Chapter 2

Trigonometry

Hyperbolic trigonometry is a basic tool in various studies, and various ap

proaches are known (cf. e.g. Beardon [1], Fenchel [1], Meschkowski [1],
Perron [1], Rees [1], Thurston [1]). This chapter gives an account based on
the hyperboloid model which has grown out of discussions with Patrick
Eberlein and Klaus-Dieter Semmler. In the first part we use the isometry
group acting on the hyperboloid model to obtain the trigonometric formulae
of the triangle by comparing matrix elements. In the second part, beginning
with Section 4, we generalize this to hexagons and similar configurations.
Then we briefly sidestep to variable curvature. In the final part, Section 6, we
describe a variant of the approach which is from Semmler [1] and uses a
vector product and quaternions.
The results of Sections 2.1 - 2.4 will be widely used in this book. Sections
2.5 and 2.6 are appendices and may be skipped in a first reading.

2.1 The Hyperboloid Model

The starting point is the bilinear form

(2.1.1) h(X, Y) = xxyx + x^y2 - x 3 y 3 , XyY e R 3 ,

where xi,yi are the coordinates of X, Y. The linear mappings Lff,

M e GL(3, R) given by
cose - s i n a 0 ^ ( coshp 0 sinhp ^
(2.1.2) L sin a cos a 0 Af = 0 1 0
0 0 1 (^ sinhp 0 coshp

P. Buser, Geometry and Spectra of Compact Riemann Surfaces, Modern Birkhuser Classics, 31
DOI 10.1007/978-0-8176-4992-0_2, Springer
Springer Science+Business
Science+Business Media,
Media, LLC
LLC 2011
2010
32 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 1

(acting on column vectors) leave h and also the corresponding differential

form
hl = dx\ + dx\ - dx\
invariant. We let Q c GL(3, R) be the subgroup generated by all La and
M ; a , p e R . Now consider the hyperboloid
(2.1.3) H ={X e R3\h(X,X) = -\,x3>0)
and let g be the quadratic differential form on H which is obtained by restrict
ing hl to the tangent vectors of H. Then H and g are invariant under Q,
Moreover, we have

2.1.4 Lemma. Q acts twice transitively onH. o

Since g is positive definite on the tangent plane of the point

(\
VI )
the two-fold transitivity implies that // = (//, g) is a complete two-point ho
mogeneous Riemannian manifold, and 12 = Is + (//). We could now use the
constant curvature of H to prove that (possibly up to a scaling factor) H is a
model of the hyperbolic plane, but it is easy to give a direct proof. The proof
runs as follows. For fixed o\ the curve
P*->LaMp(p0), p>0,
has unit speed on H, and for every fixed p > 0 the curve

^LoMMo>> ere R,
has constant speed sinh p and intersects orthogonally the curves of the first
type. If we introduce therefore (p, o) as the pair of coordinates of the point/?
= LaMp(p0), for 0 < p < oo and -n< a< n, then the coordinate system ob
tained in this way covers H - {p0}, and the tensor g has the expression g =
ds2 = dp2 + sinh2pda2. This proves that H is isometric to H and that (p, o)
is the pair of geodesic polar coordinates centered at p0. For later application
we shall denote by ji the geodesic
(2.1.5) r\->{i(r) :=Mr(p0), -oo<r<oo.
Observe that p, is invariant under Mp for all p e R.
At some places we shall be obliged to calculate in Q. Since every A e Q
leaves the quadratic form h invariant, we have that
Ch.2, 1] The Hyperboloid Model 33

(2.1.6) A-l=SA'St A G a,
1
where A is the transpose of A, and S denotes the diagonal matrix with diago
nal elements 1, 1 , - 1 .

2.2 Triangles

For geodesic triangles in the hyperbolic plane, we denote by a, b> c the sides
and by a, (3, y the corresponding opposite angles. These letters also denote
the side-length and the angular measure. If the triangle is right-angled, we
usually let y be the right angle.

2.2.1 Theorem. (Ordinary triangles). The following formulae hold for

geodesic triangles in the hyperbolic plane.
(i) coshc = - sinh a sinh b cos y + cosh a cosh b,
(ii) cosy = sinasin/^coshc - cos a cos/3,
(iii) sinh a : sin a = sinh& : sin/2 = sinhc : sin/.

Figure 2.2.1

Proof. Let the triangle T, say, be placed in H such that p is at p0, the
"origin" (cf. Section 2.1), a is at M_c(p0) and y is at LK_p(Ma(p0))y as
shown in Fig. 2.2.1. The isometry LK_aMc first parallel translates T along //,
bringing a to pQy and then rotates T about p0 by an angle it a . Hence,
Ln_aMc brings T back into a position like that of Fig. 2.2.1, but now with
side b, rather than side c, on p, and with a, rather than /?, at p0. Clearly, the
product LK_0MaLK_YMbL7C_aMc brings T back into its original position.
Hence, this product is the identity, and the following relationship holds:

(1) MaLK_yMb = Ln_,M_cLa_K.

Computing the components in (1) we obtain nine identities, four of which are
those of the theorem. O
34 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 2

2.2.2 Theorem. (Right-angled triangles). For any hyperbolic triangle with

right angle y, the following hold.
(i) coshc = cosh a cosh b,
(ii) coshc = cota cot/3,
(hi) sinha = sinasinhc,
(iv) sinh a = cot/3 tanh b,
(v) cos a = cosh a sin/3,
(vi) cos a = tanhbcothc.
Proof. The first three identities are the restatement of Theorem 2.2.1 in the
case y = x/2. The remaining three identities are obtained via cyclic permuta
tion and elementary computations <>

In hyperbolic geometry, angles and perpendiculars are, in some sense, the

same thing, and there are various configurations whose trigonometry is simi
lar to that of the triangle. The right-angled hexagon of Lemma 1.7.1 is an ex
ample. In the remainder of this section we give a general definition of this
configuration - the generalized triangle - and prove a relation which will later
imply all trigonometric formulae. For another configuration which unites tri
angles and hexagons we refer to the book of Fenchel [1]. The uniformizing
configuration in Fenchel's book is the general right-angled geodesic hexagon
in hyperbolic three space (any pair of consecutive sides is orthogonal, but the
sides of the hexagon are in general not coplanar).
In what follows, a polygon P is a piecewise geodesic oriented closed
curve, possibly with self-intersections. The geodesic arcs of P are the sides.
We do not admit sides of length zero.
Let (u, w) be an ordered pair of consecutive sides of P with respect to the
given orientation, and let/? be the common vertex of u and w. The angle ofP
at/? is defined to be the rotation v e Is+(H) which fixes p and rotates w to u.
We shall say that v is the subsequent angle of side w, and w is the subsequent
side of angle v.
With v we also denote the corresponding angle of rotation. To allow
addition and subtraction, angles of rotation are considered elements of the

Figure 2.2.2
Ch.2, 2] Triangles 35

group S1 = R/[s i- s + 2n]. Our next aim is to define a concept which unites
the various configurations of Fig. 2.2.3.

2.2.3 Definition. Let x and y belong to the set of sides and angles of
polygon P. The ordered pair (x, y) is said to be of angle type if one of the
following conditions holds:
(i) y is the subsequent angle of side x,
(ii) (x, y) is a pair of consecutive sides, and y is orthogonal to x,
(iii) y is the subsequent side of angle x.

