NUCLEAR PHYSICS

1. This question is about the photoelectric effect.

Light is incident on a clean metal surface in a vacuum. The maximum kinetic energy KEmax of the electrons
ejected from the surface is measured for different values of the frequency f of the incident light.
The measurements are shown plotted below.
2 .0

1 .5

19
K E m ax / 10 J 1 .0

0 .5

0 .0
4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 7 .5 8 .0
14
f / 10 H z
(a) Draw a line of best fit for the plotted data points.
(1)
(b) Use the graph to determine
(i) the Planck constant;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) the minimum energy required to eject an electron from the surface of the metal (the work function).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) Explain briefly how Einsteins photoelectric theory accounts for the fact that no electrons are emitted from
the surface of this metal if the frequency of the incident light is less than a certain value.
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(3)
(Total 9 marks)
2. This question is about the wave nature of electrons.
(a) Describe the de Broglie hypothesis.
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(2)
An experiment is carried out in which a beam of electrons is scattered from a single nickel crystal. A schematic
diagram of the apparatus is shown below.
Vacuum

N ic k e l
c ry s ta l

In c id e n t
e le c tro n b e a m E le c tro n g u n

S c a tte re d e le c tro n b e a m
 The electrons are accelerated in the electron gun by a potential difference of 75 V.
(b) Determine the wavelength associated with the electrons as predicted by the de Broglie hypothesis.
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(4)
The number n of electrons scattered per second through an angle is measured. The graph below shows the
variation with angle of n.
n

0
0
(c) Suggest how the shape of this graph supports the de Broglie hypothesis.
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(3)
(Total 9 marks)
3. This question is about atomic spectra and energy levels.
Diagram 1 below shows part of the emission line spectrum of atomic hydrogen. The wavelengths of the principal
lines in the visible region of the spectrum are shown.
Diagram 2 shows some of the principal energy levels of atomic hydrogen.
D ia g ra m 1 D ia g ra m 2

R e d (R ) B lu e (B ) V io le t (V )
0
0 .5 4
0 .8 5
1 .5
656 nm 486 nm 434 nm
3 .4
w a v e le n g th

E n e rg y / e V

1 3 .6
(a) Show, by calculation, that the energy of a photon of red light of wavelength 656 nm is 1.9 eV.
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.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(b) On diagram 2, draw arrows to represent
(i) the electron transition that gives rise to the red line (label this arrow R).
(1)
(ii) a possible electron transition that gives rise to the blue line (label this arrow B).
(1)
(Total 5 marks)
4. This question is about the radioactive decay of potassium-40.
40 40
A nucleus of the nuclide 19 K (potassium-40) decays to a stable nucleus of the nuclide 18 Ar (argon-40).
(a) State the names of the two particles emitted in this decay.
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

16
(b) A sample of the isotope potassium-40 initially contains 1.5 10 atoms. On average, 16 nuclei in this
sample of the isotope undergo radioactive decay every minute.
17 1
Deduce that the decay constant for potassium-40 is 1.8 10 s .
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(3)

(c) Determine the half-life of potassium-40.

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(1)
(Total 6 marks)

5. This question is about the photoelectric effect.

(a) State one aspect of the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by the wave model of light. Describe
how the photon model provides an explanation for this aspect.
Aspect: ...............................................................................................................
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Explanation: ...............................................................................................................
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(2)

Light is incident on a metal surface in a vacuum. The graph below shows the variation of the maximum kinetic
energy Emax of the electrons emitted from the surface with the frequency f of the incident light.
E m ax / e V 4

0 f / x 10 H z
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1

(b) Use data from the graph to determine

(i) the threshold frequency.
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) a value of the Planck constant.

...........................................................................................................................
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 ...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) the work function of the surface.

...........................................................................................................................
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(2)

14
The threshold frequency of a different surface is 8.0 10 Hz.
(c) On the axes opposite, draw a line to show the variation with frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy
Emax of the electrons emitted.
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

6. This question is about particle physics.

(a) Possible particle reactions are given below. They cannot take place because they violate one or more
conservation laws. For each reaction identify one conservation law that is violated.

(i) e +
Conservation law: .....................................................
(1)

0
(ii) p+np+
Conservation law: .....................................................
(1)

+
(iii) p +
Conservation law: .....................................................
(1)

(b) State the name of the exchange particle(s) involved in the strong interaction.
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 4 marks)

7. This question is about charged particles in a magnetic field.

A beam of singly ionized atoms moving at speed v enters a region of magnetic field strength B as shown below.

X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
d ire c tio n o f m o tio n X X X X X X X u n ifo rm m a g n e tic fie ld
o f io n iz e d a to m s in to p la n e o f p a p e r
X X X X X X X
The magnetic field is directed into the plane of the paper. The ions follow a circular path,

(a) Deduce that the radius r of the circular path is given by

mv
r=
Bq
where m and q are the mass and charge respectively of the ions.
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(2)

In one particular experiment, the beam contains singly ionized neon atoms all moving at the same speed. On
entering the magnetic field, the beam divides in two. The path of the ions of mass 20 u has radius 15.0 cm.
(b) Calculate in terms of u, the mass of the ions having a path of radius 16.5 cm.
 .....................................................................................................................................
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(2)

The atomic number (proton number) of neon is 10.

(c) State the number of protons and neutrons in each type of neon ion.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
8. This question is about the photoelectric effect.
In order to demonstrate the photoelectric effect, the apparatus shown below is used.
g la s s e n v e lo p e
A
m o n o c h ro m a tic lig h t

vacum

m e ta l p la te
Monochromatic light is incident on the metal plate. The potentiometer is adjusted to give the minimum voltage at
which there is zero reading on the microammeter.

(a) State and explain what change, if any, will occur in the reading of the microammeter when
(i) the intensity of the incident light is increased but the frequency remains unchanged.
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(2)

(ii) the frequency of the light is increased at constant intensity.

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(2)
(b) For light of wavelength 540 nm, the minimum reading on the voltmeter for zero current is 1.9 V.
(i) State the connection between photon energy and the energy of the emitted electron.
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(1)

(ii) Hence calculate the work function of the surface of the metal plate.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)

9. This question is about a model of the atom.

The Schrdinger model of the atom pictures electrons as clouds of negative charge surrounding the nucleus. The
distribution of charge and mass can be represented by a three-dimensional standing wave.

(a) Identify the feature of the standing wave that gives the probability of finding the electron at a particular
position.
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(2)

An electron of mass m in an atom has total energy E, potential energy EP and kinetic energy EK.
 (b) Write down expressions for
(i) the relation between E, EP and EK.
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(1)

(ii) the momentum p of the electron in terms of EK.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(iii) the associated wavelength of the electron in terms of its total energy E.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)

10. This question is about radioactive decay.

Cerium-145 is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 3.0 minutes. It emits particles and also anti-neutrinos.

(a) Give one reason why the existence of the neutrino was postulated in order to explain
-decay.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) State the class of particle to which the neutrino belongs.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(c) Determine the probability for the decay of a Cerium-145 nucleus in a time of 1.0 minute.
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(2)

(d) Determine the time taken for the activity of a particular sample of Cerium-145 to be reduced to a fraction
1
of its initial activity.
10
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)

11. Photoelectric emission takes place when ultraviolet light is incident on zinc but it does not take place when visible
light is incident on zinc. However, photoelectric emission does take place when visible light is incident on
potassium.
(a) Explain what is meant by photoelectric emission.
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(2)

The work function of zinc is 4.2 eV.

(b) (i) Explain whether the work function for potassium is greater or less than 4.2 eV.
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(1)
(ii) Ultraviolet light of wavelength 210 nm is incident on a zinc surface. Calculate the maximum kinetic
energy, in eV, of a moving electron emitted from the surface.
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(3)

(c) The photoelectric effect provides evidence for the particle nature of light. Outline an experiment that
provides evidence for the wave nature of particles.
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(3)
(Total 9 marks)

5
12. A sample of cobalt-60 has an activity of 3.0 10 Bq. The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.3 years.
(a) Define half-life.
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(1)

(b) Determine the decay constant of cobalt-60.

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(2)

5
(c) Calculate the time taken for the activity of the cobalt-60 to be reduced to 1.0 10 Bq.
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(2)
(Total 5 marks)

13. This question is about the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.
(a) The diagram below shows the three lowest energy levels of a hydrogen atom as predicted by the Bohr
model.
E n e rg y

n = 3 1 .5 1 e V
n = 2 3 .4 0 e V

n = 1 1 3 .6 e V
State two physical processes by which an electron in the ground state energy level can move to a higher
energy level state.
1. ................................................................................................................................
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2. ................................................................................................................................
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(2)

(b) A parallel beam of white light is directed through monatomic hydrogen gas as shown in the diagram below.
The transmitted light is analysed.
 h y d ro g e n
w h ite lig h t gas tra n s m itte d lig h t
beam beam

White light consists of photons that range in wavelength from approximately 400 nm for violet to 700 nm
for red light.

(i) Determine that the energy of photons of light of wavelength 658 nm is about 1.89 eV.
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(2)

(ii) The intensity of light of wavelength 658 nm in the direction of the transmitted beam is greatly
reduced. Using the energy level diagram in (a) explain this observation.
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(3)

(iii) State two ways in which the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom differs from that of the Bohr
model.
1. .................................................................................................................
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2. .................................................................................................................
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)

14. This question is about particle physics.

A neutron can decay into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino according to the reaction
n p + e + ve .
(a) Deduce the value of the electric charge of the antineutrino.
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) State the name of the fundamental interaction (force) that is responsible for this decay.
(1)
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(c) State how an antineutrino differs from a neutrino.

.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 3 marks)

15. This question is about nuclear power and thermodynamics.

A fission reaction taking place in the core of a nuclear power reactor is
1 235 144 89 1
0 n 92 U 56 Ba 36 Kr 3 0 n.
(i) State one form in which energy is released in this reaction.
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(1)

(ii) Explain why, for fission reactions to be maintained, the mass of the uranium fuel must be above a certain
minimum amount.
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(2)

(iii) The neutrons produced in the fission reaction are fast moving. In order for a neutron to fission U-235 the
neutron must be slow moving. Name the part of the nuclear reactor in which neutrons are slowed down.
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

19
(iv) In a particular reactor approximately 8.0 10 fissions per second take place. Deduce the mass of U-235
that undergoes fission per year.
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(3)
(Total 7 marks)

16. This question is about the photoelectric effect.

In an experiment to investigate the photoelectric effect, light of frequency f is incident on the metal surface A
shown in the diagram below. A potential difference is applied between A and electrode B. The photoelectric
current is measured by the microammeter. (Note: the complete electrical circuit is not shown.)
lig h t
e v a c u a te d tu b e

A B
e le c tro d e

(a) Indicate on the diagram the polarity of A and of B.

(1)

(b) The frequency f of the light is reduced and it is found that there is a frequency f0, the threshold frequency,
below which the microammeter does not indicate a current. Explain how Einsteins photoelectric theory
accounts for this observation.
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(4)

The potential difference between A and B is now reversed. For a particular frequency of the light, the potential
difference is changed until there is zero current in the circuit. The graph below shows the variation of frequency f
of the light with the potential difference Vs for zero current.
 2 .0

1 .5

1 .0

0 .5
f / 1 0 14 H z
Vs /V 0
0 .0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .0 4 .0 5 .0 6 .0 7 .0 8 .0 9 .0
0 .5

1 .0

1 .5

2 .0

2 .5

(c) Explaining your working, use the graph to determine

(i) the threshold frequency;
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...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) the work function, in eV, of the metal.

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...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

17. This question is about radioactive decay and the age of rocks.
A nucleus of the radioactive isotope potassium-40 decays into a stable nucleus of argon-40.
(a) Complete the equation below for the decay of a potassium-40 nucleus.
40 40
19 K 18 Ar
(2)

6 6
A certain sample of rocks contains 1.2 10 g of potassium-40 and 7.0 10 g of trapped argon-40 gas.
(b) Assuming that all the argon originated from the decay of potassium-40 and that none has escaped from the
rocks, calculate what mass of potassium was present when the rocks were first formed.
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
9
The half-life of potassium-40 is 1.3 10 years.
(c) Determine
(i) the decay constant of potassium-40;
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(2)

(ii) the age of the rocks.

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(2)
(Total 7 marks)

18. Nuclear binding energy and nuclear decay

(a) State what is meant by a nucleon.
 ...................................................................................................................................
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(1)

(b) Define what is meant by the binding energy of a nucleus.

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(1)

The graph below shows the variation with nucleon (mass) number of the binding energy per nucleon.
10
56
9 Fe
138
16
Ba
O 208
Pb
8 235
U
B in d in g e n e rg y p e r n u c le o n / M e V

7
9
Be
6
6
Li
5

4
3
3 H

2
2
H
1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
N u c le o n n u m b e r
(c) Use the graph to explain why energy can be released in both the fission and the fusion processes.
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(3)

15
(d) A sample of carbon-11 has an initial mass of 4.0 10 kg. Carbon-11 has a half-life of approximately 20
minutes. Calculate the mass of carbon-11 remaining after one hour has elapsed.
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(2)

238
(e) Uranium-238, 92 U, undergoes -decay to form an isotope of thorium. Write down the nuclear equation
for this decay.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)

19. The initial activity of a sample of a radioactive isotope of half-life 10 hours is A. What is the age of the sample
A
when its activity is ?
32
 A. 30 hours
B. 40 hours
C. 50 hours
D. 320 hours
(1)
20. Two light nuclei of masses m1 and m2 fuse in a nuclear reaction to form a nucleus of mass M. Which of the
following expressions correctly relates the masses of the nuclei?
A. M m1 + m2
B. M m1 + m2
C. M = m1 + m2
D. M = m1 m2
(1)

21. Radioactive decay

(a) Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 5500 years. It is produced in the atmosphere by
neutron bombardment of nitrogen. The equation for this reaction is
14
7 N 01 n 146 C X.
(i) Explain what are meant by isotopes.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Define the term radioactive half-life.

.........................................................................................................................
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(1)

(iii) Identify the particle X.

.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Living trees contain atoms of carbon-14. The activity per gram of carbon from a living tree is higher than
that per gram of carbon-14 from burnt wood (charcoal) found at an ancient campsite.
(i) A living tree continuously takes in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Suggst why the activity of
the carbon from the charcoal is less than that of the living wood.
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(3)

12
(ii) Each gram of a living tree contains approximately 1 10 g of the isotope carbon-14. Deduce that
10
each gram of carbon in living wood contains approximately 4 10 atoms of carbon-14.
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(2)
(c) On the grid below, draw a graph to show the variation with time of the number of carbon-14 atoms in one
4
gram of wood from a tree. Your graph should indicate the number of atoms for a period of 1.8 10 years
after the tree has died. (Half-life of carbon-14 = 5500 years)
 4

num ber of 2
a to m s 1 0 10

0
0 0 .4 0 0 .8 0 1 .2 1 .6 2 .0
4
tim e / y e a rs 1 0
(3)

(d) The activity of a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of atoms in the sample. The activity per
gram of carbon from a living tree is 9.6 disintegrations per minute. The activity per gram of carbon in burnt
wood found at the ancient campsite is 1.9 disintegrations per minute.
(i) Estimate the number of atoms of carbon-14 in the burnt wood.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) From the graph you have drawn in (c), estimate the age of the burnt wood.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 13 marks)
22. This question is about the photoelectric effect.
A student uses the apparatus shown below to investigate the photoelectric effect.

in c id e n t lig h t

m e ta l s u rfa c e V

vacuum

The minimum potential VS (the stopping potential) necessary to give zero reading on the microammeter is
measured for different values of the wavelength of the light incident on the metal surface.
(a) Explain why the intensity of the incident radiation does not affect the value of VS.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
1
(b) The graph below shows the variation with of the stopping potential VS.

 1 .5 0

1 .0 0

VS/V

0 .5 0

0
1 .0 1 .5 2 .0 2 .5 3 .0
1 6 1
/ 10 m
Use the graph to calculate a value for the Plank constant h. Explain your working.
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(6)
Total 8 marks)
23. This question is about a mass spectrometer.
(a) State the purpose of a mass spectrometer.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) In the space below, draw a schematic labelled diagram of a mass spectrometer.
(4)

(c) A pure sample of a gaseous element is examined using a mass spectrometer. Atomic masses of 35 u and 37
u are obtained. Chemical analysis of a similar sample of the gas suggests an atomic mass of 35.5 u.
Determine the ratio, for this sample,
number of atoms of mass 35 u
.
number of atoms of mass 37 u
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(4)
(Total 9 marks)
24. A sample of material contains 64 g of a radioactive isotope. After sixty minutes 2.0 g of the isotope remain.
The half-life of this isotope is
A. 10 minutes.
B. 12 minutes.
C. 15 minutes.
D. 20 minutes.
(1)

7
25. The binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus 3 Li is approximately 5 MeV. The total energy required to
 completely separate the nucleons of this nucleus is approximately
A. 15 MeV.
B. 20 MeV.
C. 35 MeV.
D. 50 MeV.
(1)
26. This question is about nuclear binding energy.
The table below gives the mass defect per nucleon of deuterium H and helium-4
2
1
4
2 He .
Mass defect per nucleon / u
H
2
1 0.00120

4
2 He 0.00760
(a) Explain the term mass defect.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Calculate the energy, in joule, that is released when two deuterium nuclei fuse to form a helium-4 nucleus.
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(4)
(Total 6 marks)
27. This question is about the photoelectric effect.
(a) Outline two observations associated with the photoelectric effect that cannot be accounted for by the wave
model of light.
1. .........................................................................................................................
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2. .........................................................................................................................
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.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) In 1916, Millikan carried out an experiment to verify Einsteins photoelectric theory. In the experiment,
Millikan arranged for light of different frequencies f to be incident on the surface of a sodium cathode. By
appropriate measurements, he determined the maximum kinetic energy EK of electrons emitted from the
surface for the different values of f. The results of his experiment are shown in the graph below.
6

E K/ 10 19
J 3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
14
f / 10 H z
Use the above graph to determine, explaining your working,
(i) the threshold frequency of sodium.
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.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) the Planck constant.
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(4)
(Total 8 marks)

28. (a) Describe the de Broglie hypothesis.

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(2)

10
(b) The de Broglie wavelength of the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is 3.3 10 m.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.
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(3)
(Total 5 marks)

29. This question is about nuclear decay.

(a) (i) Describe the phenomenon of natural radioactive decay.
...........................................................................................................................
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(3)
(ii) Ionizing radiation is emitted during radioactive decay. Explain what is meant by the term ionizing.
...........................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) The sketch graph below shows the variation with mass number (nucleon number) A of the binding energy
per nucleon E of nuclei.
E

A
One possible nuclear reaction that occurs when uranium-235 is bombarded by a neutron to form xenon-142
and strontium-90 is represented as
235 1 142 90 1
92 U 0 n 54 Xe 38 Sr 4 0 N .

