ICT in Education

B. Ed.
PROGRAMME
Paper : Educational Technology and ICT
Course Code : BED 15203
Semester : 2nd
Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Hazratbal, Srinagar
Course Prepared By
1.Prof. Mohammad Iqbal Mattoo 3. Mr. Showket Rashid Wani

Professor (Education) Assistant Professor (Education)
Department of Education Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir Srinagar
Srinagar
2.Prof. Mustaq Ahmad Patel 4. Mr. Javeed Ahmad Puju

Directorate of Distance Education Assistant Professor (Education)
MANUU, Hyderabad Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir, Srinagar.
Programme Coordinator and Format Editing
Mr. Habibulla Shah

Assistant Professor (Education)
Srinagar.
Course Co-ordination Team
Prof. Neelofar Khan

Mr. Showkat Rashid Wani
Mr. Habibullah Shah
Mr. Javeed Ahmad Puju
Miss. Shabnum Feroz
Published By
Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Director
University of Kashmir, Srinagar
Year of Publication: 2016
ISBN:

Srinagar
Course Code: BED-15203 Educational Technology and ICT
Unit I Educational Technology
i) Historical development of educational technology

ii) Meaning, objectives and scope.
iii) Approaches to Educational Technology
a) Hardware and Software,
b) Multimedia and Mass-media
iv) Forms of educational technology
Teaching technology
Behavioural technology
Instructional technology.
Unit II Teaching Learning Aids & Instructional Objectives
i) Teaching Learning aids:

a) Meaning & Significance
b) Types Projected & Non-Projected.
Radio & TV Educational use.
ii) Taxonomy of Educational objectives Cognitive, Affective & Psychomotor
domains.
Unit III Innovations in Teaching
i) Microteaching-meaning, steps, phases merits and demerits

ii) Role of supervisor and major skills of microteaching
iii) Simulated Teaching-meaning, steps, types, advantages and disadvantages
iv) Programmed Learning- meaning, characteristics and principles
v) Types of programmed learning-linear and branching
Unit IV ICT in Education
i) Information and communication technology: Concept, need and scope.

ii) ICT inputs in education.
iii) Project based learning
iv) Computer assisted learning
Course Code: BED 15203. Educational Technology and ICT
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Theme Page No
1. Understanding Educational Technology 1-23
2. Teaching Learning Aids & Instructional 24-42

Objectives
3. Micro Teaching and Simulation 43-67
4. Programmed Learning 68-96
5. Information And Communication 97-114

Technologies-An Introduction
6. ICT and Education 115-126

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UNIT I
LESSON NO: 01 UNDERSTANDING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Lesson Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning of Educational Technology
1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology
1.4 Characteristics of Educational Technology
1.5 Misconceptions of Educational Technology
1.6 Objectives of Educational Technology
1.7 Major Components of Educational Technology
1.8 Nature of Educational Technology
1.9 Aspects of Educational Technology
1.10 Types of Educational Technology
1.11 Scope of Educational Technology
1.12 Forms of Educational Technology
a) Teaching Technology
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b) Instructional Technology
c) Behavioral Technology
d) Instructional Design system.
1.13 Uses of Educational Technology
1.14 Let Us Sum Up
1.15 Check your Progress
1.16 Suggested Readings
1.0 Introduction
Historical Background
Education is the development of the power of adaptation to an ever changing

social environment. It is a science of doing/getting things done, related to any art or
science. Our society continues to be affected significantly by technology and its
application in every aspect of our lives. The students must be prepared to apply
knowledge and skills through the use of various forms of technology in order to be
successful in higher education and the workplace. Regardless of the career aspirations of
students, technology will be a dominant part of their work. Every learner will interact
with technology such as computers, digital content, and communication systems and
consider them to be familiar tools used in learning, working and living. These same tools
will be used by professional staff to enhance instruction, engage in professional
development, track student progress, and communicate with families about their
childrens education. In addition to having the requisite skills necessary to successfully
learn new technologies, students will enter the workforce or higher education prepared to
use the technology commonly available in those settings. The teachers are committed to
integrating technology into all aspects of the instructional program in order to provide the
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highest caliber education for each and every student. The way students learn is
fundamentally changing. A flexible, blended classroom model is replacing the one-size-
fits-all classroom approach that was confined to set hours and locations. Teachers are
using digital technologies to engage students with more personalized learning
experiences. Students are collaborating across geographical boundaries, and consuming
and producing innovative education-related content.
Eric Ashby (1967) has identified four revolutions in education:
1. The first revolution occurred when the task of educating the young was shifted, in
part, from parents to teachers and from the home to the school.
2. The second came with the adoption of the written word as a tool of education.
3. The third came with the invention of the printing press and books.
4. The fourth revolution, with the advent of electronics, and development in
communication which acted as a base for educational technology.
1.1 Objectives
After going this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain the meaning of educational technology;
Discuss the nature, objectives, scope and types of educational technology;
Distinguish between forms of educational technology;
Discuss the major institutions of education technology in India; and
Identify key role of technology in the process of education.
1.2 Meaning of Educational Technology
First meaning of educational technology

Educational technology is science on the basis of which various strategies
and tactics could be designed for the realization of specified goals.
Educational technology involves four steps;
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1. Functional analysis of the teaching learning process to identify the various

components which operate at the stage of input to that of the output.
2. To explore the various functions of these components.
3. To observe the effect of manipulating the various components and their
functions in the field
4. To translate all these research findings into some kind of guidelines for a
practitioner
Second meaning of education technology:

The second meaning of educational technology is the mechanization of
educational process. The mechanization is done in all the three process of human
knowledge;
i. Preservation of knowledge: - First knowledge was orally transmitted by
teachers to their students. But with the advent of printing machine
knowledge is preserved in books.
ii. Transmission of knowledge: - A large numbers of students sitting at far
distant places can be taught with the help of radio and television. The Open
University, corresponding education are the major contributions of this
innovation.
iii. Advancement of human knowledge: - The function of research process is to
advance new knowledge. The scientific researches are encouraged in the
present time because their findings are based on the collection of data.
Third meaning of educational technology:

Educational technology is the mediator, necessary for blending the science
of learning with the art of teaching. B.F. Skinner states that no teacher can
provide the frequency of reinforces or the necessary contingencies for optimal
learning and that a teacher needs machine aid for this job. If technology is to
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serve a blending function for a science of learning and for art of teaching, it may
also be seen as an attempt to apply the science of education. Silverman called this
view-point constructive Educational technology. It is the basic educational
application dealing with:
i. The analysis of the instructional problems
ii. The selection or construction of measuring instrument.
iii. The selection of appropriate techniques to produce the desired outcome.
Another view point of Silverman is no Educational technology is called
Relative technology it is a burrowing and applying technology that merely deals
with procedures and devices which gathers material. According to
the Ashby Any technology, which increases the rate of learning, would enable the
teacher to teach less and the learner to learn more is an educational technology.
1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology
According to G.M. Leith, Educational technology is a systematic application of

scientific knowledge about teaching learning conditions of learning to improve the
efficiency of teaching and training. In the absence of scientifically established
principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to
improve learning situations.
According to B.C. Mathis, Educational technology refers to the development

of a set of systematic methods, practical knowledge for designing, operating and
testing schools. B.C.Mathis has emphasized the development of teaching
methods and skills for testing the performance.
Robert Cox has defined the term educational technology in the following manner,
Educational technology is an application of scientific process to mans learning
conditions to what has come recently to be called educational or instructional
technology.
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E.E. Haddan defined educational technology as Educational technology is that

branch of educational theory and practice which is concerned primarily with the
design and use of message which control the learning process. Haddans
definition involves both the aspects-theory and practice and stresses on the
application for the effective communication in the learning process.
S.S. Kulkarni has defined the term educational technology in the following
manner, Educational technology may be defined as the application of the laws as
well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education.
S.K Mitra, Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques

and methods by which educational goals can be realized.
The Association for Educational Communications and Technology, the
professional society for ET, defines it as: Educational technology is the study and ethical
practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and
managing appropriate technological processes and resources.
1.4 Characteristics of Educational Technology
Following are the characteristics of Educational technology;

1. It involves input, output and process aspects of education.
2. It stresses upon developing methods and techniques for effective learning.
3. It is an application of scientific knowledge to education and training.
4. It includes the organization of learning conditions for realization goals of
education.
5. It emphasizes designing and measuring instrument for testing learning outcome.
6. It facilitates learning by control of environment, media and methods.
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1.5 Misconceptions of Educational Technology
There are some misconceptions about educational technology hat educational

technology is an Engineering technology or just Audio-visual aids only, but is different in
the sense given below:
a. Engineering technology and Educational Technology:
Engineering technology is concerned with the manufacturing deviceshardware
for education like, audio-video aids, television, computer, etc. while Educational
technology uses these material for teaching learning process.
b. Audio-visual aids and Educational Technology:
Audio-visual aids can be termed as hardware approach to educational technology.
It can be used to make the lesson more interesting.
c. Teacher and Educational Technology:
It is a usual comment about Educational technology that it will replace the human
teacher. Input is the teacher's job and therefore, educational technology cannot snatch the
place of a teacher. In spite of this, educational technology develops cognitive domain
only and not the affective domain. Affective domain can only be developed when an
interaction between teachers and pupils takes place. Hence, educational technology
cannot replace the teacher.
1.6 Objectives of Educational Technology
The objectives of Educational Technology are as follows:

1. To determine the goals and formulate the objectives in behavioural terms.
2. To analyze the characteristics of learner.
3. To organize the content in logical or psychological sequence.
4. To mediate between content and resources of presentation.
5. To provide the feedback among other components for the modification of learners.
6. To evaluate the learners performance in terms of achieving educational objectives.
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7. To improve the teaching-learning process and makes it more effective and process
oriented as well.
8. To maintain the standard of education.
9. To improve the ways of teaching by giving teaching aids and programmed
instructional material etc.
10. To provide feedback devices for modification of teaching-learning behaviour can
produce effective teachers in training schools.
11. To arrange new innovation of system analysis in the field of educational
technology which can help in solving administrative problems of education
effectively.
Regarding objectives of Educational Technology, Hilliard Joson has given the
following objectives :
1. Transmission of Information.
2. Serving as role model.
3. Assisting the practice of specific skills.
4. Contribution to the provision of feedback.
1.7 Components of Educational Technology
In Educational Technology, both hardware and software mechanisms are

involved. Garrison (1989), opines "technology will be viewed here as having both a
process (software) and a product (hardware) component, where process is the creative
application of knowledge of purposeful activities. A subset of hardware is media, where
media are the devices used to distribute information."
In Educational Technology, hardware covers TV, Computer, Overhead projector,
Tape Recorder, Teaching machines etc. Software includes audio/video cassettes,
Filmstrips, micro films, slides etc. Educational Technology is comprehensive. It is
associated with all aspects of educative process-methods, teaching strategies, learning
materials, handling of various equipment etc. The following 4 M's are the major
components of Educational Technology:
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1. Methods: It is concerned with the devices such as Programmed Learning Team

Teaching, Micro Teaching, and Personalized System of Instruction in Teaching
Learning situations.
2. Materials: Instructional materials such as Programmed Text book the material of
this type may be handwritten or printed.
3. Media: The media used here are audio, or visual or audiovisual. A few examples
are radio, tape recorder, charts, films, educational television etc.
4. Man Power: Man power controls educational technology in every way.
Educational Technology without man is zero.
1.8 Nature of Educational Technology
The nature of Educational Technology can be understood under the following

headings:
1. The basis of educational technology is science.
2. Educational Technology studies the effect of science and technology upon
education. In other words, science and technology are used under educational
technology. Hence, it is the practical aspect of science.
3. Educational Technology is a continuous dynamic, progressive and effect-
producing method.
4. New conceptions are possible only due to educational technology such as
programmed learning, micro-teaching, simulated teaching, interaction analysis,
video-tape, tape-recorder, projector and computer, etc.
5. Educational Technology accepts schools as a system. In this system, the school-
building, furniture and teachers act as input while various methods, techniques,
strategies and the teaching and examination with the help of audio-visual aids
function in the form of a process. Lastly, the output is in of form of ability of the
pupils.
6. Audio-visual aids cannot be termed as educational technology. It is because its
concern is only with the process-aspect of educational technology and not with the
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input and output aspects. But if these A.V. aids are used to achieve educational
objectives, then it can be put in the category of Educational technology.
7. Programmed Instruction is also different from Educational Technology. Its main
cause is that the student learns himself during the programmed instructions. It
does not allow interaction between pupil and teacher. Hence, it can be used only
for limited objectives and limited subject-matter. Therefore, programmed
instruction is merely a part of educational technology.
8. Engineering Technology is not the educational technology because the
engineering technology has manufactured radio, tape- recorder, video-tape and
T.V., etc., which are used in teaching as audio-visual aids, but still engineering
technology is different from educational technology. In education, it is accepted as
hardware approach only.
9. Educational Technology cannot solve each and every problem of education. It can
be used successfully in teaching and instructional system only.
10. Some people assume that educational technology will replace the teacher which
will make the teacher unemployed one day. It is their mistake. Educational
technology can never replace the teacher. It is because of three aspects of
educational technology.
1.9 Aspects of Educational Technology
Educational technology has three major aspects:

1. input
2. process
3. output
1. Input: It involves the entering behavior of the learner.
a. It Includes previous achievement, abilities of student and level fo motivation.
b. It concerns with the comprehension level of the student.
c. It considers availability and skill for teaching aids.
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2. Teaching learning process: It involves the means and devices of learning

experiences and aims:
a. To generate the situation for presenting the subject matter systematically.
b. To employ appropriate teaching aids for desired behavioral change.
c. To identify and use suitable communication techniques for the comprehension
of the subject matter.
d. To use suitable schedules of reinforcement for effective learning.
3. Output: It includes mainly the terminal behaviors of the learner:
a. To identify the characteristics of the content.
b. To clarify the objectives achieved through the content.
a. To analyze the stimuli.
1.10 Approaches/Types of Educational Technology
Lumsdaine (1964) has suggested the following three approaches of Educational

technology:
1) Hardware approach or first Educational technology
2) Software approach or second Educational technology
3) Systems approach
1. Hardware approach or first Educational technology:
Its origin lies in the application of physical science or engineering to education
and training system. Technology of machines is closely related to a technology of
teaching. Teaching machine is the only mechanical aid to be designed and invented to
fulfill an instructional requirement. All other audio-visual aids are designed and
manufactured for improving communication system not for educational one, but radio,
television, computer, satellite, internet, etc are used for instructional purpose. In this way,
the process of teaching teaching-learning has been gradually mechanized through the use
of teaching machines, radio, television, computers, etc. The mechanization is being
introduced in preservation, transmission, and advancement of human knowledge.
Hardware Approach has physical science and applied engineering as its basis. They have
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mechanised the whole teaching-learning process. There is even reduction in the cost of
education. Educational Technology that way has almost revolutionized the total teaching-
learning. The new mechanism of teaching-learning with improved technology as its basis
is suggesting innumerable new ways of doing things to the class-room teachers. A good
many gadgets of teaching-learning find their place in the classroom situations and many
more of that type are expected to enter into the class-rooms in the near future. The job and
the duties of the teacher are likely to have multifaceted changes. As a result of Hardware
technology, electro-mechanical equipments have been developed which are used for
instructional purposes. In the overcrowded class-room, the teacher uses microphones for
making his voice fully audible to the learners. Radio, T.V., tape recorder, epidiascope,
projector, closed circuit television (C.C.T.V.), teaching machines, and computers are used
for teaching the students.
Silverman (1968), called this type of educational technology 'Relative
Technology'. According to Marilym Nickson (1971), this educational technology deals
with the application of many fields of science to the educational needs of the individual as
well as of society. Davis (1971) thinks that the hardware approach is based on the
application of physical science to the education and training system which mechanizes the
process of teaching gradually so that teachers would be able to deal with more students,
resulting in less cost and economy in finances.
Hardware approach, undoubtedly, is bound to work wonders in the area of
education. It has a few draw-backs which are given below:
i. Hardware material, equipment were devised by science for use in science but
now they have been borrowed from there and are being used in education.
ii. While operating in the field of education, it works in isolation and not as an
integral part of that system where it existed earlier.
2. Software approach or second Educational technology:
It refers to the application of the teaching-learning principles to the direct and
deliberately shaping of behavior. Its origin lies in the application of behavioral science to
the problem of learning and motivation; where as mechanization of teaching-learning is
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seen purely a problem of presentation. Silverman (1968) termed this Educational

technology, constructive Educational technology. In this technology some constructive
work is to be performed. n software approach, the basis of all thinking and working is
behavioural science and psychology of learning. The scholar can exploit psychology of
learning to any extent to attain the different objectives. With every new thinking he can
evolve something new for teaching purposes. The teacher with added knowledge of
software approach can use the films, flash- cards, tapes etc., for various purposes. There
is not end to his thinking. Decidedly he can plan better teaching which results into better
learning. Software approach uses the principles of psychology for the purpose of
behaviour modification. In this connection, Davis (1971), observes, "This view of
educational technology is closely associated with the modern principles of programmed
learning and is characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of
appropriate learning strategies, reinforcement of correct responses and constant
education."
Silverman (1968) termed this educational technology as 'constructive educational
technology.' Both software and hardware approaches are so interlinked that they cannot
be separated from each other. One without the other is incomplete. It is software approach
which makes the hardware approach function well.
Mitchell (1973), writes, "By directing attention to the achievement of educational
aims of standards through knowledge and control relation between inputs in man-machine
systems and organizations, educational technology can be expected to make more
contributions to behavioural science than science has made to educational technology."
3. Systems Approach
It is a new management approach, influencing management decision making in
business, industry, government, military and education. System analysis refers to the
analysis and the development of systems. It includes utilization of scientific mathematical
techniques applied to organizational operations. This new technology has influenced the
educational administration and organization to a great extent. This is the modern
approach. It acts as a link between hardware and software approach. It is also known as
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'Management Technology'. It has brought to educational management a scientific

approach for solving educational administrative problems. It is essentially a new
management approach, influencing management decisions in business, industry and
education. Education is regard as a system and system approach is a systematic way of
designing an effective and economical educational system. System is defined in the
dictionary as "an assemblage of objects united by some form of regular interaction or
inter-dependence; as organic or organized whole as the solar system or a new telegraph
system". System may be divided into three broad categories. For instance, there are
natural systems as solar system; there are systems which have been designed by man as
telegraph system and lastly, there are systems which are combinations of natural and
man-made systems like hydro-electric plants or modern dairies.
The systems approach involves three instructional designs;
i. Training psychology: It is related to problems of training and making teaching
and learning more effective so as to make behavior modification through feed
back and reinforcement.
ii. Cybernetic Psychology: Cybernetics, interdisciplinary science dealing with
communication and control systems in living organisms, machines, and
organizations. The term, derived from the Greek word kybernetes (steersman or
governor), was first applied in 1948 to the theory of control mechanisms by the
mathematician Norbert Wiener.
iii. Systems Analysis: System analysis is more objective while making any system
workable and worthwhile.
The systems of a system are as follows:
a. Sub-system: subsystem of a system is that which is not visible but can be felt and
smelt. For example, the degradation of an institution can be felt on the basis of the
groupism among teachers and students.
b. System: system of an institution or a place or a country should be understood in
relation to education.
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c. Supra-system: no system can be studied without considering its supra-system.

