair, so when I see hair all
characters are more likely to be portrayed in profes- the way down their back and all this crazy
sional roles (Lauzen, Dozier, & Horan, 2008). Further, stuff I think someone wants to be something
an analysis of portrayals of work in teen films from they’re not. Thinking about that and the
2000–2004 revealed that when female characters extra makeup and booty injections, all the
do have professional aspirations, they are mostly
stuff you can get done now — why? I’d be
focused on the arts, such as becoming rock stars
more in love with a woman who’s her[self]
(e.g., Crossroads, Josie and the Pussycats), dancers
compared to someone who looks good when
(e.g., Save the Last Dance), or actors (e.g., Confessions
of a Teenage Drama Queen) (Hylmö, 2006). Only in it’s lights, camera, and action but that’s not
rare instances were girls portrayed as having aspira- the real person.”
tions of careers not equated with celebrity, such as — Robert, parent of boy and girl
journalism (Real Women Have Curves) or science (A
Walk to Remember). In pursuit of their professional
goals, the acquisition of substantive professional
skills is generally deemphasized, and schooling is
regarded as unimportant. Instead, some female
characters, such as those on Chasing Liberty and
What a Girl Wants, are dependent on their fathers’
success and status to achieve their professional or
academic aspirations.
To older adolescents, appearance-based messages

are salient. In a variety of media, teen girls are
reminded that their appearance is a vital criterion
on which their value is based and that, in addition
to attractiveness, they should also make sexiness a
priority. In prime-time television advertising, teen
female characters were the most attractive, the thin-
nest, and the most suggestively dressed among all
other gender-age categories (Stern & Mastro, 2004).
Music and music videos, which are popular media
choices for teens, strongly convey the message that
the objectification of women’s bodies is normative
(Bretthauer, Zimmerman, & Banning, 2006; Flynn,
Craig, Anderson, & Holody, 2016; Wallis, 2011;
Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009). Female artists tend to
self-sexualize more often than female characters are
sexualized by male artists (Aubrey & Frisby, 2011).
IS THERE ANY EVIDENCE THAT MEDIA USE
AFFECTS CHILDREN'S GENDER ROLES?
Many have questioned whether regular exposure to activity, and playmate preferences. Research has
media content could shape children’s and adolescents’ found that gender differences in toy preferences
gender-role expectations, beliefs, and behaviors. In develop very early, even before the child can cor-
the sections that follow, we present key scientific rectly label various toys as “boy things” or “girl
evidence to help answer this question. The sections things.” Indeed, preferences for stereotyped play
are grouped by developmental stage. In each section activities (i.e., boys preferring trucks and cars, girls
we first describe the developments and milestones of preferring dolls and soft toys) are regarded as one
that stage. We then summarize findings from scientific of the earliest and most pervasive manifestations
studies conducted with youth in that age group. of gender roles in children. Preferences for same-
gender playmates are seen as early as age 2 or 3
(Shaffer, 2005).
Early Childhood (Age 0–6)
The process of gender typing is well underway by Evidence of Media’s Influence on Young
early childhood. Around age 2, children begin to Children’s Gender Development
label their own sex and that of other people and
begin to categorize and sort the world by gender. Research studies examining the role of television and
With these labels and with their observations of how movies in gender typing among preschoolers have
things occur in the world, young children start to often focused on two issues: the impact of exposure
build a richer understanding of gender and begin to on children’s own toy and activity preferences, and
associate many toys, activities, occupations, tools, the impact on children’s beliefs about gender.
household items, and even colors with one gender as Children’s own toy and activity preferences. A
opposed to the other. As early childhood progresses, set of behaviors that appear to be affected by
children’s gender-stereotyped beliefs become children’s media exposure are their toy and activity
stronger and more rigid, used more like blanket rules preferences. One study tested whether preschool-
rather than flexible guidelines. These rigid ideas ers’ engagement with Disney Princess media and
result both from actual, persistent gender divisions in products was associated with greater stereotypical
the environment and from young children’s cognitive behavior (Coyne, Lindner, Rasmussen, Nelson, &
immaturity (Shaffer, 2005). It is argued that young Birkbeck, 2016). At the start of the study, parents
children tend to exaggerate gender stereotypes to reported on their children’s Disney Princess engage-
“get them cognitively clear.” ment, which was defined as children’s frequency of
Gender and gender-related issues are particularly viewing Disney Princess media, playing with Disney
important to young children. Most have firmly Princess toys, and identifying with individual Disney
classified themselves as boys or girls and want to Princesses. Children also indicated their preferences
understand exactly how boys and girls are supposed for certain gender-typed toys. For both boys and
to behave so they can live up to their self-images girls, Disney Princess engagement was associated
(Shaffer, 2005). Also, they do not fully understand with higher levels of female gender-stereotypical
that characteristics associated with gender, such behavior (e.g., playing house, playing with dolls or
as occupations and hairstyles, do not determine tea sets) but not male gender-stereotypical behavior
whether a person is female or male. (e.g., climbing, playing with action figures). One year
later, parents reported on children’s toy preferences,
This rigidity is also reflected in preschoolers’ toy, activity preferences, and characteristics. For girls and

boys, those who reported stronger princess engage-
ment at the initial assessment exhibited more female FIGURE 2. Predicted probabilities of an answer of
“boys” to, “Who do most people think are
gender-stereotypical behaviors one year later, even
better? Boys or girls?” by television exposure
after taking into account initial levels of stereotypi- and child gender.
cal behavior. The results suggest that engagement
with princess culture, including media, can influence
gender stereotypes and may contribute to a hyper-
feminine culture in which specific gendered behavior
is common and highly valued.
Similar findings have been reported concerning

children’s exposure to superhero media. Coyne,
Lindner, Rasmussen, Nelson, and Collier (2014)
surveyed the parents of 134 preschool children about
the frequency with which their children viewed TV
programs or movies portraying superheroes, their
children’s play with toy weapons, and their children’s The more 4-year-olds watch TV, the more they say
participation in male-stereotyped activities (such as that others believe boys are better than girls (Halim,
play fights or sports games). Viewing superheroes in Ruble, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2013).
the media was associated with higher levels of male-

stereotyped play activities one year later for boys and There is also evidence that nontraditional images
with higher levels of weapon play one year later for matter. First- and second-graders who viewed girls
boys and girls. playing with traditionally masculine toys (e.g., a
toy airport) in TV commercials were more likely to
Children’s beliefs about gender. Another set of state later that the toys depicted were OK for both
features that could be shaped by media exposure sexes than were children who had seen commercials
are children’s beliefs, expectations, and stereotypes featuring only boys playing with those toys (Pike &
about gender roles. For example, research shows Jennings, 2005).
that amount of TV viewing contributes to children’s
awareness of a gender hierarchy. For example, a
set of American 4-year-olds completed several Summary. In early childhood, heavier viewing
tasks, judging whether other people think boys or of television overall, or of gender-traditional
girls are better (Halim, Ruble, & Tamis-LeMonda, media more specifically (i.e., princess media
2013). Higher levels of TV viewing (as reported by and superhero media), has been linked with:
their mothers) was associated with children’s being
•• more gender-stereotypical toy
more likely to believe that others think boys and
and activity preferences and play,
men are better than girls and women (see Figure 2). concurrently and over time;
Researchers speculate that awareness of society’s
higher value placed on boys and men could affect the •• the expression of more rigid stereotypes
self-evaluations and mental health of boys and girls about toys and activities;
and the occupational and academic pathways that •• and greater awareness of a
they approach or avoid. gender hierarchy.
What About Media’s Influence
on Masculinity?
Although the media-effects research is dominated by will behave in gender-stereotyped ways in the future
a focus on femininity and female stereotypes, some (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).
research has suggested that media exposure affects
Unfortunately, there is a dearth of research examining
masculine attitudes and behaviors. In children’s films
media influence on adolescent boys’ masculinity, but
and on children’s television (e.g., superhero media)
recent research using undergraduate student samples
and in media favored by older adolescents (e.g.,
provides clues about what is going on during adoles-
reality television, sports programming), masculinity is
cence. In one study, sports TV viewing and reality TV
illustrated by characteristics such as aggression, power
viewing were associated with stronger adherence to
and dominance, status seeking, emotional restraint,
a set of beliefs called “masculinity ideology,” which
heterosexuality, and risk taking (Baker & Raney, 2007;
includes emotional control (e.g., “I hate it when people
Coyne et al., 2010; Stern, 2005).
ask me to talk about my feelings”), being a playboy
Conformity to gender stereotypes in early childhood (e.g., “If I could, I would frequently change sexual
tends to be more pronounced and valued for boys partners”), and heterosexual self-presentation (e.g.,
than for girls (Bussey & Bandura, 1992). Research “I would be furious if someone thought I was gay”)
shows that boys are especially attracted to masculine (Giaccardi et al., 2016). In turn, masculinity ideology
role models to learn how to behave in these valued is associated with risk-taking behaviors in young men,
masculine ways and are less interested in media featur- including sexual risk taking, alcohol use, drug use, and
ing feminine role models (Luecke-Aleksa, Anderson, speeding while driving (Giaccardi, Ward, Seabrook,
Collins, & Schmitt, 1995; Slaby & Frey, 1975). Exposure & Lippman, 2017). Similarly, an experimental study
to these models does appear to shape boys’ future on undergraduate men found that those who were
preferences and behaviors. For example, preschool exposed to an episode of The Sopranos, a television
boys who are heavy viewers of superhero television show containing both violence and hypermasculine
programs tend to engage in more male-stereotyped toy characters, were more likely to later report agreement
play and more weapon play (Coyne et al., 2014). Play with two facets of hypermasculinity: danger as thrilling
is an important outcome to examine in early childhood and violence as manly (Scharrer, 2005). Thus, media
because this is when children practice the gendered lessons on masculinity may emphasize a rigid and
behaviors they observe from role models on television potentially risky set of characteristics and behaviors
and in movies, increasing the probability that they that are nonetheless culturally reinforced.
Middle Childhood (Age 7–10) personality traits, as well as an expansion of gender

identity to include perceptions of how typical one’s
By middle childhood, children’s gender beliefs are
gender preferences and traits are and feelings of
well established and a little less rigid. Children
contentedness with one’s gender identity (Shaffer,
are aware of many of the culture’s stereotypes for
2005). This is also a time period of increasing media
women and men, and as their gender cognitions and
use. Exposure to media content could potentially
personal experiences expand, they are capable of
influence children’s beliefs and behaviors in areas
allowing more nuance. Gender segregation continues
they have been learning about for a while, such as
to strengthen, however, as do gender-typed toy
occupations, appearance, and domestic roles, as
and activity preferences, especially for boys. Girls,
well as newer areas, such as academic performance.
however, tend to develop (or retain) interest in
Indeed, children of this age spend the day in school,
some masculine activities. There is also an expan-
and school performance and peer relations start to
sion in children’s understanding of gender that
take on a bigger role.
includes stereotyping of achievement domains and

