Source:

http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk/online/SAD/T04/projman.htm

Scheduling Techniques & Project Management

Project management is the process by which a proposed project is developed within a

rigorous framework. The subset of project management that this lecture will focus on is
'project scheduling', that is the process by which the various activities that need to be
undertaken during a projects lifetime should be scheduled. There are a range of activity
management tools that are commercially available.

1. Project Scheduling
Project scheduling is concerned with the techniques that can be employed to manage the
activities that need to be undertaken during the development of a project.

Scheduling is carried out in advance of the project commencing and involves:

identifying the tasks that need to be carried out;

estimating how long they will take;
allocating resources (mainly personnel);
scheduling when the tasks will occur.

Once the project is underway control needs to be exerted to ensure that the plan continues
to represent the best prediction of what will occur in the future:

based on what occurs during the development;

often necessitates revision of the plan.

Effective project planning will help to ensure that the systems are delivered:

within cost;
within the time constraint;
to a specific standard of quality.

Two project scheduling techniques will be presented, the Milestone Chart (or Gantt
Chart) and the Activity Network.
2. Milestone Charts
Milestones mark significant events in the life of a project, usually critical activities which
must be achieved on time to avoid delay in the project.

Milestones should be truely significant and be reasonable in terms of deadlines (avoid

using intermediate stages).

Examples include:

installation of equipment;
completion of phases;
file conversion;
cutover to the new system.

2.1 Gantt Charts

A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar or line chart which will commonly include the following
features:

activities identified on the left hand side;

time scale is drawn on the top (or bottom) of the chart;
a horizontal open oblong or a line is drawn against each activity indicating
estimated duration;
dependencies between activities are shown;
at a review point the oblongs are shaded to represent the actual time spent (an
alternative is to represent actual and estimated by 2 separate lines);
a vertical cursor (such as a transparent ruler) placed at the review point makes it
possible to establish activities which are behind or ahead of schedule.

Project management tools incorporating Gantt Charts include PRINCE [CCTA, 1990],
MacProject and Microsoft Project.

Example of a Gantt Chart:

 Figure 1: Example of a Gantt Chart

Which tasks is ahead of schedule ? Which task is behind schedule ?

Alternative Gantt Chart incorporating features commonly present in automated tools:

 Figure 2: Example of a Gantt Chart showing Project Management Tool Features

Gantt charts produced in this form are:

graphical;
easy to read;
easy to update.

There are no widely accepted standards for Gantt charts. Automated tools are available
which produce Gantt charts directly from activity networks or from a full definition of the
tasks.

Automated tools have features which assist the planning function including:

display of original and latest time for task;

display of person(s) allocated to tasks;
 integration with other planning techniques (i.e. networks and milestones).

Now try to create a Gantt chart from the information presented in the Gantt Chart tutorial.

3. Activity Networks
The foundation of the approach came from the Special Projects Office of the US Navy in
1958. It developed a technique for evaluating the performance of large development
projects, which became known as PERT - Project Evaluation and Review Technique.
Other variations of the same approach are known as the critical path method (CPM) or
critical path analysis (CPA).

The heart of any PERT chart is a network of tasks needed to complete a project, showing
the order in which the tasks need to be completed and the dependencies between them.
This is represented graphically:

Figure 3: Example of an Activity Network

The diagram consists of a number of circles, representing events within the development
lifecycle, such as the start or completion of a task, and lines, which represent the tasks
themselves. Each task is additionally labelled by its time duration. Thus the task between
events 4 & 5 is planned to take 3 time units. The primary benefit is the identification of
the critical path.

The critical path = total time for activities on this path is greater than any other path
through the network (delay in any task on the critical path leads to a delay in the project).

Tasks on the critical path therefore need to be monitored carefully.

The technique can be broken down into 3 stages:

1. Planning:

identify tasks and estimate duration of times;

arrange in feasible sequence;
draw diagram.

2. Scheduling:

establish timetable of start and finish times.

3. Analysis:

establish float;
evaluate and revise as necessary.

3.1 Diagram Symbols

 Figure 4: Symbols Used in Activity Networks

3.2 To Produce the Diagram

1. There is a single start and end event;

2. Time flows from left to right (so does the numbering sequence);
3. Events are given a unique number (activities then have a unique label i.e. head &
tail event numbers);
4. The network can then be drawn taking into account the dependencies identified;
5. Working from the start event forward, calculate the earliest times, setting the
earliest time of the first event to zero. Add the job duration time to the earliest
event time to arrive at the earliest time for the successor event. Where the
successor has more than one activity dependent on to the latest time is entered;
 6. Working from the finish event backwards, calculate the latest times. Set the latest
time to the earliest time for the finish event. Subtract job duration from the latest
time to obtain predecessor latest event times. Where the predecessor event has
more than one arrow emanating from it enter the earliest time;
7. Event slack is calculated by subtracting the earliest event time from the latest
event time;
8. Critical path(s) are obtained by joining the events with zero event slack.

