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UNIT 4 FUNCTIONS
WHAT IS A FUNCTION? A function is a reason why we communicate. Every time we speak or write, we do so for a reason. What we say has a purpose or function. Here are some examples of functions:
We can describe language itself in terms of its grammar or lexis. Functions are a way of how we use language. When we describe the functions of language we focus on the use of the language and its meaning for the people who are in the context where it is used.
KEY CONCEPTS Look at this table. What do you think an 'exponent' is?
Context Exponent Function
A boy wants to go to the Lets go to the cinema Suggesting/making a cinema with his friend tonight. suggestion about going to the tonight. cinema He says: A girl meets some people Hello. My names Emilia. Introducing yourself for the first time. She wants to get to know them. She says: A customer doesnt Sorry, what do you Asking for clarification understand what a shop mean? (asking someone to explain assistant has just said. The something) customer says: A girl writes a letter to a Thank you so much for Thanking someone for a relative thanking her for a my lovely... present birthday present. She writes:
The language we use to express a function is called an exponent. The pieces of direct speech in the middle column in the table above are all examples of exponents. In the third column, the functions are underlined. You can see from the table that we use the -ing forms of verbs (e.g. suggesting, asking) to name functions. The words after the function in the third column are not the function. They are the specific topics that the functions refer to in these contexts. An exponent can express different functions. It all depends on the context it is used in. For example, think of the exponent 'I'm so tired'. This could be an exponent of the function of describing feelings. But who is saying it? Who is he/she saying it to? Where is he/she saying it? i.e. what is the context in which it is being said? Imagine saying 'I'm so tired' in these two different contexts:
Context Possible function
A boy talking to his mother while he does his Requesting (asking)to stop doing homework homework A patient talking to her doctor Describing a physical state
One exponent can express several different functions because its function depends on the context. One function can also be expressed through different exponents. Here are five different exponents of inviting someone to lunch.
Lunch? Informal Coming for lunch? Come for lunch with us? Why don't you come for lunch with us? Would you like to come to lunch with us? We would be very pleased if you could join us for lunch. Formal
These exponents express different levels of formality, i.e. more or less relaxed ways of saying things. Generally speaking, formal (more socially distant) language is used in more official and important situations amongst people who do not know each other very well. informal (more socially casual) language often occurs in relaxed situations, among friends, people who know well or treat each other in a relaxed way. Informal exponents are sometimes colloquial, i.e. very casual and conversational, such as Hes off his head, i.e. crazy. There are also neutral exponents which we use when we want to show neither great respect nor too much casualness towards the person we are talking to. They fall between formal and informal. Why dont you come for lunch with us? is an example of an example of a neutral exponent. People usually choose to use the use the level of formality that suits a situation. This is called appropriacy. A teacher who greets a class by saying 'I'd like to wish you all a very good morning' or Hi,guys!. Both of these are likely to be inappropriate (unsuitable) in many classroom situations, the first because it is too formal and the second because it is too informal. It would probably be appropriate (suitable) for the teacher to say Good Morning, everyone or similar. Of course. We sometimes use inappropriate language on purpose to create some effect, e.g. a shop assistant using great formality with customer may be signaling that he would like the customer to leave. Language that reflects the situation in which it is used is often referred as register. Hi is an example of informal register, A very good morning to you an example of formal register.
Key concepts and the language
teaching classroom
Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you.
Coursebooks in the 1980s and 1990s were often organised around functions. Each new unit focused on a new function, e.g. Unit 1 Expressing likes and dislikes. Unit 1 Expressing likes and dislikes, Unit 2 Making, suggestions, Unit 3 Agreeing and disagreeing. These books were based on the Functional Approach (see Unit 15).
A focus on functions in the classroom can lead to an emphasis on communication and learning language in chunks. Writing is sometimes caught through functions, e.g. when learning to write letters or complaint, learners can learn exponents for greeting, explaining your reason for writing. describing your complaint, asking. for satisfaction, signing off. Nowadays, we usually find functions taught together with the structures they contain so that learners do not become confused by meeting a wide range of grammatical patterns together at the same time. We can see this in the extract from a map of a coursebook below. In the third column a grammatical structure is given together with exponents of the function 'Expressing likes' which are expressed through this structure.
Functions Grammar Unit 6 Expressing likes First and third person present simple affirmative: I like ..., he/she likes ... Unit 7 Expressing First and third person present dislikes simple negative: I don't like ... , he/she doesn't like ...
Combining functions and grammar helps to give grammar meaning and context. It also helps learners to learn functions together with grammatical structures that they can then transfer to other contexts for use. See Unit 15 for more on the Functional Approach. Units 16 and 17 for teaching activities for functions. Units 19 and 21 for lesson planning, and Units 27-28 for classroom functions.
(See page 238 for answers)
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES l List at least three different exponents for each of these functions and choose a different register for each exponent: agreeing, clarifying, giving an opinion, thanking. 2 Go through the list of exponents you made in 1 and mark them F (formal), N (neutral) or I (informal). Think of situations in which it would be appropriate or inappropriate to use these exponents. 3 Look at your list of exponents. Which would you teach to classes of secondary school learners, 5- year-old beginners, advanced business students?
REFLECTION Think about these comments from teachers. Which do you agree with and why? 1 Learners prefer learning functions to learning grammar. 2 Learning functions is more useful for intermediate or advanced learners than for beginners. 3 It is very useful for learners to learn functions for essay writing and letter writing. 4 Primary learners do not need to learn functions.
DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES
1 Look at your coursebook. Does it teach functions? Why / why not?
2 What kinds of activities are used in your coursebook to introduce and practice functions? How does the coursebook help learners deal with the grammar of the functions? 3 In your Teacher Portfolio list six functions your learners might need to help them use English outside the classroom. List the most useful exponents for them, too. 4 To find out more about functions and exponents, look at Chapter 5 of Threshold 1990 by J.A. van Ek and J.L.M. Trim, Council of Europe, Cambridge University Press 1998. 5 Here are some common functions: declining an invitation, enquiring, expressing obligation, expressing preference, expressing ability, expressing intention, expressing necessity, expressing permission, expressing probability, expressing prohibition. Use a dictionary and/or the TKT Glossary to find their meanings. Can you think of two exponents tor each one? TKT practice task 4 (See page 245 for answers)
For questions 1-6, read the conversation between two friends in a restaurant. Match the underlined sentences with the functions listed A-G. There is one extra option which you do not need to use. Functions A predicting B making an excuse C making a suggestion D asking for clarification E ordering F agreeing G disagreeing
Conversation Janet: This meal really isn't nice. Nothing's fresh and everything tastes a bit strange. Chris: Yes, you're right. (1) We could complain to the manager. Janet: (2) That's a bit rude. isn't it? Maybe we could ask the waiter for something else. Chris: (3) Are you saying you'd like the same dish again? Janet: No, that's not really a good idea. (4) It would probably be as bad as this one. Chris: But it's better than doing nothing. Janet: (5) True. Chris: OK, call the waiter and tell him. Janet: Oh no, not me. (6) I hate doing those kinds of things.