(i) Identify the type of nuclear reaction represented above.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) On the sketch graph above, identify with their symbols the approximate positions of the uranium (U),
the xenon (Xe) and the strontium (Sr) nuclei.
(2)
(iii) Data for the binding energies of xenon-142 and strontium-90 are given below.
 isotope binding energy / MeV
xenon-142 1189
strontium-90 784.8
The total energy released during the reaction is 187.9 MeV. Determine the binding energy per
nucleon of uranium-235.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(iv) State why binding energy of the neutrons formed in the reaction is not quoted.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 12 marks)
30. This question is about fundamental interactions.

(a) The Feynman diagram below represents a decay via the weak interaction process.

The exchange particle in this weak interaction is a virtual particle.

(i) State what is meant by a virtual particle.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
+
(ii) Determine whether the virtual particle in the process represented by the Feynman diagram is a W , a
0
W or a Z boson.
.........................................................................................................................
(2)

0 2
(b) The order of magnitude of the mass of the W and Z bosons is 100 GeV c . Estimate the range of the
weak interaction.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

31. This question is about a proton.

The proton is made out of three quarks.
(a) Explain why the three quarks in the proton do not violate the Pauli exclusion principle.
...................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Quarks have spin 12 . Explain how it is possible for the proton to also have spin 12 .
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 4 marks)

32. This question is about the production of nuclear energy and its transfer to electrical energy.
(a) When a neutron collides with a nucleus of uranium-235 ( 235 92 U) the following reaction can occur.
235 1 144
92 U + 0n 56 Ba + 9036 Kr + 2 01 n
(i) State the name given to this type of nuclear reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
 (ii) Energy is liberated in this reaction. In what form does this energy appear?
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Describe how the neutrons produced in this reaction may initiate a chain reaction.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
The purpose of a nuclear power station is to produce electrical energy from nuclear energy. The diagram below is
a schematic representation of the principle components of a nuclear reactor pile used in a certain type of nuclear
power station.
c o n tro l ro d s

g ra p h ite b lo c k
u ra n iu m o re fu e l ro d s (m o d e ra to r)

The function of the moderator is to slow down neutrons produced in a reaction such as that described in part (a)
above.
(c) (i) Explain why it is necessary to slow down the neutrons.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(ii) Explain the function of the control rods.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(d) Describe briefly how the energy produced by the nuclear reactions is extracted from the reactor pile and
then transferred to electrical energy.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 12 marks)

33. The following are statements concerning radioactive decay.

I. Alpha particles have discrete energies.
II. The beta-energy spectrum is a broad continuous distribution of energies.
III. Gamma rays are emitted with discrete energies.

Which statement(s) is(are) evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels?
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and III only
(1)
34. When light is incident on a metal surface, electrons may be ejected. The following graph shows the variation with
frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy Ek max of the ejected electrons.
Ek m ax

0 0
f
 Which one of the following graphs best shows the variation with frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy Ek
max of the ejected electrons if another metal surface with a lower threshold frequency is used?
A . B .
Ek m ax Ek m ax

0 0 0 0
f f

C. D .
Ek m ax Ek m ax

0 0 0 0
f f

(1)

35. Some of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom are shown below.
0.54 eV
0.85 eV
1.51 eV
3.39 eV
13.6 eV

Electrons are excited to the 0.85 eV level. How many different photon frequencies will be observed in the
emission spectrum of hydrogen?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
(1)

36. When electrons of suitable energy travel through a thin layer of graphite, a pattern of concentric circles is
produced on a screen.

fin e b e a m o f e le c tro n s

g ra p h ite flu o re s c e n t s c re e n

The production of this pattern is evidence for

A. the wave nature of the electron.
B. the nuclear model of the atom.
C. the particle nature of the electron.
D. the existence of X-rays.
(1)

37. In a mass spectrograph, ions of isotopes of the same element follow different semicircular paths in a uniform
magnetic field as shown below.

io n s
 The difference in path curvature is essentially due to the fact that the ions have different values of
A. charge only.
B. mass only.
C. mass and charge.
D. mass and speed.
(1)
38. The activity of a sample of Iodine-131 is plotted as a function of time as shown below. The activity scale is
logarithmic.
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

A c tiv ity / B q
1000
900
800
700
600

500

400

300

200

100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
tim e / d a y s
The half-life of Iodine-131 is close to
A. 180 days.
B. 55 days.
C. 28 days.
D. 8 days.
(1)

7
39. Light of wavelength 6.0 10 m is incident normally on a plane surface as shown below.

7
I n c id e n t lig h t, w a v e le n g th 6 .0 1 0 m

S u rfa c e
 The light photons are absorbed by the surface.
(a) Show that, for one photon of the light,
19
(i) its energy is 3.3 10 J;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
27 1
(ii) its momentum is 1.1 10 kg m s .
(2)
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

2 2
(b) The light has intensity 5.0 W m . Determine, for an area of 1.0 m of the plane surface,
(i) the number of photons incident per second.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) the change in momentum per second of the photons.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(c) (i) Using your answers in (b), state the pressure exerted by the light on the surface.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) State and explain what would happen to this pressure if the light is reflected rather than absorbed by
the surface.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
40. This question is about nuclear reactions.
(a) Complete the table below, by placing a tick ( ) in the relevant columns, to show how an increase in each
of the following properties affects the rate of decay of a sample of radioactive material.
Property Effect on rate of decay
increase decrease stays the same
temperature of sample
pressure on sample
amount of sample
(2)
Radium-226 ( 226
88 Ra) undergoes natural radioactive decay to disintegrate spontaneously with the emission of an
4 1
alpha particle (-particle) to form radon (Rn). The decay constant for this reaction is 4.30 10 yr . The masses
of the particles involved in the reaction are
radium: 226.0254 u
radon: 222.0176 u
-particle: 4.0026 u

4 1
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the statement that the decay constant is 4.30 10 yr .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) Calculate the energy released in the reaction.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
 3)
(c) The radium nucleus was stationary before the reaction.
(i) Explain, in terms of the momentum of the particles, why the radon nucleus and the -particle move
off in opposite directions after the reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(ii) The speed of the radon nucleus after the reaction is vR and that of the -particle is v. Determine the
v
ratio .
vR
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

A college has been using a sample of radium-226 as an -particle source for 30 years. Initially, the mass of radium
was 15.0 g.
(d) Determine
(i) the initial number of atoms of radium-226 in the sample;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(ii) the number of atoms of radium-226 in the sample after 30 years;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

(iii) the average activity of the sample during the 30 year period.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(6)

(e) The -particle is composed of protons and neutrons. Describe, by reference to the structure of the proton
and the neutron, why they are not classed as fundamental particles.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

Another type of nuclear reaction is a fusion reaction. This reaction is the main source of the Suns radiant energy.
(f) (i) State what is meant by a fusion reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) Explain why the temperature and pressure of the gases in the Suns core must both be very high for it
to produce its radiant energy.
High temperature: ............................................................................................
............................................................................................
............................................................................................
............................................................................................

High pressure: ............................................................................................

............................................................................................
............................................................................................
 ............................................................................................
(5)
(Total 30 marks)

41. This question is about forces on charged particles.

(a) A charged particle is situated in a field of force. Deduce the nature of the force-field (magnetic, electric or
gravitational) when the force on the particle
(i) is along the direction of the field regardless of its charge and velocity;
...........................................................................................................................

(ii) is independent of the velocity of the particle but depends on its charge;
...........................................................................................................................

(iii) depends on the velocity of the particle and its charge.

...........................................................................................................................
(5)
(b) An electron is accelerated from rest in a vacuum through a potential difference of 2.1 kV. Deduce that the
7 1
final speed of the electron is 2.7 10 m s .
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

The electron in (b) then enters a region of uniform electric field between two conducting horizontal metal
plates as shown below.
+95 V

P a th o f
e le c tro n P
2 .2 c m
7
2 .7 1 0 m s 1

0 V
12 cm
The electric field outside the region of the plates may be assumed to be zero. The potential difference between the
plates is 95 V and their separation is 2.2 cm.
As the electron enters the region of the electric field, it is travelling parallel to the plates.

(c) (i) On the diagram above, draw an arrow at P to show the direction of the force due to the electric field
acting on the electron.
(1)

(ii) Calculate the force on the electron due to the electric field.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) The plates in the diagram above are of length 12 cm. Determine
(i) the time of flight between the plates.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) the vertical distance moved by the electron during its passage between the plates.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
 ...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(e) Suggest why gravitational effects were not considered when calculating the deflection of the electron.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(f) In a mass spectrometer, electric and magnetic fields are used to select charged particles of one particular
speed. A uniform magnetic field is applied in the region between the plates, such that the electron passes
between the plates without being deviated.
For this magnetic field,
(i) state and explain its direction;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(ii) determine its magnitude.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(g) The electric and magnetic fields in (f) remain unchanged. Giving a brief explanation in each case, compare
qualitatively the deflection of the electron in (f) with that of
(i) an electron travelling at a greater initial speed;
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

(ii) a proton having the same speed;

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(iii) an alpha particle (-particle) having the same speed.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(7)
(Total 30 marks)

42. The work function of a metal may be defined as

A. the minimum frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation required to cause photoelectric emission.
B. the minimum wavelength of the incident electromagnetic radiation required to cause photoelectric
emission.
C. the minimum energy of photons incident on a surface required to cause photoelectric emission.
D. the minimum energy required to take an electron from the interior to the surface to cause photoelectric
emission.
(1)

43. Which one of the following is a correct definition of the decay constant of a radio-isotope?
A. The constant of proportionality linking half-life to rate of decay of nuclei.
B. The constant of proportionality linking decay rate to number of undecayed nuclei.
C. The reciprocal of the half-life of the radio-isotope.
D. The rate of decay of nuclei in a fresh sample of the radio-isotope.
(1)
44. This question considers some aspects of the atomic and nuclear physics associated with isotopes of the element
helium.
Atomic aspects
(a) The element helium was first identified from the absorption spectrum of the Sun.
(i) Explain what is meant by the term absorption spectrum.
 ...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) Outline how this spectrum may be experimentally observed.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) One of the wavelengths in the absorption spectrum of helium occurs at 588 nm.
19
(i) Show that the energy of a photon of wavelength 588 nm is 3.38 10 J.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) The diagram below represents some of the energy levels of the helium atom. Use the information in
the diagram to explain how absorption at 588 nm arises.

1 .5 9

19
e n e rg y / 1 0 J 2 .4 2
3 .0 0

5 .8 0

7 .6 4
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
Two different models have been developed to explain the existence of atomic energy levels. The Bohr model and
the Schrdinger model are both able to predict the principal wavelengths present in the spectrum of atomic
hydrogen.
(c) Outline
(i) the Bohr model, and
(ii) the Schrdinger model.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
 ...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(6)
Nuclear aspects
(d) The helium in the Sun is produced as a result of a nuclear reaction. Explain whether this reaction is
burning, fission or fusion.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

At a later stage in the development of the Sun, other nuclear reactions are expected to take place. One such
overall reaction is given below.
4 4 4
2 He + 2 He + 2 He C + +
(e) (i) Identify the atomic number and the mass number of the isotope of carbon C that has been formed.
Atomic number: ...
Mass number: ...
(2)

(ii) Use the information below to calculate the energy released in the reaction.
27
Atomic mass of helium = 6.648 325 10 kg
26
Atomic mass of carbon = 1.993 200 10 kg
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
6
Another isotope of helium He decays by emitting a -particle.
2
(f) (i) State the name of the other particle that is emitted during this decay.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) Explain why a sample of 62 He emits -particles with a range of energies.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

6
(iii) The half-life for this decay is 0.82 s. Determine the percentage of a sample of 2 He that remains after
a time of 10 s.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(iv) Describe the process of decay in terms of quarks.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 30 marks)
45. This question is about the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
(a) A postulate of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is that the electron revolves about the proton in stable,
circular orbits. State two other postulates of the Bohr model.
1 ..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
2 ..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(2)

th
In the n energy state, the hydrogen atom has energy En and the electron orbits with speed vn in an orbit of radius
rn. En, rn and vn are given by the following relationships.
13.606
En = eV
n2
2
rn = 0.0529n nm
2.19 10 6 1
vn = ms
n

(b) Apply the expressions above, to hydrogen in its ground state, to determine the ground state energy, the
radius of the electron orbit and the electron speed.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) According to the Schrdinger model, the position and the speed of an electron are not well defined. It can
be assumed that the uncertainty in the position of the electron in a hydrogen atom is equal to the radius of
the electron orbit in the n = 1 state.
(i) Apply the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to hydrogen in this state to show that the uncertainty in
the speed of the electron is approximately equal to the electron speed as calculated in (b).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(ii) Explain why the result in (i) above suggests that the idea of electron orbits, as used in the Bohr
model, is a poor one.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
46. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle that has kinetic energy Ek is . The wavelength is proportional to
A. Ek.
1
B. .
Ek
1
C.
Ek
2
D. Ek .
(1)

47. The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is able to

A. predict accurate values for some of the wavelengths in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
B. account for the detailed structure of the spectral lines in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
C. explain the relative intensity of the different spectral lines in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
D. be extended to predict accurately, some of the wavelengths in the spectrum of oxygen.
 (1)

48. Which one of the following gives evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels?
A. Alpha particle scattering
B. Gamma ray spectra
C. Photoelectric effect
D. Matter waves
(1)
30 30
49. The nucleus P
undergoes radioactive decay to the nucleus
15 14
Si. The particles emitted in the decay are
A. a positron and an antineutrino.
B. an electron and an antineutrino.
C. a positron and a neutrino.
D. an electron and a neutrino.
(1)

50. This question is about the wave nature of matter.

(a) Explain what is meant by the de Broglie wavelength of a particle.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of 5.0 kV.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 6 marks)
51. This question is about nuclear reactions.
(a) (i) Distinguish between fission and radioactive decay.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)

A nucleus of uranium-235 ( 235

92
U ) may absorb a neutron and then undergo fission to produce nuclei of strontium-
90 ( 90
38
Sr ) and xenon-142 ( 142
54
Xe ) and some neutrons.

The strontium-90 and the xenon-142 nuclei both undergo radioactive decay with the emission of particles.
(ii) Write down the nuclear equation for this fission reaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) State the effect, if any, on the mass number (nucleon number) and on the atomic number (proton

number) of a nucleus when the nucleus undergoes decay.
Mass number: ...................................................................................................
Atomic number: ................................................................................................
(2)
The uranium-235 nucleus is stationary at the time that the fission reaction occurs. In this fission reaction, 198
MeV of energy is released. Of this total energy, 102 MeV and 65 MeV are the kinetic energies of the strontium-90
and xenon-142 nuclei respectively.
(b) (i) Suggest what has happened to the remaining 31 MeV of energy.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
 (ii) Calculate the magnitude of the momentum of the strontium-90 nucleus.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(iii) Explain why the magnitude of the momentum of the strontium-90 nucleus is not exactly equal in
magnitude to that of the xenon-142 nucleus.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

On the diagram below, the circle represents the position of a uranium-235 nucleus before fission. The momentum
of the strontium-90 nucleus after fission is represented by the arrow.
s tro n tiu m -9 0

(iv) On the diagram above, draw an arrow to represent the momentum of the xenon-142 nucleus after the
fission.
(2)

(c) (i) Define the decay constant for radioactive decay.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(ii) The half-life of strontium-90 is 28.0 years. Deduce that the decay constant of strontium-90 is 7.85
10 1
10 s .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

1
(d) The decay constant of xenon-142 is 0.462 s . Initially, a sample of radioactive waste material contains
equal numbers of strontium-90 and xenon-142 nuclei.
(i) Use the values of the decay constants in (c) and (d) to calculate the time taken for the ratio
number of strontium - 90 nuclei
number of xenon - 142 nuclei
6
to become equal to 1.20 10 .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) Suggest why, in the long-term, strontium-90 presents a greater problem then xenon-142 as
radioactive waste.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 26 marks)

52. The graph shows the variation with frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy Ek of photoelectrons emitted from
a metal surface S.
 E k

0
0 f
Which one of the following graphs shows the corresponding variation for a metal surface with a higher work
function? The dotted line on each graph shows the variation for metal S.
A . B.
E k E k

0 0
0 f 0 f
C. D .
E k E k

0 0
0 f 0 f
(1)

53. A particle has kinetic energy E and its associated de Broglie wavelength is . The energy E is proportional to
2
A. .
B. .
1
C. .
2
D. .
(1)
54. Which one of the following statements is true for the decay of a radioactive isotope?
A. The activity at any particular time is proportional to the original number of nuclei present.
B. The activity at any particular time is proportional to the number of nuclei of the isotope present at that time.
C. The activity at any particular time is proportional to the half-life of the isotope.
D. The activity at any particular time is proportional to the decay constant of the isotope.
(1)

55. Which one of the following gives evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels?
A. Gamma ray spectra
B. Visible line spectra
C. Absorption spectra
D. X-ray spectra
(1)

56. This question is about deducing the quark structure of a nuclear particle.

When a K meson collides with a proton, the following reaction can take place.
 0 +
K +pK +K +X
X is a particle whose quark structure is to be determined.
The quark structure of mesons is given below.
particle quark structure

K su
+
K us
0
K ds

(a) State and explain whether the original K particle is a hadron, a lepton or an exchange particle.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) State the quark structure of the proton.

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) The quark structure of particle X is sss. Show that the reaction is consistent with the theory that hadrons are
composed of quarks.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

57. The photoelectric effect involves the emission of electrons from

A. the surface of a metal when the metal is heated.
B. the surface of a metal when it is illuminated with electromagnetic radiation.
C. an atom of a material when the material is negatively charged.
D. an atom of a material when the material is heated.
(1)
58. An -particle having a de Broglie wavelength i collides with a stationary carbon nucleus. The -particle moves
off in a different direction as shown below.
fin a l d ire c tio n o f p a rtic le ,
d e B ro g lie w a v e le n g th f

in itia l d ire c tio n o f p a rtic le ,

d e B ro g lie w a v e le n g th i

fin a l d ire c tio n o f c a rb o n n u c le u s ,

d e B ro g lie w a v e le n g th c
After the collision, the de Broglie wavelengths of the -particle and the carbon nucleus are f and c respectively.

Which of the following is a true statement related to the de Broglie wavelengths?

