Isometric Drawing 00 Jam I Rich

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ISOMETRIC DRAWING
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ISOMETRIC DRAWING
A TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ILLUSTRATING
DEALING WITH TYPICAL CONSTRUC-
TIONS AND OUTLINING
A COURSE IN THE ART
BY
ALPHA PIERCE JAMISON, M.E.

Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Purdue University ; Junior Member of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Author of "Elements of
Mechanical Drawing" " Advanced Mechanical Drawing," etc.
MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

239 WEST 39TH STREET, XEW YORK
6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.C.
1911
Copyright, 1911
BY
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
PREFACE
THE writer has been a teacher of mechanical drawing since

the year 1895; during this time it has been his privilege and
pleasure to instruct many students.
As a part of the course administered, each student has been
given some instruction and practice in Isometric Drawing; this
practice has been limited, because of lack of time to devote to
it (most of the time assigned being given to straight mechanical
drawing), but has always been of interest to, and appreciated
by, the student.
Isometric Drawing is growing in popular usefulness, and one
can hardly pick up a technical paper or magazine without
finding one or more examples; its convenience and its adaptabil-
ity are being recognized, and a knowledge of its execution is
desirable and necessary for all draughtsmen.
All treatments of the subject known to the writer accompany
a treatise on Descriptive Geometry, or are too short; in every
case the subject is treated with more attention to theory than
to its practicability.
The broad field for its use, its growing popularity, the enthu-
"
siasm with which a student takes hold," and the nature of the
present (known to the writer) texts on the subject have led the
writer to believe that a plain exposition of the
"
How " of the
"
art, with no reference to the Why," may be of some service
to teachers, students, and draughtsmen.
It is, therefore, with the object of presenting the subject
in a new light or way, in the hope that others may find the art
as useful as the writer has found it, in the hope of service, and
" "
not in the nature of a This is better than thine spirit, or in
criticism of what has been written, that this work is offered.
A. P. JAMISON.
PUHDUE UNIVERSITY, WEST LAFAYETTE, IND.,
June 13, 1911.
v
227947
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONS

SECTION PAGE
1. Introductory 1
2. Definitions 1
3. Uses of the Art 3
4. Time element 8
5. Characteristics 9
6. Tools used 10
7. Center lines and axes 11
8. Flexibility 12
CHAPTER II
THE DRAWING OF PLANE FIGURES
9. To draw a square 16
10. To draw a hexagon 16
11. To draw an octagon t
18
12. To draw any polygon 19
13. To draw a circle 20
(a) First method 20
(6) Second method 22
(c) Error of the first method 22
(d) To draw an inscribed hexagon 24
(e) To draw a circumscribed hexagon 24
(/) To draw a series of circles 25
14. To draw an ellipse 26
15. To draw an hyperbola 27
16. To draw a parabola 27
17. To draw an undulating figure 28
1 8. To draw any figure composed of straight lines and circular arcs 28
19. The proper arrangement of all drawings with reference to the center
lines, and the manner of laying off dimensions 30
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
THE DRAWING OF SOLIDS

SECTION PAGE
20. Preparatory 32
21. To draw a rectangular block 33
22. To draw a pyramid of blocks 34
23. To draw an hexagonal prism 35
24. To draw an hexagonal pyramid 35
25. To draw any rectangular solid which is of uniform or similar section . 36
26. To draw any rectangular solid of variable section 38
27. To draw a cylinder 39
28. To draw a cone 40
29. To draw a solid made up of circular arcs and straight lines 40
30. To draw a ring, rectangular in section 41
31. To draw a circular disc with holes in it 43
32. To draw a stepped pulley 44
33. To take out a section 45
34. To draw an eccentric 46
35. To draw an hexagonal nut 47
36. To draw a hollow cylinder with a section removed 48
37. To draw any solid of revolution 49
38. To draw a ring, circular in section 51
39. To draw screw threads 51
40. To draw a sphere 54
CHAPTER IV
A COURSE IN ISOMETRIC DRAWING
41. Explanatory 57
42. Sheet No. 1,
Isometric drawings of some plane figures 58
43. Sheet No. 2,
Isometric drawings of some straight-line objects 60
44. Sheet No. 3,
Isometric drawings of some bench exercises 62
45. Sheet No. 4,
Isometric drawings of some cylindrical objects 64
46. Sheet No. 5,
Isometric drawings of some shop tools 66
47. Suggested sheets 68
48. Remarks,
Dimensioning 68
Enlargement 68
Distortion 68
Shading 69
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONS
1. Introductory.
To understand what is to follow, the reader must possess a
working knowledge mechanical drawing; assuming this much,
of
then, it is proposed to present the Art of Isometric Drawing