3.3 Worked Example

List of activities for the network:

Task Location Dependent On

Duration

A - 3

B - 6

C - 3

D A 5

E C 2

F B, D, E 6

G A 9

Calculation of Earliest Time:

Use the instructions presented in section 3.2 and the the following diagram ..
 Figure 5: Calculation of Earliest Start Time

What is the earliest time for event 4 ? If you are unsure, the answer is explained here.

What is the earliest time for event 5 ? If you are unsure, the answer is explained here.

Calculation of Latest Time:

Use the instructions presented in section 3.2 and the the following diagram ..
 Figure 6: Calculation of Latest Start Time

What is the latest time for event 2 ? If you are unsure, the answer is explained here.

What is the latest time of event 1 ? If you are unsure, the answer is explained here.

Drawing the Critical Path:

 Figure 7: Drawing the Critical Path

Analysis of the network allows the 'float' to be calculated, this is essentially the amount
of time an action can be delayed without delaying the overall project.

Activities on the critical path must be monitored very carefully. Now try the Activity
Network tutorial.

Source:
http://sunny.crk.umn.edu/courses/compprin/2334/GanttChart.htm

Source:
http://studentweb.tulane.edu/~mtruill/dev-pert.html

Source:
http://gates.comm.virginia.edu/rrn2n/teaching/gantt.htm

Pert Charts

Source:
http://www.mindtools.com/critpath.html

Critical Path Analysis & PERT Charts

- Planning and scheduling more complex projects

Critical Path Analysis and PERT are powerful tools that help you to schedule and manage
complex projects. They were developed in the 1950s to control large defense projects, and have
been used routinely since then.
As with Gantt Charts, Critical Path Analysis (CPA) helps you to lay out all tasks that must be
completed as part of a project. They act as the basis both for preparation of a schedule, and of
resource planning. During management of a project, they allow you to monitor achievement of
project goals. They help you to see where remedial action needs to be taken to get a project back
on course.

The benefit of using CPA over Gantt Charts is that Critical Path Analysis formally identifies tasks
which must be completed on time for the whole project to be completed on time, and also
identifies which tasks can be delayed for a while if resource needs to be reallocated to catch up
on missed tasks. The disadvantage of CPA is that the relation of tasks to time is not as
immediately obvious as with Gantt Charts. This can make them more difficult to understand for
someone who is not familiar with the technique.

A further benefit of Critical Path Analysis is that it helps you to identify the minimum length of time
needed to complete a project. Where you need to run an accelerated project, it helps you to
identify which project steps you should accelerate to complete the project within the available
time. This helps you to minimize cost while still achieving your objective.

How to use the tool:

As with Gantt Charts, the essential concept behind Critical Path Analysis is that you cannot start
some activities until others are finished. These activities need to be completed in a sequence,
with each stage being more-or-less completed before the next stage can begin. These are
'sequential' activities.

Other activities are not dependent on completion of any other tasks. You can do these at any time
before or after a particular stage is reached. These are non-dependent or 'parallel' tasks.

Drawing a Critical Path Analysis Chart

Use the following steps to draw a CPA Chart:

1. List all activities in the plan

For each activity, show the earliest start date, estimated length of time it will take, and whether it
is parallel or sequential. If tasks are sequential, show which stage they depend on.
For the project example used here, you will end up with the same task list as explained in the
article on Gantt Charts (we will use the same example as with Gantt Charts to compare the two
techniques). The chart is repeated in figure 1 below:

Figure 1. Task List: Planning a custom-written computer project

NB: The start week shows when resources become available. Whether a task is parallel or
sequential depends largely on context.

Task Possible Length Type Dependent

start
on...
1. High level analysis week 1 5 days sequential

2. Selection of hardware platform week 1 1 day sequential 1

3. Installation and commissioning of week 3 2 weeks parallel 2

hardware
week 1 2 weeks sequential 1
4. Detailed analysis of core modules
5. Detailed analysis of supporting utilities week 1 2 weeks sequential 4

6. Programming of core modules week 4 3 weeks sequential 4

7. Programming of supporting modules week 4 3 weeks sequential 5

8. Quality assurance of core modules week 5 1 week sequential 6

9. Quality assurance of supporting week 5 1 week sequential 7

modules
10.Core module training week 7 1 day parallel 6

11.Development of accounting reporting week 6 1 week parallel 5

12.Development of management week 6 1 week parallel 5

reporting
13.Development of management analysis week 6 2 weeks sequential 5

14.Detailed training week 7 1 week sequential 1-13

15.Documentation week 4 2 weeks parallel 13

2. Plot the activities as a circle and arrow diagram

Critical Path Analyses are presented using circle and arrow diagrams.