Impact of Media Exposure on Beliefs About patterns. Girls who watched more of the nontradi-
Activities, Roles, Traits, and Occupations tional programs were less likely to consider female-
typed occupations and more likely to consider
A few studies have examined connections between
male-typed ones. Similarly, other researchers have
children’s TV viewing and their beliefs about the
found that children who reported greater knowledge
activities that children do, such as playing and
of the content of specific TV programs that featured
doing chores. Signorielli and Lears (1992) surveyed
nontraditional domestic roles also expressed more
530 fourth- and fifth-graders about their daily TV
flexibility about some adult roles and activities
viewing hours and their beliefs about seven gender-
(Rosenwasser, Lingenfelter, & Harrington, 1989).
typed chores. The authors found that children who
Although the authors did not measure television
watched more TV were more likely to say that only
exposure directly, the findings suggest that children
girls should do chores traditionally associated with
who more frequently view or pay greater attention
women (e.g., doing dishes) and only boys should
to programming with nontraditional roles may also
do chores traditionally associated with men (e.g.,
develop more accepting attitudes toward gender
mowing the lawn). These associations held even after
roles and behaviors.
taking into account the child’s gender, race, grade,
reading level, parent education, and chores they Researchers are also investigating the potential
actually did. Aubrey and Harrison (2004) examined of media messages to shape girls’ interests and
connections between first- and second-graders’ expectations in STEM fields (science, technology,
most preferred TV programs and their beliefs about engineering, and mathematics). In one study, 319
which attributes were important for women and seventh-graders were asked to draw a scientist
men to have. Although they did not find connections and then were asked to indicate the biggest source
for girls, they did find connections for boys for two of their information for this impression (Steinke et
of the four masculine traits they tested for; holding al., 2007). The highest percentage of students (40
a stronger preference for male-stereotypical TV percent) named television and films as the chief
content was associated with boys’ attributing greater source of ideas for their drawings. To examine the
importance to being good at making jokes and being impact of these images, Bond (2016) assigned 60
hardworking. girls age 6–9 to view 10 minutes of TV clips featuring
either traditional stereotypes of women, portrayals
Television viewing has also been linked to children’s
of women in STEM careers, or no programming.
beliefs about adult roles and activities, and it may
Participants then indicated their confidence in their
be an especially prominent informant about which
science and math skills, noted their preference for six
occupations are typical of and appropriate for each
STEM careers (e.g., scientist, architect) and six non-
gender. In one study of children in grades K–6, those
STEM careers (e.g., florist), and drew a picture of a
who reported watching more hours of TV each day
scientist. Girls who had viewed the stereotyped clips
also expressed a belief in more rigid stereotypes
were more likely to report interest in stereotypical
about activities, such as setting the table, and
careers than any of the other girls and were less likely
occupations, such as driving a truck (Nathanson et
to draw women as scientists (30 percent of these
al., 2002). Working with fifth- and sixth-graders,
girls versus 75 percent of girls who had seen clips of
Wroblewski and Huston (1987) examined children’s
women in STEM).
viewing of 60 TV programs, including 25 programs
with nontraditional gender content, and linked this
exposure to children’s interest in specific male-
typed and female-typed occupations. The authors
found that girls who watched a greater proportion
of traditional programs and few nontraditional
programs were more likely to express interest in
occupations stereotyped for women on TV (e.g.,
secretary, model) than girls with other viewing
Impact of Media Exposure on muscular ideal. Responses by girls to the four ques-
Appearance Concerns and Sexualization tions asked about each picture were more consistent
with and accepting of the ideals than the responses
One core dimension of the feminine gender role is
by boys. In addition, girls who had more deeply inter-
the expectation that women should be attractive,
nalized the culture’s thin ideal for women were also
even beautiful, and should focus on their appear-
more likely to state that they liked how the women
ance. It is argued that the feminine role encourages
looked, wanted to look like them, and thought it was
girls to see the appearance of their bodies as a form
important to look like them. Stronger preferences
of achievement, and this cultural expectation may
were demonstrated in a study by Starr and Ferguson
make girls particularly susceptible to using media
(2012), who offered girls age 6–9 choices among
images as a guide for self-evaluation (Murnen,
sexualized and nonsexualized dolls. Girls chose the
Smolak, Mills, & Good, 2003). There is evidence
sexualized doll most often both as their ideal self (70
that exposure to appearance-focused TV content
percent) and as the popular girl (72 percent); these
is related to appearance and body concerns among
findings indicate that young girls are already begin-
girls (Common Sense Media, 2015a). In one study
ning to equate sexiness with social rewards such as
(Dittmar, Halliwell, & Ive, 2006), girls age 5–8 were
popularity. Choosing the sexualized doll was espe-
shown a picture storybook that featured either six
cially likely among girls who both consumed a lot of
images of Barbie (representing the ultrathin feminine
media and had mothers who reported high levels of
ideal), six images of Emme (a full-figured feminine
self-objectification.
ideal), or no people. Young girls (age 5.5–7.5) who
viewed the Barbie images expressed greater dis-
satisfaction with their own bodies than did young
girls who had seen the other images. The older girls “ ... Sex is everywhere. I don’t remember it
(age 7.5–8.5) were not affected in this way. Looking being so in your face everywhere when I was
at these relations over time, Dohnt and Tiggemann growing up like it is now, even things [my
(2006) found that among Australian girls age 5–8, son] sees online or the music he listens to or
more frequent viewing of appearance-focused TV television shows and commercials he
programs, such as Friends, predicted less satisfaction watches.”
with their appearance one year later. However, others
— Diane, parent of boy
have found little impact on children’s beliefs of a one-
time laboratory exposure to specific gender content,
including stereotypes linking beauty and goodness in To examine children’s evaluations of these images,
Disney films (Bazzini, Curtin, Joslin, Regan, & Martz, Stone, Brown, and Jewell (2015) presented children
2010), or of sexualized music videos (Ey, 2016). age 6–11 with images of sexualized and nonsexual-
ized girls and asked questions about each picture.
Responses to sexualized media. Currently, expecta-
Approximately 73 percent of children endorsed a
tions for femininity include not only being beautiful
“sexualized girl stereotype” and saw the sexualized
but also being sexy or sexually attractive. Media
girl as more popular but as less athletic, less smart,
messages teach girls that looking sexy is often
and less nice than the nonsexualized girl. In their
preferred or expected and is equated with popularity
answers children suggested that the sexualized
and romantic success. How do children respond to
girl was not likely to be smart because she was
these images and ideals? Do they even notice sexual-
too focused on her appearance to focus on school.
ized content? Evidence from four studies indicates
Moreover, girls were more likely to express these
that they do. In one of the first studies to examine
beliefs if they were exposed to more sexualized
these questions with children, Murnen et al. (2003)
content on their favorite TV programs. In the authors’
had girls in grades 1 to 5 respond to objectified
second study, children age 6–11 were asked to sort
images of famous women singers who represented a
photographs of women who varied on several dimen-
thin, sexy ideal and had boys respond to objectified
sions, including sexualization. Sixty-three percent
images of male models who represented the strong,