For example the teachers of an institution could not get their salaries for the last
six months, this will effect on the efficiency and skill resulting into bad results.
d. To analyze the stimuli.
1.11 Scope of Educational Technology
As a field, the scope of educational technology involves communication skills and

approaches to teaching and learning through the judicious use and integration of diverse
media. Scholars in the field examine the uses of innovative media and technologies for
education, examining all aspects from direct student learning to management and impacts
on institutions. Scope of Educational technology involves the use of mass media and
audio-visual aids in education or technology in education. It often projects the picture of
educational hardware- teaching machine film-projectors, slide-projectors, language
laboratories, tape recorders satellite television, computers, etc. The Scope
of Educational technology also involves utilization of all available resources in a system
in order to optimize teaching learning process or technology of education. It takes into
account the available resources in the system and their uses to optimize teaching learning
process ,may be that the softwares are used by the teacher in the class room effectively
and efficiently so as to get the desired results. As in all forms of applied technology, the
field studies how theoretical knowledge and scientific principles can be applied to
problems that arise in a social context. Practitioners in educational technology seek new
and effective ways of organizing the teaching and learning process through the best
possible application of technological developments. These activities rely upon a body of
knowledge for successful and ethical implementation, rather than routine tasks or isolated
technical skills. If the term Educational technology is used as the audio-visual aids,
mechanical and electric gadgets, the scope is limited, to improve the educational
messages. If the term Educational technology is used as the process oriented technique,
then its scope is limited to production of teaching-learning material. Educational
technology is basically the technique of developing software. As an academic discipline,
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the study of educational technology prepares individuals by helping them acquire a

deeper understanding and mastery of:
learning resources: messages, people, materials, devices, techniques and settings;
processes for analyzing and devising solutions to those problems through
research, theory, design, production, evaluation, utilization;
the processes involved in organization and personnel management.
The scope of Educational technology includes effective processes to facilitate
learning using technologies and understanding the impacts of technology on learners and
organizations. Areas of specialization may include distance learning, human performance
technology, technology integration and management, media design and development,
learning sciences, instructional design, change management, and communications
processes. It should be noted that the field is not merely concerned with learning technical
skills nor the simplistic use of technology for technologys sake in teaching, a common
misperception by non-educators. The technologies that can have the best impact on
education are evolving quickly from year to year, and the pace seems to be quickening
which is involved in the scope of ET. Also the scope is extended in the sense that ET
keeps an eye out for education and instructional technologies that are emerging from the
seemingly endless array of tools and concepts that are out there which applications and
ideas are rising to the fore and best positioned to enhance engagement and impact
learning.
1.5 Forms of Educational Technology
The scientific inventions and technological developments have influenced every

walk of human life. There is rapid mechanization in the field of industries, defence, trade,
administration, etc. The educational process does not remain untouched by these
advances. It has necessitated introduction of technology in the field of education. Hence
Educational Technology came with its various forms which are as under:
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1. Teaching Technology,
2. Instructional Technology,
3. Behavioural Technology,
4. Instructional design system.
1. Teaching Technology:
Teaching is purposeful activity. The ultimate goal of teaching is to bring all-round
development of a child. The knowledge and practice which help in realizing the goal is
the content matter of teaching technology. Teaching is an art as well as science because
teaching can be studied objectively and scientifically. Teaching has the scientific
foundation. This has evolved the concept of 'teaching technology. Teaching technology is
the application of philosophical, sociological and scientific knowledge to teaching for
achieving some specific learning objectives.
I.K. Davies, N.L. Gange, Robert Gange, Burner and Robert Glaser have
contributed significantly in this area of education. Silverman has termed it as constructive
educational technology. Teaching Technology contains four elements such as Planning
of Teaching, Organization of Teaching, Leading of Teaching and Controlling of
Teaching.
Assumptions of Teaching Technology
Teaching Technology is based on the following assumptions:
i. Teaching is a scientific process and it has two major components: Content and
communication.
ii. The teaching activities can be modified and improved.
iii. Teaching skills can be developed with the help of feedback devices.
iv. A close relationship may be established between teaching and learning.
v. The learning objectives may be achieved by performing teaching activities.
2. Instructional Technology
According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee, Instructional Technology is the theory
and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
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processes and resources for learning." Instructional technology is often referred to as a

part of educational technology but the use of these terms has changed over the
years. Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources. While instructional technology covers the processes and systems
of learning and instruction, educational technology includes other systems used in the
process of developing human capability. Instructional technology is a growing field of
study which uses technology as a means to solve educational challenges, both in the
classroom and in distance learning environments. Moore (1989) argues that there are
three types of learner interaction (learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-learner
interactions). In the years since Moore's article, several philosophical views have surfaced
that relate Instructional technology to these types of interaction. Most traditional
researchers (those subscribing to Cognitivism) argue that learner-content interaction is
perhaps the most important endeavor of Instructional technology. Some researchers
(those subscribing to constructivism) argue that Moore's social interactions (learner-
instructor and learner-learner interactions), are as useful as learner-content interaction.
The instruction has significant role in human learning. The systematic actions which
induce learning is known as instruction. The instruction stands for development of
knowledge and beliefs. Instructional technology means a net work of techniques or
devices employed to accomplish certain defined set of learning objectives. It implies the
application of psychological and scientific principles and knowledge to instruction for
achieving the specific objectives of learning. The origin of instructional technology is
from psychological laboratory experiments. The most important example of instructional
technology is 'programmed instruction'. The programmed instruction and instructional
technology can be used inter-changeably.
Assumptions of Instructional Technology
The instructional technology involves the following assumptions:
i. Reinforcement can be provided continuously by the use of instruction.
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ii. The content matter can be divided into its elements and each element can be
presented independently.
iii. The external learning conditions can be created by arranging the elements in a
logical sequence.
iv. The student can learn successfully without the physical presence of a teacher.
v. The strategies and tactics of instruction can be used for achieving certain well
defined set of instructional objectives.
vi. The student can learn according to his needs and rate of learning.
Characteristics of Instructional Technology
i. The cognitive objective can be achieved successfully by the use of
Instructional Technology.
ii. Reinforcement is provided with the help of right responses.
iii. Individual differences are taken care of in his technology.
iv. The students can learn at their own pace.
v. It makes use of the psychological learning theories and principles.
vi. It provides deep insight into the content structure.
3. Behavioural Technology:
It is a combination of Behavioral science and technology. Behavioral science is a
science or branch of learning, as psychology or sociology, that derives its concepts from
observation of the behavior of living organisms. Behavioural Technology deals with the
human aspects of this technology and includes research and development on the design,
use and impact of information technology in all its forms. It covers a variety of disciplines
such as psychology, cognitive science, computer science, sociology, education and
training. The educational activities are designed to bring desirable changes in the
behaviour of the students. The psychology deals with every type of human behaviour.
Thus, the behavioural technology has wider scope. It covers the area of industry, defense,
commerce, communication, administration, health, motivation, training education,
teaching and instruction. The teaching and instruction activities are organised to achieve
specific learning objectives by bringing desirable behavioural change among the students.
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Thus, teaching and instructional technology are two forms of behavioural technology. But
in the field of education it refers mainly to the teacher behaviour. The behavioural
technology is the application of scientific knowledge in modifying the teacher behaviour.
Thus it is also termed as training technology.
Assumptions of Behavioural Technology
The behavioural technology is based on the following assumptions:
i. Teacher behaviour is observable.
ii. Teacher behaviour is measurable and quantifiable.
iii. Teacher behaviour is relative.
iv. Teacher behaviour is social and psychological.
v. Teacher behaviour is modifiable.
Characteristics of Behavioural Technology
i. The specific teaching skills can be developed.
ii. It helps in developing the theory of teaching.
iii. The achievement of teaching can be evaluated objectively and in a systematic
manner.
iv. Feedback devices can be used for the improvement of communication skills.
v. The individual differences of pupils and teacher can be tackled.
vi. The knowledge and practice of behavioural technology may be an important
instrument for training colleges to produce effective teachers.
vii. In class-room, behaviour technology concentrates on elements of behaviour.
viii. In behavioural technology the theory and practice of classroom teacher behaviour
are included.
ix. In it mechanism of feedback devices for modification of teacher behaviour are
also employed for developing teaching skills.
4. Instructional Design System
Instructional design system is the practice of creating instructional experiences
which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and
appealing. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the
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learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in
the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching)
and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in
student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction
may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and
assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE
model with the five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and
evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted
in cognitive and behavioral psychology, though recently Constructivism (learning
theory) has influenced thinking in the field.
1.13 Uses of Educational Technology
The uses of Educational technology are given below:

1. Preparation of teachers: - Educational technology has been quite successful in
training and retraining of large number of school teachers effectively and
economically.
2. Distance education: - Educational technology is able to use media technology in
the field distance education.
3. Telecast lesson: - with the advent of the satellite services, a beginning of a series
of innovative and constructive television programmes has been taken place for
National development and for educating the Indian masses living in remote areas.
4. Correspondence courses: - are offered by a number of universities in the country.
5. Audio-visual materials: -Educational technology finds use preparation,
development and use of audio-visual material.
6. Radio and television educational programmes: - The University Grant
Commission (UGC) and National Open University are successfully developing
various Tv and radio programmes.
7. Language laboratories: - the most significant development of Educational
technology is computer-assisted education development of language laboratories
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for teaching Indian as well as foreign language like English, German, French, and
Russian etc.
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
Educational technology is concerned with the development, application, and

evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.
Educational technology provides practice and strategies for reducing individual
differences or strategies and practices which help teachers to teach according to
individual differences of the learners. Structure as well as nature of teaching can be
developed and enriched with the help of educational technology. It innovates new
teaching models through which we can achieve the objectives of education. Scientific
foundation of education which is the main force of development of the theories of
teaching and instruction is providing by educational technology. Educational technology
assists in making education data actionable for students and teachers, and uses it to track
student progress, personalize learning, improve efficiency and meet reporting
requirements. Educational technology is an assistive technology which ensures that all
students have the right tools to reach their full potential when technology is used as a
source for selecting, implementing and supporting assistive learning programs. It unlocks
the promise of anytime, anywhere access to learning with the right technological devices
and tools to manage, access and virtualize learning environment of students. Educational
Technology creates a foundation that supports personalized and blended learning goals.
1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of educational technology?

2. Explain the approaches of educational technology?
1. Bressler, S. (1997). Exploring the Electronic Marketplace. VHS: Hewlett-Packard.
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2. Bridges, D. (1994). Transferable Skills in Higher Education. Norwich: University

of East Anglia
3. Brophy P et al (eds) (1997). Towards a National Agency for Resource Discovery
Scoping Study: British Library Research and Innovation Report 58, The British
Library Board and the Joint Information Systems Committee of the Higher
Education Funding Bodies.
4. Brown D, Burg JJ and Dominick JL (1997). Excellence in Campus Networking
1997. Wake Forest University.
5.
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UNIT II
LESSON NO: 02 TEACHING LEARNING AIDS & INSTRUCTIONAL

OBJECTIVES
Lesson Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Meaning and Significance of Teaching Aids
2. 3 Projected Teaching Aids
2.4 Non-projected Teaching Aids
2.5 Audio- Visual Aids
2.6 Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 Introduction
To make learning very effective it is not only necessary to utilize the factors and
techniques that facilitate learning, the teacher are to create certain conditions in the class-
room that may improve learning. These conditions are providing teaching aids, creating
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rivalry and co-operation, giving the knowledge of progress and success, praising or
reprimanding and guiding learning.
2.1 Objectives

Explain the meaning of teaching aids
Discuss the types of teaching aids and
Explain the taxonomy of educational objectives.
2.2 Meaning of Teaching Aids
Audio-visual aids are those devices or procedures that help to make teaching & learning
more interesting, stimulating, reinforcing and more effective. These aids are often named
as audio-visual aids in the sense that they call upon the auditory & visual senses of the
learners. Through the wise use of our sense of hearing & sight, they prove very helpful in
making the learning quite interesting & effective.
Thus we can define audio-visual aids as instructional material, equipments or devices that
help a teacher in the effective realization of his teaching objectives by calling upon the
auditory and visual senses of his students.
Need / Importance / Significance of audio-visual aids: Audio-visual aids have great
educational value from the point of view of teachers as well as of students. Below are
some important advantages of audio-visual aids:-
1. Clarity of the subject-matter:-Audio-visual aids bring clarity to the various difficult and
abstract concepts which otherwise need hard striving for verbal experience or
explanation.
2. Attention and Interest: Audio-visual aids are helpful in attracting attention and creating
interest of the pupil in learning the subject.
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3. Best Motivators: Audio-visual aids are the best motivators of our senses. They match
with the inner urges, instincts, basic drives and motives of the students and thus prove a
potential motivating force for energizing learners to learn effectively.
4. Use of Maximum Senses: Audio-visual aids call for the utilization of as many senses as
possible thereby facilitate the acquisition of maximum learning on the part of students.
5. Based on Maxims of Teaching:- The use of audio-visual aids provide assistance to the
teacher for following the maxims of teaching like, simple to complex, known to
unknown, etc.
6. Save Time and Energy: Much of the time and energy of both teachers and the students
may be saved due to the use of audio-visual aids, as most of the difficult concepts may be
easily understood through their use.
7. Reduce Verbalism: Audio-visual aids help us in solving the problems of verbalism by
providing alternatives for effective communication.
8. A good substitute for direct Experience: Audio-visual aids provide valuable substitute
for the real object for making the learning as realistic and meaningful as possible.
9. Provide adequate impression or images:-Audio-visual aids help in adequate retention of
the learnt material by leaving behind a permanent mark in the form of adequate
impressions or images.
10. Meet the Individual Differences Requirements: The use of various types of audio-
visual aids help in meeting the requirements of different types of pupils.
11. Helps in the Development of Scientific attitude: Use of audio-visual aids help in
cultivating scientific attitude among students, as audio-visual aids help in adopting the
habit of generalization through actual observations and experiments.
12. Encourage healthy classroom interaction: Audio-visual aids encourage healthy
classroom interaction through wide variety of stimuli and active participation of students
in teaching-learning process.
13. Solve the Problem of Indiscipline: The use of audio-visual aids provides many
opportunities to the students to utilize their energies in creative channels which
automatically solve the problem of indiscipline in the class.
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2.3 Projected Teaching Aids
Projected aids: Those teaching aids where image of the teaching material is directly
projected on the screen, thus help in their projection on the screen are called as projected
aids. Examples: Film, Film strips, Slides, Overhead Projector.
Films / motion pictures: Motion pictures shortly termed as films, represent an affective
instructional device calling upon the auditory as well as visual senses of the learners. A
motion picture film is a series of still pictures taken in rapid succession. The addition of
sound signal results in a sound motion picture. The educational films related to topics of
school subjects are usually in 16mm or 35mm size and can be shown through a 16mm or
35mm film projector.
Educational Value / Advantages:-
1. Film increases pupils interest in learning. It is natural to learn by seeing & hearing.
2. Sole means of imparting certain factual information and developing performance skills.
3. Action gives impression of reality and promotes better understanding and relation of
events.
Film strips:- A film strip is a short length of film containing a number of positives, each
different but usually having some continuity, intended to be projected as a series of still
pictures by means of film strip projector. It is a piece of non-flammable safety film 35mm
wide, varying in length up to one meter. Film strips are strips of film on which are
imprinted a series of pictures in a fixed sequence.
These film strips can be used by a resourceful teacher with a simple use of camera and
photographic material. Some film strips are accompanied by commentary recorded on the
tape recorder, such films are called as sound film strips.
Merits
1. Easy and convenient to use.
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2. Can be used at any desired place.

3. Available in colour or black & white.
4. Takes little space and is easily stored.
Effective Use of Film Strips:- involves the following steps:
Selection.
Preview.
Class preparation.
Presentation.
Evaluation / Follow-up.
Overhead Projector:- The overhead projector is very useful and commonly used
teaching aid in the field of education. The name overhead projector comes from the fact
that the projected image is behind and over the head of speaker / teacher. In overhead
projection, a transparent visual is placed on a horizontal stage on the top of light source.
The light passes through this transparency and then is reflected at 90 degree angle on the
screen at the back of the speaker.
Normally overhead projector are composed of a projected lamp to act as a source of light,
condensing lenses to concentrate all the light into usable beam, a polished mirror and
lens, assembly, and a blower for cooling the system.
The uniqueness of overhead projector may be summarized as under:
1. Vertical Projection:- It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight
horizontal path of light available with the usual projectors.
2. Horizontal Path:- The path of the light rays is again changed to a horizontal one by
mirror placed at 45 degree angle and continues over the shoulders of the teacher to the
screen.
3. Large Aperture:- It contains a large aperture of the size 20 & 20cms for placing the
slides and other visual materials.
4. Focusing of the Image:- It provides for the focusing of the image on the screen by
vertical movements of the projection head containing the objective lens and mirror.
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5. Flow of Air:- There is a provision of a constant flow of air through the lamp by a
cooling fan in the base of the projector.
Advantages of Overhead Projector:-
1. Large Image:- It projects a very large image on the screen from a minimum of
projection distance.
2. Face the Class:- Teacher can maintain eye contact with the students at all times.
3. Overhead Projector can operate in an illuminated room (well lighted room), there is no
need of darkening the room.
4. Bright Image:- Bright image is formed even in a well lighted room.
5. Simple Operation:- It does not need a separate projector operator or instructor. It is
simple, easy and convenient to operate.
6. Large Slides:- Due to largeness of its aperture, it may allow the use of large slides.
7. The screen can be used as a blackboard by the teacher to draw diagrams with pencils.
Slides / Transparencies: A slide is usually a piece of film in a frame for passing strong
light through or to show a picture on a surface. It may be a small piece of thin glass to put
an object on it for seeing under a microscope. The slide is mounted individually in a
projector and strong light is passed through it. The picture or image on the slide appears
on to the screen from where it can be seen by the learners.
The slides possess tremendous educational values, on account of the following
advantages:
1. Attract attention.
2. Arouse interest.
3. Assist lesson development.
4. Review instruction.
5. Test student understanding.
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2.4 Non- Projected Teaching Aids
Non-projected aids: - Those teaching aids, where image of the teaching material is not
projected on the screen are called as non-projected aids. Examples: Graphics, 3-
dimensional aids, Display boards, Models, Audio-aids.
Graphics:- Graphic aid material represents a particular type of visual aid material that
involves the use of graphic presentation in the form of graphs, maps, charts, diagrams,
posters, cartoons, etc. these are the form of visuals that are represented on plane surface.
The subject matter areas that are represented in graphic aids are in an abridged and easily
understandable form. They convey meaning mainly through relatively conventionalized
symbols that are nearer to reality perceptually than verbal symbols.
Advantages:- Graphic aids secure the attention of the pupils by their attractive format
and simplicity of layout. They convey the expected message combination of visual and
pictorial message made meaningful by suitable captions.
3-Dimensional aids:- Experience is said to be a good teacher. The encounter with real
object in this way contributes an unmatchable source of learning. A learner can learn in a
better way if teaching is given in real experiences because real object is the best source of
learning. But for various reasons it is not always possible to bring the real object in the
classroom:
The real object may be too large to move or store in the classroom.
It may be too small to be seen by a group.
It may be too expensive for ordinary class-use.
Being handicapped in such circumstances, a teacher has to search for some good
substitute for the real objects which are 3-dimensional in nature. These objects are chosen
in such a way that they represent the reality to great extent, have maximum educational
value and do away with the limitations or handicaps for being used and demonstrated in
the classroom. These teaching aids are powerful interest arousing devices that possess the
capacity of bringing into play all the five senses-touch, smell, sight, hearing & taste. Such
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utilization of as many senses as possible in the instructional process is going to help in a