with but very little preliminary or preparatory explanation.
Attention is to be given to the way in which a drawing can be
made, rather than to the reasons for doing " thus and so."
Plain and common terms will be used in so far as they can be
found to fit, and in the event a few unfamiliar words are used
they must not be allowed to affect the reader's interest; as a

matter of fact, the art is so simple, having but two principles
or characteristics, that any draughtsman should have little,
if any, difficulty in acquiring it.
Students are urged, therefore, to read this work through

carefully, to study;each successive step, as the subject is developed,
to draw for themselves the several explanatory figures given
in the text, and to further their working knowledge by the
execution of the few plates given for this purpose in Chapter
IV. Such attention will cover all of the essentials, and should
furnish a knowledge of the art sufficient for practical use.
2. Definitions.
From an engineer's standpoint (so designated to distinguish

it from the artist's standpoint), Drawing is divided into four
main divisions, namely: Mechanical Drawing, Perspective Draw-

2
" " DRAWING
PLATE No. 1.
PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONS 3
ing, Isometric Drawing, and Cavalier or Cabinet Projection

or Drawing.
Mechanical Drawing is the art of drawing each separate
face of an object just as and not as it appears, and arrang-
it is
ing the several drawings so as to show the relation of the faces

one to the other; Perspective Drawings are the same as pictures,
and show the object as it appears from a definite viewpoint;
Isometric Drawing is a kind of mechanical-perspective, or
picture; and Cavalier Projection, a kind of mechanic al-isome trie-
perspective drawing.
Plate No. 1 illustrates the four kinds of drawings, Fig. 1
being a two-view mechanical drawing, Fig. 2 (A and B) a

perspective drawing, Fig. 3 an isometric drawing, and Fig. 4
a cabinet drawing. The mechanical drawing requires two
views to show the object (a part of a core box), while the per-
spective drawing (Fig. 2 A), shows it in one view.
In the mechanical drawing all parallel lines of the object
are drawn parallel; in the perspective drawing three faces of
the object are shown in one view; in the isometric drawing
three faces of the object are shown in the one view, and all
parallel lines of the object are shown parallel in the drawing;

in the cabinet drawing one face of the figure is drawn as in the
mechanical drawing, the object are parallel
all parallel lines of
in the drawing, as in isometric drawing, and the figure shows

three faces in one view, the same as the perspective drawing.
While it is must have a knowledge of mechan-
true that one
ical drawing in order to make an isometric drawing, the very
opposite is true as to the reading of the two drawings, as one

with no knowledge whatsoever of the principles of mechanical
drawing is able to readily read an isometric drawing. A per-
spective drawing is easily read by all, but it is hard to make
unless one is more or less of an artist at free-hand work; an
isometric drawing is easily made and readily read by all.
3. Uses of the Art.

Being familiar with the principles of mechanical drawing,
the reader is also acquainted with the wide field for the use of
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
fe a
o y
o
I f
g 3
PLATE No. 2.
such drawings, for manufacturing and erecting purposes, in

the shop and in the field, in books and catalogues, etc. Per-
spective drawing is not much used in engineering drawing, its

field being practically limited to architectural work. It is
" "
often desk-able to picture a machine or machine part or
other object, and because of its adaptability it is here that
isometric drawing finds its use.
Plate No. 2 illustrates a three-view mechanical drawing of
a bench-lathe leg, a perspective drawing of the leg, and an
isometric drawing of the leg. A mechanical drawing is pri-
marily a working drawing and lends itself to dimensioning;
a perspective or isometric drawing is primarily an illustration
or picture and is, in most cases, difficult to dimension. In fact,
a perspective drawing can hardly be said to lend itself to dimen-
sioning at all; an isometric drawing will permit dimensioning,
though it is seldom done.
Because of its similarity to perspective drawing and of the
manner of execution, isometric drawing is sometimes called
"
Mechanical Perspective." Examples of its use are shown as
follows:
1
Fig. 1a copy of an illustration appearing in the Proceed-
is
ings of theAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers (Vol. 29,

page 172), and is one of four similar cuts illustrating a paper
on the " Cost of Heating Store-houses."
2
Fig. 2 is a copy of an illustration appearing hi a catalogue
issued by a manufacturing company of their metal lumber,
showing the framing of a house with then* product.