of the children, and significantly more girls than
boys, sorted by sexualization. Similar evidence was
reported among Australian girls age 6–11 (Jongenelis, Summary. Watching more TV, especially TV
Pettigrew, Byrne, & Biagioni, 2016). Here, 72 with gender-traditional content, is linked with:
percent of girls accurately sorted pictures based •• the holding of more rigid stereotypes
on sexualization. Also, the sexualized girls pictured about gender-typed chores;
were perceived as how boys would like girls to look.
Overall, these findings indicate that for children, and •• the expression of more interest in gender-
traditional careers (among girls);
girls especially, sexualization is a perceptually and
psychologically salient attribute. •• and less appearance satisfaction
(among girls).
Effects of exposure to sexualized media. Is there
any evidence that regular exposure to sexualized At the same time, exposure to more gender-
media affects children? Findings have emerged nontraditional TV content is linked to:
documenting potential effects in a range of areas,
•• more interest in male-oriented careers
including body image and academic performance.
(among girls);
Testing 300 Australian girls age 6–9, Slater and
Tiggemann (2016) found that those who reported •• and more flexibility about adult roles
more frequent exposure to sexualized TV were also and activities.
more likely to choose more sexualized clothing as
In terms of media content that sexually
options that are desired by other girls and by boys. In
objectifies women (or men):
addition, expressing a preference for sexier clothing
as one’s own ideal and as other girls’ ideal was linked •• Girls and boys notice sexualized images
to greater body dissatisfaction. Looking at academic and can sort pictures according to
performance, Pacilli et al. (2016) demonstrated that this dimension;
third- through fifth-grade Italian children performed •• girls express more interest than boys in
less well on math tests after viewing images of attaining sexualized ideals;
same-gender sexualized youth than did children who
had viewed nonsexualized images. Further analyses •• girls and boys link sexualized appearance
with popularity but also perceive sexualized
indicated that the detrimental effect of these sexual-
girls as less athletic, smart, and nice;
ized images on girls’ and boys’ math performance
was caused by a reduction in working memory •• frequent exposure to sexualized TV is
resources. The authors argue that sexualization leads associated with perceiving sexualized
individuals to focus their attention on their body and clothing as more desirable for others;
its outward appearance, thereby reducing cognitive •• and exposure to sexualized images
resources available for other tasks and reducing produces weaker performance on
cognitive efficiency. math tests.
Early Adolescence (Age 11–13) adolescents’ viewing of traditionally female-oriented
television (e.g., soap operas, situation comedies) was
In early adolescence, individuals experience increased
linked to more acceptance of stereotypes about male
pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender
dominance and heterosexual relationships.
roles (Hill & Lynch, 1983). With puberty come
physical changes that make girls and boys look more Clearly, the impacts of media exposure on the
like women and men. These changes, alongside development of gender-role values and stereotypes
new experiences with dating, create expectations in early adolescence need more research attention.
that boys behave in more masculine ways and girls, Additional updated research is needed to determine
especially, behave in more feminine ways. These whether such links hold up in light of changes in
gender-intensification pressures come from a variety media depictions of gender and in adolescents’
of sources, including parents, peers, educators, and access to diverse media platforms and messages.
the media. In response to these pressures, boys and
Sexist beliefs. During early adolescence, there
girls generally recommit themselves to gender-typical
appears to be a spike in sexist beliefs (such as that
traits, behaviors, and self-presentation. Socially, this
women need to be protected and violence against
is functional for early adolescents; gender-typical
women can be justified) that coincides with gender-
individuals (i.e., boys who act/look like boys, girls
intensification pressures but that decreases as early
who act/look like girls) garner more popularity
adolescents move into later adolescence and young
among peers (Jewell & Brown, 2014).
adulthood (Ferragut, Blanca, Ortiz-Tallo, & Bendayan,
2017). Although limited, some evidence suggests
Evidence of Media’s Influence on that media exposure predicts sexist beliefs, including
Early Adolescents’ Gender Development the tolerance of sexual harassment, the tolerance of
In this section, we will examine research that has dating violence, and the endorsement of rape myths,
investigated the influence of media exposure on early and a set of beliefs suggesting that women’s behavior
adolescents’ gender development in four domains: and choices are to blame for rape. This research is
gender-role stereotypes, sexist beliefs, romantic important to consider in early adolescence because
beliefs, and beliefs about appearance. sexist attitudes have been shown to be significant
precursors to sexist behavior and violence against
Gender-role stereotypes. In a trio of classic studies, women in adult life (Martín et al., 2005; Russell &
Morgan (Morgan, 1982, 1987; Morgan & Rothschild, Trigg, 2004).
1983) found that early adolescents’ television
viewing was associated with a belief in gender-role In one study, Strouse et al. (1994) examined early
stereotypes regarding work roles and the division of adolescents’ use of a variety of media and their toler-
household chores. However, given that these studies ant attitudes about sexual harassment, which were
were conducted more than 30 years ago, they do not defined as deeming sexually harassing behaviors
allow strong inferences into what is going on with (e.g., unwanted sexual comments) acceptable. The
early adolescents’ gender-role stereotypes today. authors found that higher levels of television viewing
were associated with tolerant attitudes about sexual
In a more recent (but still dated) test of the effects harassment among boys and that listening to popular
of television viewing on gender stereotypes, Walsh- music and viewing popular music videos were associ-
Childers and Brown (1993) conducted a survey on a ated with tolerant attitudes about sexual harassment
nationally representative sample of early adolescents among girls. Likewise, an experimental study showed
(age 12–15), measuring both their television-viewing that African-American female adolescents (age
habits and their beliefs about male dominance and 11–16) who were shown sexualized rap music videos
heterosexual relationships (e.g., men should make were more likely to report acceptance of dating vio-
the first move). The effects of television viewing lence than those who did not watch any videos at all
on the acceptance of gender-role stereotypes were (Johnson et al., 1995). There was no effect of video
found only among African-American adolescents exposure on the male adolescents in the sample.
and not among white adolescents. African-American
More recently, Driesmans et al. (2015) conducted media than the older girls, likely makes messages
an experiment to investigate whether playing a video about romantic ideals particularly impactful.
game with a sexualized female character affects
Another study on this topic examined whether
early adolescents’ (age 12–15) acceptance of rape
television exposure is related to the endorsement
myths and tolerance of sexual harassment. For both
of romantically based sexual-initiation strategies
boys and girls, greater acceptance of rape myths
(i.e., cuddling, watching a sunset together, dancing)
and sexual harassment were reported by those who
(Eggermont, 2006). Among early adolescent boys,
played as a sexualized female character compared
television viewing accelerated the belief in a romantic
with those who were assigned to play a video game
strategy for initiating sexual activity, whereas for
with a nonsexualized female character. Although this
girls, television viewing dampened the belief of a
study tested video game use rather than television or
romantic strategy. To explain this seemingly counter-
movie exposure (which this brief focuses on), it sug-
intuitive result, the researcher posited that television
gests that the sexualized-girl stereotype prevalent in
viewing gives early adolescents the “opportunity to
media targeting adolescents (e.g., Stern & Mastro,
leave the frame of mind of their own gender and to
2004; Wallis, 2011; Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009) could
become acquainted with what (on television) seems
similarly be connected to sexist beliefs.
to be preferred by the other gender” (p. 466). Thus,
Romantic beliefs. Pubertal changes during early boys might learn that romance is the best way to
adolescence spur individuals to explore dating and initiate sex because it is the strategy that they learn
romantic relationships to satisfy relational needs in from television is most preferred by girls. At the
the form of physical and psychological closeness with same time, girls may learn from television that boys
another (Montgomery, 2005). In these early roman- do not prefer a romantic strategy.
tic imaginations and experiences, early adolescents
Beliefs about appearance. Another developmental
place value in idealized conceptions of relationships.
milestone in early adolescence is increasing self-
In light of these developmental changes, does media consciousness, which stems from early adolescents’
exposure reinforce and amplify adolescents’ idealized new capacity to imagine multiple perspectives and
romantic beliefs? Based on interviews with 183 8- to from a greater ability to engage in social comparison.
17-year-olds, adolescents’ romantic imaginations Indeed, early adolescents believe that they are the
largely stem from the romantic media, especially center of other people’s attention, that “an imaginary
television, advertising, and movies, that they con- audience” is always observing them (Elkind, 1967).
sume (Bachen & Ilouz, 1996). For example, when In addition to this self-consciousness, the onset of
adolescents were asked to describe couples who are puberty causes an accumulation and redistribution
in love or a couple on a first date, they used visual of body fat, which for girls especially distances them
and narrative cues from popular media to ground from the thin ideal that is perpetuated and circulated
their descriptions. throughout Western media (Lawler & Nixon, 2011).
Because these media tend to provide romantic ideals, By early adolescence, media exposure is predictive
early adolescents who consume romantic media of the internalization of the thin ideal. For example, a
often also idealize romantic relationships. In an study of early adolescents revealed that exposure to
experiment in which adolescent girls (age 11–14) were popular tween television programs on Nickelodeon
assigned to watch a movie with idealized romantic and Disney Channel (e.g., Big Time Rush, Jessie) was
themes (High School Musical) or a neutral movie with- related to the internalization of media-based appear-
out romantic themes (Over the Hedge) (Driesmans ance ideals (e.g., “I would like my body to look like
et al., 2016), young early adolescent girls endorsed the people who are on TV”) (Trekels & Eggermont,
more romantic beliefs after watching the romantic 2017). In turn, this belief led to the adolescents’
movie compared with older early adolescent girls. equating their self-worth with their physical appear-
Early adolescent girls’ interest in romance, combined ance. There were no significant gender differences
with their comparatively lower access to romantic in this association, suggesting that the importance
of appearance is a concern for both girls and boys in lean sports. The opposite pattern of body ideals may
early adolescence. be operating for white early adolescents.
One of the consequences of media exposure,

especially media exposure that sexualizes girls’ Summary. Based on research on early adoles-
and women’s bodies, is the tendency to engage in cents, media exposure contributes to gender
self-objectification, viewing oneself as an attractive socialization in four main ways:
object whose external appearance matters more
than internal qualities (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), •• reinforcing stereotypes about men’s
as well as a closely related tendency to engage in and women’s roles in society;
body surveillance, a vigilance about monitoring one’s •• activating sexist beliefs about sexual
appearance (McKinley & Hyde, 1996). For example, harassment, dating violence, and
Grabe and Hyde (2009) examined the effects of rape myths;
exposure to music videos on body surveillance and
subsequent deleterious outcomes in early adolescent •• constructing ideal conceptions
of romance;
girls. The findings suggested that exposure to music
videos was associated with higher levels of body •• and socializing both girls and boys to
surveillance, and this, in turn, was related to the girls’ be concerned about their appearance,
lowered body esteem, increased anxiety, and lowered but for girls in particular emphasizing
confidence in math ability. Self-objectification is sexiness as an important criterion by
associated with other negative outcomes as well, which to gauge self-worth.
including diminished academic performance (Pacilli,
Tomasetto, & Cadinu, 2016), body shame, and
depressive symptoms (Tiggemann & Slater, 2015).
One might think of women’s sports media as an

exception to the rule about sexualizing media,
because for the most part women’s athleticism is
judged based on what their bodies can do rather
than how they look. To test this idea, Harrison and
Fredrickson (2003) distinguished between two types
of women’s sports: lean sports, in which women’s
bodies are expected to conform to the thin ideal (e.g.,
gymnastics, figure skating), and non-lean sports, in
which women are judged based on their performance
regardless of what they look like (e.g., basketball,
softball). In an experiment in which early adolescent
girls were assigned to view clips of lean or non-lean
sports, the findings revealed an effect of exposure to
the clips on girls’ self-objectification, but that effect
varied by race. Among white girls, exposure to lean
sports produced higher self-objectification scores
than exposure to the non-lean sports, whereas for
girls of color, exposure to non-lean sports produced
higher self-objectification scores than lean sports. In
light of culturally specific body ideals, the stronger
and bigger body type represented in non-lean sports
may be closer to the body ideals held by adolescents
of color than the thinner body type represented in

Later Adolescence (Age 14–17) Moreover, music videos on television rely on
conventional gender stereotypes, likely activating
As adolescents move into the later period of adoles-
and strengthening audiences’ existing gender-
cence (approximately age 14–17), they become more
stereotypical beliefs. Using a survey design, Ward
comfortable with their identities, allowing them again
et al. (2005) found that more frequent viewing of
(similar to middle childhood) to become more flex-
music videos was associated with African-American
ible in their thinking about gender (Shaffer, 2005).
teens’ traditional gender-role attitudes and with the
Correspondingly, gender segregation in their peer
attribution of more importance to appearance and
groups and friendships lessens, and these expand-
image attributes for both men and women. Using a
ing relationships with the opposite sex similarly
follow-up experimental design, Ward et al. found that
broaden their views about gender roles. In addition,
participants who viewed four gender-stereotypical
later adolescents are in the process of individuation,
music videos reported the attribution of more impor-
which involves differentiating themselves from their
tance to appearance and image for men and a higher
families and orienting themselves to society (e.g.,
endorsement of sexual stereotypes, such as that men
Koepke & Denissen, 2012). During this time media
provide especially important, external sources of are sex-driven, women are sex objects, and dating
social norms and expectations. is a game, than those who viewed nonstereotypical
music videos.
Evidence of Media’s Influence on In later adolescence, ideas about careers and