big way for a classroom teacher. A few 3-dimensional objects are as: models, mock-ups,
specimens.
Display boards:- Display boards as the name suggests stand for the type of boards that
can be used for displaying graphic and material like pictures, charts, diagrams, cartoons,
besides all types of written, typed and printed material that can be used for the visual
communication of ideas & experiences to a number of viewers at a time. Following are
some of the display boards:
Blackboard or chalkboard, Bulletin board, Flannel board and Magnetic board.
1. Blackboard / Chalkboard:- Blackboard represents the oldest and most commonly
used visual material for the classroom teaching. A classroom can function without chair,
desks or even room but not without the aid of a blackboard.
Blackboard is rightly said a right hand of the teacher as no teacher can think of teaching
of his class effectively without its use and importance in the process of teaching and
learning, can be summarized as under:
A source of motivation for interest.
Essential for presentation stage.
For highlighting main points.
To write, sketch and draw anything ie, to illustrate ideas, with symbols.
To provide group instruction.
To facilitate retention and recall.
To facilitate note-taking.
To foster pupils participation.
2. Bulletin Board:- Bulletin board is a type of display board used for displaying
bulletins, news-items, announcements, achievements, distinctions and visual displays. It
provides a suitable place for the display of all kinds of creative works of students
different types of visual graphic materials like photographs, newspaper cuttings and three
dimensional objects like models, etc.
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Educational Uses:-
Source of motivation and arousing curiosity.
To display all types of creative works.
To display graphic and pictorial material.
Illustrative use.
Better understanding and retention.
3. Flannel Board:- Flannel board is a portable flat surface covered with a rough flannel
like cloth, named as flannel. Flannel board proves the most effective means of easy and
immediate visual display of the hand written, printed , sketched or hand drawn graphic
material to a number of viewers at a time.
Flannel board is just like a chalkboard with the difference that while on the chalkboard
are written words or figures, on the flannel board, we are not to write words or draw
figures, the items to be shown there, are prepared in advance and are stuck to its fuzzy
surface. Here, the things are prepared in advance and may be used again and again as the
learning situation demands.
2.5 Audio-Visual Aids
Audio-aids: In the category of audio-aids (as non-projected aid material & equipments).
We can generally include the aids like audio-tapes, tape-recorder and radio, etc.
1. Tape Recorder:- Tape recorder is an effective recording device that calls for the use of
auditory senses to convey the educational message to the learners. It mainly consists of
three parts: microphone (over sound input), the amplifier (make louder), and the
reproducer. It involves two main processes-Recording and Re-producing of the sound.
Educational Advantages:-
Tape recorder is quite helpful in the learning of some special subjects like music,
dramatics and language, etc.
It helps in the development of conversation skill, expression power and techniques
of effective dramatization.
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On account of its recording service, it may work as an effective aid for the
evaluation of teaching-learning programme.
It helps in overcoming poor speech habits and correcting actual speech defects.
Educational value of Radio and Television?
Mass communication aids: Mass communication aids are known for their values of
providing richer learning experiences to the masses (a number of listeners, viewers
and readers) through their proper organisation and circulation. Important ones are:
1. Radio: Radio as an effective audio aid device is capable of providing valuable
assistance to the teacher in the classroom by presenting worthwhile information and
learning experiences simultaneously to a large number of students. Commenting over
its potentiality, R.J.Reynolds writes
Radio is the most significant medium for education. As a supplement to classroom
teaching, its possibilities are almost unlimited. Its teaching possibilities are not
confined to the five or six hours of the school day but it is available from early
morning till long after midnight. But utilizing the rich educational and cultural
offerings of the radio, children and adults in communities, however remote, have
access to the best of the worlds store of knowledge and art.
Educational value of Radio:-
Immediate contacts.
Reflecting current events.
Supplementing classroom instructions.
Dramatic experience.
Group instructions.
Variety.
Temporary replacements of books.
Improving language and pronunciation.
Developing critical thinking.
Wider range.
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2. Television: Television is a powerful medium of communication that calls for the use of
auditory as well as visual senses of the learners in receiving education. From a quite large
distance, this application makes us able to transmit instantly every spoken or the written
word, the picture, the sights & sounds and the action of events as they take place. TV is
said to be the electronic blackboard of the future. Its advantage over the radio is that it
appeals to both ear and eye. It brings us sounds and sights simultaneously. It offers a
vitality and newness which attracts attention, creates interest and stimulates desire to
learn. It has been regarded as the queen of audio visual aids.
Educational Advantages of Television:-
1. Wider Range: Television reaches to every corner of the world, hence is having wider
range.
2. Versatile Audio-Visual Aid: TV is a versatile Audio visual Aid which involves audio-
visual senses and hence maximizes the learning.
3. Time saving and Economical Device: TV is more effective device which quickens the
learning process and saves time.
4. Focusing attention of a student on a particular topic and removes distractions.
5. It is the medium for inaccessible places, dangerous but important places not feasible for
trips.
6. It reduces teachers load of work.
7. It has recreational value and enables students to profit from activities like sports,
pictures, etc.
2.6 Blooms Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
An objective is a statement or a form of category which suggests any kind of desired

change. Educational objective imply the changes that we try to produce in the child. In
the words of Dr. B.S. Bloom, Educational objectives are not only the goals towards
which the curriculum is shaped and towards which instruction is guided, but they are also
the goals that provide the detailed specification for the construction and use of evaluative
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techniques. Since the instructional objectives are achieved in terms of change of

behaviour of the pupils, and behaviour of the pupil is divided into three domains-
Cognitive (Knowing), Affective (Feeling) and Psychomotor or Cognitive (Doing), the
taxonomy of educational and instructional objectives have also been considered to be
belonging to these three domains. Dr. B.S.Bloom, who was the editor of first volume of
the book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, worked out the taxonomy of
Educational and Instructional Objectives, on the assumption that the teaching learning
process may be considered as an attempt to change the behaviour of the pupils with
respect to some subject matter or learning experience.
Thus Bloom classified learning objectives in three categories and hence the change of
behaviour also into the same three domains. Blooms taxonomy (classification) of learning
and instructional objectives in a proper hierarchy into three domains is given as under.
Cognitive Domain Affective Domain Cognitive Domain

1. Knowledge 1. Receiving 1. Reflex Movements
2. Comprehensive 2. Responding 2. Basic Fundamental
Movements
3. Application 3. Valuing 3. Physical Abilities
4. Analysis 4. Organisation 4. Perceptual Abilities
5. Synthesis 5. Characterization 5. Skilled Movements
6. Evaluation 6. Non-Discussion
(A). COGNITIVE DOMAIN: - In cognitive domain only those educational objectives

are included which are concerned with the knowledge, recognition and recall and induce
the development of intellectual abilities and skills. Dr. B. S. Bloom has divided the
cognitive domain into six categories arranged from lowest to the highest level of
functioning / complexity, and their description is as under:
1. Knowledge:- It is the lowest level of the objectives belonging to the cognitive domain
and primarily aims for the acquisition of the knowledge concerning. Knowledge is
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defined as the remembering of previously learned material such as facts, terms and
principles.
The knowledge category includes the following three types of content:
(I). Knowledge of specifics- ie facts & terminology.
(II). Knowledge of ways & means of dealing with specifics.
(III). Knowledge of universals & obstructions in a field.
2. Comprehension:- Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of
material. It means the basic understanding if the facts, ideas, methods, processes,
principles or theories, etc. It is the lower level of understanding but on the ladder of the
acquisition of cognitive abilities, its level is little higher than the knowledge.
Comprehension includes three types of activities:
(I) Translation- communicated knowledge is to be translated by the students.
(II) Interpretation- cite examples, discriminate, classify, verify & generalize the topic.
(III). Extrapolation- estimate or understand the use of knowledge and extend it to the
other subjects and fields.
3. Application:- This category includes the use of abstraction in new, particular and
concrete situations. Under this objective the learner is required to acquire the ability to
make use of the abstract or generalized ideas, principles in the particular and concrete
situations. It involves both the earlier categories.ie knowledge and comprehension. It has
three levels:
(I) Generalization of facts, principles & theories.
(II). Diagnosis of the weakness of the content.
(III). Application of contents by pupils.
4. Analysis:- Analysis refers to the ability to breakdown the material into its component
parts which are mutually related, so that its organizational structure may be understood. It
is possible only when the knowledge, comprehension & application objectives have been
acquired. Analysis is attempted at three levels:
(I) Analysis of the elements of communication.
(II). Analysis of relationships among elements.
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(III) Analysis of organizational principles.

5. Synthesis:- Synthesis is termed as the creative objective which refers to the ability to
put parts together to form a new whole. The elements after analysis, are assembled,
arranged and combined so as to give a complete picture with new format not observed
before. This develops the creative abilities of the pupils. It is a higher level of learning
and involves knowledge, comprehension, application as well as analysis. Hence in
synthesis, learner is able to originate some new thing or new idea which is synthesis.
Synthesis has three levels:
(I). Production of unique communication by arranging different elements.
(II). Production of a new plan by combining all elements.
(III) Derivation of a set of abstract relations, among different elements.
6. Evaluation:-Evaluation is the highest level of objectives of cognitive domain and
involves all the five categories described earlier. Evaluation is concerned with the ability
to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Its aim is to develop in the student the
ability to make proper value judgment about what has been acquired by him in the form
of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis and synthesis. As a result the learner is
expected to take proper decision about the qualitative and quantitative value of a
particular idea, object, principle or theory.
Evaluation has two levels:
(I). Internal judgment of the material and methods.
(II) External judgment of the material and methods.
Evaluation develops the power of judgment.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis
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Application

Comprehension

Knowledge
(B) AFFECTIVE DOMAIN: - In affective domain only those educational objectives are
included which are related or concerned with the interest, emotions, attitudes, mental
tendencies and values of the pupil and bring the desirable changes in the same.
Dr. B.S.Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia classified the objectives of the affective domain
into 5 categories as:
1. Receiving (Attending):- Receiving is the lowest or initial category of the affective
domain and is defined as, Sensitivity to the existence of certain phenomena & stimuli, ie,
the willingness to receive or attend to them. Thus receiving means pupils will to receive.
It inculcates certain interests, attitudes, values or the ideas. It includes three activities:
(I) Awareness about the stimuli.
(II) Willingness to receive.
(III) Control the attention of the learner.
2. Responding:- Once a learner receives or attends to a particular idea, event or thing, he
must be made to respond to it as actively as possible which is manifested in the active
behaviour like obeying, answering, reading, discussing, recording and reacting to a
stimulus. The pupils are motivated for response. Responding has three levels:
(I) Learners obedience for response.
(II) Learners willingness to respond.
(III). Satisfaction in responding.
This level is concerned with enjoyment of self-expression in music, art and crafts, etc.
3. Valuing:- When one attends as well as responds to a particular thing, idea or event, he
is naturally drifted towards taking value judgment about that thing, idea or event.
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Therefore valuing depends upon both receiving and responding. Valuing includes the
worth of a thing, phenomenon or behaviour. Here the learner is expected to imbibe a
definite value pattern towards different ideas, events and objects. Valuing has three
activities:
(I) Acceptance of a value.
(II) Preference of a value.
(III) Commitment of value.
4. Organization:- Organization is the conceptualization of values and the employment of
these concepts for determining the inter-relationship among value. In this category, a
student gives some order to each value. As the learner / student successively internalises
values, he encourages situations for which more than one value is required. Ultimately,
this category of objectives leads the learner to form a set value structure or philosophy of
life. It has two levels:
(I) Conceptualization of values.
(II) Organization of a vale system.
5. Characterization of a Value:- It is the highest level category of the objectives
belonging to the affective domain. The organization of value, internally consistent system
is called, characterization. It implies the organization of inter-relationship among values
into a total philosophy of world view.
Upto this stage, the learner is able to imbibe all the essential affective behaviour ie
various interests, attitudes, values, value complex or value patterns, a permanent set value
structure and therefore, all the earlier categories are automatically involved in the
objectives of this category. At this stage, an individual develops a value system which
controls his life style for a sufficiently long time. This life style is pervasive, consistent
and predictable. Students personal, social and emotional adjustment patterns are the
instructional objectives at this level.
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AFFECTIVE
DOMAIN
Characterization

Organisation

Valuing

Responding

Receiving
(C). PSYCHOMOTOR / CONATIVE DOMAIN: - Psychomotor objectives are

concerned with the training of the students physical activities and the development of the
skills.
Simpson in 1966, classified the Psychomotor Domain in the following 6 categories
arranged in the increasing order of complexity:
1. Perception:- Perception refers to the ability of the learner to become aware of actions,
objects, qualities or relations through his senses. The learner makes preparatory
adjustments mentally, physically and emotionally.
2. Imitation:- Imitation involves the ability of the learner to perform an act according to
given instructions but the learner may often lack control over the activity. So activities are
performed but with imperfection and less confidence.
3. Manipulation:- Manipulation means the learner is able to perform an act according to
given instructions rather than doing the same activity by imitating. Here the instructor
instructs and guides the learner, but in imitation there is no guidance.
4. Precision:- Precision refers to the ability of the learner to practice and to perform
components of complex tasks very easily. Here errors are minimized with practice.
Learner holds control, accuracy and exactness over the performing of the activity.
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5. Articulation:- Articulation refers to the ability of the learner to perform the activity
with more perfection, ease, skill and confidence. Here the learner gets control over speed
and time also.
6. Naturalization:- Naturalization refers to the ability of the learner to perform the
activity automatically and spontaneously. Here performance becomes routinised, natural,
smooth and efficient.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Naturalization

Articulation

Precision

Manipulation

Imitation

Perception
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
Educational technology is concerned with the development, application, and

evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.
Educational technology is an assistive technology which ensures that all students have the
right tools to reach their full potential when technology is used as a source for selecting,
implementing and supporting assistive learning programs. It unlocks the promise of
anytime, anywhere access to learning with the right technological devices and tools to
manage, access and virtualize learning environment of students. Educational Technology
creates a foundation that supports personalized and blended learning goals.
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1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of teaching aids?

2. Explain the approaches of Blooms Taxonomy?

of East Anglia
5.
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UNIT III
LESSON NO: 3 Microteaching and Simulation: Meaning and

Scope
Lesson Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Microteaching
3.3.1 Definitions of Microteaching
3.3.2 Steps in the Process of Training Through Microteaching
3.3.3 Microteaching Cycle
3.3.4 How Many Skills Does Microteaching Technique Have?
3.3.5 Examples of Components of Skill of Stimulus Variations
3.4 Simulation
3.4.1 Meaning of Simulation
3.4.2 Definition of Simulated Teaching
3.4.3 Comparison Between Microteaching And Simulated

Teaching
3.4.4 Characteristics of Simulated Teaching Techniques
3.4.5 Assumptions of Simulated Teaching Techniques
3.4.6 Steps Involved In Simulations

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3.4.7 Precautions in Devising a Simulated Situation
3.4.8 Advantages of Simulated Teaching
3.4.9 The Disadvantages
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Answers to Questions
3.7 Check Your Progress
3.1 Introduction
The class is the hub of all educational activities in the school system. Teacher has
pivotal role to play in shaping the young minds in the classroom. As a teacher it not only
your expertise in content but also your behaviour and interaction that influence the
students at this stage. There are different innovative techniques which are employed in
training of no type teacher before he enters the classroom.
The present unit takes you through these techniques with appropriate example so
as to clear you different concepts, process involved in these innovative practices. In this
unit we shall try to understand the concepts of microteaching and simulated teaching.
3.2 Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to

Define and describe microteaching and various process involved ;
Define simulations;
Enlist characteristics and steps of simulations ; and
Distinguish between microteaching and simulations.
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3.3 Microteaching
Let us look at the following two examples of classroom situations. This will help
us analyse the classroom situation and required teacher behaviour in order to understand
the concept of micro teaching and its utility.
Classroom 1:
Teacher: Dear Students, Today we will study the physical properties of
metals. For this I will take some samples of metals like iron, copper and
aluminium. Now, let us clean the surfaces of each of the metal with a sand
paper. What do you observe?
Student1: Sir, the surface is shining.
Teacher: Yes, Metals in their pure state have shining surface. This property is
called metallic lustre. Now, you see that I am taking iron, copper and
aluminium metals again. First of all I will try to cut copper then aluminium
and iron respectively with the help of a sharp knife. (Demonstrates with
examples) What happens?
Student2: The knife does not have any impact and the metal can not be cut
into two parts.
Teacher: From these examples we can generalise that it is difficult to cut a
metal into two or more parts. The metals are generally hard.
(The class is completed in this pattern by completing all teaching points)
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Classroom 2:
Teacher: Today we will learn about hmm ... metals and non-metals.
Both of these have hm.. physical and chemical properties (trembling of leg and
palpitation in the heart is evident). You may be aware of the metals (teacher
has not conceived about existing previous knowledge of students). Metals can
not be cut. This shows that they are hard.
Student1: Please tell us some examples?
Teacher: You can go and read the book, examples are given in the textbook.
But you know the metals always shine. For example, you might have seen iron
piece.
Student2: But, iron kept in air rusts and does not shine sir.
Teacher: No problem, but shining is another property of metals. Now, you
just keep quite. Hm
(The classroom interaction is chaos and not lead or completed properly).
Check your progress