Fig. 3 is an isometric drawing detailing the entrance to a
building.
Fig. 4 is a " bird's eye " view of an athletic field showing
the enclosing wire fence, the bleachers and grandstand, the
foot-ball and base-ball fields, and the running track.
It is for such work as is illustrated by the just mentioned
Reproduced by permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engi-

1
neers and of Mr. H. O. Lacount, Boston, Mass., author of the paper mentioned.
2
Reproduced by permission of the Berger Manufacturing Company,
Canton, Ohio.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
figures that isometric drawing finds its ready and best use,
that is, in drawings where most of the lines are straight lines
FIG. 3.
and the objects drawn are of a rectangular character. It is

possible, however, to draw many kinds of irregular objects,
as is evidenced by the illustrations of the text.
8 ISOMETRIC DRAWING
4. Time Element.
While isometric drawing is limited to certain uses because
of the nature of the object and the purpose of the drawing,
the real, practical limitation to the art is the time required to
execute the drawings.
The author has on several occasions made comparison of
the time required in which to draw a mechanical drawing and
the time consumed in making an isometric drawing; he has
timed himself, and has taken the time of a number of students,
and finds that, with the exception of very simple rectangular
objects, it requires more time to make an isometric drawing
FIG. 4.
than it does to execute a mechanical drawing the increase in

time required depending entirely upon the nature of the object.
For some very simple objects it was found that an isometric
drawing could be made in a little less time than that required
for making a mechanical drawing; for a large number of simple
rectangular objects, with few curves and circular holes or

cylindrical parts, it was found that the time required for the
two kinds of drawings about balanced; as the object drawn
became more complex, having cylindrical and curved members,
nuts, threads, etc., to draw, the time required varied from
30 to 200 per cent more time for isometric drawings than for
straight mechanical drawings, the average being about 80 per
cent.
PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION* AND EXPLANATIONS 9
In general, therefore, it may be said that isometric drawing

requires from 50 to 100 per cent more time for its execution
than mechanical drawing. Of course, some objects will require
several hundred per cent more time; but it is surprising, in
the field for which it is best adapted and for the purpose for
which the drawing is most used, how many illustrations may be
made with isometric drawings with but very little increase in

time taken over that required for making a mechanical drawing.
5. Characteristics.
It has been stated (Article 1) that isometric drawing has

but two principles. Such a statement is speaking broadly, and
FIG. 5.
"
should be further qualified by adding, which are new to one
already familiar with the principles of mechanical drawing."
Isometric drawing is based on isometric projection, and
isometric projection is the result of a particular kind of pro-
jection and has a certain definite underlying principle. This

work being an exposition of the " How of the art, the develop-
"
ment and the further explanation of the theory are purposely

omitted.
In mechanical drawing the center lines, dimensions, and
reference lines are drawn
horizontally and vertically, and a
view is given for illustrating each face of the object drawn;
in isometric drawing the center lines, tlimensio.ns-aftd-retefence
lines are drawn at an angle with the horizontal and vertical,
10 ISOMETRIC DRAWING
and three faces are shown in one view or drawing. The two
characteristics of isometric drawing, as compared with ordinary
mechanical drawing, are, therefore, the direction of the principal
lines and the showing of the three dimensions of an object in
one view. (See Fig. 5.)
6. Tools Used.
The tools required for making isometric drawings are prac-
tically the same as those needed for ordinary mechanical
FIG. 6.
FIG.
drawing (Fig. 6), the only difference being in the triangles.

The principal lines in isometric drawing are either horizontal,
vertical, or 30 or 60 to the horizontal, and are drawn with
the 30-60 triangle and T-square, the 45 triangle so much used
in mechanical drawing being dispensed with (Fig. 7).
All of the figures given in the text oan be drawn in pencil

with the following tools: A drawing board; a T-square; a
30-60 a pencil compass; an irregular curve; and the
triangle;
necessary paper, pencil, and scale or ruler. To ink the drawings
requires the usual pens and ink.
7. Center Lines and Axes.