A. i f
B. i f
C. f = c
D. i = c
(1)
59. The diagram below shows four electron energy levels E3, E2, E1 and E0 in an atom of a gas.
 E 3

E 2

E 1

in c re a s in g e n e rg y

E 0

Which of the following gives the number of lines in the spectrum of the gas that are associated with these energy
levels?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
(1)

60. This question is about the wave nature of matter.

(a) Describe the concept of matter waves and state the de Broglie hypothesis
......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(b) An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 850 V. For this electron
(i) calculate the gain in kinetic energy.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

23
(ii) deduce that the final momentum is 1.6 10 Ns.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

19
(iii) determine the associated de Broglie wavelength. (Electron charge e = 1.6 10 C, Planck constant
34
h = 6.6 10 J s)
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)

61. This question is in about radioactivity and nuclear energy levels.

(a) Define the following terms.
(i) Radioactive half-life ( T1 ) 2

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
 (ii) Decay constant ()
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Deduce that the relationship between T12 and is

T 12 = ln2.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

Thorium-227 (Th-227) undergoes -decay with a half-life of 18 days to form radium-223 (Ra-223). A sample of
5
Th-227 has an initial activity of 3.2 10 Bq.
(c) Determine the activity of the remaining thorium after 50 days.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
In the decay of a Th-227 nucleus, a -ray photon is also emitted.
(d) (i) Use the following data to deduce that the energy of the -ray photon is 0.667 MeV.
mass of Th-227 nucleus = 227.0278 u
mass of Ra-223 nucleus = 223.0186 u
mass of helium nucleus = 4.0026 u
energy of -particle emitted = 5.481 MeV
2
unified atomic mass unit (u) = 931.5 MeVc
You may assume that the Th-227 nucleus is stationary before decay and that the Ra-223 nucleus has
negligible kinetic energy.
(3)
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

(ii) Calculate the frequency of the -ray photon.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

Although in the decay of a Th-227 nucleus, an -particle and a -ray photon are emitted, they may have different
energies to those in (d)(i). However, all the -particles emitted in the decay of Th-227 have discrete energies as do
the associated -ray photons. This provides evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels. The diagram
below represents some of the energy levels of a nucleus of Ra-223 relative to Th-227.
Th227

e n e rg y

e n e rg y le v e ls o f R a 2 2 3

(e) On the diagram above label

(i) the arrows associated with -particles (with the letter A).
(1)
 (ii) the arrows associated with -ray photons (with the letter G).
(1)

(iii) the ground state energy level of Ra-223 (with the letter R).
(1)

(f) Use data from (d), to suggest a value for the energy difference between the ground states of a nucleus of
Th-227 and the ground state of a nucleus of Ra-223.
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 16 marks)
62. Which one of the following best shows the variation with kinetic energy E of the de Broglie wavelength
associated with a particle?
A . B .

E E

C . D .

E E
(1)

63. The decay constant in radioactive decay is defined as

A. the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.
B. the probability of decay of a nucleus.

ln 2
C. the constant where T 1 is the half-life.
T 1 2
2
t
D. the constant in the radioactive decay equation N = N0e .
(1)

64. The spectrum of energy of -particles emitted in radioactive decay is explained on the basis of
A. the emission of neutrinos during the decay process.
B. the emission of antineutrinos during the decay process.
C. the absorption of neutrinos during the decay process.
D. the absorption of antineutrinos during the decay process.
(1)
65. This question is about the photoelectric effect.
The following are two observations relating to the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of
different frequencies and different intensities is incident on the surface.
I. There exists a frequency of light (the threshold frequency) below which no electrons are emitted whatever
the intensity of the light.
II. For light above the threshold frequency, the emission of the electrons is instantaneous whatever the
intensity of the light.
Explain why the wave model of light is unable to account for these observations.
Observation I ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
 ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Observation II ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
(Total 6 marks)
66. This question is about radioactive decay.
A nucleus of the isotope xenon, Xe-131, is produced when a nucleus of the radioactive isotope iodine I-13 decays.
(a) Explain the term isotopes.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Fill in the boxes below in order to complete the nuclear reaction equation for this decay.
131 131
I X e + +
54
(2)
5
The activity A of a freshly prepared sample of the iodine isotope is 6.4 10 Bq and its half-life is 8.0 days.
(c) Using the axes, draw a graph to illustrate the decay of this sample.
A / B q

6 .4 1 0 5

0
0 5 .0 10 15 20 25
tim e / d a y s
(3)

(d) Determine the decay constant of the isotope I-131

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
The sample is to be used to treat a growth in the thyroid of a patient. The isotope should not be used until its
5
activity is equal to 0.5 10 Bq.
(e) Calculate the time it takes for the activity of a freshly prepared sample to be reduced to an activity of 0.5
5
10 Bq
 .....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 11 marks)

67. This question is about the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom and the extension of the model to include singly
ionized helium.
In his theory of the hydrogen atom, Bohr refers to stable electron orbits.
(a) State the Bohr postulate that determines which stable orbits are allowed.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Describe how the existence of such orbits accounts for the emission line spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom can be extended to singly ionized helium atoms. The model leads to the
following expression for the energy En of the electron in an orbit specified by the integer n.
k
En = 2
n
where k is a constant.
In the spectrum of singly ionized helium, the line corresponding to a wavelength of 362 nm arises from electron
transitions between the orbit n = 3 to the orbit n = 2.

(c) Deduce the value of the ionization energy of singly ionized helium atoms.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(d) Outline how the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom leads to the idea of discrete electron energy
levels.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)
68. This question is about fundamental particles and conservation laws.
Nucleons are considered to be made of quarks.
(a) State the name of
(i) the force (interaction) between quarks;
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) the particle that gives rise to the force between quarks.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

+
(b) Outline in terms of conservations laws, why the interaction v + p = n + e is observed but the interaction v
+
+ p = n + e has never been observed. (You may assume that mass-energy and momentum are conserved in
both interactions.)
(3)
(Total 5 marks)
 where k is a constant.
In the spectrum of singly ionized helium, the line corresponding to a wavelength of 362 nm arises from electron
transitions between the orbit n = 3 to the orbit n = 2.

(c) Deduce the value of the ionization energy of singly ionized helium atoms.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(4)

(d) Outline how the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom leads to the idea of discrete electron energy
levels.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

69. Which of the following phenomena provides evidence for de Broglies hypothesis?
A. Electron diffraction
B. X-ray production
C. Line spectra
D. Nuclear energy levels
(1)

(2)
(Total 10 marks)

70. The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom predicts

A. the line spectra of multi-electron atoms.
B. the wavelengths of the principal lines in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
C. the wavelengths in the spectrum of molecular hydrogen.
D. the relative intensities of the spectral lines of atomic hydrogen.
(1)
71. Which of the following graphs best shows how photon energy E varies with the wavelength of the light?
A . E B. E

0 0
0 0

C. E D . E

0 0
0 0
(1)

72. Which of the following graphs shows the variation with mass m of the activity of a sample of a radioactive
material?
 A . a c tiv ity B. a c tiv ity

m m

C. a c tiv ity D . a c tiv ity

m m
(1)
73. Which of the following correctly describes the nature of the energy spectra of alpha (), beta () and gamma ()
radiation?

A. discrete continuous discrete
B. continuous discrete discrete
C. discrete discrete continuous
D. continuous continuous discrete
(1)

74. This question is about the photoelectric effect.

(a) State three pieces of evidence provided by the photoelectric effect that support the particle nature of
electromagnetic radiation.
1. ................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. ................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3. ................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
(3)
The graph below shows the variation with frequency f of the stopping potential VS for photoelectrons emitted
from a metal surface.
Vs / V 2 .0

1 .5

1 .0

0 .5

0 .0
0 .9 1 .0 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4 1 .5
15
f / 1 0 H z

The photoelectric equation may be written in the form of the word equation
photon energy = work function + maximum kinetic energy of electron.
 (b) (i) State this equation in terms of f and VS, explaining all other symbols you use.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
h
(ii) Use your equation to deduce that the gradient of the graph is .
e
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

34
(iii) Given that the Planck constant is 6.6 10 J s, calculate a value for the work function of the
surface.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

75. This question is about collisions and radioactive decay.

(a) (i) Define linear momentum and impulse.
Linear momentum: ..........................................................................................
..........................................................................................
Impulse: ..........................................................................................
..........................................................................................
(2)

(ii) State the law of conservation of momentum.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii) Using your definitions in (a)(i), deduce that linear momentum is constant for an object in
equilibrium.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

A stationary radon-220 ( 220

86 Rn ) nucleus undergoes -decay to form a nucleus of polonium (Po). The -particle
has kinetic energy of 6.29 MeV.
(b) (i) Complete the nuclear equation for this decay.
220
86 Rn Po +
(2)

(ii) Calculate the kinetic energy, in joules, of the -particle.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

7 1
(iii) Deduce that the speed of the -particle is 1.74 10 m s .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)

The diagram below shows the -particle and the polonium nucleus immediately after the decay. The direction of
the velocity of the -particle is indicated.
 -p a rtic le
p o lo n iu m n u c le u s

(c) (i) On the diagram above, draw an arrow to show the initial direction of motion of the polonium nucleus
immediately after the decay.
(1)

(ii) Determine the speed of the polonium nucleus immediately after the decay.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

(iii) In the decay of another radon nucleus, the nucleus is moving before the decay. Without any further
calculation, suggest the effect, if any, of this initial speed on the paths shown in (c)(i).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

The half-life of the decay of radon-222 is 3.8 days and radon-220 has a half-life of 55 s.
(d) (i) Suggest three ways in which nuclei of radon-222 differ from those of radon-220.
1. .................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2. .................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3. .................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) Define half-life.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) State the expression that relates the activity At at time t of a sample of a radioactive material to its
initial activity A0 at time t = 0 and to the decay constant . Use this expression to derive the
T
relationship between the decay constant and the half-life 1 .
2
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)

3
(iv) Radon-222 emits -particles. The activity of radon gas in a sample of 1.0 m of air is 4.6 Bq. Given
3 25
that 1.0 m of the air contains 2.6 10 molecules, determine the ratio
number of radon - 222 atoms in 1.0 m 3 of air
number of molecules in 1.0 m 3 of air
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(e) Suggest whether radon-222 or radon-220 presents the greater hazard to people over a long period of time.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 30 marks)
76. This question is about models of the hydrogen atom.
In 1913 Niels Bohr developed a model of the hydrogen atom which successfully explained many aspects of the
spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
(a) State one aspect of the spectrum of atomic hydrogen that Bohrs model did not explain.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)

Bohr proposed that the electron could have only certain stable orbits. These orbits are specified by the relation
nh
mvr = with n = 1, 2, 3..........
2
where m is the mass of the electron, v its speed, r the radius of the orbit and h the Planck constant. This is
sometimes known as Bohrs first postulate.
(b) State the other postulate proposed by Bohr.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
By using Newtons second law and the Coulomb law in combination with the first postulate, it can be shown that
n2h2
r=
4 2 mke 2
1
where k = .
4 0
It can also be shown that the total energy En of the electron in a stable orbit is given by
ke 2
En = .
2r

(c) Using these two expressions, deduce that the total energy En may be given as
K
En = 2
n
where K is a constant.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) State and explain what physical quantity is represented by the constant K.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e) Outline how the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom leads to the concept of energy levels.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)

77. This question is about the decay of a neutron.

The diagram below illustrates a neutron decaying into a proton by emitting a -particle.
 p ro to n p a rtic le X
-p a rtic le

p a rtic le Y

n e u tro n

State the name of

(a) the force involved in this decay;
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) the particle X;
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(c) the exchange particle Y involved in the decay.
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 3 marks)

78. When the isotope aluminium-27 is bombarded with alpha particles, the following nuclear reaction can take place
4 27
2 He 13 Al X neutron.
Which one of the following correctly gives the atomic (proton) number and mass (nucleon) number of the
nucleus X?
Proton number Nucleon number
A. 15 30
B. 16 31
C. 30 15
D. 31 16
(1)

79. A certain metal surface has a photoelectric threshold frequency f0. The Planck constant is h and the electron
charge is e.
For the values of f0, h and e given in SI units, which one of the following is the correct expression for the
photoelectric work function of the metal surface measured in electron volts?
A. hf0
B. hf0e
hf 0
C.
e
h
D.
f0
(1)
80. An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference V. Which one of the following best shows the
variation of the de Broglie wavelength of the electron with potential difference V?
 A . B.

0 0
0 V 0 V

C. D .

0 0
0 V 0 V
(1)

81. Which one of the following provides evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels?
A. The photoelectric effect
B. Characteristic X-ray spectra
C. Matter waves
D. Alpha particle scattering
(1)
82. The diagram below shows some possible electron transitions between three principal energy levels in the
hydrogen atom. Which electron transition is associated with the absorption of a photon of the longest wavelength?
0 eV
B D
1 .2 e V

A C

1 3 .6 e V
(1)

83. 40

A nucleus of the isotope potassium-40 19 K decays to form a nucleus argon-40 40
18 Ar Which one of the
following correctly identifies the other two particles resulting from this decay?
A. and v

B. and v
C. + and v
+
D. and v
(1)
84. The following is a nuclear reaction equation.
 1 7
1 H 3 Li 2X.
X is
A. an alpha particle.
B. a neutron.
C. a proton.
D. an electron.
(1)

85. This question is about radioactive decay.

The decay process of a neutron is given by the following equation.
n p e ve
(a) Complete the table below.
ve
particle n p e
baryon number

lepton number
(2)
(b) Baryon number and lepton number are both conserved in this decay process. State one other property that
is conserved.
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 3 marks)
86. Light incident on a clean metal surface produces photoelectrons. The threshold frequency of the light is
determined by
A. the intensity of the incident light.
B. the wavelength of the incident light.
C. the nature of the metal surface.
D. the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
(1)

87. An electron of mass me and a proton of mass mp are moving with the same speed. The de Broglie wavelengths
associated with the electron and with the proton are e and p respectively.
p
The ratio is equal to
e
mp
A. .
me
me
B. .
mp
mp
C. .
me
me
D. .
mp
(1)
88. The diagram below shows three energy levels of a certain atom.
0
T
5 .0 e V
S

1 5 .0 e V
The photon associated with the energy change T has frequency fT and the photon associated with the energy
change S has frequency fS
fS
The ratio is
fT
 1
A. .
3
1
B. .
2
C. 2.
D. 3.
(1)

89. The decay constant of two nuclei is . One nucleus decays within a time interval of one second. The probability
of decay of the other nucleus in the same time interval is
A. 0.

B. .
2
C. .
D. 2.
(1)
90. The quantum nature of radiation.
A metal is placed in a vacuum and light of frequency f is incident on its surface. As a result, electrons are emitted
from the surface. The graph below shows the variation with frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy EK of the
emitted electrons.
5 .0 0

4 .0 0

E K / eV 3 .0 0

2 .0 0

1 .0 0

0
0 0 .5 0 1 .0 0 1 .5 0 2 .0 0 2 .5 0
f / 1 0 15 H z
(a) The graph shows that there is a threshold frequency of the incident light below which no electrons are
emitted from the surface. With reference to the Planck constant and the photoelectric work function,
explain how Einsteins photoelectric theory accounts for this threshold frequency.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) Use the graph opposite to determine the

(i) threshold frequency;
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Planck constant;
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(4)

(iii) work function of the metal.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
 X-rays
(c) Electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 25 kV. After acceleration the electrons
strike a metal target and X-ray photons are emitted from the target.
Deduce
8 1
(i) that the speed of the electrons just before striking the target is of the order of 10 m s ;
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
11
(ii) that the minimum wavelength of the emitted photons is about 5 10 m.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)

(d) On the axes below, draw a sketch graph of a typical X-ray spectrum produced by electrons bombarding a
metal target. (Note: this is a sketch graph, you do not need to add any values to the axes.)
X -ra y in te n s ity

0
0 w a v e le n g th
(3)
(Total 18 marks)
91. This question is about a model of the atom.
Niels Bohr developed a model of the hydrogen atom in which an electron of mass m and charge e orbits a
stationary proton. The radius of the orbit is r, as shown below.
n o t to s c a le
v

p ro to n (+ e ) e le c tro n ( e )

The speed v of the electron may be shown to be given by the expression

e2
v2 .
4 0 rm
(a) Identify the symbol 0 in the above equation.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) (i) State Bohrs assumption relating to angular momentum.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
 (ii) Use this assumption to deduce that the radius r is given by
0h2
r n2
me 2

where n is a positive integer.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Use the expression in (b) (ii) to calculate, for n = 1, a numerical value for r. Comment on your answer.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) State one reason why the Bohr model can be applied successfully only to the hydrogen-like atom.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 10 marks)
92. Which one of the following best shows a possible path of an -particle as it is deflected by a stationary gold
nucleus?
A . B .

C. D .

(1)
93. A sample of a radioactive isotope of half-life T 12 initially contains N atoms. Which one of the following gives the
number of atoms of this isotope that have decayed after a time 3T 12 ?
1
A. N
8
1
B. N
3
2
C. N
3
7
D. N
8
 (1)

94. In an experiment to investigate the photoelectric effect, monochromatic light is incident on a metal surface. The
photoelectric current and the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons are measured.
Which one of the following correctly shows the change, if any, in the photoelectric current and in the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons when light of the same intensity but higher frequency is incident on the same
metal surface?
Photoelectric current Maximum kinetic energy
A. decreases no change
B. decreases increases
C. no change decreases
D. no change increases
(1)
1
95. The decay constant of a radioactive isotope is 0.02 s . Which one of the following statements about this isotope
is true?
1
A. The half-life of the isotope is s.
0.02
B. In 1 s, 0.02 nuclei will decay.
C. A nucleus decays in every 0.02 s.
D. The probability that a nucleus will decay in 1 s is 0.02.
(1)
96. The diagram below shows four energy levels in an atom, together with some possible electron transitions.
E4

E 3

E 2

E1
Which one of the following best represents the emission line spectrum produced from these transitions?
 in c re a s in g w a v e le n g th

A .

B .

C .

D .