Later Adolescents’ Gender Development occupational roles become salient as teens start
to prepare for adult work roles. In light of recent
In this section, we will highlight research that has
initiatives to encourage more women to enter STEM
investigated the influence of media exposure on later
fields, Ziegler and Stoeger (2008) examined whether
adolescents’ 1). gender-role stereotypes and beliefs;
exposure to female role models as scientists or math-
2). gender-based romantic beliefs; 3). gender-based
ematicians, as portrayed in films, affects adolescents’
beliefs about appearance; and 4). gender-based
self-reported intent to pursue math/science and
sexual expectations and beliefs.
their self-assessment of ability in mathematics and
Gender-role stereotypes and beliefs. Given the science. Using an experimental design, the authors
prevalence of traditional gender roles in television assigned German high school students to view one of
and movies, we would anticipate that higher levels three films: a film that featured a female role model
of media consumption would be associated with who conformed to typically feminine characteristics
stronger traditional views of gender. In support of and was not talented at math/science, a film that
this expectation, Rivadeneyra and Ward (2005) featured a female role model who did not conform to
investigated the links between television viewing and typically feminine characteristics and was talented
gender-role attitudes in a primarily Latino sample of at math/science, and a film that featured a female
teens. The teens’ total amount of television watched character who was typically feminine and who
per month was associated with more traditional was talented at math/science. The movie in which
gender-role attitudes for female participants but the female scientist was portrayed as talented and
not for male participants. Additionally, among girls feminine was the most effective in promoting an
but not boys, watching television to learn about interest in STEM careers among boys and girls who
themselves and others, and perceiving television had a high prior interest in STEM. However, among
portrayals to be realistic, was associated with the girls who had a low prior interest in STEM, watch-
expression of traditional views about gender. The ing either film of the female scientist depressed
authors speculated that boys might already be quite assessments of their abilities and their intent to
traditional in their views of gender, possibly as a pursue STEM careers. Follow-up interviewing of the
result of their “accumulated gender training or of
participants suggested that girls who did not report a
their status in the gender hierarchy” (pp. 471–472);
prior interest in STEM also had low self-confidence in
thus, their beliefs might be less malleable than those
STEM. The authors reasoned that the female STEM
of girls and less resistant to media influence.
role models were not effective when participants that participants’ television viewing was related
deemed themselves inadequate in comparison. to expectations that their romantic partners be
physically attractive (Eggermont, 2004). Among
In addition to conceptions of adolescents’ views of
adolescent girls (age 14–16), frequent viewing of
work outside the home, other research has examined
romantic youth dramas, in particular, was associated
whether media exposure affects adolescents girls’
with higher expectations of attractiveness for male
views on motherhood.
romantic partners (Eggermont, Beullens, & Van den
Ex et al. (2002) examined adolescent girls’ and Bulck, 2005).
young-adult women’s exposure to sitcoms and soap
Gender-based beliefs about appearance. In late
operas and their ideas about motherhood. Across
adolescence, as individuals attain more romantic
both age groups, watching soap operas and sitcoms
and sexual experiences, concerns about appearance,
was related to a traditional view of motherhood (i.e.,
especially concerns about being “hot” and “sexy,”
the belief that a mother should devote herself entirely
become even more established. This is especially
to her family and her children). Thus, adolescent girls
true for teen girls and young women whose bodies
(and young-adult women) might learn from television
are constantly monitored and evaluated (Fredrickson
that portrays motherhood in a traditional way that
& Roberts, 1997). At the same time, one of the
their most important job is as a mother.
most consistent themes of Western media is that
women are valued primarily for their bodies and
that they primarily exist as sexual objects for others’
“I do wish they showed more women being
sexual use (American Psychological Association,
more empowered than I think they are 2007). Thus, not surprisingly, older adolescents who
portrayed. I think that would be great. I wish consume media saturated with such themes tend to
they should show more men taking care of agree with the notion that women are sexual objects.
their family and doing those girly jobs like For example, in a study of Dutch teens, Peter and
changing diapers and taking the kids to Valkenburg (2007) discovered that watching sexually
school. You don’t see that as much.” explicit movies was associated with the endorsement
— Brooke, parent of boy of women as sexual objects (e.g., “There’s nothing
wrong with a man being primarily interested in a
woman’s body”). The results did not differ between
Gender-based romantic beliefs. Gaining confidence male and female teens.
in romantic relationships is a significant developmen-
tal task of later adolescence. Research has examined Not only does media exposure encourage the view
the effects of television exposure on traditional that women are sexual objects, but it also leads
gender-role beliefs in dating situations. The effects to self-objectification in both female and male
hinge on the types of television that later adolescents adolescents. A study of Belgian teen girls found that
watch. Rivadeneyra and Lebo (2008) found that exposure to sexually objectifying media (including
teens’ romantic television exposure was associated prime-time television, fashion magazines, music
with holding more traditional gender-role attitudes television, and social-networking sites) predicted
in dating situations (e.g., the belief that boys should greater internalization of beauty ideals, which, in
initiate dates). However, watching nonromantic tele- turn, predicted self-objectification and body surveil-
vision dramas that contain more action plots rather lance (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2012b). Similar
than relationship storylines was related to having less findings were found for Belgian teen boys; however,
traditional gender-role attitudes about dating. the types of media exposure that predicted self-
objectification were different from what they were for
Media exposure also appears to encourage older the teen girls. For the boys, exposure to pornographic
adolescents’ superficial preference for good-looking websites and sexually objectifying prime-time
romantic partners. The findings of a survey of television predicted the internalization of appearance
15- and 16-year-olds in Belgium demonstrated ideals, which, in turn, predicted self-objectification

and body surveillance (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, Heterosexual Script, men are expected to actively
2013). Pornographic websites tend to focus on male pursue sexual relationships, treat women as sexual
sexualized body parts, such as chests and genitals, objects, and avoid commitment and emotional attach-
which likely reinforces the belief that viewers should ment. Indeed, research on adolescents and young
conform to similar body ideals. Likewise, sexually adults in the United States, the United Kingdom, and
objectifying television reinforces the idea that men Mexico finds that males believe that a “real man”
who are attractive are the most successful, romanti- should always be ready for sex and that only women
cally and otherwise. Both sets of message seem to say no to sex (Heilman, Barker, & Harrison, 2017).
spark the self-objectification process for boys. Women are expected to set and enforce sexual limits,
use their looks to attract men, prioritize relational com-
African-American girls face the challenge of nego- mitment, and act sexually passive (Seabrook, Ward,
tiating positive racial and gender identities, while Reed, Manago, Giaccardi, & Lippman, 2016).
at the same time frequently encountering negative
media images of their racial-gender group (Gordon, Evidence suggests that older adolescents learn these
2008). Surveying 176 African-American female gender-based sexual scripts from a variety of media
adolescents, Gordon asked questions about how sources. In documenting television effects, Ward and
much they identify with media role models and about Friedman (2006) conducted both an experimental
their beliefs about the importance of appearance. and a survey study on U.S. teens. In the experimental
The results showed that girls’ identification with study, those who were exposed to television clips
particular TV characters and music artists was portraying the notion that women are sexual objects
associated with the attribution of more importance were more likely to endorse that stereotype than
to being attractive. Likewise, stronger identification those assigned to view gender-neutral content, and
with one’s favorite TV character and with sexually moreover, they were also more likely to endorse
more traditional gender-role stereotypes, such as
objectified female music artists were each associated
“swearing is worse for a girl than a boy.” The survey
with stronger beliefs that appearance is important for
evidence suggested that talk show viewing was
girls and women in general.
associated with traditional gender-role attitudes and
Gender-based sexual expectations and beliefs. that watching television for companionship predicted
Another central developmental task of later ado- the notions that women are sexual objects and that
lescence is adjusting to the self as a sexual being. In men are sex-obsessed. Similarly, a survey study of
confronting this novel task, adolescents look to the Belgian teens demonstrated that television viewing
media for guidance (Ward & Friedman, 2006). There was associated with the belief that men are obsessed
is a substantial amount of research that has examined with sex (e.g., “Boys are always in the mood for sex)
media effects on teens’ sexual socialization, and that but only among the male participants (Vandenbosch
research has consistently shown that exposure to & Eggermont, 2012a). The belief that men are sex-
sexually oriented media, including television, movies, obsessed is a view that is more in line with a male
and magazines, encourages a recreational and sexually point of view, a plausible explanation for why the
permissive orientation to sex (Ward & Rivadeneyra, link with television viewing was only found among
1999; Ward & Friedman, 2006). In this section, adolescent boys.
however, we focus on the research that is focused on
the gender-related expectations that later adolescents
“Most images communicated through music
come to believe about how they and their partners are
or movies is that men have to be successful
supposed to think, feel, and behave in sexual situa-
tions. Researchers call these expectations “sexual and rich and have big cars and a lot of
scripts,” and they are highly gendered. A pervasive women to be successful, or have a lot of
script in Western media is the “Heterosexual Script,” power to be successful. Media has convinced
which defines the courtship strategies, commitment men it doesn’t pay to be an everyday worker
orientations, and sexual goals considered appropriate anymore.”
for each gender (Kim et al., 2007). According to the — Alex, parent of boy and girl
Ter Bogt and colleagues (2010) examined the use
of multiple forms of media (television, music, and
Summary. Media exposure contributes to
the internet) and sexual attitudes and gender
gender socialization in later adolescents in
stereotypes among adolescents in the Netherlands.
four main ways:
Their results suggested that preference for certain
music genres (hip-hop and “hard house” music) and •• reinforcing traditional views on gender;
preference for sexually explicit media were related •• cultivating traditional views on courtship
to adolescents’ belief that men are sex-driven. Music and dating and the desire for good-
exposure and sexually explicit media preference were looking romantic partners;
also related to adolescents’ beliefs that women’s •• socializing both girls and boys to be
worth is based on their appearance and men should concerned about their appearance,
be handsome and well-built if they want to be to accept the notion that women are
romantically successful with women. sexual objects, and to encourage
self-objectification;
In addition to encouraging the endorsement and
•• and setting expectations about how
adoption of these sexual scripts, might exposure
adolescents should think, feel, and behave
to sexual scripts be associated with how confident
in sexual situations, based on gendered
adolescents feel in sexual situations? In a test of sexual scripts.
the Heterosexual Script, Tolman, Kim, Schooler, and
Sorsoli (2007) surveyed 703 U.S. teens and assessed
their exposure to television that depicted the
Heterosexual Script and their positive feelings about
their sexuality (e.g., “When I am with a partner, I feel
that I can always be responsible for what happens
sexually”). Among girls, exposure to television that
emphasized the script that female characters are
sexual limit-setters was related to positive feelings
about their sexuality. Thus, seeing female characters
setting boundaries and resisting male characters’
sexual advances might make female adolescent view-
ers more comfortable voicing their own needs. On
the other hand, exposure to two other scripts — in
which women present themselves as sexual objects
and in which male characters attempt to avoid com-
mitted relationships — were related to more negative
feelings about sexuality. Exposure to these parts of
the Heterosexual Script, then, might make female
adolescent viewers more likely to capitulate to boys’
sexual needs and silence their own voices.