Anobject has three dimensions, namely, length, width or
breadth, and height or thickness. In mechanical drawing two
of these dimensions show in any one view, but it requires
a second view to give the third dimension. In isometric draw-
ing three dimensions are given in one view.
In laying out a mechanical drawing it is the usual practice
to work to some reference line. This line is usually a center line,
and is either horizontal or vertical. When two center lines are
used, they are drawn at right angles one to the other. This
method is also used in isometric drawing.
Fig. 8 is an isometric drawing of three planes, a-b-c-d and
e-f-gh being and i-j-k-L a horizontal plane. A
vertical planes
pah- of center lines are show^n drawn on each plane, the lines
5-5 and 6-6 being on the horizontal plane and the lines 3-3,
4-4, 1-1, and 2-2 being on the vertical planes. They are show n
r
in the conventional manner at A, B, and C, respectively. All

of these center lines, regardless of the plane in which they lie,
would be shown in mechanical drawing, as illustrated at D.
The three planes shown are those most usually assumed
in drawing, and it is important that the reader note the char-
acteristics of the three sets of lines, as these lines determine
the plane of the drawing. The lines shown at A are at 30
with the horizontal, are drawn with the T-square and 30 triangle
(the 30 angle of the 30-60 triangle), and are characteristic
center lines for use when drawing on a horizontal plane. The
lines shown at B are drawn, one vertical and one at 30 with
the horizontal (with the T-square and 30 triangle), and are
characteristic center lines for use when drawing on what may
be termed a left-hand vertical plane. The center lines shown
at C are drawn, one vertical and one at an angle of 30 with the
horizontal, and are characteristic center lines for use when

drawing on what may be termed a right-hand vertical plane.
When drawing in any one of the above three planes the draw-
ing is limited to two dimensions only plane figures; to repre-
sent objects with three dimensions solids a third principal
line of reference is used, called an axis. The dashed lines
shown at A, B, and C of Fig. 8 represent such lines, and, as
FIG. 8.
in the cases A, B, and C mentioned above in connection with

characteristic center lines, are characteristic axes for isometric
drawings.
8. Flexibility.
The center lines and axes just described are the basis or base
lines for all isometric drawing, and as long as the relation
between the three lines as shown in Fig. 8 is maintained they
may be drawn at will. For practical purposes the direction
of the lines is determined by -the drawing tools used, the T-square
and triangle. The four usual arrangements are shown at a,
b, c, and d of Fig. 9.
Being thus able to select a number of directions for drawing

PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION A^D EXPLANATIONS 13
the axis of a drawing, isometric drawing permits an object to

be shown in a number of different positions, as illustrated at
FIG. 9.
A, B, C, and D, Fig. 9, and at 5-1, B-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, Fig.

39.
FIG. 10.
In addition to being able to show an object in different

positions, sections may be shown in isometric drawings the same
as in ordinary mechanical drawing.
PLATE No. 3.
Plate 3 illustrates the flexibility of the art: Fig. 1 is a two-

view mechanical drawing of a loose pulley, the face view show-
ing a half section; Fig. 2 is an isometric drawing of the pulley,
showing the same section removed as in Fig. 1 and Figs. 2, 3,

;
and 4 show the pulley in different positions.
drawing of an indicator
Fig. 10 is a three-view mechanical
cock or valve, and an isometric drawing of the same valve.
The drawings show a section of the valve removed to show
the interior.
Plate 3 and Fig. 10, together with the other illustrations
of the text, serve to demonstrate the flexibility of the art.
CHAPTER II
THE DRAWING OF PLANE FIGURES
9. To Draw a Square.
Fig. 11 illustrates a square drawn in different positions,
A
being a mechanical drawing
and drawings B, C, and
drawing
D isometric drawings. Drawing B represents the square as
lying on the horizontal plane;

and drawings C and D as lying
on vertical planes.
To
construct the square (consider drawing ), draw the
center lines 5-5 and 6-6 with the T-square and 30 triangle,
each line being at 30 with
f the Next, as-
horizontal.
suming the square to be V

on a side and working from
the intersection of the center
lines, o, lay off, each way
from the point o, on each
n
center line, a distance of \ ',
or one-half of the length of

FIG. 11. a side of the square, and lo-
cate the points 6, 6 and 5, 5.
Lastly, draw through each of the two points on each center line
a line parallel to the other center line; these lines will meet
and form the required figure, a-b-c-d, as shown.
will
Drawings C and D are drawn in like manner, the only dif-

ference being in the direction of the center lines, which may,
however, be drawn, as before, with the T-square and 30-60

triangle.
10. To Draw a Hexagon.