* -. V

Figure 2.2.3

In Fig. 2.2.3 all pairs (x, v) and (y, z) are of angle type. To each pair (xt y)
of angle type we associate an isometry Ny e Is+(H) as follows (L and M are
as in (2.1.2)).

2.2.4 Definition, (i) If v is the subsequent angle of side x, then we de

fine
f
.y -cosy -siny 0 ^
Ny := LK.y sinv -cosy 0
V 0 0 1

(ii) If (x, y) is a pair of consecutive sides with angle enl'2, where e - 1,

then we define

C
y
L o N L M
y '= ex/2 y =
( 0 -e 0
ecoshy 0 esinhy
^
JC! e = -l sinhy 0 coshy
v
(iii) If y is the subsequent side of angle x, then we define

/ coshy 0 sinhy \
Ny := M, = 0 1 0
sinhy 0 coshy
36 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 2

2.2.5 Definition. A generalized triangle is a closed oriented hyperbolic

geodesic polygon P together with a cycle a, y, b, a, c, ft of consecutive sides
and angles of P in which all pairs (a, y), (y, b),..., (c, /?), (/?, a) are of
angle type.

The polygons in Figures 2.2.1, 2.2.4, 2.3.1, 2.4.1, 2.4.3 and 2.6.2 are
generalized triangles.
We adopt the convention that all sides off have positive length, indepen
dently of the orientation, whereas the angles have values in S1. If angular
measures with values in [0, n] are preferred, as e.g. in Section 2.6, then the
signs in the formulae which follow must be adjusted accordingly.
If P is the boundary of a convex domain in H, we shall always orient P
positively, so that the angles of rotation will be the interior angles of P.

2.2.6 Theorem. For every generalized triangle a,y, b, a, c, p we have

NaNYNb = (NaNcNpTl.
Proof. A pair (jt, y) of angle type in the generalized triangle T, say, is said to
have standard position if it is placed as in Fig. 2.2.3. That is, if y is an angle,
then the subsequent side z lies on the geodesic p (cf. (2.1.5)) with initial
point atp 0 and endpoint at Mz(p0); if y is a side, then y lies on p with initial
point at M_y(p0) and endpoint atp 0 . One checks with Definition 2.2.4 that if
(x, y) has standard position and if Ny is applied to T, then the preceding pair,
say (w, x), moves into standard position. Therefore, if T is placed such that
(a, c) has standard position (as in Fig. 2.2.4 and Fig. 2.2.1) and if we
successively apply /Vc, Na, ..., Np, then T returns to its original position.
Hence, Np NaNyNb NaNc = id. O

2.2.7 Example. In the generalized triangles of Fig. 2.2.4, we have in

both cases NaNyNb = LKJ1MaLn_yMb. Notice the difference between the two
examples for the product NaNcNp .

Figure 2.2.4
Ch.2, 2] Triangles 37

In the first example,

while in the second example,

NaNcNB = L^MJ.^M.L^M,.
Theorem 2.2.6 yields for the first example
(i) cose = -cosha coshfr cosy + sinhflsinhfr,
(ii) cosha:cosha = cosh b : cosh p = sine: sin/.
The corresponding identities for the second example are
(iii) coshc = - cosh a cosh b cosy + sinha sinhb,
(iv) cosh a : sinha = coshb : sinh/3 = sinhc : sin 7,
(v) cos 7 = sinha sinh p cosh c - cosh a cosh p.

2.3 Trirectangles and Pentagons

Figure 2.3.1

Consider two perpendicular geodesic arcs, a and b, in D (the disk model of

the hyperbolic plane) with a common vertex at the origin as in Fig. 2.3.1. Let
a and P be the perpendicular geodesies at the endpoints of b and a. If a and b
are small, then a and p intersect each other at an acute angle (p and we obtain
a geodesic quadrilateral with three right angles. Following Coxeter [1] we
call this configuration a trirectangle. By abuse of notation we also denote by
a and p the sides of the trirectangle.
Trirectangles have played a decisive role in the discovery of non-Euclidean
38 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 3

geometry (see for instance the very early approach of Saccheri [1]). They
occur in many geometric constructions and are useful for computations. The
following formulae, similar to those of the right-angled triangle in Theorem
2.2.2, hold.

2.3.1 Theorem. (Trirectangles). For every trirectangle with sides labelled

as in Fig. 2.3.1 the following relations are true:
(i) cos (p = sinh a sinh 6,
(ii) cos<p = tanhatanh/?,
(iii) cosh a = cosh a sin (p,
(iv) cosh a = tanh/? cothb,
(v) sinh a = sinh a coshj3,
(vi) sinh a = cothbcot<p.

Proof. The first three identities are the restatement of formulae (i) and (ii) of
Example 2.2.7 for the case y = nil. The remaining ones are obtained via
cyclic permutation and elementary computations. O

As an example we prove the distance formula for Fermi coordinates. We let

(p, t) denote the Fermi coordinates with respect to a fixed base line rj in H,
(cf. Section 1.1), and letpj = (plt tx) andp 2 = (p2> h) De points in H. Then
the following formula holds. Note that in this formula the quantities px and p2
are oriented lengths and have opposite signs when the corresponding sides he
on opposite sides of 77.

(2.3.2) coshdistQ?!,^) = coshpi coshp2 cosh(?2 - ^1) - sinhp! sinhp2.

Figure 2.3.2

Proof. We give a proof which is based on a decomposition into trirectangles

and right-angled triangles. Another proof would consist of understanding the
figure as a generalized triangle and to apply Theorem 2.2.6 as in Example
2.2.7.
Ch.2, 3] Trirectangles and Pentagons 39

We may assume that pl > 0. Dropping the perpendicular r from/?! to that

geodesic through p2 which is orthogonal to 77, we obtain a trirectangle with
sides ply\t2-t1\tsi say, and r and also a right-angled triangle with sides r,
\p2- s\ and c, whose hypothenuse c has length dist(pl,p2). The trirectangle
is again decomposed into two right-angled triangles with common hypothe
nuse. Formula (i) of Theorem 2.2.2 and formula (v) of Theorem 2.3.1 yield
the relations cosh r cosh s = coshp! cosh(f2 - t{), and coshr sinhs = sinhp lt
Hence,
cosh dist(/?!, p2) = cosh r cosh(p2 - s)
= cosh r cosh p2 cosh s - cosh r sinh p2 sinh s
- coshpj coshp2 cosh(f2 - tx) - sinhp! sinhp2. O
We return to the trirectangle of Fig. 2.3.1. If side a grows continuously, the
vertex at angle <p moves towards the endpoint at infinity of geodesic a. Let
the limiting position be obtained for a = ab. As a > ab, (p^O. This follows
from Theorem 2.3.1(vi) or by a glance at Fig. 2.3.1. From Theorem 2.3.l(i)
we obtain, by continuity,
(2.3.3) sinhtfj, sinhfr = 1.
If a grows beyond ab, the angle (p disappears and is replaced by c, the com
mon perpendicular of a and p. We obtain a right-angled pentagon.

2.3.4 Theorem. (Right-angled pentagons). For any right-angled pentagon

with consecutive sides a, b, a, c, p we have:
(i) coshc = sinh a sinh/?,
(ii) coshc = cothacoth/?.

Proof. This is Example 2.2.7(iii) - (v) in the particular case 7 = nl2. O

2.3.5 Lemma. Let a and b be any positive real numbers satisfying

sinh a sinh/? > 1. Then there exists a unique right-angled geodesic pentagon
with two consecutive sides of lengths a and b.