How Might Media Use and Gender Development
Play Out for Youth of Color?
Speculation is often raised about how the dynamics dis- in sexual relationships. In a survey of 404 African-American
cussed in this report play out among ethnic minority youth undergraduates, Jerald, Ward, Moss, Thomas, and Fletcher
(i.e., African-American, Hispanic/Latinx, Asian-American/ (in press) found that more frequent exposure to music videos
Pacific Islander, and Native American). Some argue that was associated with stronger support of traditional gender
media effects could be stronger because ethnic minority youth roles and of the notion that women are sexual objects.
consume media at higher levels than their white counterparts.
For example, a recent survey found that African-American
teens spend an average of 11 hours and 10 minutes using
media each day, compared with eight hours and 27 minutes
2. Media effects on gender development are likely
to be broader than we anticipate because ethnic
minority youth must also confront societal stereotypes
for white youth (Common Sense Media, 2015b). On the other
hand, some speculate that media effects might be weaker
about their racial-gender groups.
because youth identify most with and are affected most by It is likely that media effects could be qualitatively different,
portrayals of people who look like them, and ethnic minorities not only weaker or stronger, because ethnic minority youth
are underrepresented in the media. People of color make up must also confront unique societal stereotypes of their
almost 40 percent of the U.S. population but occupy 13.6 groups that white youth do not. Through these stereotypes,
percent of the lead roles in films (Hunt, Ramon, Tran, Sargent, men and women of color are often shown in ways that lack
& Diaz, 2017). diversity and dimension. First, data show that children and
teens notice the stereotypes. In interviews and focus group
What do research findings say about how the media help studies involving African-American adolescents, students
to shape ideas about gender among minority youth? have expressed awareness of negative media portrayals of
Unfortunately, research concerning the effects of media use African-American girls and women as angry, loud, violent,
on the gender development of ethnic minority youth has and hypersexual (Adams-Bass, Bentley-Edwards, & Stevenson,
been sparse. Indeed, only a handful of the studies reviewed 2014; Muhammad & McArthur, 2015). Second, studies show
in this report focused on African-American or Latinx youth. that media exposure may help nurture some of these ste-
However, we do have insights from research on related reotypes. One survey of African-American undergraduates
topics or on undergraduates, and most of these studies have found that students who more frequently watch movies and
focused on African-American youth. music videos and who see TV content to be more realistic
were also more accepting of stereotypes of African-American
1. Because of their viewing patterns and choices, women as loud, angry, or argumentative; hypersexual; or
there is some evidence that youth of color may be strong and self-sacrificing (Jerald, Ward, Moss, Thomas, &
particularly vulnerable to the effects of media use on Fletcher, in press).
gender-role development.
Findings indicate that African-American youth exhibit
a preference for media that feature African-American
characters or artists and tend to gravitate to such content
3. But not all youth are equally affected. The extent
of media effects on youth of color may depend on
how much they identify with their ethnic group or on how
and consume it frequently (e.g., Brown & Pardun, 2004). important their identity is to them.
This pattern suggests that African-American youth may Ethnic minority audiences, like all audiences, are not
therefore be especially susceptible to influence from African- homogenous, and individuals are likely to differ in their
American artists or characters. But research has also found reactions to media content and in their vulnerability to its
that some media content oriented toward African-American influences based on preexisting belief systems, identities,
youth, particularly rap, R&B, and hip-hop music videos, and demographic attributes. One factor that has been found
contains higher-than-average levels of sexually objectifying to matter is one’s existing ethnic identity. Undergraduate
portrayals of women (e.g., Aubrey & Frisby, 2011; Frisby & African-American women with a stronger ethnic identity
Aubrey, 2012; King, Laake, & Bernard, 2006; Turner, 2011). show fewer media effects on their gender stereotypes (Jerald
In addition, frequent exposure to these videos has been et al., in press) and body dissatisfaction (Schooler et al.,
found to affect how African-American youth feel about 2004; Zhang, Dixon, & Conrad, 2009) than those with a
gender roles (e.g., Gordon, 2008) and about how to behave weaker ethnic identity.
WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS CONTENT FOR
CHILDREN'S LIVES?
As demonstrated here, children’s media use is a who self-identify as “princesses” give up more
significant force contributing to their beliefs about easily on a challenging task, are less likely to want to
femininity and masculinity and shaping their other work, and are more focused on superficial qualities
belief systems, preferences, and decision making. (Dinella, 2013).
The implications of these media effects are broad
ranging. We outline several here.
3. Problems with anger and acting out.
Traditional masculinity expects boys to be
1. Career selections. We know that among

children, frequent TV viewing is linked to the
holding of more stereotypes about which gender
emotionally stoic (to “suck it up”) and emotionally
and physically strong. Research indicates that boys’
efforts to adhere to these rigid norms is stressful,
performs specific occupations (e.g., Nathanson produces dysfunctional behavior, and is related to
et al., 2002). One implication concerns students’ lower self-esteem (O’Neil & Lujan, 2009). For boys,
own academic and occupation choices, especially experiencing conflict between society’s narrow male
concerning careers in STEM fields. Research gender norms and one’s personal needs is linked to
indicates that gender stereotypes associated with problems with conduct, anger, and negative emotions
STEM professions account for much of the gender (O’Neil, Challenger, Renzulli, Crasper, & Webster,
difference in levels of participation: “Women do not 2013).
pursue job paths within STEM and men do not hire
them because neither group perceives those jobs to
be appropriate for women” (Puchner, Markowitz, &
4. Body-image concerns and mental health
disorders. For girls, frequent exposure to
sexualized, objectified, and stereotypical media
Hedley, 2015, p. 24). Where do these perceptions
images of women contributes to their lack of self-
come from? Media portrayals consumed from
and body-confidence and to their self-objectification.
childhood to adulthood are a likely contributor (Bond,
In turn, having a view of oneself as a sexual object
2016; Steinke et al., 2007; Ziegler & Stoeger, 2008).
is linked to higher levels of depression and eating
2. Personal values nurtured. We have reported

that media exposure is linked with children’s
and adolescents’ beliefs about the attributes and
disorders, diminished cognitive efficiency, diminished
sexual agency, and lower self-esteem (American
Psychological Association, 2007; Ward, 2016).
skills associated with each sex (e.g., Aubrey & Self-objectified individuals also see themselves as
Harrison, 2004; Ward et al., 2005). One such less competent, moral, and warm than nonobjectified
belief we see is that children appear to associate individuals and as lacking in uniqueness (Loughnan,
brilliance and intellect more with boys and beauty Baldissari, Spaccatini, & Elder, 2017).
and daintiness more with girls. These associations
start early. For example, Bian, Leslie, and Cimpian
(2017) found that 6- and 7-year-old girls associated “I don’t want my daughter to think her body
brilliance (being “really, really, smart”) less with
is not valuable and her personality is not
their own gender than boys did and expressed less
valuable, and I also want her to know she
interest than boys in games for those who are “really,
should be valued for not just what she is on
really smart.” Also, children’s beliefs about brilliance
shaped their interest in these games. It appears that the outside.”
children come to see brilliance as a male quality at a — Alex, parent of boy and girl
young age. Also, research shows that adult women

5. Dating violence and sexual violence.
Traditional masculinity emphasizes dominance
and power over women. Findings indicate that stron-
of girls do things besides paint their nails and put on
makeup”), and others watched no TV. Children who
watched the show and heard the critical comments
ger endorsement of traditional masculinity is linked had less positive evaluations of the show and liked
with attitudes that are more supportive of dating the characters less than children who had not heard
and sexual violence and with greater perpetration the comments. Also, younger children who heard the
of sexual aggression (Murnen, Wright, & Kaluzny, comments expressed greater acceptance of nontra-
2002; Seabrook et al., 2016). In addition, men’s ditional gender roles concerning male activities. The
objectification of women is associated with greater authors argue that if mediation can decrease the
acceptance and perpetration of sexual violence attractiveness of characters on a show with stereo-
(Seabrook et al., 2016). types, perhaps it may also prevent children from
internalizing or learning from such content.
6. Risk-taking behavior. Traditional masculinity