drawing of a hexagon, drawing
Fig. 12 represents the A
being a mechanical drawing, and drawings B-I, B-2, C, and D
16
THE DRAWING OF PLANE FIGURES 17
isometric drawings. Of the isometric drawings, B-l and B-2

are on horizontal planes and drawings C and D on vertical
planes.
In mechanical drawing the drawings are always drawn
square with the center lines, as shown at A, and not as shown
at E-
}
custom prevails because of the better appearing
this
drawings produced and because of the greater convenience and

speed secured when executing the drawing. This method of
drawing things square with the center lines is followed in iso-
metric drawing.
To construct the hexagon (consider drawing 5-2), first
draw the center lines 5-5 and 6-6 at the angle shown. Now
FIG. 12.
a hexagon has two so-called diameters or dimensions, namely,

the distance between opposite sides or flats, as distance 7-7,
drawing A, and the distance between opposite corners, the

diagonal distance, as distance a-d, drawing A. Second, work-
ing each way from the intersection of the two center lines, o,
lay off one-half of the diagonal distance on one center line,
and one-half of the flat distance or dimension on the other
center line. This gives the points a, d y 5, and 5, respectively,
Third, draw lines through the points obtained by laying off
the flat diameter of the hexagon, the points 5 and 5, and on
each line lay off, each way from
the point through which the
line is drawn, one-half of the length of a side of the hexagon.
This gives the points 6, c, e, and /. Fourth, and lastly, connect
the six points now located, as shown, giving the required figure.
[See also Article 13, (d) and (e).]
11. To Draw an Octagon.

Fig. 13 shows an octagon a mechanical drawing of the
figure at A, an isometric drawing on a horizontal plane at B,
and isometric drawings on vertical planes at C and D.
The figure may be constructed in two ways :
First method (consider drawing C).

Draw the center lines 1-1 and 2-2. On these center lines
"
construct the square of the octagon," b-d-f-h, as shown,
and as explained in Article
9. Next, working from the
intersection of the center
lines, o, lay off each way
on each center line, one-
half of the diagonal distance
or diameter of the octagon.
This gives the points a, c,
e, and g. Lastly, join the
eight points, as show n, and
r
FIG. 13.
form the octagon.
Second method (consider drawing D).
This method is by referring all of the points to the center
lines. In drawing A, consider points a, 6, c, d, e, /, g, and h
projected (perpendicularly) onto the center lines, giving on
center line c-g the points c, x, o, y, and g, and on line a-e the
points a, m, o, n, and e. To draw the isometric drawing D,
firstdraw the center lines as shown, and, working from point
o, lay off on each the corresponding above-mentioned projected
points that is, on line a-e, lay off points a, m, o, n, and e, and
;
on line c-g points c, x, o, y and g. Second, through the points

x and y on line c-g draw indefinite lines (such as lines b-x-d
and h-y-f) parallel to center line a-e. Third, draw indefinite
lines through the points m and n on center line a-e parallel
to center line c-g. These two lines will intersect the pair first
drawn and will locate points b, d, f, and h. The points a, c, e,
THE DRAWING OF PLAXE FIGURES 19
and g, being on the center lines, are fixed, and, to finish the
figure, connect the eight points found, as shown.
When an octagon on a horizontal plane lies within a cir-
cumscribing circle, the construction of the figure is much

simplified thereby. In such a
case, Fig. 14, first draw the
center lines 5-5 and 6-6. Sec-
ond, draw the circumscribing

circle (the construction of a
circle is given in Article 13).
Third, draw a horizontal and
a vertical line through the
intersection of the center lines,
point o. Fourth, and lastly, join the eight points in which the
center lines and the last drawn two lines cut the circumference
of the circle. 1 It is obvious that a similar construction can
be applied when drawing on a vertical plane
12. To Draw Any Polygon.
Fig. 15 represents the construction of a ten-sided figure and
of figure, and is typical of any polygon.
a fifteen-sided The
"
method shown is what may be called plotting," and is based
on the reference of all points to the center lines. In any plane
figure each and every point has two dimensions, so to speak.
For example, a point is so far from each of the two center lines;
in drawing A-l, point c is c-5 (or 4-0) distance from the vertical
center line, and c-4 (or 5-o) distance from the horizontal center
line. Xow if these distances are known, they may be laid off
on the center a line drawn through the point on one center
lines,
line parallel to the other center line, and the point located by
the intersection of the lines drawn.
To construct the fifteen-sided figure :
In drawing A-2, project all of the points onto the vertical
center line (giving points a, 15, 16, 17, o, 18, 19, 20, and 21),
then all onto the horizontal center line (giving points 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, o, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14). Second, draw the iso-
1
The isometric drawing of a circle is an ellipse, but is spoken of as a
" circle."
metric center lines a-21 and 1-14 (drawing B-2), and, working
from their point of intersection, o, lay off the points a, 15, 16,
17, o, 18, 19, 20, and 21 on the line a-21 and the points 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, o, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 on the line 1-14. Third,