Proof, a and b are the consecutive orthogonal sides of either a trirectangle, a

limiting trirectangle with a vertex at infinity, or a right-angled pentagon. By
Theorem 2.3.l(i) and by (2.3.3), the first two cases are excluded. The
uniqueness follows from Theorem 2.3.4 (or Theorem 1.1.6). O
40 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 4

2.4 Hexagons

If we paste two right-angled pentagons together along a common side r, we

obtain a right-angled hexagon. Every compact Riemann surface of genus
greater than one can be obtained by pasting together such hexagons (Chapter
3). The boundary of a right-angled hexagon is a generalized triangle with
consecutive sides a, y, b, a, c, p. We use the word hexagon for both the
domain and its boundary. The hexagon is called convex if it is convex as a
domain. Fig. 2.4.3 shows a right-angled hexagon which is not the boundary
of a convex domain.

Figure 2.4.1

The pairs (a, y), . . . , (/?, a) are all of type (ii) from Definition 2.2.3, with
the associated matrices Na = LKllMa, Ny = Ln/2MY, ... (cf. (ii) in Definition
2.2.4). The next theorem follows from Theorem 2.2.6.

2.4.1 Theorem. (Right-angled hexagons). For any convex right-angled

geodesic hexagon with consecutive sides a,y,b,a,c,p,the following are
true:
(i) coshc = sinh a sinh b cosh y - cosh a cosh b,
(ii) sinh a : sinh a = sinh 6 : sinh/? = sinhc : sinhy,
(iii) cotha sinhy = coshy coshb - cotha sinh/?. O

An alternative proof would be to use the decomposition into pentagons along

r and to proceed as in the proof of (2.3.2), but now with the pentagon formu
lae.

2.4.2 Theorem. Let x, y and z be any positive real numbers. Then there
exists a unique convex right-angled geodesic hexagon a,y,b,a,c,p such
that x = a,y = b and z = c.
Ch.2, 4] Hexagons 41

Proof. Uniqueness follows from Theorem 2.4.1. A construction has been

described in Section 1.7. We also may paste together two pentagons as in
Fig. 2.4.1. For this we first determine s e ]0, b[ by the equation
sinh(ft - s) _ coshc
sinhs ~ cosh a'
where a, b, c = x, y, z. After that we let r > 0 be defined by the equation
sinh r sinhs = cosh a. Then sinh r sinh(& - s) = cosh c. By Lemma 2.3.5 and
Theorem 2.3.4, the pentagons of Fig. 2.4.1 exist for our values of r, s, a, b
and c. o

The trigonometric formulae show the strong analogy between triangles and
right-angled hexagons (Theorems 2.2.1 and 2.4.1). Another analogy is the
following.

2.4.3 Theorem. In any convex right-angled geodesic hexagon the three

altitudes are concurrent.

Proof. By definition, an altitude is the common perpendicular of two

opposite sides. By Theorem 1.5.3(iii), the three altitudes exist and are
contained in the hexagon. We prove their concurrence as an application of
trigonometry.

Figure 2.4.2

With the notation as in Fig. 2.4.2, we let/? be the intersection of altitudes

aa and bp. We drop the perpendicularspyfromp to y and pc from/? to c. By
Theorem 2.3.1(ii), the acute angles satisfy the relation
cosu cos v cos w - cosu' cos v' cos w',
where u = u'. Hence, if v < v\ then w > w' and vice versa. But v + w' =
v' + w. This implies that v = v' and w = w'. Hence py and pc together form
42 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 4

the remaining altitude cy. This proves the theorem. o

While convex hexagons are important for the construction of Riemann sur
faces, self-intersecting hexagons like that of Fig. 2.4.3 are important for the
twist parameters (cf. Section 3.3).

2.4.4 Theorem. In a right-angled geodesic hexagon a,y,b, a, c, P with

intersecting sides c and y, we have
cosh c = sinh a sinh b cosh/ + cosh a cosh b.
Proof. This follows from Theorem 2.2.6. Another proof, based on pen
tagons and trirectangles is as follows.

Assume first that the geodesic extensions of p and b have a common per
pendicular r. Since c and r are orthogonal to /?, they do not intersect. Hence,
we have two right-angled pentagons, one with sides a, y, s, r and t and the
other with sides c, a, (b + s), r and (t- p). Theorem 2.3.4(i) (right-angled
pentagons) yields:
cosh c = sinh r sinh(& + s)
- sinh r sinh b cosh s + sinh r cosh b sinh s
= sinh a sinh b cosh y + cosh a cosh b.
Assume next that the extensions of p and b intersect. The pentagons are now
replaced by two trirectangles, one with sides a, y, s and t, the other with
sides c, a, (b + s) and (t - p). The proof is the same, now with Theorem
2.3.1(iii) and (v) (trirectangles). The remaining case, where b and p meet at
infinity, is filled-in by a continuity argument in the proof. O
Ch.2, 5] Variable Curvature 43

2.5 Variable Curvature

This section belongs to a small subculture of the book consisting of Sections

2.5, 4.3 and 5.4. In these sections we extend some of the results to variable
curvature. The results, in this form, will not be used in other parts of the
book. We use two comparison theorems. The first one is Sturm's theorem,
where we use Klingenberg [1, 2], Lemma 6.5.5 as a reference, the second
one is Toponogov's theorem, for which we refer to Cheeger-Ebin [1].
Pentagons and hexagons are also useful on surfaces of variable curvature.
In this section we show that they satisfy trigonometric inequalities. We derive
them from the constant curvature case with Sturm's comparison theorem.
Throughout the section (with the exception of the final lemma) we make
the following assumption. M is a complete simply connected two dimen
sional Riemannian manifold of negative curvature K with the following
bounds

(2.5.1) - K : 2 < AT< -o>2 < 0,

where xrand <y are positive constants.
Using Hadamard's theorem (Klingenberg [1, 2], Theorem 6.6.4), we in
troduce polar coordinates (p, o) centered at some given point p0 e M. These
coordinates are valid on M- {p0}. We consider c to be an element of S 1 .
The metric tensor has the following form
(2.5.2) ds2 = dp2 + / 2 ( p , <7) da2
with a smooth positive function/: ]0, oo[ x S 1 h- R. Sturm's comparison
theorem now states that

(2.5.3) - sinh Kp > / ( p , a) > - sinh cop.

This suggests introducing the comparison metrics

(2.5.4) ds2 =dp2 + ^ sinh 2 rp da2

of constant curvature - T 2 for r = K and T = co. The three lengths of a smooth

curve c on M with respect to dsl, ds2 and dsl will be denoted respectively
by K(c), {c) and a(c). By (2.5.3) we have the following inequalities, for
any such curve,

(2.5.5) 4 ( c ) > (c) > a(c).

Note that for each a the straight line

(2.5.6) p\-^ (p, a), p G ]0, oo[,

44 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 5

is a unit speed geodesic with respect to all three metrics. This will be used
tacitly below.
In order to translate a trigonometric identity from curvature - 1 to curvature
- T 2 , we replace every length x by rx (curvature x length2 is a scaling invari
ant). Thus, Theorem 2.2.2(f) (right-angled triangles) on (M, cfa2) reads as
before, but with every argument x replaced by rx:
(2.5.7) cosh TC = cosh %a cosh ib,

etc. If the curvature is non-constant, the identities can be replaced by in

equalities. We give four examples.

2.5.8 Theorem. For any right-angled geodesic triangle a, b, c in M with

right angle y we have

cosh Ka cosh Kb > cosh KC,

cosh coc > cosh coa cosh cob.