dictates that men be daring, fearless, and
risk-taking. It should come as no surprise, then, that
adolescent boys are more likely than their female “In reading different books and watching
counterparts to report a variety of risky behaviors, TV, you want to educate the kid, because if
including drinking, “driving without permission,” and they’re afraid to ask me why, they’ll ask
smoking marijuana (Klein, Brown, Dykers, Childers, social media, Facebook, Instagram,
Oliveri, & Porter, 1993). This trend extends into young Periscope, whatever it is to get the answer,
adulthood, where young men report higher rates of so I’d rather they get the answer from
binge drinking than young women, as well as higher Dad than friends or media.”
rates of crime, risky driving, accidents, and substance
— Alex, parent of boy and girl
abuse. Findings indicate that stronger endorsement
of masculinity is also linked to higher levels of risk
taking and substance abuse. In a recent survey of 449 Activism among parents and children. Promote
undergraduate men, greater media use was linked to media activism by encouraging youth to question and
stronger support of traditional masculinity, which, in critique narrow portrayals they see and portrayals of
turn, was linked to greater levels of sexual risk taking, sexism. Parents can write emails to media producers
greater levels of alcohol use, greater levels of drug and post information on social media that states
use, and more speeding (Giaccardi et al., 2017). their objections to particular sexist or otherwise
offensive content.
How Can Parents, Schools, and Critical media-literacy programs. The objective of
Teachers Help Minimize Negative media-literacy education is to activate and improve
and Maximize Positive Effects? children’s critical-thinking skills so they can be better
prepared to analyze and challenge media messages.
In light of the mostly negative implications outlined here, Such programs need to be instituted directly into
what can parents and educators do to counteract the school curricula and need to directly address gender
problematic aspects of media’s portrayal of gender? inequities and sexism. Research studies testing
Here, we outline several suggestions. the effectiveness of specific programs have found
Active parental mediation. Talk to children about participation to be linked with multiple outcomes,
media content. Nathanson and colleagues tested the including a weaker internalization of media ideals,
impact of actively critiquing gender-stereotypical TV increased awareness of discrimination in the
content while watching with a group of children in workplace, a greater ability to identify sexism in the
grades K–6 (Nathanson et al., 2002). Some children media, and an improved ability to respond to peers’
saw the content with no comments from the adult sexist comments (Pahlke, Bigler, & Martin, 2014;
experimenters, others heard comments that coun- Puchner et al., 2015; Wade, Wilksch, Paxton, Byrne,
tered the stereotypes (e.g., “The show is wrong. Lots & Austin, 2017).
Counter-Stereotypes and Positive Interventions
By DAFNA LEMISH, PH.D.
Despite the dominance of stereotypical and other unhealthy Latinas (e.g., Ryan, 2010). Much more research is needed to
forms of gender representations in the media that children demonstrate the potential of television to promote gender
consume, it is important to note that there continue to be equity among children and youth.
efforts to produce content that is counter-stereotypical and
that offers children and youth characters, roles, and narra-
tives around gender that nourish and broaden their aspira- FIGURE 3. Examples of scientists drawn by girls
tions and future prospects. The assumption behind such age 6 to 9 (Bond, 2016)
efforts is that exposure to content that tries, intentionally, to
challenge gender stereotypes contributes to the development
of attitudes fostering gender equity.
Much independent and public media, as well as some com-

mercial companies, continue to experiment with the produc-
tion of content that presents strong and capable female
characters who are not obsessed with their appearance and
with attracting boys; initiate and lead; and enjoy outdoor
activities, sports, science, and technology. They also present
male characters who collaborate with girls, respect girls as
equals, demonstrate empathy and emotions, and resolve
conflict in nonaggressive ways. Furthermore, some innova-
tive creators’ characters and narratives challenge the male/
female binary and introduce children to gender fluidity, thus
demonstrating that there is no one right way to be a boy or
a girl but many ways to be human. Many of these programs
have been commercially successful, attracting a variety of
viewers. In doing so, they undermine the misguided assump-
tion that children shy away from such nontraditional content
(for discussion of specific examples, see Lemish, 2010, and
Lemish & Götz, in press).
The evidence produced in studies of the effects of the Note: The two drawings in the left-hand column were coded as male
presentation of counter-stereotypes on television suggests scientists; the two drawings in the right-hand column were coded as
female scientists.
that the same processes of social learning, socialization, and
cultivation of worldview operate here, as well. For example,
one study found more positive gender-related attitudes
as well as nontraditional attitudes and aspirations among
adolescent viewers of programs with counter-traditional
gender roles, as well as among young viewers of educational
television (Durkin, 1985). In another study, girls who were
shown counter-stereotypical images of women in STEM
positions were more likely to draw a scientist as a woman
than were girls who had seen women in stereotypical
careers (see Figure 3) (Bond, 2016). Similarly, programs
that present models of intersectionality of gender and other
human categories contribute to developing resilience among
LGBTQ youth (Craig, McInory, McCready, & Alaggia, 2015).
Additionally, research suggests that preschool viewers of
Dora the Explorer held positive views of empowered girls and

CONCLUSION
Media, and specifically television and movies, or in a movie, but taking care to pay attention to
are prominent forces in the gender education of these important areas will point creators in a posi-
American youth. They provide abundant models of tive, research-supported direction.
expected behavior for women and men, more models
Although we have drawn conclusions about media’s
than children encounter in person. Media also
influence on gender typing in this report, we
exposes children to what their careers and potential
acknowledge that some of the topics and devel-
futures might look like. And research indicates that
opmental phases we reviewed have rather limited
regular exposure to this content has consequences.
evidence backing them up. We call on researchers
Findings indicate that heavier TV viewing, especially
to continue to test and examine the interactions
of content that features traditional gender represen-
between media exposure and gender development,
tations, can lead children and adolescents to hold
especially as representations of gender evolve and
more rigid or stereotypical beliefs about what each
as the ways in which children and adolescents use
gender can and should do; leads to more stereotypi-
media change. The portrayal of gender is clearly
cal toy, activity, and occupation preferences; and
a pervasive concern among parents; continued
limits children’s perceptions of their own abilities and
research efforts can help to provide answers and
future options. For girls, this often means that they
suggestions to parents on what they can do to
steer their focus onto their appearance, bodies, and
minimize potentially negative effects on gender
sexiness and away from their competencies, espe-
development and to maximize the positive. Given
cially in academics, science, and math. For boys, this
how much time children spend consuming media,
means drawing a narrow construction of what both
richer, more diverse, and nonstereotypical portrayals
femininity and masculinity are and steering away
could have significant positive impacts on genera-
from “softer” values such as nurturance, compassion,
tions of children.
and romantic love.
Although the research literature helps us to under-

stand the effects of media on children, a major goal
of this report is to help improve the media landscape.
To better achieve positive and accurate representa-
tions of children, no matter the gender, the people
who create content for children should pay particular
attention to children’s evolving gender development.
With a deeper understanding of how children are
developing cognitively, socially, emotionally, and
physically, they can better support accurate and
positive portrayals of gender in the media children
consume. To that end, we are providing recom-
mended guidelines for content creators to promote
gender equity (see page 40). These guidelines
synthesize the substantial research reviewed here
with implications for how media creators can address
gender equity. It is not the case that a content creator
has to address every issue listed on a television show
RESOURCES
Common Sense Media PFLAG
Sex, Gender, and Body Image Resource Center. Our Trans Loved Ones: Questions and Answers for
Offers parents answers to their questions about how Parents, Families, and Friends of People Who Are
media messages play a role in shaping kids’ gender Transgender and Gender Expansive. Guide with
norms, ideas about sex, and body satisfaction. information, first-person stories, and expert input
www.commonsensemedia.org/ for those who have a loved one who has come out
sex-gender-and-body-image as transgender or gender-expansive.
www.pflag.org/ourtranslovedones
Girls, Boys, and Media: A Gender and Digital Life
Toolkit for Schools. Use this toolkit to help students
reflect on gender stereotypes: where they come from, Producers Guild of America Women’s Impact
how we learn them, and how they can shape the Network/Women and Hollywood
media we consume and create.
The Ms. Factor: The Power of Female Driven Content.
www.commonsensemedia.org/educators/gender Toolkit with current data and trends for producers
and filmmakers to support female-driven content.
Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media http://msfactortoolkit.com/
Research Informs & Empowers. Research from the
institute and updates on the Geena Davis Inclusion Promundo
Quotient (GD-IQ).
The Man Box: A Study on Being a Young Man in the
https://seejane.org/research-informs-empowers/ US, UK, and Mexico. Study on young men’s attitudes,
behaviors, and understandings of manhood.
Kids’ Inclusive and Diverse Media Action www.promundoglobal.org/man-box
Project (KIDMAP)
KIDMAP. Coalition of media creators, producers, The Representation Project
researchers, educators, and parents committed to
putting all kids on the digital media map through the Miss Representation. Film examining how mainstream
creation of equitable children’s media. media and culture contribute to the underrepresentation
of women in positions of power and influence in
www.joinkidmap.org
America (includes discussion guide for educators).
The Diverse and Inclusive Growth (DIG) Checklist.
therepresentationproject.org/film/
Can be used to identify and rate children’s digital miss-representation/school-resources/
media that is high-quality, inclusive, and diverse.
The Mask You Live In. Film following boys and young
www.joinkidmap.org/digchecklist/
men as they struggle to stay true to themselves while
negotiating America’s narrow definition of masculinity
Let It Ripple (includes discussion guide for educators).
50/50. Short film that gives the 10,000-year history therepresentationproject.org/film/
of women and power, from setbacks and uprisings to the-mask-you-live-in/school-screening-curriculum/
the bigger context of where we are today.
www.letitripple.org/films/50-50/
GENDER EQUITY GUIDELINES FOR CONTENT CREATORS:
Recommendations for developing positive
gender representations in movies and on TV
early childhood middle childhood early adolescence later adolescence

Age 2-6 Age 7 -10 Age 11-13 Age 14-17
•• Learn that they are boys or •• Draw psychological distinctions between •• Physical changes of puberty create •• Gender segregation diminishes
girls (gender identity) women (e.g., more emotional, affectionate) appearance concerns and self-consciousness
•• Gender stereotyping again becomes more flexible
and men (e.g., more ambitious, aggressive)
•• Learn stereotypes about activities, •• Intensified need to conform to cultural
•• Ideas about careers, occupational roles, and work
traits, toys, and skills associated •• Learn associations of occupations and gender norms (gender intensification),
become salient; can be based in gender stereotypes
What with each gender academic subjects with each gender coinciding with puberty
•• While romantic and dating experiences
Kids Are •• Develop and strengthen gender-typed •• Own gender stereotyping •• With gender intensification comes
accumulate, develop an increased need to
play and activity preferences becomes more flexible renewed intolerance of cross-gender
Learning mannerisms and behaviors
learn gender-based expectations for how to
About •• Adhere to rigid stereotypes for •• Gender segregation strengthens behave in romantic and sexual situations
themselves and others; intolerant •• Concerns about dating potential
Gender of gender-role transgressions
•• Appearance concerns continue
•• Show preferences for playing with