draw lines through the points on line a-21 parallel to line 1-14,
then lines through the points on line 1-14 parallel to line a-21.
The intersection of the two lines drawn through the point on each
of the two center lines obtained (at the start) by the projection
of any corner onto the center lines, locates the point in question,
and the series of lines the several points a, 6, c, d, etc. Lastly,
join the points as shown.
a-l
FIG. 15.
In cases where the necessary dimensions for executing the

drawing cannot, readijy be obtained from the object, it is neces-
sary to first construct a mechanical drawing of the part or detail
in question, to draw the center lines of the figure, and to pro-
ject the point or points on these lines (as in drawings A-l and
A-2)', then take up the isometric drawing, using the distances
or dimensions thus obtained for its construction.
13. To Draw a Circle.
Figs. 16 'and 17 are drawings of a circle, and represent two

methods of construction.
(a) First method. ^

Fig. 16, illustrates the mechanical drawing of a circle (draw-
ing A) and the isometric drawing of a circle (drawings B, C and

D), drawing B being on a horizontal plane and drawings C
and D on vertical planes.
To construct the figure (consider drawing B), first draw the
center lines a-b and c-d, each at 30 with the horizontal. Second,
working from the intersection of the two center lines, o, lay off
on each center line, each way from
point o, a distance equal
to the radius of the circle. This gives points a, 6, c, and d.
Third, through each of the two points on each center line draw
a line parallel to the other center line. These four lines will
form a diamond-shaped figure (a parallelogram), 1-2-3-4.
FIG. 16.
Fourth, with the point 2 as a center and the distance from the
point to the middle of the opposite side of the parallelogram,
distance 2-c, as a radius, describe the arc'c-6. Fifth, with the
point 4 as a center and a radius equal to the distance from the
point to the middle of the opposite side of the parallelogram
as a radius, distance 4-J, describe the arc a-d. Sixth, draw
the diagonal of the parallelogram, the line 1-3, and where
this line intersects the lines 2-c and 4-d, the points x and y,
take new centers and, with a radius equal to the distance from
either point to the middle of the nearest sides of the parallelogram
such as distances x-c or y-d, draw the arcs a-c and b-d, com-
pleting the ellipse a-d-b-c the isometric representation of the
circle.
" "
The ellipse or circle in drawing C or D, the plane of
which is drawn in a manner
vertical, is similar to that just
described. The method just explained is an approximate
method.
(6) Second method.
Fig. 17 illustrates a second method of constructing an iso-
metric drawing of a circle. In the figure, drawing is a mechan- A
ical drawing and drawing B an isometric drawing. The method
shown is similar to that employed in Fig. 15 and described in
Article 12, and
what has been termed plotting.
is
To construct the figure, first draw the mechanical drawing

of the circle (A), divide the circumference into any number
FIG. 17.
of points, project these points onto the center lines, then take
up the isometric drawing. In this (drawing B), the center

lines are drawn; the points of division, V, a, 6, c, o } etc., obtained
by the projection of the points of division of the circle onto the

center lines (drawing A), laid off; lines drawn through the
points of division as show n; the points 4, 5, 6, etc., located by
r
the intersection of the lines; and the closed curve V, 4, 5, 6,

etc., obtained by drawing a smooth curve through the points
found all as suggested and shown by the figure.
The method is an exact method.
just described
(c) Error cf the first method.
The two methods given for making an isometric drawing
of circle are shown applied in Fig. 18, the circle (so called)
a
a-b-c-d being drawn by the first, or approximate, method, and
the circle a-e-b-f-c-g-d-h drawn by the second, or exact,

method.
An inspection of the figure shows that the approximate
method gives a representation which is shorter and wider than
FIG. 18.
that obtained by the exact method. The approximate method,

being the easier of application, is the one used practically, and
because of its two errors sometimes leads to slight comph* ca-
tions in the construction of drawings; for example, when the
circle joins or fits into or about some other figure or part, as
when drawing a sphere, a circumscribing or inscribed circle, etc.
Fig. 19 illustrates a circle drawn by the two methods already
given, the dotted curve being drawn by the approximate method
and the full-line curve by the
exact method; also, the draw-
ing of a hexagon, in two posi-
tions, about the true circle
(Article 10). Theparticular

points to be noted in this
figure are that in either hexa-
gon the length of each of the FIG. 19.
two sides which are parallel
with one of the center lines (a-b and d-e or h-4 and k-T) is the
true length of a side of the hexagon, and that each of these
two lines (a-b and d-e, or h-i and k-l) is symmetrical with the
center line (being divided into two, a-b and d-e at H, and h-i
and k-l at V).
Fig. 20 illustrates a circle drawn by the approximate method,
and an inscribed (the dashed-line figure) and a circumscribed
(the full-line figure) hexagon. The dotted hexagon A'-B'-C-D'