Proof. We introduce polar coordinates centered at the vertex of y. By the

above remark, a and b are the sides of a right-angled triangle with respect to
all three metrics. The corresponding hypothenuses cK, c, and ca are distinct
curves, in general. Using the fact that geodesies are shortest connecting
curves, we obtain from (2.5.5)

K{cK) > {cK) > (c) > a(c) > C ( c J ,

where in our notation {c) = c. The theorem follows now from (2.5.7). O

2.5.9 Theorem. For any right-angled geodesic pentagon in M with con

secutive sides a, b, a, c, /?, we have

sinh Ka sinh Kb > cosh KC,

cosh coc > sinh coa sinh cob.

Proof. We use polar coordinates with the common vertex p0 of sides a and b
as center, and introduce the comparison metrics (2.5.4) for T = fcand r= co.
To prove the first inequality we draw in (M, ds\) the perpendiculars /?' and
a' at the endpoints a and b. In (M, ds1) the curves p' and a' are generally
not geodesies but they are orthogonal to a and b with respect to both metrics.
This follows from (2.5.2).
We check that Fig. 2.5.1 is drawn correctly in the sense that p' and a' do
not intersect the open strip between (3 and a. For this we let p' e p'
(respectively, p' e a') and consider the geodesic arc (with respect to either
metric) w from p0 to p'.
Ch.2, 5] Variable Curvature 45

Figure 2.5.1

Dropping in (M, ds2) the perpendicular u from/?' to the geodesic extension

of a, we obtain a right-angled triangle w, v, w, where v is on the extension of
a and w is the hypothenuse. In (M, cfa;J), w is the hypothenuse of a right-an
gled triangle u', a, w, where w' lies on p'. Theorem 2.5.8 yields
cosh KV cosh K(U) > cosh KW = cosh KQ cosh KK(U').
Since in negative curvature the perpendiculars are shortest connecting curves,
we have by (2.5.5)
tK{u')>{(u')>(u).
With this and the preceding inequality, v > a follows. Since (M, ds2) has
negative curvature, the perpendiculars u and p either coincide or else are dis
joint. This proves thatp' is not contained in the open strip between p and a.
We conclude that/?' and a' have positive distance in (M, ds2.). Namely,
any connecting curve c' from /?' to a' intersects p and a so that, by (2.5.5),
K{c')>t(c')> f(c) = c.
In (M, ds I), /?' and a' therefore have a common perpendicular. We let c'
be this perpendicular. It follows that
sinh Ka sinh Kb = cosh KK(C') > cosh KC.
The second inequality of the theorem is proved in a similar way, with p' and
a' in (M, dsj), where now p' and a' do not intersect the exterior of the strip
between p and a. It possible that p' and a' intersect or have a common end-
point at infinity. In this case we have sinh coa sinh cob < 1, and the second
inequality of the theorem is trivially true. O
46 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 5

2.5.10 Corollary. Under the hypothesis of Theorem 2.5.9, we have

cosh KC > coth KOC coth Kp,
cosh coc < cothfya coth cop.

Proof. Twice applying the first inequality of Theorem 2.5.9 (with cyclic
permutation) yields

cosh2Kp < sinh2 m (cosh 2 *:/?- 1)

< sinh 2 x:a(sinh 2 x}3sinh 2 /cc- 1)
= sinh2 KCC (sinh2 Kp cosh2 KC - cosh2Kp).
This gives the first inequality. The second inequality is proved in the same
way. O

Our final example will be applied in Section 4.2 to obtain a sharp lower
bound for the length of a closed geodesic with transversal self-intersections.

2.5.11 Theorem. For any right-angled convex geodesic hexagon in M =

(M, ds2) with consecutive sides a,y,b, a, c, p, the following hold.
sinh Ka sinh Kb cosh KJ - cosh KCI cosh Kb > cosh KC,
cosh coc > sinhcoa sinh cob cosh co y - coshcoa cosh cob.

Proof. We begin with the second inequality. By the scaling invariance of

curvature x length2, we may assume that co = 1. The idea is to use a compari
son hexagon in the hyperbolic plane. For this we draw the consecutive or
thogonal geodesic arcs a, y, b in H and extend this configuration into a
hexagon. If this is impossible, then we are done because then

1 > sinh a sinh b cosh y - cosh a cosh b.

(Increase y until the hexagon comes into existence, then use Theorem 2.4.1
and observe that the function ?H sinh a sinh/? cosh/ - cosh a cosh/? is

Figure 2.5.2
Ch.2, 5] Variable Curvature 47

monotone increasing.)
Assume therefore that the completion, say a, 7, b, a', c', /?', exists.
Divide both hexagons into right-angled pentagons as shown in Fig. 2.5.2
(the existence of r is proved as in the case of constant curvature with the
Arzela-Ascoli theorem). By the second inequality in Theorem 2.5.9, applied
to the pentagon on the left-hand side of the first hexagon, we have r > r'.
Since sinhr' sinh b[ = cosh a> sinhr sinh/?!, we find that b[ > bx and
b2>b'2. Hence,
cosh c > sinh r sinh b2 ^ sinh r' sinh b'2 = cosh c',
where cosh c' = sinh a sinh b cosh 7 cosh a cosh b.
The first inequality of the theorem will be proved in a similar way, except
that the inequalities obtained at intermediate steps will at the same time be
used to prove that the comparison hexagon exists. For this we assume that
K= 1, that is, we assume the curvature bounds -1 < K < 0.
Draw orthogonal sides a, 7, in H. This configuration can be completed
into a right-angled pentagon a, 7, b{\ r", p'{. (This has been shown in the
proof of Theorem 2.5.9, see Fig. 2.5.1, where a and b play the roles of a
and 7 of Fig. 2.5.2). By Theorem 2.5.9 we have r < r", b{' < bly and b2 <
b2, where b{' + b2 = b. For the same reason, there exists a pentagon with
sides r, b2 in H. Hence, we complete the bigger sides r" and b2 to find the
right-angled pentagon r", b'2\ a", c"> P2, where, by Theorem 2.5.9 and by
the monotonicity of the involved trigonometric functions, c" > c. Pasting the
two pentagons together along r", we get the desired comparison hexagon. O

For better reference we restate the last part as a corollary.

2.5.12 Corollary. Let a, 7, b, a, c, p be a right-angled convex geodesic

hexagon in M, where M is a complete surface of curvature K satisfying - 1 <
K < 0. Then there exists a right-angled convex geodesic hexagon a,y,b,a",
c", P" in H and this hexagon satisfies c">c. o

We do not know whether the inequalities above, which involve the lower
curvature bound, remain valid if the curvature is allowed to assume positive
values. In the proofs we needed the non-positive curvature assumption in
order to work with polar coordinates. In some cases however, stronger
methods can be applied which are not restricted to non-positive curvature. As
an illustration, we apply Toponogov's theorem to prove the following
lemma. (The lemma will be needed in Section 4.3 to extend the collar theo
rem to variable curvature.)
48 Trigonometry [Ch.2, 5

2.5.13 Lemma. Let G be a (simply connected) right-angled geodesic pen

tagon in a surface of arbitrary curvature K > - 1 . Then any pair of adjacent
sides a{,a2 satisfies the relation sinn^ sinh#2 > 1-

Proof. We use the notation of Fig. 2.5.3. A new feature is that we no longer
have the uniqueness theorems for connecting geodesies arcs and per
pendiculars. However, we still have the existence of geodesic arcs in G of
minimal length in the various homotopy classes. This follows, as always,
from the Arzela-Ascoli theorem, now applied to the compact metric space G.
In the arguments which follow, "minimal" is meant with respect to G. Also,
all arcs considered will be arcs in G.
Replace each side a{ of G by a shortest geodesic arc a\ in G having the
same endpoints. Since the arcs have minimal length, they do not intersect
each other, except for the common vertices, and we obtain a geodesic pen
tagon G' in G. We triangulate G' as shown in Fig. 2.5.3(a) with diagonals
which again have minimal length in their homotopy classes. By Toponogov's
comparison theorem (Cheeger-Ebin [1]), there exists a geodesic pentagon G"
in H with sides a" of length {a") = (a[), i = 1,..., 5, such that all interior
angles of G" are less than or equal to the corresponding angles of G'. In par
ticular, all interior angles of G" are less than or equal ion/2.