Note:
a. Write your answer in space given below.
b. Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
Answer in 4-5 lines.
1. Compare the behaviour of teacher in both the above examples.
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In both of the above contexts you see that two different types of teachers and their
classroom interactions are given. The teacher in the first class is well prepared about
objectives, content, students level, maturity and plans his lesson. Accordingly, the class
proceeds on the predesigned pattern to complete the desired content. To be specific, in
this process of teaching, the teacher has used skill of explanation reinforcement,
questioning. In this presentation the teacher has explained concepts, demonstrated with
the help of examples and discussed with the students.
In the second classroom presentation the teacher appears to be afraid of the
classroom presentation. This may be due to improper preparation, fear of number of
students etc. Teacher has not cleared the concepts and aim. Teacher appears to be in hurry
to complete the lesson.
Therefore, it is evident that the classroom is a dynamic place, where teaching-
learning material, teaching-learning process, beneficiaries of this process and supporting
materials are present. When a layman looks at the classroom he finds the teacher, students
sitting in the classroom. But from the perspective of an educator the classroom on one
hand consists of a teacher with his background, preparation, planning, management
abilities, evaluation skills and on the other hand students with their background physical,
social, economical, psychological abilities are also present in the class. Each individual is
a unique person with his characteristics such as learning abilities and/or disabilities. The
classroom gets affect by the time of the period, complexity of matter, use/non-use of
teaching aids, language used. Hence, there is a need to learn how to teach in this complex
climate. Microteaching has originated in this context to slowly and systematically expose
trainee teacher about teaching skills. The microteaching was started in 1961 at Stanford
University by Twilight W. Allen and his disciple. They created classroom like
environment by having peer students, who played roles of Johnny Good Guy, Joe Bee-
Bop, Helen-happy girls, Carol-know it all etc., which initially did not suit to produce
the proper classroom effect and resulted in over-dramatised situations. After, this the
advent of video camera it was used in the field of education for training purpose. In India
D. D. Tiwari (1967) experimented with Microteaching at Government Central
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Pedagogical Institute at Allahabad. Later on G. B. Shah (1970) utilized tape-recorder

facility for training through microteaching at Faculty of Education and Psychology,
Baroda.
3.3.1 Definitions of Microteaching
1. Allen, D.W. and Eve, A. W. (1968): Microteaching is defined as a system of

controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specified teaching
behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.
2. Cliff, J. C. (1976): Microteaching is a teachers training programme which reduces
the teaching solution to simpler and more controlled encounter achieved by
limiting the practice teaching to specific skill and reducing time and class size.
3. Flanders, Ned A. (1970): Microteaching programme is organised to expose the
trainees to an organised curriculum of miniature teaching encounters, moving
from the less complex to the more complex.
4. Jangira (1980): Microteaching is a training setting for the student teachers where
complexities of normal classroom teaching is reduced by practicing a particular
teaching skill, for five to ten minutes on five to ten pupils using single concept.
5. B. K. Passi and M. S. Lalita (1976): "Microteaching is a training technique which
requires student teacher to teach a single concept using specified teaching skill to
a small number of pupils in a short duration of time" their class.
Microteaching is a scaled-down, simulated teaching encounter designed for the
training of both pre-service and in-service teachers. Its purpose is to provide teachers with
the opportunity for the safe practice of an enlarged cluster of teaching skills while
learning how to develop simple, single-concept lessons in any teaching subject.
Microteaching helps teachers improve both content and methods of teaching and develop
specific teaching skills such as questioning, the use of examples and simple artefacts to
make lessons more interesting, effective reinforcement techniques, and introducing and
closing lessons effectively. Immediate, focused feedback and encouragement, combined
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with the opportunity to practice the suggested improvements in the same training session,
are the foundations of microteaching protocols.
Microteaching is organised practice teaching. The goal is to give instructors
confidence, support and feedback by letting them tryout among friends and colleagues a
short slice of what they plan to do with their students. Ideally, microteaching sessions
take place before the first day of class, and are videotaped for review individually with an
experienced teaching consultant. Microteaching is a quick, efficient, proven and fun way
to help teachers got off to a strong start. A microteaching is an opportunity to present a
sample "snapshot" of what / how you teach and to get some feedback from colleagues
about how it was received. It is a chance to try teaching strategies that you may not use
regularly. This is a good, safe time to experiment with something new to you to get
feedback on a technique you have been trying but are not sure about its effectiveness. The
dictionary meaning of microteaching is teacher training using videotape that is a training
exercise used in teacher training in which a student or student teacher is videotaped
during part of a class for subsequent analysis and evaluation.
A microteaching is an 8-10 minutes lesson in which a teacher trainee will put into
practice the elements of effective teaching. At registration trainee will be assigned to a
small group of eight to ten other student-teachers. Trainee will work with this group
during portions of the Orientation and will do his/her microteaching with them. Each
group will be led by a faculty member of peer. Trainee will present ones own lessons
with his/her group members serving as students. The presentations will be videotaped.
(S)he will then view and critique ones own videotape using the principles learned in the
Orientation. As a trainee private replay and self-analysis will be followed by a one-on-one
conference with group leader. The conference will help to identify strengths in your
presentation and provide suggestions for the areas trainee would like to improve.
Dandapani (2007)
Microteaching is a training technique which is called 'micro' since a teacher trainee
practices with a small group of 5 to 10 pupils for a short duration of 5 to 20 minutes on a
selected concept of a lesson and concentrates on a single skills which is magnified.
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Teaching skills for student teachers focus on participant observation skills, model
teaching discipline techniques and content teaching. Microteaching is not a substitute but
a supplement to the teacher education programme.
Microteaching is a training technique which requires student teachers to teach a
single concept using specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils in a short
duration of time. The most important point in microteaching is that teaching is practised
in terms definable, observable, measurable and controllable teaching skills. Basically
microteaching is a "scaled down teaching encounter in which a student teacher teaches a
small unit to a group of five to 10 students for five to ten minutes or we can say micro
teaching is a training procedure aimed at simplifying the complexities of the regular
teaching process. In a microteaching procedure the trainee is engaged in a scaled-down
teaching situation. It is scaled-down in duration of class time and is reduced to five-ten
minutes. It is also scaled down in terms of teaching tasks. These tasks may include; the
practicing and mastering of a specific teaching skill such as lecturing, questioning or
leading a discussion.
3.3.2 Steps in the Process of Training Through Microteaching
1. Orientation:-
In the beginning the student teacher should be given necessary theoretical
background about microteaching by having a free and fair discussion of aspects like those
given below:
Concept of Microteaching
Significance or rationale of using Microteaching
Procedure of Microteaching
Requirements and setting for adopting microteaching technique
2. Discussion of Teaching Skills:

Under this step the knowledge and understanding about the following aspects is to
be developed.
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Analysis of teaching into component teaching skills.

The discussion of the rationale and role of these teaching skills in teaching
Discussion about the component teaching behaviour comprising various
teaching skills.
3. Selection of a particular teaching skill:

The teaching skills are to be practiced by taking them one at a time. Therefore, the
student teachers are persuaded to select a particular skill for practice. They are also
provided with necessary orientation and processing material for the practice of the skill.
The student teacher is given necessary background for the observation of a model or
demonstration lesson on the particular teaching skill.
4. Presentation of a model demonstration lesson:

Here a demonstration or model lesson for the use of the selected teaching skill is
presented before the trainees. This is also termed as 'modelling' i.e. demonstration of the
desired behaviours in relation to a skill for imitation by the observer. Depending upon the
availability of the resources and type of skill involved, demonstration or model lesson can
be given in a number of ways like those given below:
By providing written material such as handbook, guides, illustrations, video
tape.
By exhibiting a film or a video tape.
By making the trainees listen an audio-tape.
By arranging a demonstration from a live model i.e. a teacher educator or an
expert demonstrating the use of the skill.
5. Observation of the model lesson and criticism:

What is read, viewed, listened and observed through modelling source is carefully
analysed by the trainees. In a demonstration given by an expert or teacher educator
student teachers are expected to note down their observations. An observation schedule
especially designed for the observation of the specific skill is distributed among the
trainees and they are also trained in its use before hand. Such observation of the model
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lesson and its relevant criticism provides desirable feedback to the person giving the
model lesson.
6. Preparation of microteaching lesson plan:

Under this step, student-teachers are required to prepare micro-lesson plans by
selecting proper concept for the practice of demonstrated skill. For preparing these
lessons, help may be taken from the teacher educators. The standard setting for a micro-
class is as below:
(a) Number of pupils: 5-10
(b) Types of pupils: Real pupils or preferable peers.
(c) Type of supervisor: Teacher Educators and peers.
(d) Time duration of a micro-lesson: 36 minutes
This duration is divided as under:
Teaching session 6 mts
Feedback session 6 mts
Re-plan session 12 mts
Re-teach session 6 mts
Re-feedback session 6 mts
36 mts
7. Practice of the skill (teach-session):

Under this step, the student-teacher teaches his prepared micro lesson for 6
minutes in a micro class consisting of 5-10 real pupils or peers. It is supervised by the
teacher educator and peers both with the help of appropriate observation schedule. Where
possible the student-teacher may also have his lesson taped on a video or audio tape.
8. Providing Feedback:
The greatest advantage of microteaching lies in providing immediate feedback to
the student-teacher on his teaching performance demonstrated in his micro-lesson. The
feedback is provided in terms of his use of the component teaching behaviours
emphasizing the skill under practice so that he may be properly provided feedback by the
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peers and teacher educator observing the micro-lesson. Tape, closed circuit television,
etc. are used for observing, recording and giving feedback.
9. Re-planning:
In view of the feedback received from the different sources, the student teacher
tries to re-plan his micro lesson. He is provided 12 minutes time for this purpose.
10. Re-teaching:
In this session of 6 minutes, the student-teacher re-teaches his micro-lesson on the
basis of the represented plan and rearranged setting.
11. Providing Re-feedback:

On the basis of his performance in the re-taught micro-lesson, the student teacher
is provided Re-feedback in the way outlined earlier.
12. Repetition of the microteaching cycle:

A microteaching cycle used to practise a teaching skill consists of planning,
teaching, feedback, re-planning, re-teaching and re-feedback operations.
3.3.3 Microteaching Cycle
Re-planning Re-teaching
Feedback Re-feedback
Teaching Planning
Figure 1 showing steps of microteaching cycle
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Microteaching cycle is a cyclic process. The first stage in this cycle is planning,
wherein the student-teacher prepares his micro-lesson plan having a particular content
and teaching skill. In the second stage the student-teacher is made to teach in an
artificially created micro-class for smaller duration, which is observed by the supervisor.
In the third stage, the supervisor then provides feedback on the performance and suggests
corrective mechanisms. Based on this feedback the lesson is re-planned, re-taught and the
observer gives his re-feedback again. This cycle continues till the skill is mastered.
3.3.4 How Many Skills Does Microteaching Technique Have?
The teaching skills have been analyzed by various educationist in different ways.
These skills belong to the beginning, closer, during the lesson presentation. These are also
dependent on teacher behaviour such as asking questions, probing, asking higher order
questions, giving examples, lecturing etc. Hen and Ryan (1969) have listed fourteen (14)
skills. Borg et al. have given eighteen (18) skills and B. K. Passi (1976) has listed twenty
(20). Following paragraphs give you such a list of skills in six different categories, which
can be practiced by a teacher.
Planning Stage:
1. Writing Instructional Objectives
2. Selecting the Content
3. Organizing Content
4. Selection of Audio Visual Aids Material
Introductory Stage:
1. Creating Set Induction
2. Introducing the lesson
Presentation Stage:
The presentation stage has four sub-stages. Each sub-stage needs different type of
teaching skills which are given below.
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Questioning Skills:
i. Structuring classroom Questions
ii. Fluency in Asking Questions
iii. Probing Questions
iv. Question Delivery and Distribution
v. Higher Order Questions
vi. Divergent Questions
vii. Responses Management
Presentation Skills:
i. Pacing of the lesson
ii. Lecturing
iii. Explaining Discussing
iv. Illustration with Examples
v. Discussing
vi. Demonstrating
Aid Using Skills:

i. Using Teaching Aids
ii. Using Blackboard
iii. Stimulus Variation
iv. Silence and Non-verbal cues
v. Reinforcement Managerial Skills.
Managerial Skills:
i. Promoting Pupil Participation
ii. Recognising attending Behaviour
iii. Management of the class
iv. Closing stage
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The trainee teacher has to practice each of the skill individually. Each of the skill
has various components which are inbuilt into it. An example of component of skill of
stimulus variation is given below.
3.3.5 Components of Skill of Stimulus Variations
Movement
Gestures
Change in voice
Focusing
Changes in Interaction patterns
o Verbal interaction
o Non-verbal interaction
o Teacher-pupils
o Teacher-pupil
o Pupil-pupil
Pausing
Physical pupil participation
Switching (oral-visual switching)
Check Your Progress

Notes:
a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at end of the unit.
2. What is microteaching?
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................................................................................................................................
3. State whether the statement is true or false.
(a) Microteaching is teaching practice. ( )
(b) In a microteaching class the trainee teacher practices large amount of
content. ( )
(c) In a microteaching class skill can not be clubbed. ( )
(d) The microteaching session is strictly followed by feedback. ( )
(e) The time duration of a microteaching lesson is 36 minutes. ( )
4. List steps involved in the process of microteaching.
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3.4 Simulation
This is another form of microteaching i.e. a technique which is used for

modification of teacher behaviour or improvement of teaching skill in pupil teacher.
Simulations is also considered as Simulated Social Skill of Teaching (SSST). In the
process of training the time class size and concepts are reduced and peer act as students.
The pupil-teacher take different role to create classroom environment and create artificial
environment, but the trainee teacher who takes role of teacher has to take various
decisions in real-time. The process helps to develop appreciation of classroom. The pupil
teachers are provided with enriched experiences.
1. Learning to teach
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2. Learning to learn
3. Learning to observe
4. Learning to organize
5. Learning to present
6. Learning to evaluate
3.4.1 Meaning of Simulation
Simulation is the creation of artificial environment to practice a complex skill.

This initially originated during world war I when the trainee pilots and soldier in air force
were given training in simulated situation. Simulations provide a constructed situation for
a trainee either a teacher or soldier in equipping them with experience of real field
without entering complexities. Thus, simulated situation provides an alternative situation
for practice of skills. Simulation is a relatively recent training technique which can make
the transition from course work to field experience more contiguous (Pollack, 1873) and
thus, bridges the gap between theory and practice.
Jacob (1960) has followed socio-drama as the technique of simulation. In addition
to this role play situation and in basket technique is also being used. In the first technique
trainees play different role and in the second series of classroom situations are presented.
There are quite a few studies where in microteaching is found to be effective as simulated
techniques of teacher trainee.
3.4.2 Definition of Simulated Teaching
Recall both classroom situations given in the beginning of the unit. It is a complex
situation in which the student-teachers finds awkward to conduct class. If the similar
conditions are artificially created for the teacher 2 then (s) he can practice teaching
technique. The simulated technique brings desirable changes in behaviour of teacher
through systematic and organized learning.
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Definitions:
Thomas and Deemer: To stimulate is to obtain the essence of teaching without reality.
Horman: Simulations contain the important parts of, but not all of, reality. Simulations
do not have to look like the real-life counterpart, but they do have to act like the real
things.
Websters Dictionary: Simulation means Giving the appearance or effect of, to have
characteristics of.
Tansey: Simulation is an all-inclusive term. It contains those activities which produce
artificial environment or which provide artificial experience for the participants in the
activity,
Pollack (1973): Simulation is relatively a recent technique, which can make transition
from the course of work to the field experience and more continuous, and this bridges the
gap between the theory of practice.
Ferik (1975), Simulations is considered a controlled representation of the reality, but the
model upon which it is based need not be essentially a mathematical one.
The definition given above makes it clear that the simulation does not present
reality or all the aspects of reality. This technique tries to create controlled laboratory
conditions, which are quite proximate to the reality for learning of specific skills like
teaching. This is novel idea in the field of education.
3.4.3 Comparison Between Microteaching And Simulated Teaching
Similarities Aspects Microteaching Simulated teaching

&
Differences
Similarities 1. Time 5-10 minutes 5-10 minutes
2. Class Size 5-10 pupil teachers 5-10 pupil teachers
3. Concept/Topic Minor concept Minor concept
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4. Supervision Subject Expert Subject Expert

5. Observation By all subject experts By all subject experts
and peer group and peer group
6. Feedback Given by all Given by all
Differences 1. Number of One skill is practiced All skills are
teaching Skills at a time practiced or
emphasized together
2. Appraisal Used as filled by one No such format or
guide or of the peer group on tool is used.
observation rotation basis
schedule
3.4.4 Characteristics of Simulated Teaching Techniques
1. The simulated training is provided in an artificial environment. This helps trainee

to learn properly and his moral is boosted, in absence of complex indiscipline
classroom.
2. The class is completed within a small time period, which gives opportunity to
fresher (trainee) for preparation and practice.
3. The neo type trainees can be gradually exposed to complexities of classroom.
Classroom control can be maintained.
4. The supervisor manages the time, training session of learner, feedback process etc.
A system is created to attain certain desired goal of learning.
5. All trainees are involved very actively in the process of training.
The planning of the entire simulated teaching is done systematically. The planning
is done by the supervisor, teacher trainee and others involved.
6. The success of the programme depends upon the feedback provided. This not only
highlights positive aspects of the learner but also clears drawbacks of trainer.
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3.4.5 Assumptions of Simulated Teaching Techniques
The simulated technique is based on certain principles which are given below:
1. The teaching can be analyzed into different skills which can be described
modified and practiced.
2. The feedback is source of motivation which helps in improvement of
communication skills of the trainee.
3. Different patterns of teacher behaviours are highlighted because of role
perception and role play.
4. The trainees can practice required behaviour.
3.4.6 Steps Involved in Simulations
Flanders has recommended the following steps in simulation:

1. Assignment of role to pupil-teacher: A small group of pupil-teacher is
selected for the study. The pupil-teachers are assigned random letters A,B,C,D
etc. and random roles are given which are rotated later.
2. Selection and discussing teaching skills for practice: In this stage the
specific skills are discussed. In these discussions the topics which are most
suitable are identified.
3. Preparing plan of practice: The decision regarding who will initiate the
interaction, who will intervene at what stage and what stage the interaction
will be stopped etc. will be decided here.
4. Determining procedure of evaluation: In this stage the procedure of
evaluation, kind of data to be recorded, procedure of recording data etc. are
decided.
5. Conducting first practice teaching session: At this stage a practice session is
conducted and feedback is given to the pupil-teacher. Based on the feedback
the procedure of second session is changed, if training procedure is to be
improved.
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6. Altering the procedure: The individual trainee has to be ready to change the
procedure and the topic and move on to next skill. This will sustain and
enhance interest.
Assignment of Selection and Preparing

role to pupil- discussing teaching plan of
teacher skills for practice practice
Altering the Conducting first Determining

procedure practice teaching procedure of
session evaluation
3.4.7 Precautions in Devising a Simulated Situation:
While devising a simulated situation you are supposed to take up few precautions.
1. Clarity of objectives: The objectives of simulation process are to be cleared to
the student-teachers.
2. Motivate trainees: The trainee-teachers are to be prepared well in advance to
practice particular skill and the environmental settings.
3. Role assignments: The roles assigned to all the pupil-teachers must be briefed
in advance. This will helps them plan their role for simulated conditions.
4. Flexibility in approach: The practice sessions must have flexibility in terms
of roles, time, content and must not impose stringent conditions from outside.
3.4.8 Advantages of Simulated Teaching:
1. The gap between theory and practical in teacher education is bridge by this
technique.
2. The teacher-trainee can analyse training behaviour and practice in simulated
situation.
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3. Social problems can be listed and teacher-trainee tries to overcome in artificial

conditions.
4. Teacher-trainees gets opportunity to play wide variety of roles.
5. This technique provides immediate feedback which is useful for behavior
modification.
6. This provides role consciousness among learners.
7. It provides critical examination and thinking among all participants.
8. It boosts self confidence among learner.
9. It motivates all participants by providing real-life situation in exciting and
interesting way.
10. This provides lot of scope of research work.
3.4.9 The Disadvantages
1. Some teacher trainees find it difficult to practice integrated skill.

2. It requires lot of labour, time and money on creating laboratory condition just
for training purpose.
3. All the trainees are not capable of playing all sort of games.
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
Teaching is considered as an art as well as science. In either case it is the

systematic practice which improves the performance and classroom behaviour. Born
teachers are very few in number, novice teacher generally find difficult to enter a
classroom because of the complexities of classroom like students, content, teaching aid,
teaching skill, class management etc. Therefore, innovative ways of training have been
brought in. The present unit has attempted to bring forth to you various innovative
methods. It is assumed that these theoretical aspects can be put into practice so that you
can improve your teaching. The discussion in foregoing pages will help you to become
effective teacher, observer and a critique so that the teaching can be improved. We also
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need to have comparative study of impact of these innovative techniques versus

traditional teaching methods.
Check Your Progress

Notes:
a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at end of the unit.
5. What is simulation?
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6. Which are the different steps involved in simulations?
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3.6 Answer to Question of Check Your Progress
1. Teacher is well aware of the content in the first class. He is showing the
properties with examples and involving students by questioning and
demonstrating. The teacher in the second class does not appear to be thorough in
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his subject. This has reduced his confidence. The examples and demonstrations
are unsuccessful. The overall class is a failure.
2. Microteaching is a scaled down, simulated teaching encounter which is
conducted in a laboratory or artificially controlled conditions in presence of
peers and supervisors for limited time, content and skills.
3. State whether true or false
i. F
ii. F
iii. F
iv. T
v. T
4. Following steps are involved in the process of training through microteaching.
i. The students are oriented about microteaching
ii. Different teaching skills are discussed
iii. A skill is selected for practice
iv. Model skill is presented infront of students
v. Model lessons are observed critically
vi. Student-teachers prepare lesson plans
vii. Practice a particular teaching skill
viii. Feedback is given about the skill presented
ix. Based on the feedback the lesson is planned once again
x. The lesson is re-taught
xi. Re-feedback is provided to the student-teacher.
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PLAN TEACH
RE- FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
RE-TEACH RE-PLAN
5. Simulation in teaching is an artificially created real-life classroom situation,

which reduces classroom complexities like discipline problems.
6. Following steps are involved.
i. Students are assigned different roles.
ii. The skill for practice is discussed
iii. A plan is prepared for practicing the skill
iv. A procedure is determined for evaluation
v. A practice teaching session is conducted
vi. Based on the feedback the procedure is altered.
1. Microteaching in teacher training technique. Discuss?