(1)
97. The process represented by He He He 2 H would be described as
3
2
3
2
4
2
1
1
A. alpha decay.
B. nuclear fission.
C. nuclear fusion.
D. scattering of helium by helium.
(1)

98. This question is about radioactive decay.

(a) Define the term decay constant.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) The isotope potassium-40 undergoes beta decay to form the isotope calcium-40.
State the name of the
(i) interaction responsible for this decay process;
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) exchange particle associated with the interaction in (i).
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(c) The mass of potassium-40 and the mass of calcium-40 in a sample of some rocks is measured. The
following data are available:
mass of potassium-40 = 5.0 mg
mass of calcium-40 = 24 mg
10 1
decay constant of potassium-40 = 5.3 10 year
When the rocks were created they contained no calcium-40 but did contain potassium-40. By determining
the time that has elapsed since there was only potassium-40 in the sample, calculate the age of the rocks.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 7 marks)
99. The diagram below shows the three lowest energy levels of an atom of an element.
 e n e rg y

n 3
n 2

n 1
Which of the following diagrams best represents the emission spectrum that results from electron transitions
between these energy levels?
A . B.

in c re a s in g w a v e le n g th in c re a s in g w a v e le n g th

C. D .

in c re a s in g w a v e le n g th in c re a s in g w a v e le n g th
(1)

100. According to the de Broglie hypothesis, matter waves are associated with
A. electrons only.
B. charged particles only.
C. neutral particles only.
D. all particles.
(1)

101. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of five minutes. A particular nucleus of this isotope has not decayed within a
time interval of five minutes. A correct statement about the next five minute interval is that this nucleus
A. has a lower than 50 chance of decaying.
B. will certainly decay.
C. has a 50 chance of decaying.
D. has a better than 50 chance of decaying.
(1)

102. A correct statement about nuclei is that most have approximately the same
A. radius.
B. density.
C. binding energy.
D. neutron to proton ratio.
(1)

103. This question is about the spectrum of atomic hydrogen and Bohr theory.
In 1890 Johannes Rydberg discovered an empirical formula that enabled the wavelengths of the light in the
atomic line spectrum of hydrogen to be calculated. The formula is
1 1 1
RH 2 2
n m
 where is the wavelength, n and m are integers and RH is the Rydberg constant.
In 1913 Niels Bohr published his theory of the hydrogen atom. This theory enabled the Rydberg formula to be
derived. His theory also showed that the energy levels En of the hydrogen atom are given by the formula
2.2 10 18
En
n2
where En is measured in joules.
(a) Explain the significance, based on Bohrs theory, of the integers n and m in the above formulae.

...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Using the formulae in (a)

(i) estimate the wavelength of the spectral line that has the lowest value of wavelength in the atomic
hydrogen line spectrum;
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) determine a value for the Rydberg constant.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)

104. This question is about the de Broglie hypothesis and the uncertainty principle.
According to the de Broglie hypothesis, all particles have an associated wavelength that is related to the
momentum of the particle.
By considering a particle that has a precisely defined wavelength, describe how the de Broglie hypothesis relates
to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)

105. This question is about fundamental particles.

Particle production and annihilation are subject to conservation laws. Two of these laws are conservation of mass-
energy and conservation of momentum.
(a) State the names of three other conservation laws.
1. .........................................................................................................................
2. .........................................................................................................................
3. .........................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) Free neutrons are unstable. A neutron may decay to become a proton with the emission of an electron. A
student represents the decay by the following equation.
1 1 0
0 n 1 p 1 e
 (i) State, by reference to conservation laws, why the students equation is not correct.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Write down the correct decay equation.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 5 marks)
106. Light of wavelength is incident on a metal surface in a vacuum. Photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of
the metal.
Which of the following best shows the variation with of the maximum kinetic energy EK of the emitted
electrons?

A . B.

E K E K

0 0
0 0

C . D .
E K E K

0 0
0 0

(1)
1
107. The de Broglie wavelength associated with a car moving with a speed of 20 m s is of the order of
38
A. 10 m.
4
B. 10 m.
4
C. 10 m.
38
D. 10 m.
(1)

+
108. A nucleus of potassium-40 undergoes decay to an excited state of a nucleus of argon-39. The argon-39 then
+
reaches its ground state by the emission of a -ray photon. The diagram represents the and energy level
diagram for this decay process.
 g ro u n d s ta te e n e rg y
+ le v e l o f p o ta s s iu m 4 0

X
e x c ite d e n e rg y le v e l
o f a rg o n 3 9

g ro u n d s ta te e n e rg y
le v e l o f a rg o n 3 9
The particle represented by the letter X is
A. an antineutrino.
B. a neutrino.
C. an electron.
D. a photon.
(1)
109. This question is about calculating the distance of closest approach of an -particle to a nucleus.
An -particle approaches a nucleus of palladium. The initial kinetic energy of the -particle is 3.8 MeV. The
particle is brought to rest at point P, a distance d from the centre of the palladium nucleus. It then moves back
along the path from which it came as shown in the diagram below.
p a lla d iu m n u c le u s

-p a rtic le P

d
(a) Calculate the value, in joules, of the electric potential energy of the -particle at point P. Explain your
working.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) The atomic (proton) number of palladium is 46. Calculate the distance d.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Gold has an atomic (proton) number of 79.

Explain whether the distance of closest approach of this -particle to a gold nucleus would be greater or
smaller than your answer in (b).
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d) The radius R of a nucleus of mass (nucleon) number A is given by
1
15
R 1.2 10 A3 m.
(i) State in terms of the unified atomic mass unit u, the approximate mass of a nucleus of mass number
A.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
4R 3
(ii) The volume of a sphere of radius R is given by V . Deduce that the density of all nuclei is
3
17 3
approximately 2 10 kg m .
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
 (1)
(Total 8 marks)
110. This question is about the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
A beam of electrons is incident normally to the plane of a narrow slit as shown below.
s lit

b e a m o f e le c tro n s x

The slit has width x equal to 0.01 mm.

As an electron passes through the slit, there is an uncertainty x in its position.
(a) Calculate the minimum uncertainty p in the momentum of the electron.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Suggest, by reference to the original direction of the electron beam, the direction of the component of the
momentum that has the uncertainty p.
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 3 marks)
111. This question is about X-ray spectra.
The diagram shows the X-ray spectrum produced when electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of 25 kV and are then incident on a metal target.

in te n s ity

0
0 fre q u e n c y

(a) Calculate the minimum X-ray wavelength.

...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) The electrons are now accelerated through a potential difference of 50 kV. On the diagram above draw the
new X-ray spectrum.
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
112. This question is about atomic line spectra.
(a) Explain how the wavelengths of an atomic line spectrum relate to atomic energy levels.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) The wavelengths in the line spectrum of atomic hydrogen are 656 nm and 486 nm.
(i) A photon of wavelength 656 nm has an energy of 1.88 eV.
Deduce that a photon of wavelength 486 nm has an energy of 2.54 eV.
 .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) The diagram below shows some of the energy levels of atomic hydrogen.
0 .5 1 e V
0 .8 5 e V
1 .5 1 e V

e n e rg y
3 .4 0 e V

1 3 .4 e V
On the diagram above, draw arrows to represent the electron transitions that produce these two
wavelengths.
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

113. This question is about radioactivity.

(a) The nuclear decay equation for the radioactive isotope carbon-14 is shown below.
14
6 C 147 N 0
1 eX
State the name of
(i) particle X;
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
0
(ii) the class of fundamental particle to which e belongs. 1
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Wood in a living tree contains the isotope carbon-14. When the tree dies the amount of carbon-14 in the
wood from the tree decreases.
4
(i) The half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 year. Deduce that the decay constant of carbon-14 is 1.2 10
1
year .
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)

(ii) The activity of carbon-14 in 1.0 g of living wood is 0.24 Bq. The activity of an ancient bowl made
from the same type of wood is 0.075 Bq per gram.
Determine the age of the bowl.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) Outline how the half-life of carbon-14 may be determined experimentally.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
 ...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 9 marks)

114. The rest-mass of a nucleus of lithium-7 73 Li is mL. The rest-mass of a proton is mP and the rest-mass of a
neutron is mN. The speed of light in free space is c.
Which of the following is a correct expression for the binding energy of a lithium-7 nucleus?
2
A. (3mP + 4mN mL)c
2
B. (3mP + 4mN + mL)c
C. (4mP + 3mN mL)c2
2
D. (3mP + 7mN mL)c
(1)
115. Light is incident on two different metal surfaces L and H. The metals are in a vacuum. The surface L has a lower
work function energy than surface H.
Which of the following graphs best shows the variation with frequency f of the maximum kinetic energy EMAX of
photo-electrons emitted from both surfaces.
A . B.
E M A X H L E M A X L H

0 0
f f

C . D .
E M A X L H E M A X H L

0 0
f f
(1)

116. The masses of nuclei in a sample of uranium are determined using a mass spectrometer. Measurements suggest
that some nuclei in the sample have double the mass of others.
Which of the following is the most likely explanation for this observation?
A. Uranium nuclei are decaying radioactively.
B. Several uranium isotopes are present.
C. The uranium ions have different speeds.
D. The uranium ions have different charges.
(1)
117. The probability of decay in one second of a radioactive nucleus is . During a particular one-second interval, a
nucleus does not decay.
What is the probability of decay of this nucleus during the next one-second interval?
1
A.

B.
 C. 2
2
D.
(1)

118. The decay constant of a nuclide with a long half-life may be determined using the equation
activity = number of nuclei present.
Which of the following is the best explanation as to why this equation may be used?
A. The decay constant is very large.
B. The number of nuclei in a sample decreases rapidly.
C. The activity of the sample decreases slowly.
D. The sample contains a large number of nuclei.
(1)
119. A freshly prepared sample of a radioactive isotope contains N0 atoms. The decay constant of the isotope is . The
initial activity of the sample is
N0
A. .

N 0 ln 2
B. .

C. N0.

D. N0e .
(1)

120. A nucleus of sodium 22

11 Na undergoes beta-plus
decay into a nucleus of neon (Ne). Which of the
following is the correct nuclear reaction for this decay?
22 22 0 0
A. 11 Na 12 Ne 1 e 0 v
22 22 0 0
B. 11 Na 10 Ne 1 e 0v
22 22 0 0
C. 11 Na 10 Ne 1 e 0v
22 22 0 0
D. 11 Na 12 Ne 1 e 0v
(1)
2
121. The graph below shows the variation with distance r from the nucleus of the square of the wave function, , of
a hydrogen atom according to the Schrdinger theory.
2

0 a
0 r
It may be deduced that the distance of the electron from the nucleus
A. is most likely to be near a.
B. is always a.
C. is always less than a.
D. is always greater than a.
(1)

122. A proton and an alpha particle have the same de Broglie wavelength.
speed of proton
The ratio is
speed of alpha particle
1
A. .
4
 1
B. .
2
C. 2.
D. 4.
(1)
123. Photons of wavelength are incident on a clean metallic surface in a vacuum. The number of photons incident on
the surface per second is N. It is observed that no electrons are emitted from the surface.
Which of the following changes could result in electrons being emitted from the surface?
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Increase N
D. Decrease N
(1)

124. One possible fission reaction can be represented by the equation

236 135 98 1
92 U 52Te 40 Zr 3 0 n.
EU, ETe and EZr are the binding energies of uranium, tellurium and zirconium respectively. Binding energy is
defined as a positive quantity. It may be deduced that
A. EU = ETe + EZr.
B. EU ETe + EZr.
C. EU ETe + EZr.
D. EU = ETe EZr.
(1)
125. What is the description given to the ranges of the repulsive force and of the attractive force between protons in a
nucleus?
repulsive force attractive force
A. short range long range
B. short range short range
C. long range long range
D. long range short range
(1)

126. In an experiment to demonstrate the photoelectric effect, light of intensity L and frequency f is incident on a metal
surface. The maximum photoelectric current is I and the stopping potential is VS.
What change if any occurs in the maximum photoelectric current and in the stopping potential when light of the
same intensity L but of frequency 2f is incident on the surface?
maximum photoelectric stopping potential
current
A. I greater than 2VS
B. less than I greater than 2VS
C. I less than 2VS
D. less than I less than 2VS
(1)

127. The diameter of a nucleus may be estimated from

A. determinations of half-life.
B. gamma-ray spectra.
C. charged particle scattering experiments.
D. fusion and fission reactions.
(1)
128. The ratio of mass-to-charge was measured for a sample of a pure element in a mass spectrometer.
The values obtained were
m m m m
17.5 18.5 35.0 37.0
q q q q
m
where is the mass-to-charge ratio for a hydrogen ( 11 H ) nucleus. The data suggest that two isotopes are present
q
with masses
A. 17.5u and 18.5u.
B. 17.5u and 37.0u.
 C. 18.5u and 5.0u.
D. 35.0u and 37.0u.
(1)

3
129. The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is 110 s.
What is the probability of decay per second of a nucleus of the nuclide, quoted to one significant digit?
4
A. 710
3
B. 110
3
C. 110
3
D. 710
(1)
130. This question is about photoelectric effect.
In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from a metal surface when light of a suitable frequency is
incident on the surface. The diagram below shows an arrangement for investigating some aspects of the
photoelectric effect.
lig h t

P Q
e v a c u a te d q u a rtz tu b e

A
A

v a ria b le d c s u p p ly
P and Q are metal plates. Monochromatic light of frequency f is incident on plate P.
In the situation shown, the microammeter (A) registers a current. The intensity of the light is kept constant
throughout the experiment.

(a) As the potential difference between P and Q is increased, the current in the circuit decreases until it is zero.
State and explain the polarity of the metal plate Q.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(4)
(b) The potential difference in the circuit is increased until the current in the circuit just becomes zero. The
potential difference is then kept constant. The frequency f of the light is increased to a new value and the
intensity is kept constant. The microammeter again registers a current. Outline how Einsteins theory of the
photoelectric effect accounts for this observation.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)

(c) Explain why in (b) as f is increased at constant intensity, the current registered by the microammeter
decreases.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
 (2)

15
(d) At a frequency f of 3.010 Hz, the potential difference between P and Q at which the current just
becomes zero is 8.0 V. The work function of the metal surface of P is 4.4 eV.
Determine a value for the Planck constant.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 12 marks)
131. This question is about models of the hydrogen atom.
(a) The Bohr model provides a partially successful explanation of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. The
model predicts that the energy, E, of the electron in the hydrogen atom is given by
2.18 10 18
E=
n2
where n is an integer and E is in joules.

(i) By reference to this equation, describe how the Bohr model accounts for the line spectrum of the
hydrogen atom.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)

(ii) Calculate the shortest wavelength of light in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)

(iii) State one characteristic of the spectrum of atomic hydrogen which cannot be accounted for by the
Bohr model.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Outline by reference to position and momentum how the Schrdinger model of the hydrogen atom is
consistent with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)

132. Which of the following provides evidence for de Broglies hypothesis concerning matter waves?
A. Electron diffraction
B. Atomic energy levels
C. Nuclear energy levels
D. The photoelectric effect
(1)

133. Which of the following correctly identifies the mass and momentum of a photon?
Mass Momentum
A. zero zero
B. zero non-zero
C. non-zero zero
D. non-zero non-zero
(1)
134. Light of wavelength is incident on a metal surface in a vacuum. Photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of
the metal.
 Which of the following best shows the variation with of the maximum kinetic energy EK of the emitted
electrons?

(1)

135. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of five minutes. A particular nucleus of this isotope has not decayed within a
time interval of five minutes. A correct statement about the next five minute interval is that this nucleus
A. has a lower than 50 chance of decaying.
B. will certainly decay.
C. has a 50 chance of decaying.
D. has a better than 50 chance of decaying.
(1)
136. A beam of electrons of uniquely defined wavelength is incident on an aperture of height d. The beam is
traveling along the x direction. The height d is of the same order as .

After passing through the aperture, the component of momentum in the x direction is px and the component in z
the direction is pz. Which of the following shows the uncertainty in px and the uncertainty in pz?
px pz
A. 0 0
h
B. 0
4d
h
C. 0
4d
h h
D.
4d 4d
(1)
137. A free electron is confined within a one dimensional region of fixed length. Which of the diagrams below shows
the four lowest energy levels of the electron?
 (1)

138. Which of the following correctly describes the nature of the energy spectra of alpha (), beta (), and gamma ()
radiation?

A. discrete continuous discrete
B. continuous discrete discrete
C. discrete discrete continuous
D. continuous continuous discrete
(1)
139. This question is about fundamental interactions.

(a) The Feynman diagram below represents a decay via the weak interaction process.

The exchange particle in this weak interaction is a virtual particle.

(i) State what is meant by a virtual particle.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
+
(ii) Detemine whether the virtual particle in the process represented by the Feynman diagram is a W , a
0
W or a Z boson.
.........................................................................................................................
(2)

0 2
(b) The order of magnitude of the mass of the W and Z bosons is 100 GeV c . Estimate the range of the
weak interaction.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 6 marks)

140. This question is about a proton.

The proton particle is made out of three quarks.
(a) Explain why the three quarks in the proton do not violate the Pauli exclusion principle.
...................................................................................................................................
 (2)

(b) Quarks have spin 12 . Explain how it is possible for the proton to also have spin 12 .
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 4 marks)

141. This question is about the synchrotron and particle production.

(a) In a synchrotron ring, a beam of protons and another beam of antiprotons move in opposite directions
through regions of electric and magnetic fields as they circle the ring.
Describe the purpose of the
(i) electric fields.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) magnetic fields.
.........................................................................................................................
(1)

(b) Explain why the magnitudes of the magnetic fields in a synchrotron must be increased as the energy of the
accelerated particles increases.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) The neutral lambda baryon and its antiparticle may be produced in proton-antiproton collisions
according to the following reaction.
p p
The minimum energy required to produce the and the is 2240 MeV. The rest mass of the proton is
2
938 MeV c .
Calculate the minimum kinetic energy, EK, of the antiproton, in order to produce the and particles
when
(i) the proton and the antiproton are each accelerated to a kinetic energy EK;
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) the antiproton is accelerated to a kinetic energy EK and collides with a stationary proton.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)

(d) By reference to your answers to (c), state an advantage of collisions between protons and antiprotons in a
synchrotron compared with collisions between stationary protons and moving antiprotons.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 10 marks)
142. (a) Outline
(i) what is meant by a deep inelastic scattering experiment.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) how deep inelastic scattering experiments give evidence in support of the existence of quarks and
gluons.
quarks: .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
gluons: .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
(4)
 (b) Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicate that the quarks inside hadrons behave as free particles.
Suggest a reason for this.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)

(c) State two fundamental differences between the standard model for quarks and leptons and the theory of
strings.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)
MARKS
1. (a)
2 .0

1 .5

19
K E m ax / 10 J 1 .0

0 .5

0 .0
4 .0 4 .5 5 .0 5 .5 6 .0 6 .5 7 .0 7 .5 8 .0
14
f / 10 H z
sensible trend line 1 max

(b) (i) recognize that h = slope of the graph;

1.8 10 19 34
= 14
= 6.9 (0.3) 10 J s; 2 max
2.6 10

14
(ii) frequency intercept = 4.8 10 Hz;
therefore minimum energy = hf;
14 34 19
= 4.8 (0.2) 10 6.9 (0.3) 10 = 3.3 (0.5) 10 J; 3 max
If the candidate uses a data booklet value (6.6) and not their graph value, then
award [2 max].