Figure 2.5.3(a) Figure 2.5.3(b)

In H we drop the perpendiculars aY from A'{ to a5", a2 from A2 to aly

a 3 from A'{ to a2 and a4 from a$ to a 3 (Fig. 2.5.3(b)). We obtain a right-
angled geodesic pentagon G in H with sides a{ of length /(a-) < {a") =
{a\) < {Qi). By virtue of the pentagon formula (Theorem 2.3.4(i)) this
proves the lemma. O
Ch.2, 6] The Quaternion Model 49

2.6 Appendix: The Hyperboloid Model Revisited

In this section we describe a more algebraic aspect of the hyperboloid model

of the hyperbolic plane. The new feature is the vector product associated with
the bilinear form h. This will allow the unification of the hyperbolic plane and
its isometry group into a quaternion algebra which one may call the quater
nion model of the hyperbolic plane. As an application we prove the triple
trace theorem (Theorem 2.6.16 and Corollary 2.6.17) and an improved ver
sion of the general sine and cosine laws of Thurston [1] (Theorem 2.6.20).

The Quaternion Model

As in Section 2.1 we consider the bilinear form h:: R 3 x R 3 > R given by

h(X, Y) = xxyx + x?y2 - ,T3y3.
h is a symmetric bilinear form of signature (2, 1). To simplify the notation
we shall write
h(X, Y) = XY.

R3 together with this product will be denoted by #*0.

In Section 2.1 the hyperboloid model was introduced as the surface

H={X e !H0\h(X,X) = -l,x3>0}.

The geodesies are the sets H n T, where T i s a plane through the origin of
9-CQ. Using the action of Q (cf. Lemma 2.1.4), we easily check that if
C G # o - {0} is a vector ft-orthogonal to T, then h(Ct C) > 0. Conversely,
for every non-zero vector C with h(C, C) > 0, the //-orthogonal plane F o f C
intersects H in a geodesic. We may thus say that C represents a geodesic
whenever h(C, C) > 0, and C represents a point whenever h(C, C) < 0. This
leads to the following

2.6.1 Definition. A vector X e # 0 - {0} is point-like if h(X, X) < 0,

geodesic-like if h(X, X) > 0, and infinity-like if h(X, X) = 0.

Our point of view is to see H^ as an example of hyperbolic geometry with the

basic geometric quantities: points and lines represented by point-like and geo
desic-like vectors. For this we call vectors equivalent if and only if they differ
by a non-zero factor. The equivalence classes of the point-like, geodesic-like
and infinity-like vectors are respectively the points, the geodesies (or lines)
50 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

and the points at infinity. As usual we shall identify equivalence classes with
their representatives. The set of all points, lines and points at infinity is
denoted by 9('.

2.6.2 Definition. Two vectors X, Y e 9(0 - {0}, along with the equiva
lence classes represented by these vectors, are called incident iffXY = 0.

To compare this with the hyperboloid model H, we use the following nota
tion. If X is point-like we denote by X* the intersection point of H with the
straight line spanned by X. If X is geodesic-like we denote by X* the geode
sic in H which is cut out by the /^-orthogonal plane of X. In this way we have
a natural one-to-one correspondence between the points and lines of 9C and
the points and geodesies of H. Finally, if X is infinity-like we denote by X*
the straight line spanned by X and call X* a point at infinity of H.
We now interpret the above incidence relation. If X e 9(0 is point-like, we
may, by virtue of Lemma 2.1.4 (the twice transitivity of Q), assume thatX =
(0, 0, 1) and then easily check that X is incident with Y if and only if Y is
geodesic-like with the corresponding geodesic Y* containing the point X*.
If X is infinity-like, then X can be incident with Y in exactly two cases: (i)
Y* = X*, and (ii) Y is geodesic-like and X* is an endpoint at infinity of the
geodesic Y*. (Again use Lemma 2.1.4.)
If both X and Y are geodesic-like, then X and Y are incident if and only if
the geodesies X* and Y* are orthogonal.
With our definition of incidence we can restate and complete Theorems
1.1.4 - 1.1.6 as follows.

2.6.3 Theorem. If a and p are distinct elements ofM', then there exists a
unique y e 0i' which is incident with a and p.

Proof. Check the various cases, or wait until the end of the proof of
Theorem 2.6.7. O

The theorem becomes more tangible if we introduce as a new tool the vector
product associated with h.
Let I = (1, 0, 0), 3 = (0, 1, 0) and %= (0, 0, 1). Then {I, 3 X} is an or-
thonormal basis of Of^ in the sense that 13 = l%- 3%= 0 and
11= 33= -%X= I-
2.6.4 Definition. The vector product associated with h is the unique anti
symmetric bilinear mapping A : 9(0 x !tf0 > 9(0 satisfying
Ch.2, 6] The Quaternion Model 51

lAj=0t, IAX=J, J7A3C=-J.

In the following lemma, det(A, B, C) is the determinant of the matrix formed

by the coordinate vectors of A, B,C with respect to the basis {I, J, %}.

2.6.5 Lemma. The vector product has the following properties:

(i) (A A B)C = A(B A C) = -det(A, B, C),
(ii) A A (B A C) = (AB)C - (AC)B,
(AAB)AC= (BC)A - (AC)B,
(iii) (AAB)(CAD)= (AD)(BC)-(AC)(BD),
(iv) (A A B) is h-orthogonal to A and B.

Proof. By the linearity in all arguments it suffices to check (i) and the first
identity in (ii) on the above orthonormal basis. The second identity in (ii) is a
consequence of the first, (iii) is a consequence of (i) and the first identity in
(ii). The final statement, (iv), is a consequence of (i). O

From the lemma follows that up to a factor 1 the vector product A is inde
pendent of our particular choice of the orthonormal basis {7, J, 9}. In fact,
let A, B, C be /z-orthonormal vectors. Then from the incidence relations (or
by using Q) we see that two of the vectors are geodesic-like and one is point
like. We may therefore assume that AA =BB = -CC = 1. By (iii) we have
(A A B)(A AB) = - 1 . Therefore, by (iv), A A B = eC with e = 1. Now (i)
and (iv) imply A A C = sB and B A C = eA. Hence, the vector product
based on {A, B, C } differs from A only by the factor e.
As in the Euclidean case we have the following lemma.

2.6.6 Lemma. A A B = 0 iff A and B are linearly dependent.

Proof. For each B = bYI+ b2J+b3%i the linear mapping A h- A A B is rep

resented by the following matrix (operating on column vectors) with respect
to the basis {I,J,2C}
( 0 -b3 b2 \
\ b3 0 -bx\.
\b2 -bx 0 )

UB^O, this matrix has rank 2, so the kernel of this mapping consists of the
multiples of B. O

Here is a first application of the vector product.