children of own gender
(gender segregation)
•• Show children with diverse attributes •• Show role models who participate in both •• Show messages that emphasize that worth •• Show portrayals that feature boys and men
to show that there is more than one feminine and masculine behaviors and and happiness do not come from appearance expressing their emotions in constructive ways,
way to do gender roles without ridicule from other characters (especially important for female characters) having diverse interests (not only sex), and being
(particularly important for male characters) or from physical strength (especially important accepting of nonheterosexual characters
•• Show portrayals that equally value
for male characters)
boys and girls, masculine and feminine •• Show role models who are instrumental •• Show portrayals that steer away from
behaviors and characteristics (focused on doing things) based on content •• Show role models who participate in dating gender-based racial stereotypes
and context rather than gender (especially and relationships in addition to, not in lieu
•• Show children engaged in a range •• Show teen characters who have non-gender-
important for female characters) of, hobbies and other instrumental activities
of activities, including counter- stereotypical professional aspirations (girls who want
stereotypical activities •• Show role models who are expressive •• Show examples of positive, supportive, to be scientists and boys who want to be nurses)
(display emotions and sensitivity) based and fulfilling cross-gender friendships and adult characters who are successful and fulfilled
Goals •• Show girls and boys interacting in healthy
on content and context rather than gender and relationships in both traditional and nontraditional professions
and egalitarian cross-gender friendships
for (especially important for male characters)
•• Show role models who display both feminine •• Show diverse dating scripts that are not steeped
Media •• Show girls and boys of diverse races,
•• Show adult women and men in both and masculine mannerisms, behavior, and in gender stereotypes (boys always making the
body/facial/hair types, clothes
Content traditional and nontraditional occupations, career/academic interests without ridicule first move, girls being passive and acquiescent)
•• Use more gender-neutral color palette including women as professionals from other characters (particularly important
•• Show sexual scenarios in which gender is not the
and men as caretakers for male characters)
•• Diversify camera filters, editing tech- driving force behind how sexual partners behave
niques, sound effects, and music to avoid •• Show nonsexualized female characters •• Show examples of fully realized transgender and in which both partners have agency
segregating the worlds of boys and girls (e.g., realistic body types, diverse clothing characters who experience both ups and
•• Show female characters who set sexual boundaries
styles, avoidance of signifiers such as red downs and are accepted and supported by
and who are comfortable voicing their needs
lips, long lashes, cleavage, unrealistically their peers and communities
long legs and flowing hair, etc.) and nonag- •• Show cross-gender relationships that are based on
gressive male characters who resolve nonromantic or nonsexual friendship and trust
conflict without resorting to violence
40 WATCHING GENDER: HOW STEREOTYPES IN MOVIES AND ON TV IMPACT KIDS’ DEVELOPMENT © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 41
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THE REALITY OF REPRESENTATION: GENDER BIAS IN THE INDUSTRY
Why female characters in what’s aimed at children — and

that the female characters that do exist are often
Numbers underdeveloped, sidelined, uninspiring, or simply eye

candy. Armed with the research, I work closely with
Matter the entertainment industry to encourage a dramatic

change in the way female characters are portrayed
to children.
By GEENA DAVIS
Recently, we were able to expand the breadth of
our analysis. In collaboration with Google and the
A bout 26 years ago, I co-starred in a movie that University of Southern California Viterbi School of
really struck a nerve. Thelma & Louise sparked a Engineering, we developed a software tool that uses
reaction that none of us making the movie could have machine learning to analyze media. Using the tool, we
imagined. The press lost no time in announcing that found that among the top 100 films of 2015, female
“this changes everything.” Surely, this would open lead characters got three times less on-screen and
the floodgates to many more movies starring female speaking time than their male counterparts — even
characters doing extraordinary things. My next though films with female leads made nearly 16 percent
movie, A League of Their Own, also caused the media more at the box office in 2015 than those led by men.
to predict big changes for women in film. Neither Surely we should be able to show kids that boys and
prediction proved true. girls are capable of sharing the sandbox equally! I
A quarter century after Thelma & Louise, women am not talking about adding a message; kids’ movies
and girls continue to be sidelined in most media, and TV shows are meant to entertain, not preach. I’m
particularly children’s media. That matters, because asking content creators to take out the message that
what our sons and daughters see on-screen shapes women and girls are less important than men and
their beliefs about the world and themselves. For 10 boys. It’s just common sense that we stop creating a
years, the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media problem today that we’ll need to fix tomorrow. Let’s
has commissioned in-depth analyses of family-rated not make one more movie or TV show that trains
films and children’s TV. Our research shows that kids to see girls as “less than.” We can create the
there are profoundly more male characters than future now.
Geena Davis is founder and chair of the Geena Davis Institute on

Gender in Media. An Academy Award-winning actor, Davis has
portrayed a surgeon on Grey’s Anatomy, a professional baseball player
in A League of Their Own, and a U.S. president on Commander in Chief,
among her many roles. She also serves as special envoy for women and
girls in information and communication technologies for the United
Nations’ Telecommunication Union. GEENA
DAVIS
Spotlight deliver news and information that could have an
impact on their lives. I help people get their mornings
on Gender started and get them ready to take on the rest of the
day. I don’t take that responsibility lightly. The atten-
tion of viewers is a precious commodity, and I want
By EUN YANG to keep earning that privilege with high-quality work.
But I have enough experience to know that viewer
comments are part of the deal.
I once received a letter from a male viewer who

wrote to give me some advice: “Lay off the rouge.
You look like a clown.” At least he took the time to
I also have enough faith to believe that people are
noticing my curiosity and humor, along with my Zara
send a handwritten message. dress. I hope they can see how hard I’ve worked to get
where I am and how much I love my job. I especially
Now, in the age of social media and always-on viewer want my daughter and two sons to understand how
engagement, such observations about my appearance important it is to look beyond appearance. I’m a role
arrive faster and are more plentiful. They come with model for them and others. I hope to inspire them by
no signature or return address. Some are actually example to pursue their passions and to care deeply
very sweet, while others are NSFW. You develop thick about the quality of their contributions. And if they
skin in this business. feel like wearing an old green shirt or blouse while
I get it. I’m on TV every day. It’s a visual medium. they’re doing it, I’m all for it.
My appearance matters. But sometimes even I am
surprised at how much feedback I receive about the
way I look. I get more questions about where I buy my
clothes and who cuts my hair than the stories I cover.
Maybe that just means I’m such a good reporter that
EUN
my stories cover every possible angle. But, somehow,
I doubt it.
In one case, some viewers became fixated on a green

blouse I used to wear. It was something you might
YANG
wear to an office Christmas party or your kid’s school
holiday concert. I loved that blouse, and I wore it … a
lot. People noticed. “Oh, there’s your green blouse.”
Eun Yang is an Emmy Award-winning anchor
“You’re wearing your green blouse again.” “Hey,
for NBCUniversal’s News4 Today, the top-rated
didn’t you just wear that blouse?” It became its own
newscast in Washington, D.C. Yang joined
entity. It took over the conversation. So I had to retire
News4 Today in 2002 as a general assign-
it. It’s still hanging in my closet, whispering to me,
ment reporter specializing in covering
“Don’t let them shame you!”
breaking news. Before joining News4 Today,
The irony is that I’ve been told the ideal “look” is Yang was one of the first reporters hired
one that isn’t distracting. A journalist is supposed to by the National Geographic Channel in
report on the story, not become the story. And that Washington, D.C.
has always held true for me. It is a great privilege
to be invited into viewers’ homes each morning to

THE REALITY
GENDER PORTRAYALS:
OF MEDIANOT
REPRESENTATION
JUST A GIRL THING
Breaking Out and six times more likely to have reported sexually
harassing women. In other words, we’re feeding
of the Man Box young men and boys a media diet that has the
potential to cause great harm — to themselves
and to others around them.
By GARY BARKER The good news is that young men aren’t buying all
of these messages. For example, 63 percent of U.S.
respondents said that society and the media tell them
W hat does it mean to be a man? If you look at that a “real man” would never say no to sex, but only
much of mainstream media, the answer is 28 percent actually agreed with that statement. This
that they should use aggression to solve problems break — between some of the messages guys receive
(The Fate of the Furious), repress their emotions (Star and the ones they internalize — means the media
Trek), and isolate themselves (The Dark Knight Rises). should stop sending them altogether.
These media messages place pressure on boys and While the media has played a role in creating the
young men to behave according to a rigid construct of Man Box, it also can play a critical role in helping us
outdated ideals — a “Man Box,” if you will. And that break out of it by changing the way masculinity is
pressure is having a devastating effect on the health defined and projected. Media creators should feature
and relationships of our male population. male characters that actually reflect their audience:
young men and boys who are capable of caring, con-
In a survey we conducted this year of more than necting, and having healthy relationships. If we can
3,600 young men in the U.S., Mexico, and the U.K., make this change, we’ll be able to support a whole
those who felt this pressure were almost 2.5 times generation of boys who live outside the confines of
more likely to have had suicidal thoughts; six or the Man Box.
seven times more likely to have bullied someone;
GARY BARKER is president and CEO of Promundo. He has done

extensive global research and program development around
engaging men and boys in gender equality and violence prevention
and is a leading voice for the worldwide effort to establish positive,
healthy dynamics between men and women.
GARY
BARKER
Diversity: With only 22 percent of children’s books (Horning,
2016) and 19 percent of video games (Williams et
Why It Matters al., 2009) having characters of color, and only 28

percent of characters with dialogue in film and television
being characters of color (Smith, Choueiti, & Pieper,
By KEVIN CLARK 2016), there is clearly much work to be done.
G ender issues are complex. Factors such as race,