(c) A good answer should mention the following main points.

light consists of photons;
if the photon energy is less than the work function an electron will not be ejected;
work function
since each photon has energy hf if f is less than then an
h
electron will not be ejected; 3 max
The candidate might use numerical values for work function and frequency which
of course is consistent with the question and therefore acceptable.
[9]

2. (a) that all particles can behave as waves / OWTTE;

h
their wavelength given by =
p
where h Plancks constant and p is the momentum of the particle; 2 max
ie [1] for the idea of matter waves, [1] mark for the mathematical statement and
the definition of the terms.

h p2
(b) combine = and Ek = ;
p 2m
 2 h2
to get = ;
2mE k
19
Ek = 75.0 1.6 10 J;
10
correct substitution to get = 1.4 10 m; 4 max
Allow [3] for calculating the velocity and then the momentum and [1] for final
correct value.

(c) the wavelength of the electrons can be determined from the positions of
max and min;
the wavelength can be calculated from de Broglie;
this value of this wavelength is in agreement with the value determined
from the experiment / OWTTE; 3 max
Alternatively:
The max and min suggest interference between wave [1]. The interference is
consistent with the wavelength determined by the de Broglie hypothesis [2]. ie
Look for the tie-up between theory and experiment.
[9]

hc
3. (a) E= ;

19
to give E = 3.0 10 J;
(3.0 10 19 )
= eV = 1.9 eV; 3 max
(1.6 10 19 )
The answer must show how the value in eV is calculated in order to receive [3].

(b)
0
0 .5 4
0 .8 5
1 .5
R B B

3 .4

E n e rg y / e V

1 3 .6
(i) correct placement of R as shown; 1 max
(ii) any one of the Bs shown; 1 max
[5]

4. (a) positron (+, positive electron);

neutrino; 2 max
Award [1] for electron and antineutrino.

1 dN
(b) = ;
N dt
dN 16 1
= 0.27 s ;
dt 60
17 1
substitution gives = 1.8 10 s ; 3 max
 16
(c) 4 10 s; 1 max
[6]
5. (a) aspect:
electrons will not be emitted unless the frequency of light exceeds a
certain minimum value / electrons are emitted almost instantaneously
with the light falling on the surface even if light is of very low intensity /
the energy of the electrons emitted is not affected by the intensity of light
falling on the surface; 1
corresponding explanation:
light consists of photons whose energy is hf hence no electrons are emitted
unless hf is larger than the energy needed to escape the metal / an electron is
emitted as soon as it absorbs a photon. If the photon has sufficient energy
no delay is required / the intensity of light plays no role in the energy of the
electron only the frequency of light does; 1

(b) (i) the threshold frequency is found from the frequency axis intercept;
14
to be 3.8(0.2) 10 Hz; 2

(ii) a value of the Planck constant is obtained from the slope;

34
to be 6.5(0.2) 10 J s; 2
34
Award [0] for bald answer of 6.63 10 J s.

(iii) the work function of the surface is found from the intercept with the
vertical axis; to be 1.5(0.1) eV; 2

(c) straight-line parallel to the first;

14
intersecting the frequency axis at 8.0 10 Hz; 2
[10]

6. (a) (i) muon lepton number / electron lepton number; 1

(ii) Baryon number; 1
(iii) Baryon number / electric charge; 1

(b) there are eight gluons involved in the strong interaction; 1

Accept just the name gluons or just mesons.
[4]

v2
7. (a) qvB = m ;
r
mv
hence r = ; 2
Bq

m16.5 v
16.5 Bq m
(b) 16.5 ;
15 m15 v m15
Bq
16.5 m16.5
hence m16.5 = 22u; 2
15 20

(c) atoms on 15 cm path: 10 protons and 10 neutrons;

atoms on 16.5 cm path: 10 protons and 12 neutrons; 2
[6]

8. (a) (i) no change in photon energy; no change in microammeter reading; 2

Allow bald answer but award [0] if reasoning is fallacious.
(ii) photons / photo-electrons have more energy; so reading of
microammeter increases; 2
Allow bald answer but award [0] if reasoning is fallacious.
 (b) (i) photon energy = work function + maximum kinetic energy of electron; 1
(6.63 10 34 3.0 10 8 )
(ii) photon energy = ;
(540 10 9 )
19
electron kinetic energy = 1.6 10 1.9;
19 19
3.68 10 = + 3.04 10 3
20
= 6.4 10 J;
[8]

9. (a) amplitude;
(amplitude) squared; 2
Award [1 max] for displacement squared.
(b) (i) E = Ep + Ek; 1
2
(ii) p = 2mEk; 1
h
(iii) = ;
( 2mE k )
h
= ; 2
( 2m{E E p })
Allow any subject for each expression. Award [2] in (b) (iii) for correct
expression in terms of E.
[6]

10. (a) conservation of momentum / conservation of mass / energy; 1

(b) lepton; 1
ln 2 1
(c) = = 0.23 minute ;
3
and is the probability in 1 minute, so 0.23;
(explanation required for this mark) 2

0.23t
(d) 0.10 = e ;
t = 10 minutes; 2
Working not required to achieve full marks.
[6]

11. (a) the emission of an electron from the surface of a substance;

as a result of the absorption of EM (accept UV) energy / OWTTE; 2

(b) (i) work function of K is smaller than 4.2 eV and any reasonable justification; 1
eg energy of UV photon is greater than energy of visible photon
Do not award mark for smaller without appropriate justification.

(ii) appropriate substitution into correct formula;

hc 6.63 10 34 3.0 10 8 19
eg energy = = = 9.47 10 J
2.1 10 7

19
appropriate division by 1.6 10 to convert joules into eV;
19
eg 9.47 10 J = 5.92 eV
KE of electron = 5.92 4.2 eV = 1.72 eV 1.7 eV; 3 max
(c) Award [1] for any relevant piece of information up to [3 max]. eg
electron diffraction beam of accelerated electrons fired onto a graphite target;
many electrons detected in some directions, few in others;
pattern equivalent to diffraction pattern; 3 max
[9]

12. (a) the time taken for the activity of a sample to fall to half its
original value / OWTTE; 1
Do not accept definitions that are ambiguous or wrong.
 ln 2
(b) appropriate substitution into T 1 ;
2

1 9 1
to get 0.13 yr ( 4.1 10 s ); 2

t
(c) appropriate substitution into A = A0e ;
ln 3 8
to get t = = 8.4 yr ( 2.6 10 s); 2 max

[5]

13. (a) Mark the both processes, 1 and 2, together.

Award [1] any two of the following.
collisions with (external) particles;
heating the gas to a high temperature;
absorption of photons; 2 max

hc
(b) (i) E=

6.63 10 34 3 10 8
E= ;
658 10 9
3.02 10 19
E= eV;
1.6 10 19
= 1.89eV 2

(ii) electrons absorb photons (of energy 1.89eV) to make a transition

from n = 2 to n = 3;
on de-excitation, photons of energy 1.89eV, ie wavelength 658 nm
are emitted;
in all directions, however, and not just along the initial direction,
hence intensity is reduced; 3

(iii) (the Schrdinger model unlike Bohrs)

does not have well defined orbits for the electrons / does not treat
the electron as a localized particle / assigns to an electron a
probability wave;
predicts the relative intensities of various spectral lines; 2
[9]

14. (a) zero; 1

(b) weak / electroweak interaction (force); 1
(c) they have opposite lepton number; 1
[3]

15. (i) kinetic energy of the fission products / neutrons / photons; 1

Do not accept themal energy or heat.

(ii) if mass of uranium is too small too many neutrons escape;

without causing fission in uranium / reactions cannot be sustained; 2

(iii) the moderator (and the fuel rods); 1

27 25
(iv) mass of uranium atom = 235 1.661 10 = 3.90 10 kg
0.235
or kg;
6.02 10 23
25 19 5 1
mass of uranium per second = 3.90 10 8 10 = 3.12 10 kg s ;
5
mass of uranium per year = 3.12 10 365 24 60 60
2 1
= 984 9.8 10 kg yr ; 3
[7]
16. (a) A negative () B positive (+); 1

(b) Answers will be open ended but look for these main points.
light consists of photons;
each photon has energy hf;
a certain amount of energy is required to eject an electron from a metal;
if hf is less than this energy, then no electrons will be emitted;
and so no current will be registered by the microammeter; 4 max
14
(c) (i) intercept of f axis = 4.6 10 Hz; 1
(ii) intercept on V axis;
= 2.0(0.2) eV;
or
15 h 15
slope of graph = 4.2 10 = to give h = 4.2 10 eV s;
e
14 15
W = hf0 = 4.6 10 4.2 10 = 1.9(0.2) eV; 2
[8]

40 40 + +
17. (a) 19 K 18 Ar + (e ) + v
+ / e+; 2 max
v;

6
(b) 8.2 10 g; 1

ln 2
(c) (i) = T1 ;
2
0.69 10 1
= = 5.3 10 year ; 2
1.3 10 9

1 N0
ln ;
t
(ii) from N = N0e t=
N
9 9
= 1.9 10 ln(6.8) =3.6 10 years;
or
n
1.2 1

8.2 2
n = 2.77;
9 9
age = 2.77 1.3 10 = 3.6 10 years; 2
[7]

18. Nuclear binding energy and nuclear decay

(a) (a nucleon is either) a proton or a neutron / OWTTE; 1

(b) appropriate definition; 1

eg energy released when a nucleus is formed from its constituent
nucleons / (minimum) energy needed to break a nucleus up into its
constituent nucleons

(c) appropriate identification of fission eg being possible at right hand

end of the graph;
appropriate identification of fusion eg being possible at left hand end;
 discussion in terms of energy release being possible as products have
higher (average) binding energy per nucleon; 3

(d) realization that time elapsed is 3 half-lives;

16
so one eighth remains ie 5 10 kg; 2

(e)
238
92 U Th 24
234
90
proton and nucleon numbers correct for alpha particle (4 and 2);
proton and nucleon numbers correct for thorium (234 and 90); 2
Watch for ecf from incorrect values for alpha particle. Award [1]
if numbers are interchanged for all particles. Ignore mistakes in
chemical symbol used for thorium.
[9]

19. C
[1]

20. B
[1]
21. Radioactive decay
(a) (i) isotopes of elements are chemically identical but have different atomic
masses / OWTTE / same number of protons in the nucleus but different
number of neutrons / OWTTE; 1
(ii) the time it takes for the activity to halve / the time it takes for half the
number of radioactive atoms to decay / OWTTE; 1
(iii) proton / 11 H / p ; 1

(b) (i) no more C-14 / carbon dioxide is taken in when a tree is dead;
the amount of C-14 determines the activity (of the charcoal);
since C-14 is radioactive the amount present (in the charcoal)
decreases with time / OWTTE; 3
23
(ii) 14 g of C-14 contains 6.03 10 atoms;
12 6.0310 23 10 12
therefore, 10 contains 4 1010 ; 2
14
Or
27
Mass of atom = 14 1.661 10 kg;
12
So number of atoms in 1 10 g is
110 12 10 3
;
14 1.66110 27
41010
(c)
 4
time / years 10
10
The data points at 4.00 10 and
four data points covering 3 half - lives;
0.50 10 10 must be shown.

correct plotting of data points;
4
line of best fit to 1.8 10 years; 3

1.9 4 1010
(d) (i) number of atoms = 0.8 1010 ; 1
9.6
4
(ii) from the graph age = 1.3 ( 0.2) 10 years; 1
Allow ecf from (c) and from (d)(i).
[13]

22. (a) Vs gives a measure of (maximum) kinetic energy of electrons;

intensity determines rate of production / emission (not energy); 2
(b) photon energy = work function + maximum kinetic energy of electron;
hc
VS ;
e e
hc
gradient is ;
e
6
gradient is 1.24(0.02) 10 ;

h

1.24 10 6 1.6 10 19 Award mark for final answer only
;

3 10 8 if this marking point is clear.
34
= 6.6(0.1) 10 J s; 6
[8]

23. (a) used to compare / measure nuclear / atomic masses; 1

(b) Bainbridge type Or Aston type

collimated beam; collimated beam;
velocity selector; region of electric field;
region of magnetic field and vacuum; region of magnetic field and vacuum;
suitably placed detector; suitably placed detector; 4

(c) fraction x of mass 35u; (ie some clear explanation of working)

35x + 37(1 x) = 35.5;
x = 0.75;
0.75 3.0 ;
ratio is 4
0.25
[9]
24. B
[1]

25. C
[1]

26. (a) difference in mass between mass of nucleus;

and mass of (totally) separate nucleons; 2
(b) mass of helium-4 = 4 0.00760 = 0.0304 u
and mass of two deuteriums = 4 0.00120 = 0.0048u;
mass defect = 0.0256u;
27 8 2
energy = 0.0256 1.66 10 (3 10 ) ;
12
= 3.8 10 J; 4
If a candidate has given an incorrect mass defect, award the last two
marking points as ecf.
[6]

27. (a) there exists a frequency of light (incident on a metal surface) below
which no electrons are emitted / ejected from the surface / OWTTE;
the emission / ejection of electrons from a metal surface (upon which light
is incident) is instantaneous / maximum KE of electrons is independent
of intensity; 2

(b) (i) the threshold frequency is the frequency below which no electrons
are emitted / OWTTE;
14
(this corresponds to EK = 0) so f = 4.5 10 Hz; 2
(ii) from Einsteins (photoelectric) theory EK = hf hf0;
therefore, h = gradient / slope of graph;
4.8 10 19
= or values consistent with at least half length
11.8 4.5 1014
of line;
34
= 6.7 (0.2) 10 Js; 4
[8]

28. (a) all particles have an associated wavelength / OWTTE;

h
the wavelength is given by where h is the Planck constant
p
and p is the momentum of the particle; 2
2
p h
(b) combine E and p ;
2m
2
h
to get E ;
2m 2
18
substitute to get E = 2.2 10 J; 3
[5]

29. (a) (i) emission of particles and/or e.m. radiation from unstable nucleus;
not affected by temperature/environment / is spontaneous process;
constant probability of decay (per unit time) / is random process;
activity/number of unstable nuclei in sample reduces exponentially;
daughter nucleus is (energetically) more stable; 3 max

(ii) electron(s) ejected from (neutral) atoms;

to form positively and negatively charged particles; (do not allow ions) 2

(b) (i) fission; 1

 (ii) N.B. positions may be marked on line or on x-axis.
U shown near right-hand end of line;
Sr and Xe shown between U and the peak with Sr to the left of Xe; 2

(iii) total binding energy of uranium = 1189 + 784.8 187.9;

= 1785.9 MeV;
1785.9
binding energy per nucleon = 7.60 MeV; 3
235
Allow unit as MeV or MeV per nucleon.
12
Accept answer in Joules eg 1.22 10 J.

(iv) binding energy is zero because neutrons are separate particles; 1

[12]

30. (a) (i) a particle that appears as an intermediate particle in a Feynman

diagram / a particle that is not observed and may violate energy
and momentum conservation at a vertex; 1

(ii) W ;
applying charge conservation at either vertex;
eg 13 23 x x 1 or x = 1 + 0 = 1 2

(b) conversion of mass into kg

100 10 9 1.6 10 19
100 GeVc 2 1.78 10 25 kg ;
9 1016
6.63 10 34
correct substitution in R ;

4 1.78 10 25 3 10 8
19 18
to get 9.9 10 m 10 m; 3
[6]

31. (a) (The Pauli exclusion principle states:) it is impossible for two identical
fermions / half integral spin particles to occupy the same quantum state / it
is impossible for two fermions with the same quantum numbers to be in
the same quantum state;
the three quarks are distinguished by an additional quantum number, colour; 2

(b) there are two states of spin;

1 1
and so one can make a spin 2 particle out of three spin 2 objects by
1 1 1
having two parallel and one opposite / up + up + down / + 2 + 2 2 ; 2
[4]

32. (a) (i) fission 1 max

(ii) kinetic energy 1 max

(b) the two neutrons can cause fission in two more uranium nuclei producing
four neutrons so producing eight etc; OWTTE; 1 max

(c) (i) the fuel rods contain a lot more U-238 than U-235;
neutron capture is more likely in U-238 than U-235 with
high energy neutrons;
but if the neutrons are slowed they are more likely to produce
fission in U-235 than neutron capture in U-238; 3 max
The argument is a little tricky so be generous. The candidate needs to know about
there being two isotopes present in the fuel and something about the dependence
of the fission and capture in the two isotopes on neutron energy.

(ii) control the rate at which the reactions take place;

by absorbing neutrons; 2 max
 (d) Look for four of the following main points and award [1] each.
energy lost by the slowing of the neutrons and fission elements heats the pile;
this heat extracted by the molten sodium / pressurized water / other
suitable substance;
which is pumped to a heat exchanger;
water is pumped through the heat exchanger and turned to steam;
the steam drives a turbine;
which is used to rotate coils (or magnets) placed in a magnetic field
(or close to coils) which produces electrical energy; 4 max
Alternatively, award [4] for a good answer, [2] for a fair answer and [1] for a
weak answer.
[12]

33. D
[1]

34. B
[1]

35. D
[1]

36. A
[1]

37. B+C
[1]

38. D
[1]

hc
39. (a) (i) energy = / energy = hf and c = f;

(6.63 10 34 3.0 10 8 )
= 2
(6.0 10 7 )
19
Award [0] for = 3.3 10 J

h
(ii) momentum = ;

(6.63 10 34 )
= 2
(6.0 10 7 )
27 1
Award [0] for = 1.1 10 kg m s (N s).

5. 0 19 1
(b) (i) number = = 1.5 10 (s ) 1
(3.32 10 19 )

27 19 8
(ii) change per second = 1.1 10 1.5 10 = 1.7 10 N /
other appropriate unit; 1

8
(c) (i) 1.7 10 Pa;
answer in (b) (ii); 1 max

(ii) momentum of reflected photon added to momentum of incident photon;

so change in momentum of a photon would be greater;
hence pressure would be greater; 3
[10]
40. (a) Deduct [1] for each error or omission, stop at zero 2 max
Property Effect on rate of decay
increase decrease stays the same
temperature of sample
pressure on sample
amount of sample

(b) (i) the probability of decay (of a nucleus);

4
is 4.3 10 (1 in 2326) in each year; 2
3
(ii) mass defect = 5.2 10 u;
2
energy = mc
3 27 16
= 5.2 10 1.661 10 9.00 10 / 1 u = 930 MeV;
13
= 7.77 10 J / 4.86 MeV; 3 max

(c) (i) (linear) momentum must be conserved;

momentum before reaction is zero;
so equal and opposite after (to maintain zero total); 3

(ii) 0 = mv + mRnvRn;
v m
Rn
v Rn m
222
= = 55.5; 3
4
Ignore absence of minus sign.