52 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

2.6.7 Theorem. If A,B e 9{0 represent distinct elements of 9(', then

A AB represents the unique element which is incident with A andB.

Proof. By Lemma 2.6.6 we have A A B * 0. By Lemma 2.6.5(iv) A A B is

incident with A and B. If C is another vector incident with A and B, then by
Lemma 2.6.5(ii), (A A B) A C = 0. By Lemma 2.6.6, C is a multiple of
A A B, i.e. C and A A i? represent the same element of 9{'. This proves the
theorem. At the same time this provides a proof of Theorem 2.6.3. O

Let us next look at the isometries of !tf0, or, more precisely at the endomor-
phisms of !H0 which preserve h. It is not difficult to check that the subgroup
Q c GL(3, R) of Section 2.1 acts by isometries and preserves the vector
product. However, we want to redevelop the isometries in a more algebraic
way which uses quaternions. We begin by adding an additional dimension to
!HQ by taking the direct sum of vector spaces:
?{={A = a+A\a eR,A e ?{0}.

9{\s a vector space with basis {1, I, J, 1Q. The vector product is extended to
.T/'as follows.

2.6.8 Definition. For A, B e J{0 we define

A*B=AB+AAB,

and for JZ = a+A, <B = b+B e #wedefine

A * <B = ab + aB + bA + A * B.

This is the distributive extension of all previous products and we check that
^"together with + and * is an algebra. More precisely, -?Hs a quaternion al
gebra of type (1,1) (Vigneras [3]). (.? *) is the quaternion model of hyper
bolic geometry.

The hyperbolic plane in this model is the set of all equivalence classes of
point-like vectors of 9(0 a 9(. The geodesies are the equivalence classes of
the geodesic-like vectors. Since we identify equivalence classes by their rep
resentatives, we may rephrase this by saying that Mcontains the hyperbolic
plane and that ^falso contains the geodesies. We next describe how the
isometries sit in #"and how the various relationships may be expressed in
terms of the algebra.
The following are basic concepts of quaternion algebras (for a general
introduction to quaternion algebras and applications to Riemann surfaces we
refer to Vigneras [3]).
Ch.2, 6] The Quaternion Model 53

2.6.9 Definition. For every ft = a + A e i#we define the quaternion

conjugate ft:=a- A, the norm n(ft) := ft *ft, and the trace ti(ft) := a.

Observe that the trace allows us to rewrite the product h on 9(0 in terms of the
quaternion algebra:
h(A,B)=AB = tr(A*), A,B e tf0.
2.6.10 Lemma, tr : #" R is a vector space homomorphism. Quaternion
conjugation is a vector space homomorphism which satisfies the rule
ft* <B = <B*A,
and n : #"> R is a multiplicative homomorphism with respect to *.

Proof. Clearly, trace and conjugation are vector space homomorphisms, and
the rule is easily checked on the basis vectors 1, I, .7 and %.. With this rule
we compute n(ft * <B) = ft* <B* ft* 'B = ft* <B *<B*ft = ft* nifyft =
n(ft)n((B). O

We introduce the subsets 9(l and J(~x.

2.6.11 Definition.
Hx ={a+A e 9{\a2-AA = 1}, Wx = {a + A e 9(\ a2 - AA = - 1 } .
Since n is a ^-homomorphism, 9(l and 9(l u 9-C~l are groups with respect
to *. For ft - a + A e 9{l u ^C~l the inverse ft'1 is given by
ft~l=a-A if fte 9{\ ft~l = -a+A if fte 9<~l.
For j ? G ^ ' u #"_1 and $ e # w e compute that
tr(JT * * <B * ft) = tr(#).
Since 9{0 is the set of quaternions with trace zero, it follows that 9ix and
9-(l u 9{~l act on 9(Q by conjugation (conjugation in the sense of groups).
Moreover, the following is also true.

2.6.12 Lemma. For each ft e 9(l KJ 9(~l the vector space endomorphism
X\-^> ft~l *X*ft,X e 9-C0 is an isometry with respect to h. This isometry
commutes with the vector product.

Proof. We use the fact that for X, Y e 0i^ the bilinear form h can be written
as h(X, Y) = tr(X * Y) (see above). Hence h(ft~l * X * ft, ft'1 * Y * ft) =
tr(^ _1 * X * ft * ft~l * Y * ft) = ix{ft-x * X * Y * ft) = h(X, Y). This proves
54 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

the first claim. The equation X AY = X *Y- h(X, Y) proves the second
claim O

Note in particular that for Si e 9{~l conjugation with Si is commutative and

not, as on might expect, anticommutative with the vector product. For the
action of Si e 0ix u 9-(~l on ^C0 we use the notation

ft-1 *X*Si = A[X].

In axiomatic geometry the isometries are studied by looking at the half-

turns (point symmetries) and the reflections (axial symmetries). This is easy
to undertake in 9i. In the following, 8 is either 1 or - 1 .

2.6.13 Proposition. Let A e !H0 with AA = -S. Set Si = A and interpret

A as an element of9{8 acting on 9(0 by conjugation. Then
(i) A[A]=A,
(ii) J?L[X] = -Xfor all X e ?C0 which are incident with A.

Proof, (i) is clear. For (ii), with Lemma 2.6.5 we compute that

(iii) A[X] = -28{AX)A - X

and recall that, by definition, X is incident with A if and only if AX = 0. O

If we interpret Si as acting on H' and denote, as earlier, by A*, X*, etc. the
elements in H' represented by A, X, etc., then (iii) shows that SA & id.
Moreover, JAis a half-turn about A* if A is point-like (it fixes each geodesic
X* through A*), and SA is a symmetry with axis A* if A is geodesic-like (it
fixes the points X* on A* and the geodesies Y* orthogonal to A*).
The two-fold transitive action of tHl on 0-C' can now be proved in the
same way as in axiomatic geometry:
If X* and F* are points, we can chose the representatives X and Y in
# o such that XX = YY and such that XY < 0. This implies that (X + Y) is
again point-like and we can further normalize the representatives such that, in
addition (X + Y)(X + Y) = - 1 . The proposition below will show that under
these normalizations (X + 7)* is the mid-point of X* and Y* and, if (X + Y)
is interpreted as an element of Hx, then (X + Y) is the half-turn about
(X + Y)* which interchanges X* and Y*.
Similarly, if X* and 7* are geodesies, we can choose the representatives X
and Y such that XX = YY and (X + Y)(X + Y) = 1. The following proposition
will show that (X + Y)* is either an angle bisector or the median of X* and
Y*, and that (X + Y), if seen as element of #* _1 , is the symmetry with axis
(X + Y)* and interchanges X* and Y*.
Ch.2, 6] The Quaternion Model 55

2.6.14 Proposition. Let X,Ye9{0 be linearly independent such that XX

= YY and (X + Y)(X + Y) = -8, where S = 1. Set A = (X + Y). Then A,
when seen as an isometry, satisfies the following relations.
A[X] = Y, R[Y] = X and &\X A F] = -X A Y.
Proof. This is obtained by a straightforward computation. The statement
about X AY can also be concluded from Proposition 2.6.13 because X A Y is
incident with X and Y (cf. Theorem 2.6.7). O

For every A e 9-C1 KJ 9f~l the action of A on !H' coincides with the action of
- i L By looking at the fixed points (respectively, the fixed geodesies) we see
that the kernel of the action is {1} and that 9ix / {1} can be identified with
the group Q of Section 2.1.
In order to see the relation between 90 and the isometries in the upper
half-plane model we associate with each basis vector of 0-( a (2 x 2) matrix as
follows.