2. Describe the importance of simulated teaching in the prepration of teachers?
1. Alien, D.W& Ryan K. Micro Teaching.

2. Davies, Irork, The Management of learning, McGraw-Hill, London-1971.
3. Dosajh.N.L, Modification of Teacher Behaviours through Micro Teaching.
4. Gage, N.L. Theories of Training in Theories of Learning and Instruction, NSSE
University Press Year Book, Chicago-1964.
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5. Gillett, A.N (SSadlar, J.E., Training for Teachers, Longmans Green and Co. Ltd-
London1962.
6. Glasser, R, Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction, Dept. of A.V.
Instruction, NEAof USA, Washington-1965.
7. Halt Rinhart & Winston Inc. New York & London-1972.
8. Hunter, E., Encounter in the Classroom-New Ways of training.
9. Joyce, B. & Marshal, W., Models of Teaching, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
NewDelhi-1992. .
10. Khan, N., Educational Technology, Rajat Publications, New Delhi-2004. Lail,
S.S., The Model in HSE: Theory and Practice-1968.
11. Mc-Geoch, Direct Experiences in Teacher Education, Columbia University,
NewYork-1953.
12. Megarry, J., Simulation and Gaming, The international Encyciopaidia of
Educational Technology, Pergoman Press Great Britian-1989.
13. Passi, B.K., Becoming Better Teachers-Microteaching Approach, Ahmedabad-
1976.
14. Roa, V.K., Teacher Education, APH Publishing Corporation, Darya Gary,
NewDelhi-2001.
15. Sachdeva, M.S. & Gupta, V.K., Essentials of instructional Technology, Vinod
Publishing, Ludhiana-2003.
16. Singh, L.C., Ten Years of Microteaching -1976.
17. Saxena, N.R. & others, R. Hall Book Depot, Meerut 1999-2000,
18. Smith, B.O., Towards a Theory of Training, Teachers College Press Columbia
University, USA-1966.
19. Taba, H & Freeman, Training strategies and Thought Process, Teachers College
Record-1964.
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UNIT III
LESSON NO: 04 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION/LEARNING
Lesson Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Background Information
4.4 Origin of Programmed Instruction
4.5 Meaning of Programmed Instruction
4.6 Principles of Programmed Instruction
4.7 Types of Programmed Instruction
4.8 Development of Programmed Instruction
4.9 Review of Research trends in programmed learning
4.10 Let Us Sum Up
4.1 Introduction
Dear students, Programmed Instruction or programmed Learning is one of the

most innovative, highly individualized, systematic and very recent type of teaching-
learning process. It is often referred as auto- instruction and is extremely useful for self
learning and equally beneficial for class room instruction as well. This type of Instruction
actually started during the era of Aristotle and the process of Programmed Learning was
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for the first time practiced by Plato but this kind of Instruction could not progress due to
lack of resources at that time. In 1954 James Howard and B F Skinner developed the
Auto instruction Method which fashioned the base for Programmed Learning. For the
first time in 1963 NCERT started the preparation of Material for programmed Instruction
/ Learning and sincere attempts were made for the use of programmed instructions in the
class room and in providing programmed study material to the students of distance
education. At present suitable self- instructional programmed materials have been
prepared for different subjects and grades which are used by different students for self
instructional Purpose. Programmed learning is extensively used in the teaching learning
process of all those subjects which include practice and drill work and require logical and
systematic study.
4.2 Objectives
Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
Discuss the concept and meaning of Programmed Instruction / Learning;
Discuss the contribution of Skinner, Mager, Gilbert in Programmed Instruction;
What are the fundamental principles of programmed Instruction;
Understand different types of programmed Instruction
Discuss the Research trends in programmed learning;
We cannot understand the present day status of instructional technology without

examining its early beginnings and the origins of current practice. Programmed
Instruction was an integral factor in the evolution of the instructional design process, and
serves as the foundation for the procedures in which instructional technology
professionals now engage for the development of effective learning environments. In fact,
the use of the term programming was applied to the production of learning materials long
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before it was used to describe the design and creation of computerized outputs.
Romizowski (1986) states that while Programmed Instruction may not have fulfilled its
early promise, the influence of the Programmed Instruction movement has gone much
further and deeper than many in education care to admit (p. 131). At the very least,
Programmed Instruction was the first empirically determined form of instruction and
played a prominent role in the convergence of science and education. Equally important is
its impact on the evolution of the instructional design and development.
4.4 Origin of Programmed Instruction
Although attempts at processes resembling programmed instruction date back to the

1920s (Pressey, 1926), the actual term is probably derived from B. F. Skinners (1954)
paper, The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, presented at the University of
Pittsburghs conference of Current Trends in Psychology and the Behavioral Sciences on
March 12, 1954. Skinners remarks reflected his reaction to a 1953 visit to his daughters
fourth-grade arithmetic class (Vargas and Vargas, 1992). Skinner (1954, pp. 9091)
argued that schools were unable to accomplish the type of teaching that eventually leads
to original thinking because:
Schools relied on aversive stimulation or control; as Skinner described it, children
worked to avoid or escape punishment.
Schools did not pay attention to the contingencies of reinforcement.
Schools lacked a systematic plan for learning skills, or, in Skinners words, a
skillful program which moves forward through a series of progressive
approximations to the final complex behavior desired.
Schools too infrequently provided reinforcement.
Skinner suggested a systematic planor programmed instructionas the vehicle
to accomplish the changes that needed to occur in classrooms, and in his description of
that plan he made two statements that illustrate the importance of instructional design and
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its relationship to technology. He stated that education is perhaps the most important
branch of scientific technology (1954, p. 93), and in the present state of our knowledge
of educational practices, scheduling [of behaviors and consequences] appears to be most
effectively arranged through the design of the material to be learned (p. 94, emphasis
added). Skinner was at the forefront in articulating the need to accomplish this scheduling
of behaviors and consequences and a program for effective and efficient learning through
operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning that reinforces
desired behavior and it is this behaviorist theory that forms the basis for programmed
instruction.
During the 1950s, educators and psychologists became concerned that the mass schooling
precipitated by increasing demands on public education were not meeting an individuals
needs for personal attention in the learning process, and they suggested that teaching
machines could restore the important features of personal instruction (Skinner, 1986, p.
103). Additional teaching machines were introduced in the 1960s, largely as a result of
the success of programmed instruction. A variety of simple machines were introduced,
including Skinners teaching machine, the Porter device, the Bell device, the punchboard,
the Subject Matter Trainer by Briggs, the Arithmetic Machine by Skinner and Zeaman,
and the Polymath by Rothkopf (Ysewijn, 1993).
During the 1970s and 1980s, as the first computers were being placed in the
classrooms of many schools, behavioral theories became quite popular. Advances in
programming and computer technology also spurred the popularity of programmed
instruction by making it possible to teach a wide range of topics and skills. During this
period programs for nearly every topic covered in a traditional school curriculum (i.e.,
math, science, language arts, social studies) were written for a variety of teaching
machines (which eventually gave way to the personal computer) (Chen, 2006).
Programmed instruction is now generally considered to be one appropriate instructional
approach among many, and most appropriately utilized in conjunction with a variety of
other instructional methods.
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4.5 Meaning of Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction / learning simply means learning performed or instruction

provided by a teaching Machine or programmed textbooks. In order to understand the
meaning of programmed instruction we will through light on some definitions of
programmed instruction put forward by different scholars:
Smith and Moore (1962): Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the
material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the students from
a familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts, principles and
understanding.
Leith (1966): Programmed is a sequence of small steps of instructional material (called
frames), most of which require a response to be made by completing a blank space in a
sentence. To ensure that expected responses are given, a system of queuing is applied and
each response is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of result. Such a
sequence is intended to be worked at the learners own pace as individualized self
instruction.
Jacobs and et al (1966): Self-instructional programmes are educational materials from
which the students learn. These programmes can be used with many types of students and
subject matter, either by themselves, hence the name self-instruction or in combination
with other instructional techniques.
Espich and Williams (1967): Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of
experiences, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus responses relationship, that have
proven to be effective.
Susan Markle (1969): It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of
instrumental events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviour of
each and every acceptable student.
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Gulati and Gulati (1976): Programmed learning, as popularly understood, is a method of

giving individualized instruction, in which the student is active and proceeds at his own
pace and is provided with immediate knowledge of results. The teacher is not physically
present. The programmer, while developing programmed material, has to fallow the laws
of behaviour and validate his strategy in terms of student learning.
Owing the above definitions we came to the conclusion that Programmed
instruction / learning is a systematically planned, empirically established and effectively
controlled self-instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the
learner through logically sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the
principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.
4.6 Principles of Programmed Instruction
The fundamental principles of a good programmed learning strategy are as under:

1. Principle of Small Steps: It is a well known fact that a learner learns better it the
content matter is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore, in programmed
instruction the subject matter is divided into sequenced and meaningful very small
steps called frames, which are presented to the learner one at a time for responding.
2. Principle of Active Responding: In Programmed Instruction a learner is provided
information in frames and he is supposed to be very active in responding to the
individual frames as the learner is provided only one frame at a time and is allowed to
proceed further only on completing the previous frame, thereby keeping him active
and meaningfully busy throughout the programme.
3. Principal of Immediate Reinforcement: The learner understands better when he is
motivated to learn by receiving the information of the result just immediately after
responding, which is also in accordance with the psychological phenomenon of
reinforcement in learning. In programmed instruction it is important to provide
immediate results of individual frames so that the learner will get appropriate
reinforcement in time.
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4. Principle of Self-pacing: The concept of programmed Instruction has actually

emerged on the concept of providing learners an opportunity to learn at their own
pace. The programme should be prepared keeping in view the principle of self-pacing,
so that the learner can respond and move from one frame to another according to his
own speed of learning.
5. Principal of Student testing: In programmed learning as the learner gets the results
of his learning while the process of learning which provides him continuous
evaluation of his own learning. In this process the learner has to leave the record of
his own response because he is required to write a response for each frame on a
response sheet. This detailed record helps in revising the programme and acts as a
source for studying and improving the complex phenomenon of human learning.
4.7 Types of Programmed Instruction
Programmed Learning / instruction can be broadly divided into following types on

the basis of researches and experimental studies in the field of programmed instruction:
1. Linear or Extrinsic Programming
2. Branching or intrinsic Programming
3. Mathetics programming
4. Ruling System of programming
The first three types, Linear or Extrinsic Programming, Branching or intrinsic

Programming and Mathetics programming represent the actual Programmed Instruction;
the Ruleg system of programming is just the extension of Linear or Branching
programming.
Linear or Extrinsic Programming:
B.F. Skinner (1955), is considered the founder of this type of programmed

instruction. It is directly related with his theory of operant conditioning and is based on
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the assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by
step, with suitable reinforcement for each desired response. Consequently, in this
programming, the instructional material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small
steps, called frames. These frames are presented to the learned in the arranged sequence,
one at a time. The learner is required to respond actively at each step. Immediately after
responding, the learned is given information about the correctness of his response. It
reinforces his behaviour and he may be motivated to learn the next frame in the arranged
sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the learner may be able to acquire the
desired learning experiences.
This type of programming is referred to as linear as the sequence of frames and

path of learning in this programmed learning is systematic and linear. (As shown in the
Fig. 3.1) Here all the learners have to proceed through the same frames and in the same
order. The whole instructional procedure is well controlled. However, this control is quite
extrinsic exercised by the programmer and so, the linear programming is also referred to
as extrinsic programming.
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

frame frame frame frame frame frame
Path of Learning
Entry Terminal
behaviour behaviour
Figure 3.1 Arrangement of frames in Liner Programming

Normally the learner makes only correct responses and only positive
reinforcement, if the learner does not respond correctly to a particular frame, he may be
required either to repeat the frame or be acquainted with the correct response. In any case
he is not allowed to move to the frame unless he responds correctly to the present frame.
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Example: Our Digestive System

Frame 1
The Mouth is an important organ of our Digestive system. The other parts of the system
are esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum and anus. The mouth,
and stomach are responsible for digestion of the food, the small intestines help in
digestion and absorption of the food and..are responsible for absorption of
water. The rectum helps in temporary storage of ..
Response: Large Intestines; Wastes.
Frame 2
In addition to the organs of digestive system there are a large number of enzymes that
help in the process of digestion, some of them are secreted by mouth, some by
. and some others by the intestines. Besides there are some hormones
which also aid in the process of
Responses: Stomach; Digestion
In this manner, the students may proceed on their self-learning path by going from
one frame to another arranged in a sequential and systematic way.
Branching or Intrinsic Programming:
Norman A. Crowder (1954), an American psychologist is credited for developing
the branching programme of programmed instruction. In his own words, branching or
intrinsic programming is one which adapts to the need of the students without a medium
of an extrinsic device such as a computer, In contrast to linear programming; this style
provides an intrinsic arrangement in the sense that it is not controlled extrinsically by the
programmer. Here, a learner is free to make decisions and is able to adapt the instruction
to his needs. The basic assumptions underlying this style are as below:
1. When the learning material is presented in its totality or in the form of
meaningful components or units, the learning gets better.
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2. Learning takes place better if the students are made to learn on the pattern of
traditional tutorial methods.
3. Due to the Students exposure to the new material, basic learning takes place.
4. In a learning process, errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may be detected
and corrected before proceeding further on the learning path the biggest
advantage of branching programming is that the wrong responses do not
necessarily hinder the learning of a correct response.
5. Learning takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take
decisions for adapting the instruction to his needs.
6. Learning will be better if each response is used to test the success of the latest
communication to the student and the testing is followed by remedial
instruction.
7. Multiple-choice items help more in the learning process than the force choice
single response items.
Based on the above assumptions, the procedure for branching programme may be
outlined in the following way:
1. The size of the frames is quite large in branching programming than that
employed in linear programming and instructional material is divided into
units of material called frames. Much information, one or two paragraphs
or even a page, is provided in a frame.
2. The learner is provided more than one choice while responding to the frames
as he is required to respond to multiple choice questions associated with the
learning material of the frame. He has to discriminate and choose one right
answer.
3. The learner moves forward if he answers correctly, but is diverted (branched)
to one or more remedial frames if he does not. These frames explain the matter
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afresh, ask him questions to elicit the right answer and reveal his previous
mistakes, and then return him to the original frame.
4. This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional
material at his own pace.
Figure 3.2 A diagrammatic representation of the main path and branching in

branching programming.
Contribution of Skinner, Mager, Gilbert in Programmed Instruction:

In 1943, Skinner and his two other colleagues started programming by teaching a
pigeon to roll a small bowling ball by operant conditioning. By 1954, Skinner and James
G. Holland devised the auto instructional methods which have served the present
generation as basis for present work in programmed instruction. In Skinnerian
programmed instruction whether mechanized or otherwise the learner is initially asked a
question which he can easily answer correctly without any previous study of the
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particular lesson. The learner is taught by the sequence of questions. He is asked more
and more as the lesson proceeds in very small steps.
Robert Mager (1958) gave a new concept known as Learner Controlled
instruction which is a kind of Socratic dialogue in reverse, in which the learner led the
instructor. The instructor remains silent until the learner himself stimulated the instructor
with questions that suggested the needed illustrations, demonstrations, practice or some
other help.
In 1962, T F Gilbert gave formalized expression of his technology of education
called Mathetics. Latter a number of educational experts including Pennington further
worked on Mathetics and they devised the methods of preparing lessons on the methatics.
4.8 Development of Programmed Instruction
The development of the programmed instruction material in the form of

programmed text or computer-assisted instruction is a highly specialized job. The task
involves the following main phases:
1. Preparatory phase (preparation of the programme)
2. Development phase (writing of the programme)
3. Evaluative phase (testing or evaluation)
Preparatory Phase
The preparatory phase occupies a very prominent place, in any scheme of the
development of the programmed instructional material. It includes the planning and
beginning. The experts of programmed instruction are of the opinion, that almost 25 per
cent time should be spent for the execution of the activities concerning this phase. In
general, the following activities or steps are to be executed during this phase:
1. Assortment of the Content / topic or units to be programmed
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The primary job of a programmer is that, he should concentrate on the wise

selection of the topic or unit for his programming. The selection of the topic or content to
be programmed should meet the following criteria
1. Is any programme already available on the topics?
2. What are the difficulties that the topic cannot be taught by other already
available methods?
3. Does it allow developing a simple, logical and systematic programme
quite interesting useful and suitable from the angle of the learner?
4. Does it suites to the curriculum needs of the learner?
5. Whether the teacher has got the required specialization on the subject.
6. Does it really help in curtailing the teachers burden?
7. Does it allow for setting the real and useful objectives in behavioural terms
and design a criterion test to measure the outcomes of the results of the
programmed learning?
8. Is it within the economic conditions of the people concerned.
2. Describing the learners
The programme is meant for the learners. Therefore, a programmer should know
and describe the characteristics of the learners in terms of their age, gender, socio-
economic and cultural background, intellectual level, interest, general scholastic abilities,
aptitudes, previous experience potential of learning, etc. For this purpose, he may take the
help of his own experience cumulative record and various other testing devices, interest
inventory, aptitude tests, intelligence tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, etc. and
conclude about the characteristics of the learners.
3. Detecting objectives in behaviour terms
The programmer has to set the definite instructional objectives for deriving the
desired results, these objectives should be stated clearly in behavioural terms, or he
should state clearly the type and extent of the behavioural changes to be expected from
the learners after going through the developed programme. It is this description of the
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terminal behaviour of the learners that is aimed at in writing the instructional objects. The
minimum requirement is this regard is mentioned below.
(i) Initially, the programmer has to select the domain cognitive, effective or
psychomotor of the behaviour for which the behavioural changes are to be
sought.
(ii) The programmer has to take decision about adopting a particular approach,
such as Magers, Millers or R.C.E.M. for writing instructional objectives
in behavioural terms. While the Magers approach serves the purpose of
cognitive and affective objectives, the Millers approach is meant for
psychomotor objectives, and the R.C.E.M. approach can serve the
objective belonging to all the three domains of the behaviour. Each
approach has its own taxonomy (system of classification) of education
objectives.
(iii) For writing an objective of a particular domain, suitable action verbs or
mental processes are picked up from the list of action verbs or mental
processes format in relation to the particular topic or content portion to be
taught. The objectives can be written in behavioural terms by combining
action verbs (in the case of Magers or Millers approach) or mental
process (in the case of the R.C.E.M. approach) with the content.
4. Entry behaviour of the learners
The objectives and their statements in behavioural terms point out the finishing
point or terminal behaviour of the learners as a result of the given programmed
instruction. However, one has to start with something for aiming to end with the terminal
behaviour. This starting point with respect to ones behaviour is called his entry
behaviour the initial behaviour. Before going through the programmed instruction, this
behaviour like terminal behaviour to be stated in clear terms so that the programmer
may be very much clear about the programmed instructional material developed by him.
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Here, one has to describe the behaviour of the learner in terms of the prerequisite
knowledge, skills, interest attitudes, etc. as illustrated below:
Before going through the present programmed the learner is able to .
Read/write/ define/observe/calculate/. With . Efficiency or in
circumstances.
5. Developing specific outlines of content
The course content to be covered through the programme are decided on the basis
of basic assumptions about the learners, their entry behaviour, objectives to be realized in
the form of terminal behaviour, and the courses of study prescribed to them by authorities
like Boards of School Education, and Universities. At the planning stage, the programmer
is supposed to develop specific outlines of the related course contents. The course content
is developed on the basis his own experience and observation of the related course,
analysis of the curriculum, and consultation and help from subject matter experts and
experienced teacher.
After collecting the content material from the sources, the programmer may go
ahead for preparing the outlines. This can be done in two ways: logically or
psychologically Whereas logic demands systematic and orderly treatment of the subject,
psychology advocates the arrangement that appeals to the basic interests and abilities of
the learners. The programmer must try to organize the contents in such a way that it can
suit both the purposes, i.e. logical and systematic treatment of the subject, based on the
psychological requirement of the learners.
6. Designing the criterion test
At the planning stage, the programmer has to develop a criterion-referenced test to
be administered at the completion of the programme for measuring its effectiveness in
relation to the realization of the specific instructional objectives. The criterion-referenced
tests are not the same as the traditional achievement or non-referenced tests. Whereas the
traditional achievement tests are designed to measure individual differences and aim at
comparing individual performances, the criterion-referenced tests are designed to
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ascertain the effectiveness of programme or instruction by measuring the learners