(15.0 10 6 6.02 10 23 )
(d) (i) N0 = ;
226
16 16
= 4.0 10 (3.996 10 );

16 4
(ii) N = 3.996 10 exp (4.30 10 30);
16 16
= 3.95 10 (3.945 10 );

(N0 N )
(iii) mean activity =
t
(3.996 10 3.945 1016 )
16
= ;
(30 365 24 3600)
5
= 5.4 10 Bq; 6 max
1
Allow activity in yr .

(e) neutrons and protons are composed of quarks;

proton is up, up, down;
neutron is up, down, down; 3

(f) (i) two (light) nuclei;

combine to form a more massive nucleus;
with the release of energy / with greater total binding energy; 3
(ii) high temperature means high kinetic energy for nuclei;
so can overcome (electrostatic) repulsion (between nuclei);
to come close together / collide;
high pressure so that there are many nuclei (per unit volume);
so that chance of two nuclei coming close together is greater; 5
[30]

41. (a) (i) if independent of charge;

must be gravitational;
(ii) depends on charge so electric or magnetic;
independent of velocity so electric;
 (iii) (depends on velocity and charge, so) magnetic; 5 max

(b) idea of change in electric potential energy = gain in kinetic energy;

2
qV = mv ;
19 3 31 2 14
(1.6 10 2.1 10 ) = ( 9.1 10 v ) / v = 7.38 10 ; 3
7 1
Award [0] for v = 2.7 10 m s .

(c) (i) correct force direction (upwards); 1

qV
(ii) force = ;
d
(1.6 10 19 95)
=
( 2.2 10 2 )
16
= 6.9 10 N; 3

(12 10 2 ) 9
(d) (i) time to cross plates = 7 = 4.44 10 s; 1
(2.7 10 )

(6.9 10 16 ) 14 2
(ii) vertical acceleration = 31 (= 7.58 10 m s );
(9.1 10 )
2
distance = a t ;
14 9 2
= 7.58 10 (4.44 10 ) allow ecf;
3
= 7.5 10 m; 3

(e) gravitational force is very small;

small in comparison with electric or magnetic force; 2
(f) (i) force due to B-field must be downwards;
mention of Flemings left-hand rule / right-hand palm rule;
hence field into paper; 3

16
(ii) Bqv = 6.9 10 N allow ecf
(6.9 10 16 )
B= ;
(1.6 10 19 2.7 10 7 )
4
= 1.6 10 T; 2 max

(g) (i) electric force unchanged;

magnetic force is greater;
hence deflection downwards;
(ii) both forces reversed in direction;
but not changed in magnitude;
hence undeflected;
(iii) undeflected; 7 max
[30]

42. C
[1]

43. B
[1]

44. (a) (i) Answer to include:

missing frequencies / wavelengths;
in otherwise continuous spectrum; 2 max
(ii) Answer to include:
light from Sun is split into its component wavelengths;
using prism / grating; 2 max
 hc
(b) (i) correct substitution into E = hf and c = f to give E = ;

34 8 7
E = 6.63 10 3 10 / 5.88 10 ;
19
= 3.38 10 J 2 max
(ii) transition is an absorption so involves electron being promoted
up between two levels;
19
energy of gap must be exactly = 3.38 10 J;
19 19
this is between (5.80 10 J) and (2.42 10 J) levels; 3 max
[2 max] can be given for other relevant information concerning, for example, the
existence of photons with different energies in sunlight / the immediate re-
radiation in random directions. The final mark is for identifying the energy levels
concerned.
This can also just be shown on the diagram (see below).

1 .5 9

19
e n e rg y / 1 0 J 2 .4 2
3 .0 0

5 .8 0

7 .6 4

(c) Mark (i) and (ii) together. [1] for each relevant point eg
Bohr assumed electrons were in circular orbits around nucleus;
of fixed angular momentum that;
were stable (did not radiate) and thus the energy can be calculated;
Schrdinger considers electron probability waves;
only some standing waves fit the boundary conditions;
and these fix the available energies for the electron; 6 max
NB [4 max] for any one of the models.

(d) a fusion reaction;

since Hydrogen nuclei are joining to create helium / any other
relevant further detail / explanation; 2 max

(e) (i) atomic number: 6;

mass number: 12; 2 max
NB if 6 and 12 are reversed, [1 max].
27
(ii) mass before = 3 (6.648325 10 kg)
26
= 1.994497 5 10 kg
26
mass of Carbon = 1.9932000 10 kg
26 26
so mass defect = 1.9944975 10 1.993 2000 10 kg
26
= 0.0012975 10 kg ;
2
correct substitution into E = mc ;
26 16
energy released = 0.0012975 10 9.00 10 J
12
= 1.16775 10 J
12
1.17 10 J ; 3 max

(f) (i) an (electron-) antineutrino; 1

Reject neutrino.

(ii) idea that there is a fixed total energy of decay;

total energy shared between the (three) resulting particles / OWTTE; 2 max

(iii) correct calculation of decay constant ;

 = ln 2 / 0.82 = 0.845
t
correct substitution into N = N0e ;
8.45 N 8.45
to give N = N0e therefore =e = 0.000213 = 0.02%; 3 max
N0
NB Award attempts without full equation [1 max].

(iv) an up quark changes into a down quark;

any other relevant detail; 2 max
eg this involves the weak interaction / statement of quark content of proton
(UUD) or neutron (UDD).
[30]

45. (a) Any two of:

radiation is only emitted when the atom (electron) makes a transition
from a higher to a lower energy state;
the difference in energy between the two states, E = hf;
h
the angular momentum of the electron is quantized in units of ; 2 max
2
h
mvr
2
Award [0] for orbiting electrons do not radiate (electromagnetic waves).
(b) in the ground state n = 1, so;
6 1
E1 = 13.6 eV r1 = 0.0529 nm v1 = 2.19 10 m s ; 2 max
All three must be correct for the second mark. Allow ECF but not if n = 0.

(c) (i) x = 0.0529 nm, hence p =

2h 9
10 ;
0.529
= m v;
hence v =
2h 9 6
10 m = 2.2 10 m s ;
1
3 max
0.529

(ii) the bare statement that there is a (relatively) large uncertainty in

the position and/or the momentum/velocity of the electron;
some discussion that this situation cannot be improved upon; up to [2]
eg if the position uncertainty is made smaller (to better define
the radius), the speed uncertainty gets even bigger and vice versa;
hence the picture of well defined orbits is inappropriate / OWTTE; 3 max
[10]

46. C
[1]

47. A
[1]

48. B
[1]

49. C
[1]

50. (a) any particle has wave-like properties / other appropriate statement;
h
where wavelength = with h and p identified; 2
p
Can be back credited from (b).
 p2 1 2 2qV
(b) use of E = ; OR 2 mv = qV or v = ;
2m m
2 1.6 10 19 5.0 10 3
3
5.0 10 1.6 10
19
2 9.1 10
31 2
=p v=
9.11 10 31

23 7 1
p = 3.8 10 ; = 4.1(9) 10 m s ;
(6.3 10 34 ) 6.63 10 34
= ; = ;
(3.82 10 23 ) 9.11 10 31 4.19 10 7
11 11
= 1.7(4) 10 m; = 1.7(4) 10 m; 4
Award incorrect calculation of p or v but then clear and correct evaluation of
[2 max].
[6]

51. (a) (i) fission:

nucleus splits;
into two parts of similar mass;
radioactive decay:
nucleus emits;
a particle of small mass and / or a photon; 4

235 1
(ii) 92 U 0 n ;

90 142
4 01 n ;
38 Sr 54 Xe 2
Allow ecf for RHS if LHS is incorrect.
(iii) mass number unchanged;
atomic number increases by +1; 2

(b) (i) kinetic energy of neutrons;

and energy of gamma ray photons; 2
Accept other valid possibilities but do not accept heat.
p2
(ii) use of Ek = / equivalent;
m
11
correct conversion of MeV to joule (1.63 10 J);
25
correct conversion of mass to kilogram (1.50 10 kg)
18
momentum = 2.2 10 N s; 4

(iii) total momentum after fission must be zero;

must consider momentum of neutrons (and photons); 2

(iv) xenon not opposite to strontium but deviation < 30);

arrow shorter / longer; 2

dN
(c) (i) probability of decay / constant in expression = N;
dt
dN
per unit time / and N explained; 2
dt

ln 2
(ii) = (note: substitution is essential)
(28 365 24 3600)
10 1
= 7.85 10 s ; 1

N 0 exp(7.85 10 10 t ) 6
(d) (i) = 1.2 10 ;
N 0 exp(0.462t )
6
exp(0.462t) = 1.2 10 ;
t = 30.3 s; 3

(ii) activity of the strontium will be much greater than that of the xenon;
and extent of health hazard depends on activity; 2
[26]
52. B
[1]

53. D
[1]

54. B
[1]

55. A
[1]

56. (a) Hadron; (Award this mark for bald statement and if reason is wrong.)
any sensible justification; 2
eg contains two quarks or hadrons are either Baryons or mesons.

(b) any combination of three quarks;

correct answer: UUD; 2

(c) attempt (even if unsuccessful) to balance quarks left and right;

s u d u s

to get: u u s s s

d s
correct discussion on how the equation balances for all quark types; 2 max
eg compare numbers of quarks on LHS and RHS:
u : 1 + (1 + 1) 1
d:11
s : 1 1 1 + (1 + 1 + 1)
[6]

57. B
[1]

58. A
[1]

59. D
[1]

60. (a) all particles have a wavelength associated with them / OWTTE;
h
the de Broglie hypothesis gives the associated wavelength as = ;
p
where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum of the particle; 3
If answers just quote the formula from the data book then award [1] for showing
at least they recognize which formula relates to the hypothesis.

19 16
(b) (i) KE = Ve = 850 1.6 10 J = 1.4 10 J; 1
p2
(ii) use E = to get p = 2mE ;
2m
23
substitute p = 2 9.1 10 31 1.4 10 16 = 1.6 10 N s; 2
h
(iii) = ;
p
 6.6 10 34 11
substitute = 23
= 4.1 10 m; 2
1.6 10
[8]

61. (a) (i) time for the activity to halve in value / time for the number of nuclei
to transmute to nuclei of another element / OWTTE; 1

(ii) the probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time; 1

t 1
(b) use of N = Noe with N = 2 No;
T1 T 1
to give e 2
= 1 from which = ln 2; 2
2 2

ln 2 1
(c) = = 0.039 d ;
18
t 4
substitute into A = Aoe to get A = 4.5 10 Bq; 2

(d) (i) mass defect = 227.0278 (223.0186 + 4.0026) =0.0066 u;

2
= 6.148 MeV c ;
therefore energy of = 6.148 5.481 = 0.667 MeV; 3

E
(ii) use f = ;
h
6 19
E = 0.667 10 1.60 10 J;
20
to give f = 1.62 10 Hz; 3
(e)
Th227

A A e n e rg y

e n e rg y le v e ls o f R a 2 2 3
G G
R

(i) two correct As; 1

(ii) two correct Gs; 1
(iii) correct R; 1

(f) 5.481 + 0.667 = 6.148 MeV; 1

[16]

62. B
[1]

63. A
[1]

64. B
[1]

65. Answers will be open-ended but look for these main points.
Observation I:
energy is needed to eject the electrons from the surface;
according to the wave model, the energy of a wave depends on its
 amplitude / intensity;
so one would expect emission to depend on intensity not frequency;
Observation II:
according to the wave model, energy is delivered continuously to the surface;
so with a very low intensity wave;
one would expect the electrons to need a certain amount of time to gain
sufficient energy to leave the surface; 6 max
Award up to [4] for a very good understanding of one of the observations such
that the marking could go 2+4, 4+2, 3+3.
[6]

66. (a) the nuclei of different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons;
but different numbers of neutrons; 2
Look for a little more detail than say just same atomic (proton) number,
different mass (nucleon) number.

(b) Z for iodine = 53;

+ antineutrino; (accept symbol) 2
Do not accept neutrino or gamma or energy, etc.
(c)

6 .4 1 0 5
6 .0

5 .0

4 .0

3 .0

2 .0

1 .0

0
0 5 .0 10 15 20 25
tim e / d a y s
shown on graph at least the 0, 8 and 16 day data points;
exponential shape;
scale on y-axis / goes through 24 day point; 3

0.69
(d) = ; (accept ln 2 for 0.69)
T
1 1 6 1
= 0.086 d / 0.87 d / 1.0 10 s ; 2

0.086t
(e) 0.5 = 6.4e ;
6 6
to give t = 30d / 2.6 10 s / 29d / 2.5 10 s; 2
[11]

h
67. (a) the angular momentum must be an integral number of where
2
h is the Planck constant / orbit can fit an integral number of wavelengths
associated with the electron; 1
 If quoted mathematically, then terms must be defined.
(b) Look for these general points.
whilst in a stable orbit the electron does not emit radiation;
when it makes a transition to a lower energy orbit it emits a photon
whose frequency is determined by the difference in energy of the orbits;
transitions between orbits will give rise to the wavelengths in the line spectrum; 3

hc k
(c) E= ;
n2
1 1
= k = 0.139 k;
4 9
hc 6.63 10 34 3 10 8 18
k= = 3.95 10 J;
0.14 362 10 9 0.139
recognize that k is the ionization energy; 4
Allow use of 2 significant figures.

(d) Look for some of these points.

the electron has wave properties;
the electron wave in the atom has to fit boundary conditions;
only certain wavelengths are allowed / standing waves by
boundary conditions;
the wavelength of the electron determines its energy; 2 max
To award [2] boundary conditions must be mentioned.
[10]

68. (a) (i) colour force / weak force; 1

(ii) gluon / charged vector boson / W boson; 1

+
(b) in the interaction v + p = n + e charge, lepton number and baryon
number are conserved / all conservation laws are conserved;
+
in the interaction v + p = n + e charge and baryon number are conserved / all
conservation laws except lepton number are conserved;
lepton number, +1 on the left 1 on the right; 3 max
Essentially look for some detail of the conservation laws and some substantiation
of the violation of lepton number to achieve [3 max].
[5]

69. A
[1]

70. B
[1]

71. D
[1]

72. B
[1]

73. A
[1]

74. (a) photoelectric current / rate of emission independent of frequency;

photoelectric current / rate of emission depends on intensity of radiation;
(max) kinetic energy of electron dependent on frequency;
existence of threshold frequency; instantaneous ejection; etc; 3 max
 (b) (i) hf = hf0 + eVs;
Accept instead of hf0.
identifies h and e;
identifies f0 / ; 3

h h
(ii) re-arranging, VS = f f0;
e e
h
compares with y = mx +c and hence gradient ; 2
e

15
(iii) f0 = 0.96 10 Hz;
34 15
work function = 6.6 10 0.96 10
19
= 6.3 10 J / 3.9 eV; 2
[10]

75. (a) (i) momentum is mass velocity;

impulse is force time or change in momentum; 2
In each case, allow an equation, with symbols explained.
(ii) (vector) sum / total of momenta is constant;
for isolated system; 2

p
(iii) if force is zero, then acceleration is zero or is zero;
t
p
acceleration or = 0 means that velocity / momentum must be constant; 2
t

(b) (i) 216

84 Po ;

+ 42 He ; (allow 24 ) 2

6 19
(ii) energy = 6.29 10 1.6 10 ;
12
= 1.01 10 J; 2

1 2
(iii) Ek = 2 mv
12 1 27 2
1.01 10 = 2 4 1.66 10 v ;
All terms in the equation must be seen.
7 1
v = 1.74 10 m s 1

(c) (i) direction opposite to that of -particle; 1

Ignore length.

(ii) mv = mPvP; (In words or as an equation some explanation essential)

4 7
vP = 1.74 10 ;
216
5 1
= 3.22 10 m s ; 3

(iii) -particle and nucleus no longer in opposite directions;

any further physics eg plausible diagram there is momentum
in forward direction;
or
if initial direction along direction of -particle;
then no change in directions; 2 max

(d) (i) eg stability or mass defect / excess / binding energy;

number of neutrons / nucleons / mass; diameter; 3
(ii) time for activity / mass / number of nuclei to halve;
clear indication of what halves original isotope, (not daughters); 2
 t
(iii) At = A0 e ;
T 1
at time t = 1 , At = 2 A0;
2
T 1
working leading to = ln 2 or = 0.693; 3
2

dN
(iv) = N; (ignore minus sign)
dt
6 1
= 2.11 10 s ;
4.5 6
N= 6
= 2.2 10 ;
2.11 10
20
ratio is 8.4 10 ; 4

(e) radon-220 because dose in a shorter time and damage is dose-rate

dependent;
radon-222 because a person may be exposed for longer time and
damage depends on dose; 1 max
[30]

76. (a) fine structure / relative intensity of the spectral lines; 1

(b) an electron only changes orbit if it emits or absorbs a photon / energy;

the energy (of the emitted or absorbed photon) is equal to the difference
in the energies of the (permitted) orbits / OWTTE; 2

ke 2 2 2 mk 2 e 4
(c) substitute for r into En = to get En = ;
2r n2h2
K
therefore, En = ;
n2
2 2 mk 2 e 4
where K = ; 3
h2

(d) energy;
and is the amount required to remove an electron from the orbit n = 1 to n = ;
or
the total energy of the electron;
when n = 1 / in the ground state; 2

(e) the electrons are described by wave functions;

the wave functions can only have certain values because they have to
fit boundary conditions / the wave functions behave like standing
waves so can only have certain values / OWTTE; 2
Be generous award [1] for the idea of wave function and [1] for some other
related physics.
[10]

77. (a) weak (nuclear) force; 1

(b) antineutrino; 1

(c) (W ) boson; 1
[3]

78. A
[1]

79. C
[1]
80. D
[1]

81. B
[1]

82. B
[1]

83. C
[1]

84. A
[1]

85. (a) baryon numbers +1 +1 0 0;

lepton numbers 0 0 +1 1; 2

(b) mass-energy / charge / spin / momentum / parity / time conjugation; 1

Do not allow either mass or energy.
[3]

86. C
[1]

87. B
[1]

88. C
[1]

89. C
[1]

90. The quantum nature of radiation

The photoelectric effect
(a) light consists of photons / photons are incident on the surface;
the energy of each photon = hf where h is the Planck constant;
a certain amount of energy, the work function is required to remove
an electron from the metal surface;

if f then no electrons will be emitted; 4
h
In view of the question, these precise points are needed for [4], allow
[2 max] for a purely qualitative answer.
15
(b) (i) 1.1 10 Hz; 1
(ii) e EK = hf ;
h
slope of graph = ;
e
15
slope = 4.2 (0.4) 10 ;
15 19 34
h = 4.2(0.4) 10 1.6 10 = 6.7 10 J s; 4
34
Accept answers in the range 6.1 10 J s and
34
7.4 10 J s .
 Note: the answer must show that the graph has been used if not,
award [0] as this could have been taken from the data book. Award
full points for correct answers using just one point on the line or two
points and a system of equations to eliminate the work function.
(iii) = hf0;
15 34 19
= 1.1 10 6.7 10 = 7.4 10 J; 2
19 19
Accept answers in the range 6.7 10 J and 8.1 10 J.
The value of h from part (ii) must be used.