,,6,5, , ( - ) . , ( ; ) , , ( ; : ) . * ( : ) .
This mapping extends to an isomorphism between the quaternion algebra 9(
and GL(2, R), and the restriction to 9{l is an isomorphism between !Hl and
SL(2, R).

Resume. The quaternion algebra ^contains the points, the lines and the
points at infinity in the subset 9(0\ the incidence of elements X,Y E 9f0 is
given by the relation tr(X * Y) = 0; and the isometries are contained in
9-tl u H~l which acts twice transitively by conjugation.

A Trace Relation

We postpone the introduction of distances and angles to the end of the section
and now prove, as a first application, a theorem about traces in finitely
generated subgroups of SL(2, R). We start with a more general version in

Consider n distinct elements X{, ..., Xn e 9fx, (e.g. generators of a dis

crete subgroup). We can write words in Xx, ..., Xn as follows. Let m e N,
and consider a finite sequence
co=vl,nl, v2,rt2, ..., vm,nm,
where every vi is an index, v,- e { 1 , . . . , } , and every n{ is an exponent,
56 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

nt e Z, / = 1 , . . . , m. Then write
w = wa(xl, ...,x) = x;'*x*...*x;.
We want to express this word in a different form using the traces from the
following list
trX,-, j = l,...,rc,
tr(X f *X,), 1 </<;<,
tr(Xf * Xy * Xk), \<i<j<k<n.

For simplicity we rewrite this list as a sequence Tj, . . . , rN, where T, =

rl(Xl, . . . , Xn), i = 1 , . . . , N. (Later on, the group elements Xly . . . , Xn will
be varied.) The following theorem has its roots in Fricke-Klein [1], p. 366.

2.6.16 Theorem. (Triple trace theorem I). For every sequence co-vv nx,
v2, n2, -., vm, nm as defined above, there exists a sequence of real polyno
mial functions
fi=fi(xl, ...,%), / = 0,..., nt
fij = / / / * i ' ' % ) ' \<i<j^n
N
{(xx,..., xN) R ) which depend only on co such that any word W =
W^pf!, . . . , Xn) with X l 5 . . . , Xn e 9{l can be written in the form

W =/ 0 (T 1 , . . . , % ) + Xm, , % ) * / + 2 / i / T , , . . . , T^X,- * Xj.

i ><j

Proof. We first consider some elementary relations. If Xi = xt + Xt with xt -

tr(Xf) and X; e #"0, then X,"1 = x{ - X, = 2xt - X,-. This yields the relation

(1) Xr^ltrXi-Xi,
and since X,- <= ^ , w e have

(2) XiX^^iXi)-!.
If Xj = Xj + Xj, then, by the definition of the * -product,

(3) X,Xj = tr(X,- * Xj) - u(Xi MXj).

We also compute that
(4) Xi A Xj = Xi * Xj - tr(X; )Xj - tr(X,- )Xt - tr(Xf * X) + 2tr(X,- MX).
Finally, if X^ = xk + X^, then

(5) tr(Xt * Xj * Xk) = x{XjXk + xkX{Xj + xiXjXlc + xjXiXk + (Xt A XpXk.

The theorem is now proved by a straightforward induction: if W = X* 1 , the
Ch.2, 6] A Trace Relation 57

claim follows from (1). Assume therefore that the claim holds for W and let
W' = W * X*1 for some k. By (1) we may assume that W = W * Xk. Then
W =f0Xk + XfX^X, + ZfijXfX^ .
i i<j

By (2), (3) and (4), we can rewrite each term Xt * Xk in the form given in the
theorem. The same is verified for the terms Xt * Xj * Xk if we apply (5) to
(XiAXj)Xk and use that ^ A ^ A I ^ ^ X ^ - I I A ) ^ (Lemma
2.6.5(ii)). Hence, W can be rewritten in the desired form. O

With the isomorphism 9{l -^ SL(2, R) given by (2.6.15) we immediately

obtain the following.

2.6.17 Corollary. (Triple trace theorem II). Let vx, nl% v2, n2, . . . , vw, nm,
be a sequence as given above. Then there exists a polynomial function f' =
/(x^ . . . , % ) such that for any sequence A j, ..., An e SL(2, R) the word

has trace tr W = / ( T 1 , ..., TN), where T1? ..., rN is the sequence of all traces
trAh trA^y, trA^A^, 1 < i <j < k < n.

Proof. Use the correspondence given by (2.6.15) and observe that the trace
of each !A. e 9{l is half the trace of its corresponding matrix in SL(2, R). O

The General Sine and Cosine Formula

The final step in this essay is to introduce length and angular measure and
then to give a new proof of the general sine and cosine formulae of Thurston
[l],p.218.
Our point of view is that most frequently, a trigonometric formula has to
be applied to a configuration given by a drawn figure. We have therefore
tried to find a formula together with an adjustment rule so that a reader who is
used to reading figures may conveniently adjust the general formula to the
given configuration.
It turns out that there are quite tedious sign conventions. In order to make
them more applicable, we have decided to introduce oriented points and ori
ented arcs, but work with non-oriented measures. The orientations will then
be used in the adjustment rule in order to rewrite the formula for the given
case. The so adjusted formula then applies to the non-oriented lengths and
angles.
58 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

The general sine and cosine law will be given in Theorem 2.6.20. Prior to
it there will be a rule telling how to set arrows in the figure, and a list (Fig.
2.6.1) telling how to interpret the terms occurring in the general rule. The
definitions which now follow are only needed for the proof.
For U G ^ 0 w e denote again by U* the element in the hyperboloid H rep
resented by U (cf. the paragraph after Definition 2.6.2). Q is the twice transi
tive group generated by the isometries La and Mp as defined in (2.1.2).
To orient the geodesies we first consider the case U = I. Here i* is a geo
desic in H which passes through the point p0 = (0, 0, 1) in an /j-orthogonal
plane of I. We parametrize I* with unit speed such that the tangent vector at
p0 becomes - J. This introduces an orientation on i* and we let V denote the
geodesic I* together with this orientation. If U e 9-C0 is an arbitrary geodesic-
like vector, normalized so that UU = 1, then there exists an isometry 0 e Q
which sends I to U and I* to U*> and we denote by U the geodesic U*
together with the orientation induced from V by 0. We abbreviate this by
writing

u = (f>(r).
Note that with our convention the tangent vector of J at/? 0 is 1. Since every
isometry of Q which fixes /also fixes the orientation of I\ this definition is
independent of the particular choice of 0, and the following compatibility with
Q holds:

W{U) = (Y(U)y far all f e a

Finally, if U is geodesic-like satisfying UU = a2,a> 0, then we define U =
(U/a). Note that (-C/) has opposite orientation.
To define the orientation of a point, we let U e !tf0 be a point-like vector
and denote by U the point U* e H together with an orientation which is
defined to be positive if U%< 0 (i.e. if U has a positive third component) and
negative otherwise. Again (-U) has the opposite orientation of U.
Points at infinity will not be considered.
In the figures which follow, we adopt the following conventions. The ori
entation of a geodesic will be marked by an arrow (indicating the sense of the
parametrization), and the orientation of a point will be marked by an oriented
curve which goes around the point in the counterclockwise sense if the ori
entation is positive and in the clockwise sense otherwise. This convention
commutes with the action of Q: if V = *{U) with f e Q, then marking V in
the figure is the same as first marking U and then letting f operate on the
figure. Finally, we adopt the convention that a counterclockwise rotation of
n/2 is needed to rotate I" into J. (This is our definition of counterclock
wise.)
Ch.2, 6] The General Sine and Cosine Formula 59