performance on clearly defined educational tasks. Through the criterion tests, the terminal
behaviour of the learner reached after the completion of the unit of a programme is
assessed for ascertaining the extent to which the set objectives have been realized. While
designing the test one should keep in mind:
(i) instructional objectives defined in behavioural terms should be well
addressed in the test.
(ii) As far as possible, there should be at least two to three items for each
instructional objective.
(iii) The programmer should acquire desirable competency and skill in the
preparation of the objective test items. use the objective-type question is
obligatory for make a test item.
(iv) The programmer has to see that items are free from any ambiguity or
language and content and possess reasonable discrimination power as well
as internal consistency It helps in avoiding repetition and elimination of
useless or less useful items.
(v) The items as well as the accompanied instructions of the test must be able
to create the necessary conditions or situations calling the demonstration of
the students or terminal behaviour for the assessment of the realization of
instructional objectives.
(vi) The programmer should try to establish the reliability and validity of the
test. Reliability refers to a faith that can be put into a test and it can easily
be verified through the test-retest method. The test may be repeated, and
the extent to which the results are the same for the same individuals, the
test is said to be reliable. Validity refers to the accuracy behaviour of the
test. A valid test should always measure what it aims to measure. Validity
of the test can be achieved by carefully going through item analysis, seeing
that every item serves the purpose for which it is being constructed and
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comparing the results of the test with some already well-established valid
tests or criterion.
Development Phase
The development phase covers the actual writing of the programme. In writing the
programme, besides taking decision about a particular style of a linear, branching or
mathetics programme, the programmer takes all help from what is being done at the
preparatory phase. The assumptions about the learner, his entry behaviour, the
instructional objective fixed in the form of terminal behaviour, the outlines of the contents
chosen, all are given due consideration while engaging in writing programme.
The writing of the subject matter as programmed instructional material differs
much from the ordinary textbook writing. Here, the programmer has to follow the spirit
and principles of programmed learning. The instructional material is to be broken into
logically sequenced suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter called frames.
These frames are so designed and sequenced that the learned remains meaningfully busy
and active by responding to them, one at a time, faces minimum or no failure, gets
immediate reinforcement by receiving information of the result immediately after
responding, and is able to respond and move from one frame to another according to his
own speed of learning.
In practice, the task of programme writing involves three steps, namely designing
of the frames, sequencing of the frames and editing of the programme.
Designing of the frames
A frame represents the basic smallest unit of the instructional material that is to be
presented to the learner at a time. It varies in size from a few words to a full page or more
(as in the case of branching programme). It has three different components, namely
stimulus (for information presentation), response (for responding by learner) and
reinforcement (knowledge of result in the form of answer) as illustrated:
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Cement and lime used as building material are obtained from the mines. These
are called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building is also obtained
from the mines. The marble is a
In writing the frames for developing a particular programme, the programmer has
to make use of certain special techniques like priming and prompting for helping the
learner respond correctly and proceed successfully (with minimum error rate) from one
frame to another.
Priming:
In the priming technique, attempts are made to pour the information into the
minds of the learner for active responding in the way we pour in some water for drawing
out water from a dry water pump. Let us now illustrate this technique with examples:
1. Cement and lime used as building material are obtained from the mines. These are
called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building also is obtained from
the mines. Kota stone also is obtained from the mines. Kota stone is a ..
Response: mineral
2. The heavenly bodies once part of the Sun and now revolving around it on account of
its gravity are called planets. The Earth, Mars and Jupiter are such heavenly bodies
that were once the part of the Sun and now are revolving around it. These are called
planets. Mercury and Saturn also are such separated heavenly bodies that are
revolving around the Sun. These also are called .
Response: Planets
In the form of an extra stimulus is provided in the frame for helping the learner to
respond correctly. Their use helps the learners in getting additional helping stimulus for
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responding to a given programmed material frame. It can be illustrated well through the
following examples:
1. Cement and lime are such building materials that are obtained from the mines.
These are called minerals. The marble used in the construction of building also
is obtained from the mines. The marble is . Mineral.
Response: a
2. The Earth, Mars and Jupiter, once happened to be a part of the Sun, are now
seen revolving around it. These are called planets of the Sun. Mercury and
Saturn also are similar heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun. These are
called the planets of the Response: Sun
Sequencing of the frames

The task of arranging the frames is some systematic order (on the basis of logical
and psychological principles) to lead a learner form his entry behaviour to terminal is
termed as sequencing of the frames. Usually, the following three approaches are
employed for the sequencing:
1. Matrix approach
2. Ruleg approach
3. Egrul approach
In the Matrix approach, a matrix is prepared by putting the learning points and a
major concept including sub-concepts, minor concept information points, etc. on one axis
and the frames of the programme that lead to the behavioural change to the learner on the
other axis. Thus, a glimpse on this matrix may reveal everything aimed and
systematically covered through the frames.
In the Ruleg (rule + example) approach, deductive reasoning is employed in sequencing
the frames. The fames putting or emphasizing rules or principles are given first. These are
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followed by examples frames depicting the meaning and application of the rule or
principle.
In Egrul (example + rule) approach, inductive reasoning is employed in
sequencing the frames. The frames employing examples are presented first, these are
followed by the frames depicting rules or principles generalized through the previous
example frames.
Editing of the programme

The first draft of the programme developed in the form of sequenced frames is
subjected to a thorough review and editing process. This work is done at the following
three levels in a hierarchical order:
1. Technical accuracy editing
2. Programme technique editing
3. Composition editing
In technical accuracy editing, the programme is thoroughly reviewed for the

purpose of removing any technical inaccuracies in the subject matter. The help of some
subject experts and the audio-visual or methodology experts may be taken for this
purpose.
The programme technique editing is performed with the help of some experts in
the field of programmed instruction, for removing any deficiency and inaccuracy in the
technique of programme development including designing and sequencing of the frames,
style and format of programming, and so on.
In compositing editing, the help is taken from some language expert to remove
any inaccuracy and weakness from the language and composition point of view such as
grammatical mistakes, spelling errors, inappropriateness of the language, and punctuation
forms. The language of the instructions given to the learners in the programme should
also be checked and, similarly, the other important aspects such as length of the blanks,
uniformity of the numbering system, placement of example and illustrations also should
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be thoroughly checked as to remove any discrepancies from the point of view of

composition.
Evaluative Phase
The last phase of the development of the programmed instruction material,
evaluative phase, is related with the try-out and evaluation of the edited programmed
material available in the form of sequenced frame. With the help of activities undertaken
in this phase, the programmer tries to test the efficiency and effectiveness of his
programme and in the light of its results; he further tries to bring proper modification and
improvement in his programme. The main activities undertaken in this phase are:
(i) Individual try-out, (ii) Small group try-out, (iii) Field try-out or testing, and
(iv) Evaluation.
Individual try-out
In this, the programme is administered to a few learners, say four (representatives
of who9m the programme is written) by taking them out at a time. In practice, the learner
is presented with the material of the frames one by one, and asked to write down his
responses on a separate sheet of paper, and then tally them with the correct responses
written on the back page of the frames. The learner is clearly told that he is not going to
be tested but his help is being sought in the modification of the programme. Therefore, he
has to provide free and frank suggestions for improving the content, sequences or
organization of the frames. Here the information face-to-face contact with a single
learner, at a time, provides a valuable opportunity to the programmer to study the
reactions of the learner regarding the difficulties he faced and the inadequacies of the
programme. Consequently, based on the results of the tryout at individual level, the
programmer tries to bring necessary improvement and modifications in the draft of the
programme.
Small group try-out
The modified programmed instruction draft (on the basis of the individual try-out
is then tried on a small group of learners, say five to ten. Here, with a proper rapport and
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in a informal environment, the learners are persuaded to render proper help in testing the
appropriateness and effectiveness of the programme. They are provided with the copy of
the programme along with a blank sheet to record their responses, point out difficulties
and give suggestions for modifications and improvement. The time taken in completing
the programme is also carefully noted. Pre-test before proceeding on the programmed
instruction and post test after completing the programme also are conducted. The
differences in the attainment scores of pre-test and post-test are them employed to
ascertain the effectiveness of the programme.
Field try-out or testing
One the basis of the finding of the small group try-out, the programmer brings
necessary structural changes in the programmed draft and goes a step further for testing
its validity of the field, i.e. real setting. Field testing differs from the small group try out
in the sense that it represents a full and final try-out of the programme and is undertaken
by the teachers and instructors instead of the programmer with the real students in real
learning situations. However the method of testing is similar as practiced in small group
try-out. The difference found in pre-test and post-test attainment scores of the learners,
the difficulties faced, and the suggestions received and responses analyzed on the basis of
findings of the field testing provide valuable cues and keys for testing the validation and
appropriateness of the developed programming material.
Evaluation
The results of field try-out in the form of data are properly analyzed through the
process of evaluation for testing the validity and improving the quality of the prepared
programme. The validation is carried out on two fronts: one on internal criteria and the
other on external criteria. Whereas the internal criteria of the evaluation is concerned with
internal features strength and weaknesses of the programme, the external criteria provides
support for the validation of the programme by giving evidence in favour of its
effectiveness.
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Evaluation based on internal criteria: Here, the data of field testing may be evaluated
in terms of (i) error rate, (ii) programme density, and (iii) sequence progression.
In this text, we will discuss the first two, i.e. error rate and programme density
(i) Evaluation in terms of error rate: The error rate is computed on the basis of the
learners responses obtainable on each frame of the programme. If the learner is not able
to respond correctly on a particular frame, it is considered as an error. This task of error
detection is carried out for each frame and for all the learners who are tested in the field
try-out. The errors detected are then used for computing two types of error rate: (i) the
error rate of the total programme or a particular unit of the programme, and (ii) the error
rate of a particular frame. The formulae used for the computation of these are:
The interpretation of error rates in terms of the evaluation of the programme

should be made very cautiously. A lower error rate does not always ensure the
effectiveness of the programmes. It may be the result of an easy programme or excessive
priming or prompting used in designing the frames. However, the errors, especially the
higher error rate, provide red signal to the programmer for making necessary modification
in the programme.
(ii) Evaluation in terms of programme density: The computation of programme density
helps in the measurement of the difficulty level of a programme. It is usually measured in
terms of a hypothetical ration known as type token ratio (TTR). This ratio is calculated
with the help of the following formula:
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Where Nd = the total number of different types of responses and Nt = the total number
of responses required in a programme.
For example, if in a particular programme, the learner is required to respond in 30
different ways out of 70 total number of responses required, its programme density can be
computed as:
Since TTR is a ratio, its range lies between 0 and 1. Its value signifies the relative
difficulty level of the programme. If the value is one, the programme density will be the
maximum. The learner will be required to respond differently to each frame of the
programme and hence the programme will be termed as the most difficult. Similarly, if
every response that is required of the learned consists of the same word, the programme
will be termed to save minimal density. The computation of TTR, thus, can serve very
useful purpose in Pointing out its difficulty level. In an ideal programme, the range of
TTR is said to be between 0.25 and 0.33 and consequently, every programme should try
to maintain this level of TTR in the development of the programme.
Evaluative measures based on the external criteria: Under this, the programmer can
evaluate his programme in terms of: (i) Criterion test, (ii) gain ratio, and (iii) learners
attitude.
Let us discuss these measures one by one.
(i) Evaluation in terms of criterion test:
Evaluation of the levels of performance of the learners under this test is done at
the preparatory stage of the programme. Its results may reveal the extent to which the
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behaviour potential (from entry to terminal behaviour) is raised Thus, the units or whole
of the programme may be evaluated in terms of the realization of the set objectives.
(ii) Evaluation in terms of gain ratio:
The effectiveness of a programme can properly be measured with the help of a
concept known as gain ratio. It is defined as the ratio between the amount learned and the
am9ount could be learned. For a particular programme, it can be computed with the use
of the following formula:
(iii) Evaluation in terms of the learners attitude:

For this purpose, the programme is required to develop and administer an attitude
scale. The use of a three-point attitude scale can serve the purpose well by making the
attitude-linked statements as yes, no and? (Agreeing, disagreeing, and cant say). With
these attitude-demonstrable responses of the learner, the programmer can be acquainted
with their reactions, liking and disliking for the content, style of programming, difficulty
level, language, the design and sequencing of the frames, instructions, illustrations, and
other such features of the programme. For objective evaluation, the programmer can go
ahead with the task of computing the attitude coefficient with the help of the following
formulas:
Where yes = the total of the frequencies of responses marked as yes; yes = the total of
the frequencies of responses marked as no; and no = the total of the frequencies of
responses marked as ?.
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4.9 Review of Research trends in programmed learning
Programmed Instruction has become the field of interest for researchers all over
the world and thousands of studies have been conducted on this topic. As such, many
compendiums and substantive reviews of programmed instruction research are available,
including Galanter (1959), Lumsdaine and Glaser (1960), Stolurow (1961), Hughes
(1963), Meirhenry (1964), Taber et al. (1965), Glaser (1965), Ofiesh and Smith and Smith
(1966), Hartley (1974), Lockee et al. (2004), and to name a few primary references. The
following section provides an overview of the key research topics and studies related to
programmed instruction.
Learner Variables in Programmed Instruction
This type of research includes how learner variables such as ability and attitudes
affect learning from programmed materials. Several studies reported that there was little
or no correlation between ability level and achievement on programmed materials
(Detambel and Stolurow, 1956; Ferster and Sapon, 1958; Porter, 1957). Studies designed
to gauge learner attitudes toward programmed instruction of learners at all levels and in a
variety of settings found a very positive attitude toward this instructional approach
(Eigen, 1963; Engelmann, 1963; Jones and Sawyer, 1949; Smith, 1962; Smith and Smith,
1966; Stolurow, 1963).
Elements of Programmed Instruction
Many studies compared elements of the programmed instruction model, such as
the mode of presentation, the effects of overt vs. covert responding, prompting,
sequencing of content and contingencies, step size (level of difficulty of content presented
in a frame), error rate, and type of response options:
Mode of presentation. Researchers found no significant difference in the amount
of learning between linear and branching programs (Anderson, 1967; Coulson and
Silberman, 1960; Holland, 1965; Leith, 1966; Roe, 1962; Silberman et al., 1961),
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with the exception of one study by Coulson et al. (1962), who found branching
programs to be superior. In general, branching programs saved significantly more
time in instruction than linear programs (Anderson, 1967; Coulson and Silberman,
1960; Holland, 1965; Leith, 1966).
Overt vs. covert responses. Overt responses are those that require the student to do
something (for example, writing or speaking an answer), whereas covert responses
are those that involve thinking about or reading the material and are therefore not
able to be observed. Holland and Porters research (1961) indicated that if
responses were not overt (public), they often ceased.
Prompting. Holland (1965) defined a prompt as a cue given prior to an opportunity
to give an overt response that can be reinforced (e.g., leaving blanks in a sentence
to be filled in by the learner). A few studies that analyzed the advantages of
prompting vs. non-prompting in a program sequence found no significant
difference (Cook, 1961; Cook and Spitzer, 1960), but Angell and Lumsdaine
(1961) found that programs should include both prompted and non-prompted
components. This particular component of PI is evident in modern instructional
techniquesfor example, in the use of completion problems as guided problem-
solving models (van Merrinboer and de Croock, 1992; van Merrinboer and
Krammer, 1990). Such strategies assist learners in focusing on key features of the
problem scenario and ease transfer of learning to real-world application.
Sequence. One of Skinners major tenets was the construction of carefully
arranged sequences of contingencies leading to the terminal performance (1953, p.
169). Research comparing results on logical, ordered program sequences vs.
nonlogical or random sequences provides mixed results. Many studies indicate that
the effectiveness and efficiency of ordered sequences is significantly better than
unordered (Gavurin and Donahue, 1960; Hickey and Newton, 1964; Miller, 1969).
Other research studies comparing ordered and random program sequences do not
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support Skinners principle of ordered sequences (Duncan, 1971; Miller, 1965;

Neidermeyer et al., 1968; Wager and Broderick, 1974).
Size of step. In studies comparing small step size (fewer concepts to a frame of
instruction) to large step size (more concepts to a frame of instruction), the
majority of research found that smaller step sizes produced significantly fewer
learner errors (Evans et al., 1959; Gropper, 1966), especially for lower ability
students. Results from several other studies, however, warned that programs using
very small steps could introduce a pall effect (Rigney and Fry, 1961, p. 22) in
which boredom was induced by the material, particularly with brighter students
(Briggs et al., 1962; Feldhusen et al., 1962).
Error rate. A major tenet of programmed instruction was to present a sequence of
instruction that had a high probability of eliciting desired performance (Taber et
al., 1965, p. 169); thus, care was to be taken in designing the difficulty of that
sequence so as to avoid the possibility of errors. Many studies support the concept
of low error rate (Holland and Porter, 1961; Keisler, 1959; Melaragno, 1960;
Meyer, 1960). Gagn and Dick (1962), however, found low correlations between
error rate and learning.
4.10 Let Us Sum Up
Programmed learning / Instruction is one of the important innovations of the

twentieth century in the teaching learning process. It is technique of teaching in which
learners get individualized instruction or learning experience through self instructional
materials. Here the self instructional material or the learning experience is logically
sequenced into small segments with self corrective instructions.
Programmed Instruction is a bone to the slow learners and it has solved the
problem of individual differences in the class room. The teacher usually face a large
amount of difficulties while teaching in a heterogeneous class in traditional teaching
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learning environments and the complexities get multiplied with the increase in number of
learners in the class. The programmed learning is characterized by initial behaviour, small
steps, and active participation of the learner, terminal behaviour, immediate feedback, and
self evaluation by the learner.
1. What do you mean by Programmed Learning? Discuss the nature of programmed

instruction?
2. What are the different types of Programmed Learning? Discuss in detail any one
of them?
3. Discuss the basic assumptions of branching programming?
4. What are new research trends in Programmed Learning?
5. Write a detailed note on evaluation phase of the development of programmed
instruction?
Arendset, R.L. (et al.), 1997 Handbook for the development of instruction modules
Aggarwal, J. C. Principals Methods and Techniques of Teaching (Second revised