religion, income, geography, and education all
intertwine with gender to affect young viewers differently.
Not only should producers of media be proactive
and deliberate about diversifying their teams, but
also diverse content creators may want to broaden
the distribution of their content through the internet
Research, for example, has shown that white females,
and streaming services to reach wider audiences. In
African-American males, and African-American
the meantime, parents and children should become
females tend to feel worse about themselves after
critical and savvy consumers of media.
watching TV, playing video games, or consuming
other sorts of electronic media. Meanwhile, white
males feel the opposite: Their self-confidence
increases after consuming the same media (Martins
& Harrison, 2011).
KEVIN
CLARK
Children of color consume far more media than their
white counterparts (Common Sense Media, 2015). And
much of that media project stereotypes that reinforce
bias. This is unfortunate, because exposure to these
images and portrayals is how young people develop
perceptions and attitudes about themselves and the KEVIN CLARK is the director of the Center for
world around them (Williams, Martins, Consalvo, & Digital Media Innovation and Diversity and full
Ivory, 2009; Berry & Asamen, 1993). For some people, professor in the Learning Technologies Division of
the College of Education and Human Development
their exposure to diverse populations is limited to
at George Mason University. Dr. Clark has been
media portrayals and superficial interactions.
honored by the White House as a STEM Access
This makes it even more critical for the media to put Champion of Change and was a fellow for the
forth the most authentic, representative, and balanced Television Academy Foundation Faculty Seminar.
portrayals of women and people of color.
references
Berry, G., & Asamen, J. K. (1993). Children & television: Images in a changing Nations authors and illustrators. Madison, WI: Cooperative Children’s
sociocultural world. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Book Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved from
https://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/books/pcstats.asp
Clark, K. (2016). Technology tools for family engagement: The role of diversity.
In C. Donohue (Ed.), Family engagement in the digital age: Early childhood Martins, N., & Harrison, K. (2011). Racial and gender differences in the relationship
educators as media mentors. New York, NY: Routledge. between children’s television use and self-esteem: A longitudinal panel
study. Communication Research, 39(3), 338.
Clark, K. (2017). Practical applications of technology as a key to reducing the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093650211401376
digital divide among African American youth. Journal of Children and
Media. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group. Smith, S. L., Choueiti, M., & Pieper, K. (2016). Inclusion or invisibility?
Comprehensive Annenberg report on diversity in entertainment. Los
Common Sense Media. (2015). The Common Sense census: Media use by tweens
Angeles, CA: Annenberg School of Communication and Journalism,
and teens. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media. Retrieved from
University of Southern California (USC).
https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/
research/census_researchreport.pdf Williams, D., Martins, N., Consalvo, M., & Ivory, J. (2009). The virtual census:
Representations of gender, race and age in video games. New Media &
Horning, K. (2016). Publishing statistics on children’s books about people of
Society, 11(5), 815–834. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461444809105354
color and First/Native Nations and by people of color and First/Native

WHY IT MATTERS: REAL-LIFE IMPACTS OF GENDER PORTRAYALS
Media and Politics: garbage — not to mention the near-constant com-

mentary on her pantsuits, ankles, hairstyles, make-up
The 2008 choices, and a myriad of other appearance-related

issues male candidates have never had to deal with.
Clinton Campaign The attacks on Hillary Clinton have been such a

constant that, in looking back at some of the comments
made about her in 2008, I found myself not recalling
By DAVID PLOUFFE
many of them. I, too, had become inured to them,
subconsciously assuming that was just the extra
D uring the 2016 presidential election, I was struck baggage she would have to carry.
by how — even though in many ways we are Will this ever change? Eventually, yes. But that will
making progress toward a more equitable society — require a media that’s more mindful of the messages
the media directed a shocking degree of sexism at consciously or subconsciously perpetuated in news
Hillary Clinton. That media gender bias undoubtedly coverage. Editors will have to be more cognizant of
added to her struggle in winning the presidency. I can their biases in choosing which angles to pursue. They
say this with some degree of confidence because I also will need to be vigilant about calling out negative
saw close-up how it worked against her when I was on gender stereotypes, not playing into them.
the other side, running Barack Obama’s presidential
campaign in 2008. I have hope that we can achieve this. Two days after
the 2008 election, my daughter was born. Now 8
Throughout the 2008 campaign, Clinton had to deal years old, she plans to be president when she grows
with media commentators comparing her to the Glenn up. I tell her she can be anything she wants to be, and
Close character in Fatal Attraction, opining about her I mean it. And my 12-year-old son? He says he will be
necklines, and saying that the tone of her voice was her campaign manager.
received by men as her nagging them to take out the
DAVID PLOUFFE is the president of policy and advocacy at the

Chan Zuckerberg Initiative. He was the campaign manager for
Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign.
DAVID
PLOUFFE
Identity and they watched the film, the girls sat up straighter and
became more focused on the incredible achievements
Educational of the three women in the story. Then they began to

spontaneously cheer at every victory documented in
Success the movie. As the film concluded, they swelled to their

feet chanting, “Yes, we CAN!” Over and over again.
Think how much more we could all achieve if that

By REVETA BOWERS message — “Yes, THEY can!” — were woven into our
movies, TV shows, YouTube videos, games, and more.
That would be a change I would very much welcome
O ver my 45-year career as an educator and in my long career as an educator.

administrator, I have witnessed many changes
but perhaps none so transformational as the pro-
liferation of digital media. While traditional media
have existed for decades, technology has opened the
floodgates for a torrent of unfiltered media. Having
watched kids learn as a classroom teacher, I am
especially sensitive to the corrosive effects of negative
and stereotyped gender and racial images.
Younger children naturally see goodness and ability in REVETA

BOWERS
people. And it’s not that children don’t see difference.
But difference in their young worlds invites curiosity
and creates a desire to make friends. Negative media
stereotypes, however, destroy that openness in
young minds.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to shield our students

from exposure to media. So let’s instead harness the REVETA BOWERS served as administrator
power of media for it to be the compelling teaching and head of school for the Center for Early
tool for good that we know it can be. Our children Education in Los Angeles for 32 years and is
need media that inspire gender pride, self-confidence, associated with educational organizations
inclusion, curiosity, and the determination to change across the country. Bowers is chair of the
the world. board of Common Sense.
Just recently, I witnessed just how powerful media
can be. I attended a screening of the movie Hidden
Figures alongside 10,000 middle school-aged girls
on the University of Southern California campus. As

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Harvey Anderson Strategic Advisor
Lynne Benioff Community Volunteer
Reveta Bowers (Chair) Retired Head of School, The Center for Early Education
Julián Castro Former Secretary of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Ann Pao Chen Independent Consultant
Geoffrey Cowan University Professor and Annenberg Family Chair, USC
Amy Errett CEO and Founder, Madison Reed
John H.N. Fisher Partner, Draper Fisher Jurvetson
Andrew Hoine Partner & Director of Research, Paulson & Co. Inc.
Matthew Johnson Managing Partner, Ziffren Brittenham LLP
Lucinda Lee Katz Head of School, Marin Country Day School
Gary E. Knell President and CEO, National Geographic Society
Manny Maceda Partner, Bain & Company
April McClain-Delaney Washington Director, Common Sense
Michael D. McCurry Partner, Public Strategies Washington Inc.
William E. McGlashan, Jr. Managing Partner, TPG Growth
Robert L. Miller President and CEO, Miller Publishing Group
Diana L. Nelson Board Chair, Carlson
William S. Price, III Proprietor, Price Family Vineyards and Estates
Susan Sachs Community Volunteer
James P. Steyer Founder and CEO, Common Sense
Gene Sykes Managing Director, Goldman, Sachs & Co.
Nicole Taylor Deputy Vice President and Dean of Students, Arizona State University
Michael Tubbs Mayor, City of Stockton
Lawrence Wilkinson (Vice Chair) Chairman, Heminge & Condell
GENDER EQUITY IS COMMON SENSE ADVISORY COUNCIL
Allison Abner TV Writer and Producer
Nancy Armstrong Senior Producer, Makers
Jennifer Stevens Aubrey, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Communication, University of Arizona
Gary Barker President and CEO, Promundo
Willow Bay Dean, USC Annenberg School of Communication
Julie Burton President, Women’s Media Center
Kevin Clark, Ph.D. Co-founder, Diversity in Apps, and Founding Director, George Mason University’s
Center for Digital Media Innovation and Diversity
Geena Davis Founder and Chair, Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media
Ivelisse Estrada Media and Social Impact Strategist
Patty Kerr Co-Executive Director, ANA Alliance for Family Entertainment, #SeeHer
Jean Kilbourne Activist, Speaker, and Writer
Michael Kimmel Distinguished Professor, Department of Sociology, Stony Brook University
Dafna Lemish, Ph.D. Associate Dean for Programs, School of Communication and Information,
Rutgers University
Jennifer Siebel Newsom Founder and CEO, the Representation Project, and Filmmaker,
Miss Representation and The Mask You Live In
David Plouffe President, Policy and Advocacy, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative
Claire Shipman (Chair) Author, The Confidence Code
Rachel Simmons Co-founder, Girls Leadership, and Author and Educator
Alexandra Singer Writer and Activist Mom
Tina Tchen Assistant to President Barack Obama; Chief of Staff to First Lady Michelle Obama;
and Former Executive Director of the White House Council on Women and Girls
Rachel Thomas President, Lean In
Meredith Walker Co-founder and Executive Director, Smart Girls
L. Monique Ward, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, University of Michigan
Jacqueline Woodson Author, Brown Girl Dreaming and Another Brooklyn
Eun Yang Anchor, News4 Today, NBC Washington
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would also like to thank Andrew Greenberg and the team at Greenberg Inc. for their valuable assistance
conducting interviews with parents in Illinois on the topic of gender and media.

www.commonsense.org
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a common sense

The Honorable John Delaney

Second, we want to encourage children’s content creators to reject gender stereotypes

James P. Steyer Amy Guggenheim Shenkan

According to a 2016 report from the National Center

For our initiative, we listened to many voices. We

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 3

What do Americans want for their kids in terms of

Content creators need to respond by creating role

This report, which examines the effects of film and

Parents are clearly concerned about media portrayals

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 5

1 Media* reinforce the idea that masculine

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 7

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 9

7 Heavier viewing of gender-traditional

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 11

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 13

3. Gender-typed behavior: The tendency to

WWW.COMMONSENSE.ORG/GENDER-RESEARCH © 2017 COMMON SENSE MEDIA, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 15

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To older adolescents, appearance-based messages

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Similar findings have been reported concerning

the media was associated with higher levels of male-

Middle Childhood (Age 7–10) personality traits, as well as an expansion of gender

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One of the consequences of media exposure,

One might think of women’s sports media as an

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Evidence of Media’s Influence on In later adolescence, ideas about careers and

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1. Career selections. We know that among

2. Personal values nurtured. We have reported

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6. Risk-taking behavior. Traditional masculinity

Much independent and public media, as well as some com-

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Although the research literature helps us to under-

early childhood middle childhood early adolescence later adolescence

•• Show preferences for playing with

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Why female characters in what’s aimed at children — and

Numbers underdeveloped, sidelined, uninspiring, or simply eye

Matter the entertainment industry to encourage a dramatic

Geena Davis is founder and chair of the Geena Davis Institute on

I once received a letter from a male viewer who

In one case, some viewers became fixated on a green

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GARY BARKER is president and CEO of Promundo. He has done

Why It Matters al., 2009) having characters of color, and only 28

G ender issues are complex. Factors such as race,

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Media and Politics: garbage — not to mention the near-constant com-

The 2008 choices, and a myriad of other appearance-related

Clinton Campaign The attacks on Hillary Clinton have been such a