In the next step we introduce a non-oriented measure and a. parity for each
of the following configurations (cf. Fig. 2.6.1 further down): (1) an angle
flanked by two oriented geodesic arcs, (2) a geodesic arc flanked by two ori
ented perpendicular geodesies, (3) a geodesic arc flanked by two oriented
points, (4) a geodesic arc flanked by an oriented point and an oriented per
pendicular geodesic.
If the geodesic arcs in (1) intersect in opposite directions the curve marking
the orientation of the vertex, then we define the parity 8 of the configuration
to be l.Jf the intersections are in the same direction we set 8= - 1 . For the
configurations (2) - (4), the parity is defined in a similar way (cf. Fig.
2.6.1). Note that in case (3) the parity is 1 if both endpoints have the same
orientation. We also remark that the parity is preserved under the action of Q.
We next define the non-oriented measures. To simplify the notation we use
the following abbreviation for X G 9{0\
|X| = (|XX|)1/2.
2.6.18 Definition and Remarks. (1) First let U" and V with U,
V G 9-C0 be the oriented geodesies intersecting at/? G H and carrying the geo
desic arcs of the first configuration. There exists a unique (j> G Q and a unique
oe [-7ty n[ such that 0Q?) = p0, <t>{U) = 1, <t>({-8V)) = La(I), where 8
denotes the parity and L0 is the rotation as in (2.1.2) with fixed point p0 and
angle <r. We define a = I a I to be the measure of the angle flanked by U and
V. This is just the ordinary angular measure and is independent of the orien
tations of the arcs. Using cp we easily check that UV = -8 cos a I U\ I V\ and
IU A V\ = sin a I U\ I V\. For this configuration we define
C(a) := cos a, S(a) := sin a,
(2) Now let U and V be oriented geodesies in H having a common per
pendicular, say y. There exists a unique 0 G Q and a unique a > 0 such that 0
sends the intersection point of U and y to p0 and the intersection point of
V and y to Ma(p0), where Ma is the isometry from (2.1.2) with axis J and
displacement length a. We define a to be the distance from U to V. Again
using 0, we verify the two equations UV = -8 cosh a I U\ I V\ and \U AV\ =
sinh a \ U\ I V\. Here we define
C(a) := coshtf, S(a) := sinh a.
(3) If U and V are the oriented endpoints of a geodesic arc, we have a
unique <j> e Q and a unique a > 0 such that 0 sends U* to p0 and V* to
Ma(p0), (disregarding the orientations). We define a to be the distance of
U and V\ and check that UV= -8 cosh a \U\Wl \U AV\ = sinha M l VI.
Here we define
60 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

C(a) := cosh a, S(a) := sinha.

(4) The remaining case is that U is a point and V a geodesic (or vice-
versa). We let y be the (non-oriented) geodesic through U orthogonal to
V. There exist uniquely determined <f> e Q and a > 0, satisfying <p{U*) = p0
and (f)(V0 ny) = Ma(p0). (Again we disregard the orientation of curves.) We
define a to be the distance from the point to the geodesic. In contrast to the
above cases (1) - (3) we now have UV = -S sinh# IU\ IV\ and \U AV\ =
cosh a I U\ IVI, and we define
C(a) := sinhtf, S(a) := coshtf. o

Using the above isometries 0 e Qy we check that in cases (2) - (4) the
arrow which marks the orientation of (U A V) points from U to V if the parity
is - 1 , and from V to U if the parity is +1. This is also true in case (1) if the
arrow of the marking curve is drawn on the part which is inside the angular
region of angle a flanked by the two geodesic arcs. We abbreviate this fact by
saying that (-8U A V) points from U to V. The above arguments yield:

2.6.19 Lemma. In each of the configurations (1) - (4) the following hold.
UV = -SC(a)\U\\V\,
\UAV\ = S(a)\U\Wl
and (-8U A V) points from U toV. O

C(a) cos a,
(1) S(a) sin a,

C(a) coshtf,
(2)
S(a) sinha,

(3) o
M C(a)
S(a)
cosh a,
sinha,

C(a) sinhtf,
(4)
^ S(a) coshtf.

5=1 8=-l
Figure 2.6.1
Ch.2, 6] The General Sine and Cosine Formula 61

Rule for setting the arrows. Let a generalized triangle a, y, b, a, c, p in

H be given. Mark each element of angle type by a small arc connecting the
adjacent sides and contained in the sector of angle < n as shown in Fig.
2.6.2. Then orient a, y, etc. by setting arrows in such a way that a points
from p to 7, 7 points from a to b, and so on (cf. Fig. 2.6.2). The configura
tions pay, ayby yba, etc. now have well defined parities which we denote by
8a, 8y, 8b, etc. Finally, we define ey = 1 if 7 is a geodesic arc, and ey = - 1 if
7 is an angle.

K K
Figure 2.6.2

2.6.20 Theorem. With the above definitions each generalized triangle a,

7, b, a, c, p satisfies the cosine law
C(c) = eY8a8b8c [ 8yS(a)S(b)C(y) - C(a)C(b) ]

and the sine law

S(fl) : S(a) = S(Z?): S(j5) = S(c) : S(y).

Proof. Choose A,B,C e 9f0 with \A I = \B\ = | C | = 1 such that with

respect to the given orientations A0 = a, B = p, C = 7 (recall that IXI =
\XX\1/2y Lemma 2.6.5(iii) implies that

(AB)(CC) = (BA C)(C AA) + (BC)(CA).

From Lemma 2.6.19 we have

AB = -8cC(c), BC = -8aC(a), CA = -8bC(b),

\BAC\ = S(fl), {-8^AC) = fl, '
\CAA\ = S(/7), HCAA) = b\

where a and b are the oriented geodesies carrying a and & and having the
orientations of a and b. By the first relation of Lemma 2.6.19 we have there
fore
62 The Hyperboloid Model Revisited [Ch.2, 6

8MB A Q(C AA)= -8rC(y)\B A C\ IC A AI = -8yC(y)S(a)S(b),

and the cosine law follows. To prove the sine law we note from Lemma
2.6.19 and Lemma 2.6.5 that
S(y)\B A C| \C A A\ = \(B A Q A (C A A)I = ldet(A, 5, C)|.
Hence S(c) : S(y) = U A B\ \B A C\ \C A A I : |det(A, B, C)\, where the
right-hand side is invariant under cyclic permutation. O

As an example we compute the cosine formula for the generalized triangles in

Fig. 2.6.2. In the first triangle the signs are ey = 1, 8a = 8b = 1, 8C = 8y= - 1 .
The formula becomes
coshc = sinh a sin b sinh y + cosh a cos b.
In the second triangle the signs are ey= - 1 , 8b = Sc = 8y = 1, 8a = - 1 . The
formula becomes
cose = cosh a cosh b cosy - sinh a sinh/?.
One may now again compute the formulae for the configurations in the earlier
sections. We recall that in the present section the angles and sides have non-
oriented measures. When oriented measures are used, as for example in
(2.3.2), then the signs in the formula must be adjusted accordingly.
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