Edition) Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. New delhi.
Cruickshank, D. (1985). Profile of an effective teacher. Educational Horizons, 90-92.
Green, Edward J.,(1962). The learning process and Programmed instruction New York:
Holt Rinehart Winston. Teachers make a difference.
Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M. Wittrock (Ed.),
Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.) (376-391). New York: Macmillan.
S K Mangal and Uma Mangal (2009) Essentials of Educational technology.
Taber, Julian, I., Robert Glaser, and Halmurth H. Schefer, Learning and Programmed
Instruction. Reading Mass: Addision Wesley 1965.
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UNIT IV
LESSON NO 05: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES-AN INTRODUCTION
Lesson Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives

5.4 Nature and Scope of a communication system
5.5 Communications Situations
5.6 Types of communication in classroom

5.7 Use of ICT in Research
5.8 Let Us Sum Up

5.1 Introduction
Dear students, Information and Communications Technology or (ICT), is often

used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more specific
term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of
telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as
necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which
enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The phrase ICT had
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been used by academic researchers since the 1980s, but it became popular after it was
used in a report to the UK government by Dennis Stevenson in 1997 and in the revised
National Curriculum for England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000
The integration of Information and Communication Technology is one of the

most striking innovations in the field of education. We have to be careful in order to
cope up with the suddenly increasing demand for information and technology. The
present system of education in India lack the technological touch as the transaction of
curriculum is poor or the tools used in the transaction lack application and the skill, we
are still dependent on same big blackboards, an overhead projector and video graphed
concepts. The information and communication technology in education is in a nascent
stage. The general notion of technology in education is reflected in the design,
preparation and production of textbooks and other instructional materials for schools.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi has taken up
major role in this gigantic task.
The presentation and use of teaching aids is the major responsibility of

Information and communication technology, at present in the teaching learning process.
It is because of ICT the quality of teaching aids in recent times has improved. The
variety of teaching aids ranges from a two dimensional chart to a three dimensional
model. Further, the introduction of electronic media has brought a third dimension and
movement teaching aids in education. The concept of simulation in the class room
deliberations has made it possible to represent the real world happenings without the
danger, expense or time needed to experience the actual event. Simulations are highly
motivating since there is continual input required of the user, they provide learning
experiences that are simply beyond the capability of textbooks besides involving the
learner in the instructional process and thereby permitting learning to be internalized
through continuous practice in the life like situation (Hennery and Boysen, 1979).
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The information and communication technology has proved to be of immense

importance to the distance learners as they can now learn through virtual classrooms
and enjoy the teaching learning process at par with the full time regular students. The
ICT has helped us in removing all the barriers of time and space. A learner living in any
part of the world can pay fee through draft and get asses to any course of interest
through e- mail and internet.
5.2 Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to know about:
Discuss the concept of information and communication technology;

Discuss the nature and scope of communication system;
What do you mean by different communication situations;
What are the different types of communications that occur in the class room;
What is the contribution of ICT in educational Research.
Information and Communication Technology capability is based on sets of

relevant knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions. Internationally, such capability
is typically represented developmentally across interrelated domains or elements to
show increasingly sophisticated experiences with the technology. Early researchers into
ICT in education, such as Papert (1980) and Turkle (1984), considered that students
constructed reality from experience and prior knowledge. The student interacts with the
environment and, to cope with this environment, develops a conceptual framework to
explain the interaction. More recent theorists, such as Dede (2009), echo these earlier
propositions even as technologies evolve, giving rise to the set of constructs upon
which the ICT capability is based. In particular, the overarching element applying
social and ethical protocols and practices when using ICT addresses the personal, social
and cultural contexts introduced by theorists such as Papert and Turkle.
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ICT capability is based on the assumption that technologies are digital tools that
enable the student to solve problems and carry out tasks. That is, the ICT system needs
to suit the student and the task, while the student needs to develop an understanding of
what the machine can do and an appreciation of the limitations under which it operates.
In this way, students come to perceive ICT systems as useful tools rather than feeling
that they themselves are the tools of the machine (Maas 1983). The latter often occurs
when users have little information about how ICT systems operate and simply follow
set, standard procedures, determined for them by the system. Therefore, the ICT
capability needs to take account of the types of tasks that provide authentic contexts for
learning. The range of tasks is categorized into three sets: Investigating with ICT,
Communicating with ICT and Creating with ICT. Students also need the knowledge
and skills to use ICT based on an understanding of the nature of the machine. This is
encompassed in the Managing and operating ICT element of the continuum.
5.4 Nature and Scope of a communication system
People define terms in different ways, and those differences in definition can
have a profound impact on the extent to which we understand each other and the way
we move forward with both academic and everyday pursuits. Given the variety of ways
in which words are used and understood, we are often ill-served to search for the single,
so-called correct definition of a term.
In other words, it is better to evaluate definition in terms of their utility rather than in
terms of their correctness. So we should not assume that there is always a single right
way to define a concept. There is a great deal of variation in the definitions. Some are
very abstract and some are extremely specific.
Few definitions are cited below.
Communication is the process by which an individual (the communicator)
transmits stimuli (usually verbal) to modify the behavior of other individuals (the
audience). (Hovland Janis and Kelly in 1953)
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Communication is the process by which we understand others and in turn

endeavor to be understood by them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in
response to the total situation (Anderson, 1959)
Communication is all of the procedures by which one mind can affect another
(W. Weaver, 1949)
Communication means that information is passed from one place to another.
(Miller, 1951)
These definitions are incomplete in the sense that Weaver's definition is incredibly
broad; it includes all the procedures by which one "mind" could have an effect on
another, whereas the other definitions excludes too many activities that we normally
think of as communication. However through this definitional turmoil many conceptual
features have emerged as important points of discussion
The communication remains ineffective if it does not influence the subject and
the object simultaneously. The subject and object, in successful communication, are in
a state of independence, that is, where the individuals are merged into a singleness of
attitude, away from a stalemate. The communication should proportionately constitute
the outflow and the inflow ingredients; the effectiveness of the message is likely to
come down to the level of unacceptability. On the other hand, if the inflow outclasses
the outflow ingredient, the excessiveness factor may produce intervening variables
causing doubtable understanding. The one way flow, replete with uncertainties, may
result into misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misconception. Therefore, if the
message is not supported by an understanding response or a spontaneous feedback from
the communicate, it can become the cause point for generating upsets, ultimately
leading to threatening postures followed by some catastrophe.
Communication is a dynamic process because of its relation with the human
variable, relative nature of matter and transformation in language change. The
variability, relativity audience may listen or view a speaker or observe a matter
differently on different occasions and different places. This is because personal beliefs,
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behaviour and interests affect perception along with physical properties, such as noise,
size of room, atmosphere etc., cause changes to occur within a communication setting.
Communication will be your contact with reality, and really one has no choice
but to be a communicator. Man has not only the desire but need to communicate. Mans
ability to symbolize, speak and write meaning keeps him at the top of the animal
kingdom and enables him to pass knowledge from generation to generation and culture
to culture. Mans ability to nomenclate events, things and living beings has enabled him
to work on and carry on further research in different fields. Knowledge of
communication, thus, is the vital and active force of life. It all depends upon correct and
wrong interpretation of knowledge in which humanity has its future.
The process of communication consists of four main components viz.
1. Sender, the source of communication / Message.
2. Message, the contents of the communication.
3. Medium, the channels of communication.
4. Receiver, the respondent of the communication.
1. Sender; the Source of communication (Communicator):

The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the
communication. This source is initially responsible for the success of the message. The
sender's experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the
message. "The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are
paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender"
(Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with the sender. In the teaching
learning process, the teacher is usually regarded as the sender.
2. Message; the contents of the communication:
What the sender intends to convey in the communication is called the message. The
first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey
meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a
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message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates
the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols
can take on numerous forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are
used to encode ideas into messages that others can understand. When encoding a
message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit. This
decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receivers knowledge
and assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to
have. It is important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended
receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding their message is to mentally
visualize the communication from the receiver's point of view.
3. Medium; the channels of communication:
To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also
called a medium). The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels
are either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming more common as
technology expands. Common channels include the telephone and a variety of written
forms such as memos, letters, and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels
fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the communication. For example, when
immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more effective
because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the
message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written channels are
often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should be
used because one supplements the other. Usually in the teaching learning process we
use both oral and written channels. If a sender relays a message through an
inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the right receivers. That is why
senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel will greatly assist in
the effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either
an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is influenced by several
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factors, like type of the message, the condition of the receiver and the response needed
for the message.
4. Receiver; the respondent of the communication:
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The
extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of
factors, which include the following: how much the individual or individuals know
about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that
exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by
their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar to
the sender's relationship with encoding. The receivers in the teaching learning process
are usually heterogeneous group of individuals as such the response or feedback mostly
depends on the effectiveness of the sender (Teacher) and the message (Content).
Besides the above discussed four basic components of a communication system
there are two more components viz. i) Facilitators or Barriers of communication and ii)
Response material or Feedback.
I) Facilitators or Barriers of communication:
There are a number of intervening variables between the source of
communication and the receiver which either increase or decrease the effectiveness of
the communication. These variables according to their nature helping or obstructing the
path of communication may be termed as facilitators or barriers of communication. The
presence of congenial, physical, psychological, and environmental conditions and
facilities available for effective communication may facilitate and help in providing the
desirable effectiveness to the communication system while as factors like noise; air
pollution and darkness hinder the path of communication and decrease the effectiveness
of the communication.
II) Response material or Feedback:
Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After
receiving a message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the
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sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written
message, a smile, or some other action. "Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form
of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that
the receiver has interpreted the message correctly. Feedback is a key component in the
communication process because it allows the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the
message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the sender to take corrective
action to clarify a misunderstood message.
5.5 Communications Situations

In the communication process there occur a variety of situations or
environments involving two or more than two individuals at one time or the other, these
are categorized as under:
One to one communication:
When communication occurs between two individuals only in which one
communicates and the other receives the message it is called one to one
communication. Most of the communication that took place in our daily lives occurs in
this form. The communication between husband and wife, shopkeeper and Customer,
any two relatives, friends, lovers, enemies or any two persons is one to one type of
communication.
One to many communication:
When communication occurs between more than two individuals in which one
communicates and others act as receivers is called one to many communication. This is
again common type of communication that occurs in most of the daily life situations.
When a teacher teaches through lecture method and instructs his scholars, a politician
addresses a gathering of his supporters, a religious leader speaks to his followers are the
instances of one to many communications.
Many to many Communication:
When communication occurs between two groups of individuals in which some
individuals communicate the message and some others receive the same such a kind of
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communication is called many to many communication. This is a typical type of

communication which occurs in certain specific situations. For example, the
communication that took place in a passenger bus, railway station, class room, social
gathering and in a public celebration can be categorized as many to many type of
communication.
5.6 Types of communication in classroom
In the formal school system the class room is the important place where
teaching learning takes place involving different types of communications. Class room
communication is mostly carried out through verbal and non-verbal means. The
communication in which we make use of the oral and written language is termed as
verbal communication. On the other hand sometimes we use gestures and movements
of our body parts to communicate some information without the use of verbal or written
language which is termed as non-verbal communication. These two basic types of
classroom communication are discussed below:
Verbal Communication:
Every animal species use some sort of sounds to communicate with each other
and humans being also use a variety of sounds which in turn form words and sentences
that we call language and are used for communication. As we live in societies, every
society develops one or more forms of languages with spoken or written words for
communication, as such we have local, regional, national and international languages
for the required communication. Language can be used in three different forms-
I) Oral: In this form one can communicate ones feelings, thoughts and intensions
to others by the speaking and listening channel. Here the sender uses some
definite sounds (words) with help of his sound system (Mouth) which the
receiver decodes with the help of his ears and understands the message and
responds.
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II) Written: In this type of communication the communicator / sender makes use of
the script of the language such as Devnagari for Hindi, Times roman for
English etc. for written communication one uses the paper, pencil/pen and other
means with help of hand and writes some message which is then send to the
receiver who reads it and understands the information and then responds.
III) Oral and written: In this type of verbal communication the sender/
communicator first writes some information on the paper or White board and
then explains it orally and the receiver first reads the information and then
understands properly the message. This is the most common type of
communication that occurs in the class room.
Non-verbal communication:
A large amount of communication occurs without the use of verbal
communication both in the normal class room as well as in the special classes (class
room of deaf, dumb students) A teacher communicates a lot of information through his
gestures and body movements and in special classes it becomes a necessity to make
use of such gestures and movements to communicate in the class, this is called the
non-verbal communication. Some of the important forms of non-verbal
communication are discussed as under:
1. Facial Expression:
Facial expression is extensively used for communicating the feelings, thoughts and
intentions of the communicator. Facial expressions are considered the true
representation of ones emotional and thinking behaviour. It is through facial
expression one can judge the emotional status of mind and one can conclude if one is
angry, jealous, astonished, or showing love, sympathy or hatred. In this way it can be
considered an effective means of non-verbal communication, extensively used in the
class room communication.
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2. Expressions of the Eye:

Eyes are most commonly used for conveying a large number of messages by the
communicators /Teachers in almost all types of teaching learning environments. The
movements of eye like Aankhe Dikhana and Aankhe Bichhana easily provide valid
testimonial of its role in communication. Eyes are very well used to communicate
emotions of fear, jealousy, anger, enjoyment, hatred, temptation, lust, love, apathy, and
sympathy etc. Eye to eye contact is very effective in face to face to conversation. The
way one gazes during conversation denotes his liking or disliking for the
communicator. In the class room interaction the proper use of eye movements are
extremely helpful for teachers to encourage or discourage the process of learning by the
students.
3. Body Language:
Different feelings, thoughts and actions can be effectively communicated by the
body language of a person. Body language is also used to convey the feelings of love,
affection, shyness, happiness and others. Using body language we communicate the
feelings of respect, for instance when the teacher enter the class room the students get
up as a mark of respect to the teacher, we well come our friends by joining our hands,
and say goodbye by shaking our hand. With the effective use of body language the
teachers may add colours and effectiveness to their explanations, expositions, and
demonstration skills which will then help him to develop healthy class room interaction
in almost all types of teaching learning situations.
4. Symbolic code Language:
Special code language can be used for certain desired type of communication, here
special code language is prepared with the help of various gestures, postures, body
movements and movements of fingers for communicating with deaf and dumb. This
can be very well illustrated be a news bulletin telecasted by Doordurshan specially
meant for deaf and dumb population. Various types of well thought and organized code
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language are very effectively used in exchanging quite meaningful and secret
information by the detective and security agencies operating throughout the world.
5. Sound Symbols:
A number of sound signals and vocal cues are used for communication, when the
receiver uses some sound like yah yah while listening to somebody the speaker gets a
notion that the receiver understands the message and he continues to speak with interest
and if the receiver uses some other sound symbol like Na the communicator also
understands that his communication is not effective or liked by the receiver. Sound
symbols along with some body language are also used to judge ones emotional
feelings for instance when one is happy he makes certain sounds which clearly denotes
his happiness and if otherwise he usually remains silent.
5.7 Use of ICT in Research
For many people, use of ICT has not progressed beyond word-processing, using
email and web browsing. The wider implications for new practices and research
methods need to be recognized. Information and communication technology is
extremely beneficial for the students desirous to undertake research in the field of
education. ICT is the well organized source of information which can provide
quite diversified, pinpointed, and reliable information to the researchers at their
doorsteps without the expense of time and energy. The channels of communication
are open for every researcher and they can use them at their will for carrying out
their research activities.
ICT may prove quite useful in helping all personnel connected directly or
indirectly with the processes and products of education. Information and
communication are keys of knowledge and learning and then proper and scientific
organization and control is bound to lead towards the effective educational effort
for the proper realization of educational goals. Information and Communications
Technology plays a vital and growing role in research. In its simplest form it is used to
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gather, collate and disseminate information from advertising funding opportunities

through to publishing conclusions. A number of programmes has been lunched in this
regard and some of these programmes have a broad range of objectives which act as a
framework and guide for the types of funding opportunities available under the
programme.
To develop a focused and integrated portfolio of projects, workshops and
dissemination events complementing the activities already funded by the AHRC
and other national bodies.
To enhance research capacity in the arts and humanities by developing

innovative resources, tools, standards and training materials that will be used in
the conduct and dissemination of research, and in the preservation of and access
to research materials.
To enhance the contribution that the arts and humanities community is able to
make to discussions on ICT issues that impact across all research disciplines.
To create new research outputs that are valuable in themselves, arising from
projects that demonstrate the extension and enhancement of ICT applications in
arts and humanities research.
Where appropriate, to facilitate and develop co-ordination and communication

with the AHRC on ICT matters.
To initiate and develop projects and strategic partnerships with other bodies for
the development and use of ICT resources and tools for arts and humanities
research.
To provide a focal point for outreach to stakeholders beyond academia.
To develop international collaboration where appropriate and to disseminate

findings to an international audience.
The ICT has almost revolutionized every field of Knowledge and the field of
research has also witnessed a sea change. The internet and world wide web has made
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the job of research more reliable and valid not only at the local level but globally as
well, today we can download any sort of information from the internet and can use that
any where any time without the expenditure of time and resources. Following are some
fields of ICT where we can get benefit for our educational needs.
Telecollaboration:
The organized use of Web resources and collaboration tools for curriculum
appropriate purposes is called telecollaboration. Judi Harris defines telecollaboration as
an educational endeavor that involves people in different locations using Internet tools
and resources to work together. Much educational telecollaboration is curriculum-
based, teacher-designed, and teacher-coordinated. Most use e-mail to help participants
communicate with each other. Many telecollaborative activities and projects have Web
sites to support them. The best telecollaborative projects are those that are fully
integrated into the curriculum and not just extra-curricular activities, those in which
technology use enables activities that would not have been possible without it, and
those that empower students to become active, collaborative, creative, integrative, and
evaluative learner. There are currently hundreds of telecollaborative projects being
implemented worldwide and many more that have either been completed or are in
development.
Writing a Bibliography: APA Format:
While writing a bibliography, your list of works cited should begin at the end of
the paper on a new page with the centered title, References. Alphabetize the entries in
your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and
other punctuation.) Only the initials of the first and middle names are given. If the
author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.
For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but
abbreviate them in the list of works cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the
day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style (July 22, 1999) and be
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consistent. With the month-day-year style, be sure to add a comma after the year unless
another punctuation mark goes there.
Underlining or Italics
When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were
underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a
bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you
use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below. Always
check with your instructor regarding their preference of using italics or underlining.
Our examples use italics.
Hanging Indentation
All APA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry
should be flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2".
Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation
The APA guidelines specify using sentence-style capitalization for the titles of
books or articles, so you should capitalize only the first word of a title and subtitle. The
exceptions to this rule would be periodical titles and proper names in a title which
should still be capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the
volume number which, with the title, is also italicized. If there is more than one author,
use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. If there are more than six
authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest.
Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the
author. Place a period after the closing parenthesis. Do not italicize, underline, or put
quotes around the titles of shorter works within longer works.
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
Information and communication technology refers to the technology employed

in the form of tools, equipment and application support which helps in the collection,
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storage, retrieval, use, transmission, manipulation and dissemination of information as

accurately and effectively as possible for the purpose of enriching the knowledge and
develop communication, decision-making as well as problem solving ability of the
user. Information and communication technology got new impetus through the
inventions related to Photography; Photostat technique, Xerox, laser technology, and
Magnetic video camera, Videodisc and Computers. Besides this, the advancement
made in the field of telecommunication technology in the shape of inventions of
telegraph, telephone, radio, television and communication satellites, cables fax, etc. has
contributed a lot in the evolution of ICT in the present age. With the passage of time the
ICT expanded its wings in every field of education and now today we may witness its
wide use in all fields and walks of life including education and instruction.
Information and communication technology has made us familiar with latest

technologies like digital video cameras, multimedia, personal computer (PC), laptop,
notebook, palmtop, multimedia projector (LCD or DLP), computer networking, internet
and world wide websites, computer mediated video and audio conferencing, video text,
tele text, virtual classroom, virtual reality etc. The use of Information and
communication technology is playing vital role in the field of education in so many
ways. It is providing immense help and assistance to all connected with the task of
education like students, teachers, guidance and counseling personnels, educational
planners and research workers for performing their responsibilities as adequately as
possible. Besides this it is also performing a great role in bringing desired changes and
revolution in the whole system of formal and non-formal education and instruction.
1. Discuss the Nature and Scope of a communication system.