X-rays
(c) (i) Ve 12 mv 2 ;
2Ve 2 25 10 3 1.6 10 19
v ;
m 9.110 31
8 1
10 ms 2
hc
(ii) Ve ;

hc 6.6 10 34 310 8
;
Ve 25 10 3 1.6 10 19
11
5 10 m; 2
10
Accept 10 m.
(d)

continuous spectrum with cut off;

and with reasonable tail;
characteristic peak(s); 3
[18]

91. (a) permittivity of free space; 1

(b) (i) angular momentum is quantized or is

nh ;
2
nh ;
each quantum is (where h is the Planck constant) or n is an integer; 2
2
(ii) angular momentum = mvr;
nh ;
so, mvr
2
2
squaring and substituting for v made clear;
0h2n2
gives r 3
me 2

(c) using n =1
8.85 10 12 6.6310 34
2

r ;
9.110 31 1.6 10 19
2

11
= 5.3 10 m;
this is about the experimentally measured diameter of an atom / OWTTE; 3
(g) eg electrons shield nucleus; 1
 Any other sensible suggestion.
[10]

92. B
[1]

93. D
[1]

94. B
[1]

95. D
[1]

96. A
[1]

97. C
[1]

98. (a) the probability that a (particular) nucleus will decay in unit time;
or
dN
with terms defined; 1
dt
N

(b) (i) (electro) weak; 1

(ii) charged vector boson / W boson; 1
+ 0
Accept W , W or Z .
(c) original mass of potassium = 24 + 5.0 = 29mg;
t
recognize to use N = N0e ;
5.0 = 29 e - 5.3 10 ;
10
t

9
to give t = 3.3 10 year; 4
[7]

99. A
[1]

100. D
[1]

101. C
[1]

102. B
[1]

103. (a) the integer n determines the values of the energy levels / OWTTE;
the integer m gives the value of the energy level from which an (excited)
electron makes a transition to a lower energy level given by the integer n
/ OWTTE;
 in making the transition, a photon is emitted, the wavelength of which is
given by the Rydberg formula / determined by the difference in energy of
the levels m and n;
if the value of n is fixed then electron transitions from higher levels given
by values of m give rise to one of the (hydrogen atomic) spectral series
/ OWTTE; 3
hc
(b) (i) 2.2 10 18 ;

to give = 90nm; 2
1
(ii) RH ;
min
7 1
to give RH =1.1 10 m ; 2
[7]

h
104. xp where x is the uncertainty in the position of the particle and
2
h
p is the uncertainty in the momentum of the particle and p ;

if has just one value / OWTTE, then there is no uncertainty in momentum
/ p = 0;
a statement to the effect that this means that that although the momentum is
known exactly all knowledge of the particles position is lost / x is infinite;
[3]

105. (a) (electric) charge;

strangeness;
lepton number;
parity;
baryon number;
angular momentum;
isotopic spin; 3

(b) (i) lepton number / angular momentum is not conserved; 1

(ii) 1
0 n p e v;
1
1
0
1 1
[5]

106. C
[1]

107. A
[1]

108. B
[1]

109. (a) the kinetic energy of 3.8 MeV gets converted to electrical potential energy;
6 19 13
equal therefore to 3.8 10 1.6 10 = 6.1 10 J; 2

(b) correct identification of charges of alpha and palladium nucleus;

electrical potential energy = 9 10

2 46 1.6 10 19
9 2

;
d
14
d = 3.5 10 m; 3
Award [1 max] for those who fail to square the elementary charge
3
(answer 2.2 10 m) or those who square the d in the denominator
7
(answer 1.9 10 m).
 (c) it will be greater since the gold nucleus has more protons / force of repulsion
is greater / electrical potential energy between alpha and gold nucleus is larger
at the same distance; 1

(d) (i) m Au ; 1
m
(ii)
V
A 1.66 10 27 kg
;
= 4
3

A 1.2 10 15 3
m3

3
to give 210 kg m (no mark for answer)
17
1
[8]

h
110. (a) use of x p ;
2
29
to give p = 1.1 10 Ns; 2
accept x being half slit width

(b) normal to direction of beam / parallel to plane of slit; 1

[3]

hc
111. (a) eV ;

6.6 10 34 3108
; (condone power of ten error in this mark)

1.6 10 19 25000
11
= 4.95 10 m; 3

(b) shows twice 25kV maximum frequency by eye;

characteristic spectrum position unchanged; 2
[5]

112. (a) electron occupies one of a finite number of levels;

photon emitted when electron drops to lower level / photon absorbed when
electron rises to higher level;
hc
spectral line corresponds to energy difference / reference to ; 3

1.88 6.56
(b) (i) 2.54 eV or explicit working from E = hf; 1
4.86
(ii) arrow connects n = 3 and n = 2 and arrow connects n = 4 and n = 2;
both arrows from higher to lower level and lines correctly identified by
wavelength; 2
[6]

113. (a) (i) (electron) anti-neutrino; 1

(ii) lepton; 1

ln 2
(b) (i) ; 1
5700
4
(ii) 0.075 = 0.24 e 1.2110 t ;
240
ln
75
t ;
1.2110 4
3
t = 9.7 10 year; 3
 (c) measure activity of source;
determine number of molecules chemically;
activity = N , hence half-life; 3
Award [1 max] for method that measures activity and then waits before
re-measuring.
[9]

114. A
[1]

115. C
[1]

116. D
[1]

117. B
[1]

118. C
[1]

119. C
[1]

120. B
[1]

121. A
[1]

122. D
[1]

123. B
[1]

124. C
[1]

125. D
[1]

126. B
[1]

127. C
[1]

128. D
[1]
129. A
[1]

130. (a) negative;

the electrons emitted from P have a certain maximum energy;
they will be repelled by plate Q / OWTTE;
if the maximum KE is less than the energy required for an electron
to move between P and Q / less than the pd per unit charge it
will not reach Q; 4
(b) light consists of photons each of energy; E = hf;
where h is the Planck constant and f is the frequency (of the light);
the greater the frequency (of the incident light) the greater the
energy of the emitted electrons / electrons now have sufficient
energy to overcome the potential barrier / OWTTE; 3

(c) the energy of each photon is increased;

therefore for same intensity there are less photons; 2

E K max
(d) h= ;
f
(8.0 4.4) 1.6 10 19
;
3.0 1015
34
= 6.6 10 J s; 3
Must show working for full credit.
[12]

131. (a) (i) a photon is emitted for every transition from a high to a lower
energy state;
whose energy is equal to the difference in energy between the two levels;
the photon energy is given by E = hf;
and so the frequency is determined by equating
18 1 1
hf = 2.18 10 2 2 ;
n m
where n and m are the integers specifying the two levels; 4

c 1
(ii) h 2.18 10 18 2 0 ;
1
hc 8
to get = = 9.12 10 m; 2
2.18 10 18

(iii) does not predict the intensities of the spectral lines;

does not predict the splitting of the lines in a magnetic field;
does not predict the fine structure of the lines;
etc.; 1 max

(b) the Schrdinger theory assigns a wave function to the electron that
is a measure of the probability for finding it somewhere;
therefore the position of the electron is uncertain;
resulting in an uncertainty in its momentum; 3
[10]

132. A
[1]

133. B
[1]
134. C
[1]

135. C
[1]

136. B
[1]

137. C
[1]

138. A
[1]

139. (a) (i) a particle that appears as an intermediate particle in a Feynman

diagram / a particle that is not observed and may violate energy
and momentum conservation at a vertex; 1

(ii) W ;
applying charge conservation at either vertex;
eg 13 23 x x 1 or x = 1 + 0 = 1 2
(b) conversion of mass into kg
100 10 9 1.6 10 19
100 GeVc 2 1.78 10 25 kg ;
9 1016
6.63 10 34
correct substitution in R ;

4 1.78 10 25 3 10 8
19 18
to get 9.9 10 m 10 m; 3
[6]

140. (a) (The Pauli exclusion principle states:) it is impossible for two identical
fermions / half integral spin particles to occupy the same quantum state / it
is impossible for two fermions with the same quantum numbers to be in
the same quantum state;
the three quarks are distinguished by an additional quantum number, colour; 2

(b) there are two states of spin;

1 1
and so one can make a spin 2 particle out of three spin 2 objects by
1 1 1
having two parallel and one opposite / up + up + down / + 2 + 2 2 ; 2
[4]

141. (a) (i) the electric fields are used to accelerate the protons; 1
(ii) the magnetic fields are used to bend the protons into circular paths; 1

(b) the radius of the circular path increases as the speed increases;
mv
since R ;
qB
to keep the protons in the same circular path B has to increase; 3

(c) (i) so each beam must have a kinetic energy of 1120 938 = 182MeV; 1
(ii) hence total energy E of accelerated particle is given by
2 2
2240 = 2(938)E + 2(938)
E = 1740 MeV
to give EK = 1740 938 = 802 MeV; 3
 (d) the energy needed is much less in collisions between moving particles; 1
[10]

142. (a) (i) an experiment in which leptons scatter off hadrons;

imparting / transferring large amounts of energy / momentum
(compared to rest masses) to the hadrons; 2
(ii) quarks: [2 max]
scattering pattern is different from that expected from a single
individual particle;
and consistent with three constituents inside baryons;
also accept:
deep inelastic scattering experiments measure the momentum carried
by charged constituents inside hadrons;
the momentum carried by a constituent is about 13 12 of the total
momentum indicating that there are 3 (2) constituents in baryons
(mesons);
gluons: [2 max]
the total momentum carried by the charged constituents does not add
up to that of the hadron;
indicating that there must exist other neutral constituents inside
the hadron; 4

(b) in deep inelastic scattering experiments the energy transferred is very large;
the strength of the interaction between quarks decreases as the energy of
the interaction increases (due to a property called asymptotic freedom)
hence quarks behave as almost free particles; 2

(c) in the standard model the fundamental building blocks of matter are point
particles but in strings they are extended objects;
the standard model is formulated in four dimensions (accept three) strings
require many extra dimensions / OWTTE; 2
[10]

REPORT

1. SL only

Some candidates did not recognise that the value of h was the slope of the graph. Others took the ratio of one pair
of points instead of the slope to find h. Several candidates used a data-book-value of h in (ii) to calculate the
minimum energy hf, despite the question stating use the graph to determine...
The explanations as to the existence of a threshold frequency were often weak and confused. A common error was
to confuse the photoelectric effect with ionisation.

2. SL only

The de Broglie hypothesis was usually understood and quite a few candidates calculated the wavelength correctly.
However, there was a lot of confusion here with the Planck formula for photons.
The concept of electron diffraction and its relationship to the verification of the de Broglie hypothesis was poorly
understood.

3. SL only

This was probably the best answered question in this Option although some candidates drew the arrows on the
energy level diagram in the opposite direction.

4. SL only

Many candidates recognised the decay as an example of positive beta decay but the calculation of the decay
constant defeated many.

5. SL only
 There were not many clear answers describing aspects of the photoelectric effect that could not be explained by
the classical theory of light. In fact, most descriptions given here did not pertain to the photoelectric effect at all.
In part (b) a disappointingly large number of candidates had problems when using the graph to obtain values for
the critical frequency, the Planck constant and the work function. Very few candidates realised that the graph line
for the second metal had to be parallel to graph line for the first.

6. SL only

The answers to this question were rather disappointing. It was clear that the majority of candidates had no real
understanding of the conservation laws being asked for, and most answers included permutations of the laws of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy. Lepton number, baryon number and charge were seldom
mentioned.

7. SL only

It was very pleasing to see that this was well answered. There were good derivations of the radius of the path of a
charged particle in a magnetic field as well as of the mass of the second isotope and the nucleon structure of each.

8. SL only

(a) Answers were very varied, revealing a lack of clear knowledge. In particular, there was difficulty in
appreciating the consequence of a constant applied voltage. This may have resulted from a failure to
consider carefully any change in the energy and in the rate of arrival of photons. In (i), increased intensity
was thought to give an increased current, despite no increase in the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. In (ii), constant intensity was thought to give constant current.

(b) It should be remembered that, when stating the energy equation for the photoelectric effect, the kinetic
energy is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron. In part (ii), there were many clear concise
calculations.

9. SL only

(a) Not well understood. Those who did associate amplitude with probability frequently forgot the square.

(b) Surprisingly, many candidates could not answer this section correctly.

10. SL only

(a) It was expected that this section would be widely known. In fact, there were very few satisfactory
statements. Most candidates did not appear to have any understanding of this aspect of the work.

(b) The answer here seemed to be based on guesswork.

(c) Again, there were very few correct responses. It appeared as if candidates were unaware of the fact that the
decay constant is defined as the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.

(d) There were some good answers here. However, numerous candidates realised that the time would be
between three and four half-lives and then assumed a linear relationship. This approach should be
discouraged.

11. SL only

The initial parts of this question were done well on the whole but the answers to the final section on the wave
nature of particles was rather disappointing. The majority of candidates referred to experiments involving light as
opposed to particles.

12. SL only

It was very pleasing to see that this was on the whole generally well answered. There were good calculations of
the time taken for the activity to be reduced to a given level.

13. SL only
There were mixed answers to this question with many candidates realising that absorption of light or collisions
had something to do with the question. The answers however were not precise enough.
The calculation in (b)(i) was generally well done. Many candidates could answer this quickly by using the value
 of Plancks constant in units of eV. Most candidates had trouble explaining (b) (ii) despite their correct answers in
the previous question. As in past exams, the discussion of Schrodingers theory proved beyond most candidates.

14. SL only
This was not well answered. Most could deduce (or recall) the charge of an antineutrino. A few candidates may
have found the term electron antineutrino instead of plain antineutrino confusing. The name of the interaction
was beyond the majority of the candidates.

15. SL only
This question was generally well done but many candidates did mention heat and thermal energy as the forms
of energy released in the fission reaction. Those who had not studied this option carefully gave amusing
definitions of where the neutrons are slowed down. Despite getting bogged down in unit conversions it was
pleasing to see a good number of candidates getting the answer right in (iv) for the amount of mass undergoing
fission in a year.

16. SL only
There were few good accounts as to how the Einstein theory accounts for the existence of a threshold frequency.
Many lacked clarity and rarely was any mention made of the fact electrons require energy to be ejected from a
metal surface.
Many candidates were able to correctly find a value of the threshold frequency but few were able to find a correct
value for the work function.

17. SL only
The decay equation was often completed correctly but the problem defeated many candidates with many not
knowing how to begin.

18. Part 2

Parts (a) (c) are common with A3 (HL) parts (a) (c).

Most candidates were able to answer the remaining parts - (d) and (e) - quite satisfactorily.

19. No Report available for this question.

20. The verb fuse refers specifically to the event of fusion in nuclear physics. Induced endothermic reactions are
not referred to as fusion events. The most popular (incorrect) distractor was C. Such a choice suggests that a large
number of students did not appreciate an essential facet of nuclear energy.

21. SL additional questions

[SL question B2 Part 2 ]

(a) (i) This was generally well answered.

(a) (ii) Generally well answered.

(b) (ii) This was answered rather well. This is an encouraging sign when considering past problems with
calculations involving the Avogadro constant.

(c) This was generally well done but with some notable exceptions related to carelessness in the plotting of
points or graphs with a completely wrong shape.

(d) (i) and (ii) This was generally well answered.

22. Photoelectric effect

(a) Frequently left unanswered. Candidates are expected to realize that VS gives a measure of the (maximum)
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and that light intensity determines the rate of emission of
photoelectrons, not their kinetic energy.

(b) Again, answers were disappointing. Very few candidates wrote down a word equation and/or an algebraic
expression to represent the photoelectric effect. Consequently, they were unable to appreciate how the
graph was to be used. Candidates were told to explain their working. This instruction was intended to
encourage them to quote an appropriate equation or expression.

23. Mass Spectrometer

(a) Frequently, inappropriate wording such as weigh atoms was used.

(b) Any type of mass spectrometer was acceptable. A schematic diagram was required so that detail was not
necessary. For example, in a Bainbridge type spectrometer, it was sufficient to show a block labelled
velocity selector rather than give detail of the crossed electric and magnetic fields.

(c) Some candidates were unaware of the method by which the problem could be approached. A common error
was to determine the fraction of one of the isotopes in the whole sample, rather than the ratio of the two
isotopes.

24. No Report available for this question.

25. No Report available for this question.

26. (SL only)

(a) Definitions tended to be imprecise, without any clear reference to nuclei and the fact that the nucleons must
be separated completely. There is confusion between the terms isotope, nucleus, nucleon and nuclide.

(b) The serious problem here was that candidates did not appreciate that the mass defects were per nucleon.
Instead, the values were assumed to be the mass defect of the nucleus.

27. Photoelectric effect.

a) This was generally well known

b) Although the determination of the threshold frequency and the explanation of how it related to the graph
was well done, many candidates failed to explain their calculation of the Planck constant and so could not
gain full credit.

28. The de Broglie hypothesis

a) Candidates sometimes just quoted the formula but did not define the terms.

b) As in previous papers, candidates often did not make use of the relation between energy and momentum
and so made the calculation that bit longer.

29. Nuclear decay

As observed in the other parts of the paper where modern physics is involved the level of success is quite mixed
even though the questions are often purely knowledge based.

(a) Few candidates got full credit describing natural radioactive decay. Lack of precision (unstable nuclei, not
atoms, decay), completeness or a tendency to repeat rather than bring up different aspects. Rarely reference
is given to a more stable daughter as the product of decay, the original nucleus disappearing.

(b) Fission generally well recognized (i). Mixed results placing the three elements on the graph (ii). Less than
half of the candidates correctly calculated the binding energy per nucleon with the majority adding 187
MeV rather than subtracting it (iii), a serious error indicating very poor understanding of the event. Only a
few stated correctly and completely why neutrons do not have binding energies (iv).
30. No Report available for this question.

31. No Report available for this question.

32. SL only

The first two parts of the question were generally answered well but a great many candidates had a fundamental
misunderstanding of the role of the moderator, thinking that along with the control rods, its purpose is to prevent
235
an uncontrolled chain reaction. The idea that neutrons have more chance of producing fission with the scarce U
if they are slower moving, would seem to be not known to them.

33. No specific comment available.

34. HL only

The labelling on the vertical axis was unfortunate but it did not confuse anybody. (It should have been Emax).