-E -F
f
is a correct drawing of the circumscribed hexagon
without reference to the circle and shows, at the corners A', B',
D', and E' the error of a hexagon drawn with reference to a
}
drawn by the approximate method.

circle
The particular feature to note in this figure is that in the

hexagon the two sides (A-B and D-E or a-b and d-e, which are
drawn parallel with the center line 7-7, are unsymme trie al with
the center line H-H, being longer on one side (H-B and H-E
or h-b and h-e) than on the other (A-H and H-D or a-h and
h-d).
The convenience of the approximate method for drawing
a circle, and the large number
of circles and circular arcs
always to be drawn more

than outweigh the errors
(such as described above) in-

troduced by its adoption and
application. In cases where
a discrepancy shows up, it p IG 20.
willbe but slight, and it is
customary and an easy matter to adapt the lines so as to make

the conditions fit.
(d) To draw an inscribed hexagon.

To draw a hexagon within a circle (Fig. 20), first draw
the circle by the approximate method [Article 13 (a)]. Where
the center line VV
cuts the circle, points c and /, locates
two points of the hexagon. Second, working from, point o,
,
lay off on the center line H-H, each way from o, one-half of
the distance between sides of the hexagon, the length o-h, and
draw through each of the two points thus obtained a line parallel
to the center line 7-7. Where
these lines cut the circle, points
a, b, d, and e, locates four points of the hexagon. Third, join

the six points found, and the hexagon a-b-c-d-e-f is obtained.
(e) To draw a circumscribed hexagon.
To draw a circumscribed hexagon (Fig. 20), first draw the

isometric representation of the circle by the approximate
method. Second, working from the point o, lay off on the center
line V-V, each way from o, one-half of the distance between
corners of the hexagon (the lengths o-C and o-F). This locates
two points (C and F) of the hexagon. Third, through each
of the points H, in which the center line H-H
intersects the ellipse
H-X-Y-H, draw a line parallel to center line V-V. Fourth,

etc .,
from the points C and F draw lines, each way, tangent to the
circle (points X, Y M, and N) intersecting the lines drawn
}
through the points H parallel to line V-V. The intersection

of these lines locates the remaining four corners of the hexagon,
and the construction completes the drawing of the figure.
(/) To draw a series of uniform circles the centers of which lie in
the same straight line and plane.
Fig. 21 illustrates a number of uniform circles with centers

in a common straight line, drawing A
being a mechanical
drawing and drawing B
an isometric drawing.
FIG. 21.
To construct the isometric drawing, first consider one circle

only, as, for example, the circle r-l-s-1 of drawing A f and draw
the isometric representation of this circle by the approximate
method [Article 13 (a)], as shown in drawing B by the parallelo-
gram a-b-c-d the radii /, g, h, and i, and the ellipse r-l-s-1.
}
Second, extend the center line r-s, the lines a-b and d-c and }
through the points x and Y draw lines parallel to the above

lines, all as shown by the line s-s 2 and the dashed lines b-m,
c-p, x-n and Y-O, respectively. Third, lay off on the line d-p
the distances d-di, and d^d 2 equal to the length e, the distance
between centers of the circles; and, with a radius equal to
radius h and the points d lt d 2 as centers, describe the arcs 2-Sj
and 3-s 2 (parallel to the arc 1-s). Fourth, locate the points
bi and b 2 in like manner and, with these points as centers and
a radius equal to radius g, draw the arcs r x-2 and r 2-3 (parallel
to the arc r-1). Fifth, lay off on the line x-n the distances
x-x and
x Xj-x-j equal to the length e, the distance between cen-
ters of the circles and, with the points x x and x 2 as centers and
a radius equal to radius/, draw the arcs 2-r, and 3-r 2 Sixth, .
and lastly, locate the points YJ and Y 2 in a similar manner and,

with these as centers and a radius equal to the radius i, draw
the arcs 2-s 1; and 3-s 2 completing the figure.
,
A considerable amount of labor of construction is eliminated
by keeping the above scheme in mind, and it is offered to call