2. What do you understand by different communication situations?
3. What are the different types of communications that occur in the classroom?
4. Discuss the uses of ICT in Research, including on line research?
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5. What are uses of internet and other sources of ICT in Educational Publications?
Alexis Leon and Mathews Leon (1999), Fundamentals of Information Technology,

Leon Tech world, Vikas publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Anand, S., University without Walls: Correspondence Education in India, New Delhi:
Vikas Publications, 1979.
Arulsamy, S. and Sivakumar, P.,Application of ICT in Education, Neelkamal

Publications Pvr. Ltd. Hyderabad, A P.
Brian K. Williams, et al. (1999), Using Information Technology- A practical

introduction to computers and communication (Third edition) Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company limited New Delhi.
Heim, Michael (1993), The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, New York, NY: oxford
University press.
Mangal, S. K. and Mangal Uma, Essentials of Educational Technology, PHI Learning

Private Limited, New Delhi.
Singh, Bakhshish (Ed.), New Horizons in Distance Education, New Delhi, Uppal
Publishing House. 1995.
Usha V. Reddya and Saujaya Mishra. (2003) Educational Multimedia- A hand Book for
Teacher- Developers, CEMCA, New Delhi.
*********************
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UNIT IV
LESSON NO: 06 USE OF ICT IN EDUCATION
Lesson Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Uses of ICT in Education
6.3 Advantages of the use of ICT in education?
6.4 Concept of ICT and its various Characteristics.
6.5 Characteristics of ICT in Education
6.6 Project Based Learning
6.7 Computer Assisted/Aided Learning (CAL)
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
6.0 Introduction
Education is the development of the power of adaptation to an ever changing

social environment. It is a science of doing/getting things done, related to any art or
science. Our society continues to be affected significantly by technology and its
application in every aspect of our lives. Education is no exception to it. ICTs are now
considered as a backbone for educational services.
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6.1 Objectives

Explain the meaning of ICT in education
Discuss the nature of project based learning
6.2 Uses of ICT in Education
ICT is being utilized in every part of life. Due to the increasing importance of the
computer, students-the future citizens cannot afford to keep themselves aloof from
this potential medium. In education, use of ICT has become imperative to improve the
efficiency and effectiveness at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings.
Education even at school stage has to provide computer instruction. Profound technical
knowledge and positive attitude towards this technology are the essential prerequisites for
the successful citizens of the coming decades.
It can be used for the following purposes:
1. To broadcast material, online facility or CD
2. ROM can be used as sources of information in different subjects;
3. To facilitate communication for pupils with special needs;
4. To use electronic toys to develop spatial awareness and psychomotor control;
5. To use the online resource like, email, Chat, discussion forum to support
collaborative writing and sharing of information.
6. To facilitate video-conferencing or other form of Teleconferencing to involve
wide range of students from distant Geographic areas.
7. For Blended learning by combining conventional classroom learning with e-
learning systems
8. To process administrative and assessment data.
9. To exchange and share ideas -among teachers for the professional growth.
10. To carry out internet based research to enhance, educational process.
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6.3 Advantages of USE of ICT in Education
ICT encompasses all those gadgets that deal with the processing of information for
better and effective communication. In education, communication process takes place
between teachers, students, management and administrative personnel which requires
plenty of data to be stored for retrieval as and when required, to be disseminated or
transmitted in the desired format. The hardware and software like OHP, Television,
Radio, Computers and related software are used in the educational process. However ICT
today is mostly focused on the use of Computer technology for processing the data. In
this context, advantages of ICT in education can be listed down as follows:
Quick access to information: Information can be accessed in seconds by connecting to
the internet and surfing through Web pages.
Easy availability of updated data: Sitting at home or at any comfortable place the
desired information can be accessed easily. This helps the students to learn the updated
content. Teachers too can keep themselves abreast of the latest teaching learning
strategies and related technologies.
Connecting Geographically dispersed regions: With the advancement of ICT,
education does not remain restricted within four walls of the educational institutions.
Students from different parts of the world can learn together by using online, offline
resources. This would result in the enriching learning experience. Such collaborative
learning can result in developing...
Divergent thinking ability in students,
Global perspectives
Respect for varied nature of human life and acculturation.
Facilitation of learning: ICT has contributed in shifting the focus on learning than
teaching. ICT helps students to explore knowledge to learn the content through self study.
Teacher can help the students by ensuring the right direction towards effective learning.
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Situational learning, Programmed learning, many Online learning courses are some of the
example of self learning strategies that are being utilized with the help of ICT.
Catering to the Individual differences: ICT can contribute in catering to individual
needs of the students as per their capabilities and interest. Crowded class rooms have
always been a challenge for the teacher to consider the needs of every student in the class.
Wider range of communication media: With the advent of ICT, different means of
communication are being introduced in the teaching learning process. Offline learning, on
line learning, blended learning are some of the resources that can be used in educational
institutions. Collaborative learning, individualized learning strategies can enhance the
quality of group as well as individual learning. With the real society, this can ensure the
applicability of knowledge.
Wider learning opportunities for pupils:
Application of latest ICT in education has provided many options to the learners to opt
for the course of their choices. Many Online courses are available for them to select any
as per their aptitude and interest. Students can evaluate their own progress through
different quizzes, ready to use online tests. This can ensure fulfillment of the employment
required in the job market thus minimizing the problem of unemployment. It can also
provide more efficient and effective citizens to the society as per the changing needs.
6.4 Concept of ICT and its various Characteristics
Globalization and technological changes have created a new global economy powered by
technology, fueled by information and driven by knowledge."The emergence of this new
global economy has serious implications for the nature and purpose of educational
institutions. As the access to information continues to grow rapidly, schools cannot be
contented with the limited knowledge to be transmitted in a fixed period of time. They
have to become compatible to the ever expanding knowledge and also be equipped with
the technology to deal with this knowledge.
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Information and communication technologies (ICTs) which include radio and television, as
well as newer digital technologies such as computers and the Internet
have been proven as potentially powerful tools for educational change and reform. When
used appropriately, different ICTs can help expand access to education, strengthen the
relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality
by helping make teaching and learning into an active process connected to real life.
Definitions
ICT stand for information and communication technologies and is defined, as a "diverse
set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate,
store, and manage information."
"ICT implies the technology which consists of electronic devices and associated human
interactive materials that enable the user to employ them for a wide range of teaching
learning processes in addition to personal use."
These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and
television), and telephony."
ICT is that technology which uses the information to meet human need or purposes
including processing and exchanging.""Information and communications technology
(ICT) in education is the processing of information and its communications facilities and
features that variously support teaching, learning and a range of activities in education."
All these definitions combine Communication technology and Information technology
that have thin line between them but cannot do away without each other. When these
technologies are applied the field of education, it is termed as ICT in education. The term
too can be used as the connotation to the term Educational; technology because it also
uses any hardware and software approaches that can enhance yield better learning
outcomes. In the era of Computer technology the term ICT mainly focuses on the
infrastructure, devices and sources of computer technology and thus it is imperative to
discuss about the use of ICT in education by focusing mainly on Computer based
technology.
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6.5 Characteristics of ICT in Education
ICT in education is any hardware and software technology that contribute in the
educational information processing. In the context of present era, ICT mainly comprises
of Computer technology with its hardware, like, Personal computer machine,
infrastructure required for setting up Internet facility and also software like, CD ROM
including various programme packages, E-learning strategies etc.ICT in education is any
Information Technology that focuses on the acquisition, storage, manipulation,
management, transmission or reception of data required for the educational purpose. For
example, the information about students' records, their admissions, and updates of their
auricular and co-curricular activities.ICT in education is any technology that deals with
the exchange of information or in other words communication in the teaching learning
process. Uses of Electronic learning technology like, Teleconferencing, power point
presentations, CD ROM are Communication Technology which is the part of ICT. ICT in
education is any educational technology that is applied in the educational process. It
encompasses Hardware approach like use of machines and materials, Software approach
like use of methodologies and strategies of teaching learning and Systems approach that
uses the management technology that deals with the systematic organization of the
hardware and the software. Different software packages for the use in different
department of education; e.g. library software, administration software, software related
to managing the entire teaching learningprocess.ICT in education is the support material
in the hands of the human resource involved in the educational process in order to
enhance the quality of education.ICT in education comprises of the application of science
of On-line, Off line learning with the help of the computer technology.
6.6 Project Based Learning

Project-based learning refers to any programmatic or instructional approach that utilizes
multifaceted projects as a central organizing strategy for educating students. When
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engaged in project-based learning, students will typically be assigned a project or series

of projects that require them to use diverse skillssuch as researching, writing,
interviewing, collaborating, or public speakingto produce various work products, such
as research papers, scientific studies, public-policy proposals, multimedia presentations,
video documentaries, art installations, or musical and theatrical performances, for
example. Unlike many tests, homework assignments, and other more traditional forms of
academic coursework, the execution and completion of a project may take several weeks
or months, or it may even unfold over the course of a semester or year.
Closely related to the concept of authentic learning, project-based-learning experiences
are often designed to address real-world problems and issues, which requires students to
investigate and analyze their complexities, interconnections, and ambiguities (i.e., there
may be no right or wrong answers in a project-based-learning assignment). For this
reason, project-based learning may be called inquiry-based learning or learning by doing,
since the learning process is integral to the knowledge and skills students acquire.
Students also typically learn about topics or produce work that integrates multiple
academic subjects and skill areas. For example, students may be assigned to complete a
project on a local natural ecosystem and produce work that investigates its history,
species diversity, and social, economic, and environmental implications for the
community. In this case, even if the project is assigned in a science course, students may
be required to read and write extensively (English); research local history using texts,
news stories, archival photos, and public records (history and social studies); conduct and
record first-hand scientific observations, including the analysis and tabulation of data
(science and math); and develop a public-policy proposal for the conservation of the
ecosystem (civics and government) that will be presented to the city council utilizing
multimedia technologies and software applications (technology).
In project-based learning, students are usually given a general question to answer, a
concrete problem to solve, or an in-depth issue to explore. Teachers may then encourage
students to choose specific topics that interest or inspire them, such as projects related to
their personal interests or career aspirations. For example, a typical project may begin
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with an open-ended question (often called an essential question by educators): How is

the principle of buoyancy important in the design and construction of a boat? What type
of public-service announcement will be most effective in encouraging our community to
conserve water? How can our school serve healthier school lunches? In these cases,
students may be given the opportunity to address the question by proposing a project that
reflects their interests. For example, a student interested in farming may explore the
creation of a school garden that produces food and doubles as a learning opportunity for
students, while another student may choose to research health concerns related to specific
food items served in the cafeteria, and then create posters or a video to raise awareness
among students and staff in the school.
In public schools, the projects, including the work products created by students and
the assessments they complete, will be based on the same state learning standards that
apply to other methods of instructioni.e., the projects will be specifically designed to
ensure that students meet expected learning standards. While students work on a project,
teachers typically assess student learning progressincluding the achievement of specific
learning standardsusing a variety of methods, such as portfolios, demonstrations of
learning, or rubrics, for example. While the learning process may be more student-
directed than some traditional learning experiences, such as lectures or quizzes, teachers
still provide ongoing instruction, guidance, and academic support to students. In many
cases, adult mentors, advisers, or experts from the local communitysuch as scientists,
elected officials, or business leadersmay be involved in the design of project-based
experiences, mentor students throughout the process, or participate on panels that review
and evaluate the final projects in collaboration with teachers.
6.7 Computer Assisted Learning
COMPUTER term of increasing significance during the last Assisted Learning (CAL) has
been a decade and can also be referred to as Computer Based
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Instruction (CBI), Computer Aided Learning (CAL), or Computer Aided Instruction

(CAI).
Computer Aided Learning (CAL) or Computer Assisted learning can be defined
as learning or teaching subjects like mathematics, Science, Geography, and etc.,
through computers with subject wise learning packages/materials.
It may include all types of Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL), where
technology is used to support the learning process.
It is said to be: "Pedagogy empowered by digital technology".
In broader sense, it may be considered as a part of E-Learning. Computer assisted
learning, or CAL, is not a new phenomenon. Computer Assisted
Learning can be defined as a computer program or file developed specifically for
educational purposes. The technique used throughout the world in a variety of
contexts, from Primary school to University. In the 1980s, the first computer assisted
learning became available to University students. The CAL Idea is highly dependent to
the following educational events:
Education Commission (1964-66), called Kothari Commission: Introduction of
Vocational Courses.
National Policy of Education (1968): Introduction of Correspondence Courses.
Edger Dale: Cone of Learning, Cone of Experience (Audio-Visual Methods in
Teaching, 3rd ed., New York, 1969).
Jacques Delors: The Four Pillars of Education,1996(Learning to be, Learning to Do,
Learning to Know, Learning to Live Together).
Implementation of CAL in education: It was felt that use of Information and
communication Technology (ICT), computers and developed e-teaching/learning
materials in the form of CAL may help in achieving the objectives stated below. Main
Objectives:
These visual, animated learning materials not only help to memorize the
tough topics at ease but also it will act as a virtual laboratory experiments.
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Some so called hard subjects, viz., English, Mathematics and Science will be joyful
through computer.
Computer aided learning packages will serve as a better teaching
learning materials.
This audiovisual technique will help and motivate Children with Special
Needs (CWSN) to read.
Above objectives will in turn help to reduce drop out, repetition rate.
Enhance in the achievement levels etc, under this programme all pupil will accept it
enthusiastically and all educational aspirants will appreciate this.
Implementation technique: A computer room (laboratory room is must) with some
computers along with an audio and visual output device to show learning packages on a
large screen using an LCD projector. After discussion of subject, teacher may show
learning packages on that particular topic. Student can practice and also an evaluation can
take place like Exam (as it is also on computer and at the same time result can be
displayed to the students).
Infrastructural Components:
1) Laboratory Room.
2) Computers and LCD Projector.
3) Learning Packages.
4) Trained Teachers.
5) Motivation.
6) Discipline, Administration and etc,
Advantages of the CAL are given below:
1. CAL is individualized, that is each student is free to work at his own place, totally
unaffected by the performance of any other students.
2. Information is presented in a structured form. It proves useful in the study of a subject
where there is hierarchy of facts and rules.
3. CAL forces active participation on the part of the student, which contrasts with the
more passive role in reading a book or attending a lecture.
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4. CAL utilizes a reporting system that provides the student with a clear picture of his
progress. Thus students can identify the subject areas in which they have improved and in
which they need improvement.
5. By enabling students to manipulate concepts directly and explore the results of such
manipulation, it reduces the time taken to comprehend difficult concepts.
6. CAL offers a wide range of experiences that are otherwise not available to the student.
It works as multimedia providing audio as well as visual inputs. It enables the student to
understand concepts clearly with the use of stimulating techniques such as animation,
blinking, graphical displays etc.
7. CAL provides a lot of drilling which can prove useful for low aptitude students and
through which high-aptitude students can be escaped.
8. CAL can enhance reasoning and decision-making abilities.
Disadvantages of CAL: Though CAL has a number of advantages, it has some
limitations also. Some of these are as follows:
1. A CAL package may be regarded simply as a novelty, rather than an integral part of the
educational process. It may threaten the objectives of the package.
2. Though simulation permits execution of chemical and biological experiments, hands-
on experience is missing. Moreover, CAL packages cannot develop manual skills such as
handling an apparatus, working with a machine etc.
3. There are real costs associated with the development of CAL systems. It is expensive
in terms of staff time to devise and programme effective CAL.
4. Content covered by a certain CAL package may become outdated. A very high cost is
involved in the development of these packages. If the course is outdated, the resources
involved in its development will be a waste.
4. The rapid development of hardware makes it difficult to select a system before it
becomes obsolete. If a new system is installed by a maximum number of institutions, they
may not get courseware required for the system and courseware developed so far may
become useless.
125
BED= 15203
6.8 Let Us Sum Up
Educational technology assists in making education data actionable for students

and teachers, and uses it to track student progress, personalize learning, improve
efficiency and meet reporting requirements. Educational technology is an assistive
technology which ensures that all students have the right tools to reach their full potential
when technology is used as a source for selecting, implementing and supporting assistive
learning programs. ICT is the output of educational technology. It unlocks the promise of
anytime, anywhere access to learning with the right technological devices and tools to
manage, access and virtualize learning environment of students. Educational Technology
creates a foundation that supports personalized and blended learning goals.
1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of ICT in education?

2. Explain the approaches of Project cased learning ?

of East Anglia
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B. Ed.

Directorate of Distance Education

1.Prof. Mohammad Iqbal Mattoo 3. Mr. Showket Rashid Wani

2.Prof. Mustaq Ahmad Patel 4. Mr. Javeed Ahmad Puju

Programme Coordinator and Format Editing

Mr. Habibulla Shah

Course Co-ordination Team

Prof. Neelofar Khan

Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Directorate of Distance Education

Unit I Educational Technology

i) Historical development of educational technology

Unit II Teaching Learning Aids & Instructional Objectives

i) Teaching Learning aids:

Unit III Innovations in Teaching

i) Microteaching-meaning, steps, phases merits and demerits

Unit IV ICT in Education

i) Information and communication technology: Concept, need and scope.

Lesson No. Theme Page No

1. Understanding Educational Technology 1-23

2. Teaching Learning Aids & Instructional 24-42

3. Micro Teaching and Simulation 43-67

4. Programmed Learning 68-96

5. Information And Communication 97-114

6. ICT and Education 115-126

LESSON NO: 01 UNDERSTANDING EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.2 Meaning of Educational Technology

1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology

1.4 Characteristics of Educational Technology

1.5 Misconceptions of Educational Technology

1.6 Objectives of Educational Technology

1.7 Major Components of Educational Technology

1.8 Nature of Educational Technology

1.9 Aspects of Educational Technology

1.10 Types of Educational Technology

1.11 Scope of Educational Technology

1.12 Forms of Educational Technology

d) Instructional Design system.

1.13 Uses of Educational Technology

1.14 Let Us Sum Up

1.15 Check your Progress

1.16 Suggested Readings

Education is the development of the power of adaptation to an ever changing

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

1.2 Meaning of Educational Technology

First meaning of educational technology

1. Functional analysis of the teaching learning process to identify the various

Second meaning of education technology:

Third meaning of educational technology:

1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology

According to G.M. Leith, Educational technology is a systematic application of

According to B.C. Mathis, Educational technology refers to the development

E.E. Haddan defined educational technology as Educational technology is that

S.K Mitra, Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques

1.4 Characteristics of Educational Technology

Following are the characteristics of Educational technology;

1.5 Misconceptions of Educational Technology

There are some misconceptions about educational technology hat educational

1.6 Objectives of Educational Technology