In these, circles show events within the project, such as the start and finish of tasks. Circles are
normally numbered to allow you to identify them.
An arrow running between two event circles shows the activity needed to complete that task. A
description of the task is written underneath the arrow. The length of the task is shown above it.
By convention, all arrows run left to right.

An example of a very simple diagram is shown below:

This shows the start event (circle 1), and the completion of the 'High Level Analysis' task (circle
2). The arrow between them shows the activity of carrying out the High Level Analysis. This
activity should take 1 week.

Where one activity cannot start until another has been completed, we start the arrow for the
dependent activity at the completion event circle of the previous activity. An example of this is
shown below:

Here the activities of 'Selecting Hardware' and 'Core Module Analysis' cannot be started until
'High Level Analysis' has been completed. This diagram also brings out a number of other
important points:
 Within Critical Path Analysis, we refer to activities by the numbers in the circles at each
end. For example, the task 'Core Module Analysis' would be called 'activity 2 to 3'. 'Select
Hardware' would be 'activity 2 to 4'.
Activities are not drawn to scale. In the diagram above, activities are 1 week long, 2
weeks long, and 1 day long. Arrows in this case are all the same length.
In the example above, you can see numbers above the circles. These show the earliest
possible time that this stage in the project will be reached. Here units are whole weeks.

A different case is shown below:

Here activity 6 to 7 cannot start until the other three activities (12 to 6, 5 to 6 and 9 to 6) have
been completed.

See figure 5 for the full circle and arrow diagram for the computer project we are using as an
example.

Click here to see the full Critical Path Diagram

This shows all the activities that will take place as part of the project. Notice that each event circle
has a figure below it as well as a figure above. This shows the latest time that it can be reached
with the project still being completed in the minimum time possible. You can calculate this by
starting at the last event (in this case number 7), and working backwards.

You can see that event 4 can be completed any time between 1.2 weeks in and 7.8 weeks in. The
timing of this event is not critical. Events 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6 and 6 to 7 must be
started and completed on time if the project is to be completed in 10 weeks. This is the 'critical
path' - these activities must be very closely managed to ensure that activities are completed on
time. If jobs on the critical path slip, immediate action should be taken to get the project back on
schedule. Otherwise completion of the whole project will slip.

'Crash Action'
You may find that you need to complete a project earlier than your Critical Path Analysis says is
possible. In this case you need to take action to reduce the length of time spent on project stages.

You could pile resources into every project activity to bring down time spent on each. This would
probably consume huge additional resources.

A more efficient way of doing this would be to look only at activities on the critical path.

As an example, it may be necessary to complete the computer project in figure 5 in 8 weeks

rather than 10 weeks. In this case you could look at using two analysts in steps '2 to 3' and '3 to
4', and two programmers instead of one in step '4 to 5'. This would shorten the project by two
weeks, but would raise the project cost - doubling resources at any stage often only improves
productivity by, say, 50%. This occurs as time spent on coordinating the project consumes time
gained by increasing resource.

Note that in this example, shortening the project by two weeks would bring activities '3 to 11', '11
to 12' and '12 to 6' onto the critical path as well.

As with Gantt Charts, in practice project managers tend to use software tools like Microsoft
Project to create CPA Charts. Not only do these ease make them easier to draw, they also make
modification of plans easier and provide facilities for monitoring progress against plans. Microsoft
Project is reviewed at the top of our left hand title bar.

PERT
PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique.

PERT is a variation on Critical Path Analysis that takes a slightly more skeptical view of time
estimates made for each project stage. To use it, estimate the shortest possible time each activity
will take, the most likely length of time, and the longest time that might be taken if the activity
takes longer than expected.
Use the formula below to calculate the time to use for each project stage:

shortest time + 4 x likely time + longest time

-----------------------------------------------------------
6

This helps to bias time estimates away from the unrealistically short time-scales normally
assumed.

Key points:

Critical Path Analysis is an effective and powerful method of assessing:

What tasks must be carried out

Where parallel activity can be performed
The shortest time in which you can complete a project
Resources needed to execute a project
The sequence of activities, scheduling and timings involved
Task priorities
The most efficient way of shortening time on urgent projects.

An effective Critical Path Analysis can make the difference between success and failure on
complex projects. It can be very useful for assessing the importance of problems faced during the
implementation of the plan.

PERT is a variant of Critical Path Analysis that takes a more skeptical view of the time needed to
complete each project stage.

Source:
http://www.cse.fau.edu/~maria/COURSES/CEN4010-SE/C8/PertCharts.htm