35. No specific comment available.

36. No specific comment available.

37. HL only

The question did not specify that the ions all had the same charge and so answers B and C were both accepted as
correct.
38. No specific comment available.

39. HL only

The first part of the question could be done by most candidates. However, many lost marks because they gave
insufficient explanation to show how they arrived at the given answers.
Weaker candidates were unable to determine the change in momentum. Surprisingly, a significant number of
candidates did not realize that they should simply multiply together the number of photons per second and the
momentum of each photon.
More able candidates realised the connection between change in momentum per second on unit area and pressure.
Answers as to whether the pressure would increase were very disappointing. Very few realised that the pressure
would increase and even fewer could give a valid explanation. Most thought that the pressure would be reduced
because the photons would no longer be stopped by the surface.

40. HL only

Very rarely was it appreciated that changes in temperature and pressure do not affect rate of decay.

Approximately 50% of candidates could relate decay constant to a probability of decay.

However, many seemed to be unsure as to what would decay and in what length of time.
The calculation was usually correct, but some candidates did not calculate the mass defect first. As a result, they
got into difficulties with the complexities of the equation and an inability to use index notation.

This simple momentum problem was explained satisfactorily by the more able candidates. Weaker candidates
appear to learn their physics in compartments and consequently were unable to give an explanation despite
being told to consider momentum. Most succeeded in obtaining the ratio in (ii) even when their earlier
explanations were unsatisfactory.

The calculations based on radioactive decay proved to be accessible to most candidates although a significant
number did not understand how to determine the average activity of the sample.
The concept of fusion was generally well understood. However, the conditions required for it to occur, in terms of
overcoming proton repulsion, were not well understood by weaker candidates.

41. HL only

Answers were very disappointing. The vast majority merely named the field. When candidates are asked to
deduce, then an explanation must be given.
Only the weaker candidates had difficulty in deducing the speed of the electron.
Surprisingly, the arrow was frequently drawn at some position other than P. Most candidates completed the
calculations successfully.

It was pleasing to note that many answers made reference to gravitational effects being negligible and also, in the
case of more able candidates, they compared the gravitational force to either the electric force or the magnetic
force.
 It was evident that, for some weaker candidates, the remainder of this question was guesswork. In answers where
the direction of the magnetic field was predicted correctly, candidates frequently failed to mention the rule they
had used in order to find the direction.
There was a small number of good answers to the problem when speed, mass and/or charge are changed. Others
failed to consider both the magnitudes and the directions of the forces on the particles.

42. No specific comment available.

43. No specific comment available.

44. HL only

Candidates tended to lose marks through lack of detail rather than understanding in the first sections of this
question. A pleasing number could correctly identify the energy levels involved but a significant number got the
jump the wrong way round. The outline of the different atomic models was done poorly with many candidates
explaining why energy levels explained the spectrum of atomic hydrogen rather than outlining the models. The
nuclear aspects were generally done well though few were able to correctly apply any knowledge of antineutrinos
or quarks to beta decay.

45. HL only

Generally, candidates did little more than state that the electrons are in fixed orbits. Angular momentum and the
emission of energy only on de-excitation were rarely included. With few exceptions, all three answers to the first
calculations were correct. However, most candidates were unable to give an expression for the Uncertainty
principle. Very rarely did a candidate appreciate that, based on the Uncertainty principle, the concept of clearly
defined orbits is inappropriate.

46. HL only

Judging by the number of candidates who gave B as the key, it would seem that a significant number (44%) were
thinking of a photon.

47. No specific comment available.

48. No specific comment available.

49. No specific comment available.

50.(a) Most answers involved a quote of the de Broglie formula, with or without explanation. However, few were
able to comment on the wavelength as being associated with the wave like properties of any particle.

(b) A significant minority of candidates appeared not to understand the approach required for this calculation.
Of those who could give relevant formulae, many made errors in the numerical manipulations, resulting in
ridiculous answers. Candidates should be encouraged to consider whether an answer is reasonable. A quick
check of the number processing can result in a higher score of marks.

51. SL and HL

(a) (i) Candidates frequently failed to mention that, in fission, the fragments have similar masses and that,
in radioactive decay, the nucleus emits a particle (### or ###) and a -ray photon. It was common to
find that either the element, or the atom or the isotope, rather than the nucleus, was involved in the
processes.

(ii) Approximately 50% of answers were correct. The most common error was to show three, rather than
four, neutrons on the right-hand side of the equation.

(iii) With few exceptions, this part of the question was answered correctly.

HL only

(b) (i) Very few answers attributed this energy to that of emitted photons or neutrons. Most thought that it
was concerned with a mass defect.

HL and SL

(ii) There were surprisingly few correct answers. Some candidates were unable to identify the relevant
equations. In many scripts where the equations had been written down, there were numerical errors.

(iii) Again, there were very few correct answers where the momentum was attributed to either photons or
neutrons. The most common answer was an explanation in terms of the difference in mass of the
fission fragments.

(iv) A large number of candidates showed the directions to be exactly opposite one another. This may be
attributed to the fact that they did not appreciate the role of the emitted neutrons and/or the photons.
 HL only

(c) (i) Despite the fact that this should be a well-known definition, there were very few answers that could
be given any credit.

(ii) In general, only weaker candidates could not make the necessary deduction.

(d) (i) In many scripts, this section was not attempted. There were some correct calculations but in most
attempts, the candidates were unable to manipulate the exponential functions.

(ii) Most suggestions were very superficial - for example strontium lasts longer. It was expected that
reference would be made to activity and that it is the activity that gives rise to a health hazard.

52. No specific comment available.

53. No specific comment available.

54. No specific comment available.

55. No specific comment available.

56. SL only

This question tended to be done well especially the balancing of quark types in part (c).

57. No specific comment available.

58. No specific comment available.

59. No specific comment available.
60. HL only

h
(a) Quite a few candidates quoted = as the de Broglie hypothesis but failed to define the terms.
p

(b) The calculations were often done well but also quite often left unanswered. This would appear to be a topic
that candidates either knew well or not at all.

61. HL only

(a) Radioactive half-life was often incorrectly defined in terms of the mass decreasing by half Candidates
should be encouraged to be precise and to refer to either the activity, or the number of nuclei, of that
particular isotope and certainly not the mass.
Few candidates appreciated that the decay constant is the probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time.

(b) Many candidates tried to bluff their way through the proof of T = ln2.

(c) The activity calculation defeated a lot of candidates usually because they seemed unfamiliar with handling
exponential calculations.

(d) The calculation of the energy and frequency of the -ray photon were often done well.

(e) The concept of nuclear energy levels seemed unfamiliar to quite a few candidates. Few could make the
connection between the difference in energy states and the data given in the calculation.
62. No specific comment available.
63. No specific comment available.

64. No specific comment available.

65. HL only
This question was generally not done well. Candidates were asked to discuss the weaknesses of the wave model
of light with respect to two observations about the photoelectric effect. Many candidates were unable to make any
sensible observations but those that were able to make some comments often wrongly discussed how the particle
model for light correctly explained the observations.
66. SL and HL

(a) Typically candidates knew something about the term isotopes but it was rare to see a precise or
unambiguous definition.

(b) Many mistakes were made completing the nuclear reaction equation. Most candidates thought that the

atomic number decreased after -decay. As SL candidates do not need to know about the existence of
neutrinos or anti-neutrinos, answers as vague as energy or gamma were accepted for the other item
involved in the decay. HL candidates needed to correctly identify the anti-neutrino.

(c) and (d) Many were able to make a reasonable attempt at plotting the exponential graph. Typically HL candidates
did not draw the graph with sufficient precision to predict the activity at the later times. SL candidates were
provided with some data and many were able to use it correctly to estimate the half-life. Some candidates,
however, attempted to plot a straight-line graph.

HL only

(d) and (e) Many candidates were able to attempt the HL calculations but typically marks were lost because units were
omitted. The candidates tended to find the final calculation slightly more difficult.

67. HL only

Most candidates found this question a difficult one. Only a handful could correctly describe Bohrs condition in
(a) and in (b) few could explain how an emission spectrum is formed. The calculation of the ionisation energy in
(c) and the discussion of discrete energy levels in Schrodingers theory proved beyond the abilities of the great
majority of candidates.
68. SL only
Part (a) was often answered well but very few candidates recognized that conservation of lepton number would be
violated in the second quoted reaction.
69. No specific comment available.
70. No specific comment available.
71. No specific comment available.
72. No specific comment available.
73. No specific comment available.
74. HL only

(a) In general, this was not answered well. Frequently, reference was made to the meaning of a photon and to
photon energy, rather than giving experimental evidence.

(b) (i) Most could give the Einstein equation in symbols. The most common error was to fail to give the
maximum kinetic energy in terms of VS.

(ii) Some candidates found difficulty with the algebra when re-arranging terms to make VS the subject
of the equation. It was pleasing to note that candidates did make reference to the equation y = mx + c,
and did compare terms with the re-arranged Einstein equation. Explanation was essential here, but
weaker candidates failed to support their comments, (iii) Candidates could use either the intercept on
the graph or a point on the line. There were many correct answers but a number of candidates were
unclear as to what is involved.

75. HL and SL

(a) (i) In general, momentum was defined correctly. However, it was quite common to find impulse defined
as rate of change of momentum.

(ii) Candidates should not paraphrase the question. Reference to momentum being conserved does not
indicate any understanding of the law. The fact that there must be no external force acting on the
system was omitted by many candidates.

(iii) Some candidates did not really understand how to approach the problem. Others realised that there
can be no resultant force but could make no further progress. There were, however, some very good
deductions.

(b) (i) Nearly all answers were correct.

(ii) For those candidates who understood the meaning of the term eV, then the calculation presented very
few problems. Clearly, a minority had no real concept of the situation.

(iii) Some candidates made life difficult for themselves by calculating the mass of two protons and two
neutrons to four or five significant digits. They should realise that, where the answer is given to three
significant digits, such precision is quite unnecessary.

(c) (i) Frequently, the arrow drawn was so short that it could not be ascertained whether it was intended that
the nucleus and the -particle would be moving in opposite directions, (ii) The momentum
calculation was frequently completed with little or no explanation. Candidates often failed to realise
that only the ratio of the masses is required and consequently, they made great efforts to calculate, in
kg, the masses of the nucleus and the -particle.

(iii) Candidates were asked to consider the effect on the paths. Instead, many concentrated on the
magnitude of the velocity and completely ignored direction.

HL only

(d) (i) Candidates could consider, for example, the number of neutrons, the diameter of the nuclei or their
stability. Candidates should not repeat themselves. For example, stating that the number of neutrons
and the number of nucleons are different does not constitute two separate differences.

(ii) As is usual, most answers did not make it clear as to what is halving. It is necessary that the quantity
being halved is stated unambiguously and that any daughter products could not possibly be included.
 (iii) Generally well done with adequate explanation. The most common error was for a negative sign to
appear, or disappear, mysteriously.

(iv) Many candidates did not realise that they had to use the equation A = N. Consequently, answers
were frequently restricted to a calculation of .

(e) Quite intentionally, there is no simple unique answer here. Candidates could argue for either option. What
was expected was some sound reasoning based on either total dose or dose-rate.

76. HL only
Apart from knowing the other Bohr postulate, this question was very poorly answered. The algebraic
manipulation defeated many candidates and few could convincingly outline how the Schrodinger model accounts
for the existence of energy levels.

77. Neutron decay

The question tested knowledge in the context of neutron decay. Some candidates had, quite clearly, simulated the
necessary knowledge and consequently, scored full marks. Others had, evidently not studied the subject.
78. No Report available for this question.

79. The majority of candidates were not able to do this question, although it had a good discrimination index. This
would suggest that the weaker candidates were on automatic and had not read the question carefully enough to
realise that the unit needed to be the electron volt.
80. No Report available for this question.

81. No Report available for this question.

82. This was a difficult question for most candidates. They had perhaps not read the question carefully enough to
realise that the photon was being absorbed and not emitted.
83. No Report available for this question.

84. No Report available for this question.

85. Radioactive Decay

(a) Clearly, some candidates had learned their work carefully. It was apparent that others had either not studied
the topic or had not committed the work to memory. These should have been easy marks for candidates.
Any relevant property was accepted (e.g. charge) whether or not it is actually included in the Guide.
86. No Report available for this question.

87. No Report available for this question.

88. No Report available for this question.

89. The more able students interpreted correctly particular time interval to mean per unit of time

90. Part 2 [HL only] - The quantum nature of radiation

(a) Many candidates attempted to account for the threshold frequency without mentioning photons. Many of
those who did use photons and the photon energy formula E = hf appeared unable to take the next step and
argue that if the photon energy hf was less than the work function, no electrons would be emitted.

(b) Most obtained correctly the threshold frequency from the graph in (i). In part (ii) many seemed to
 remember that the Planck constant was somehow related to a slope but could not justify why the slope was
indeed h. Many therefore obtained the slope in units of eV s and presented that as h without further
justification. (iii) Many achieved the correct answer, a few with the help of error carried forward (ECF).

(c) Many candidates were able to calculate the speed of the electron correctly in (i). In part (ii), many used the
h
de Broglie formula in order to find the wavelength of the photon. The numerical answer for the de
p
Broglie wavelength is different from that of the minimum photon wavelength but that did not stop
candidates from claiming that it was approximately equal to the given wavelength.

(d) This was, perhaps, the best-answered part of B4 part 2. Most candidates could draw a reasonable X-ray
spectrum even though a few diagrams were incorrect in that they did not show a minimum wavelength,
characteristic lines and a reasonable tail.
91. No Report available for this question.

92. Where candidates are asked to draw such diagrams, the quality is usually well below that which is expected. In
this item, candidates could be tested on their understanding, without involving any drawing skills. Options A and
C are clearly incorrect because the majority of the deviation occurs either before or after reaching the nucleus.
Option D is incorrect because it involves an almost instantaneous change in direction i.e. the force of repulsion
acts over a very limited range of distance.
93. No Report available for this question.

94. This negative discrimination index indicates a very popular misconception. Namely, that at constant intensity, the
photoelectric current is constant. Intensity is a measure of light power per unit area. If the frequency is increased,
then photon energy increases. For constant power per unit area, the photon flux must decrease, giving rise to a
change in photoelectric current.

95. In option D, it may have been preferable to state a given nucleus. However, the item has a very high
discrimination index that would indicate that candidates were not disadvantaged.
96. No Report available for this question.

97. No Report available for this question.

98. Radioactive decay

The calculation in this question was found difficult by many candidates.

99. No Report available for this question.

100. No Report available for this question.

101. No Report available for this question.

102. This was a difficult question with good discrimination. The majority of nuclei have the same density because the
1
radius of a nucleus of nucleon (mass) number A is proportional to A 3 .
103. No Report available for this question.

104. No Report available for this question.

105. Fundamental particles

As is usually the case with such questions, candidates were divided into two groups. There were those who could
 recall the relevant factual knowledge and they scored high marks. The remainder scored very few marks.
Amongst this group, it was common to find that, in (a), mass-energy and momentum were quoted for the
conservation laws.

106. Many weaker candidates did not read the stem carefully and chose option B which is the frequency-dependence
graph.
107. No Report available for this question.

108. No Report available for this question.

109. [HL only] Distance of closest approach

This question was very poorly done by the candidates.

(a) Most candidates were able to state that the potential energy at P is 3.8 MeV but were unable to convert this
into joules.

(b) Very few candidates could complete the calculation to find the distance of closest approach. ECF from (a)
did not help.

(c) Most were able to answer this part correctly.

(d) The responses here were mixed, with many students able to correctly deduce the density of nuclei. Some
failed to understand what was required when they substituted a numerical value for the mass number.

110. [HL only] Heisenberg uncertainty principle

(a) For candidates who had any understanding of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the calculation was
straight-forward.

(b) Only about 50% of answers were correct. The remainder usually gave the direction as being along the
beam.

111. X-ray spectra

Many were able to complete the routine calculation of minimum X-ray wavelength, but then made poor attempts
at the modification to the intensityfrequency graph. Despite the strong hint (with an extended x-axis) almost all
failed to make the link between doubling the accelerating potential difference and the change in the maximum
frequency of the X-rays.

112. Atomic spectra

Explanations of the relationship between atomic line spectra and atomic energy levels were poor and incomplete.
The essential connections do not lie well in the minds of the candidates. Almost all scripts contained satisfactory
deductions of the photon energy. Only approximately half of the candidates could identify both the energy level
transitions and the direction in which the electron transition occurs.

113. Radioactivity

Most were able to identify the electron anti-neutrino in the carbon-14 decay and were able to state the class of
fundamental particle to which the beta particle belongs. Equally successful were the calculations of decay
constant and the age of a bowl in a carbon-dating experiment. However, few were able to give a complete and
accurate description of the determination of the half-life of a nuclide with a long half-life. Descriptions were
facile and usually based on practical work involving a short half-life isotope that the candidate may have seen
carried out.
114. No Report available for this question.

115. No Report available for this question.

116. No Report available for this question.

117. No Report available for this question.

118. No Report available for this question.

119. Many were attracted by an incomplete formula (N0e ) where they had mentally substituted t = 1 incorrectly and
then ignored the correct answer.
120. No Report available for this question.

121. No Report available for this question.

122. No Report available for this question.

123. No Report available for this question.

124. The true nature of binding energy eluded many with a large number expressing the inequality the wrong way
around.
125. No Report available for this question.

126. Many were guessing here. The physics of the photoelectric effect, in particular the influence of the intensity of the
incident light on photon flux and emitted current is not well understood by candidates.
127. No Report available for this question.

128. No Report available for this question.

129. Although there was a misprint in the unit for the responses, this was common to all of them and was not judged to
prejudice the outcome of the item. Candidates should be aware of the relationship between the value of the half
life and the decay constant.

130. Photoelectric effect

(a) Answers were generally very poor with reference to energy appearing only occasionally.

(b) Again, generally not well answered and again with little reference to energy and/or photons.

(c) Very few correct answers were seen to this question. It was not appreciated that for an increase in photon
energy and constant intensity there will be fewer photons in the light beam.

(d) Often answered correctly by the better candidates. Weaker candidates tended to leave it unanswered.

131. Models of the hydrogen atom

The limitations of the Bohr model were well known and clear, as was the calculation of the photon wavelength
that was answered well by most. However the description of how the Bohr model accounts for the spectrum were
incomplete and lacking in detail. The connection between the Schrdinger theory and the uncertainty principle
eluded most but it was good to see a fair number do a good job on this difficult question.
132. No Report available for this question.

133. No Report available for this question.

134. No Report available for this question.

135. No Report available for this question.

136. No Report available for this question.

137. No Report available for this question.

138. No Report available for this question.

139. No Report available for this question.

140. No Report available for this question.

141. No Report available for this question.

142. No Report available for this question.