" "
attention to the fact that there are many such short cuts
which will become apparent after some little practice in the art,
and which should always be taken advantage of.
14. To Draw an Ellipse.
Fig. 22 illustrates the drawing of an ellipse. A is the mechan-

icaldrawing, and B the isometric drawing. The isometric
drawing is shown on a vertical plane.
FIG. 22.
To draw the figure, first divide the ellipse as drawn at A

into a number of points, as points a, &, c, etc.; then project
the points onto the center lines as shown by the points 1, 2, 3,
4, etc. Second, draw the center lines H-H
and V-V of draw-
ing B, and on them lay off the corresponding divisions on the
center lines of drawing A, points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Third, through
the divisions on each center line draw lines parallel to the other
THE DRAWING, OF PLANE FIGURES 27
center line. The point in which the lines through the two points
on the center lines (one on each) representing the projection
of any one point intersect, will locate that particular point,
and the series of lines the several points a, b, c, etc. Fourth,
and lastly, through the points thus obtained and the points
H, H
and V, V, the ends of the axes of the ellipse, draw the
curve H, a, b, c, etc., the isometric drawing of the ellipse.
15. To Draw an Hyperbola.

Fig. 23 illustrates an hyperbola. Drawing A is the mechan-
ical, and drawing B the isometric drawing. The feature of
this figure is that it has but one center line (line 1-e) and intro-
duces the use of a second line of reference which may be called
a base line (line 5-12).
FIG. 23. FIG. 24.
To draw the figure, first divide the curve into a number of
points, as points a, b, c, etc., of drawing A; then project each

point into the center line and onto the base line, thus obtaining
the points 1, 2, 3, etc. Second, draw the center line 1-e and the
base line 5-12 of drawing B, and on them lay off the points
1, 2, 3, etc. Third, draw lines through each of these points
as shown and locate the points a, 6, c, etc. Fourth, through
the points thus located draw the curve a, b, c, etc., the isometric
drawing of the hyperbola.

16. To Draw a Parabola.
Fig. 24 illustrates two drawings of a parabola, drawing A
being a mechanical drawing and drawing B an isometric drawing.
The construction is the same as described in Article 15,

and is clearly shown by the figure.
17. To Draw an Undulating Figure.

have been noted that most of the figures given thus
It will
far are shown drawn on the horizontal plane, Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20,
and 21, for example, and that the last three, Figs. 22, 23 and 24,
are drawn on vertical planes. This is done to acquaint the
reader with the flexibility of the art (Article 8), and to illustrate
the procedure on the two planes. To further illustrate the
choice of position or plane in which to draw, Fig. 25 is offered.
It illustrates the drawing of an undulating figure made up
and shows the drawing on what may be termed

of semicircles,
an oblique plane the center lines for which agree with those
illustrated in Fig. 9 at d.
To draw the figure, draw the horizontal line H-H and on
itlay the points a, b, c, and d, a distance apart equal to the
off
distance between centers of the circular arcs as shown in drawing

A. Second, through each point draw a center line V-V at 60
with the horizontal. Third, on each pair of center lines, such
as H-H and V-a-V, lay out the necessary lining and construct a
semicircle as described in Article 13 (a), and, as shown by the
figure, the series of semicircles will form the required figure.
18. To Draw Any Figure Composed of Straight Lines and Cir-

cular Arcs.
Fig. 26 illustrates the drawing of a figure made up by a

combination of straight linesand circular arcs. The iso-
metric drawing B on a
vertical plane, and the construction
is
very similar to that described in Article 17.

To construct the figure, first draw the center line H-H at
30 with the horizontal, and on it lay off the center points
a, 6, c, andcorresponding to the center points a, b, c, and d
d,
of drawing A. Second, through each point draw a center line
V-V, and on each pair of center lines thus formed proceed with
the lay-out for drawing a circle by the approximate method
(Article 13), and obtain the centers and radii necessary to
describe the arcs of the figure all as illustrated. Lastly,
connect the circular arcs with straight lines as shown.
Combinations of straight lines and circular arcs are very
frequent in drawing and it is important that the draughtsman
FIG. 26.
know how to treat them. Sometimes they are in such a form

that a beginner does not recognize or think of them as such.
One of the examples most frequently met, with is the represent-
ing of round corners of figures and objects.
Fig. 27 illustrates a square with rounded corners. It will
be noted from an inspection of the figure that the arcs at the
corners are circular arcs, and that they may be continued
to form complete circles and the figures to come under a con-
struction as given for Fig. 26.
To construct the isometric drawing B, first draw the center
lines H-H and V-V, and construct the square W-X-Y-Z

(Article 9). Second, consider the lower left-hand corner of
the figure, W, and from the corner lay off, each way, a distance
equal to radius R, as lengths W-f and W-e' through the points }
thus obtained, points / and e, draw the center lines /-/ and e-e.
Third, working to the center lines just found, use the approx-
imate method for drawing a circle (Article 13), and locate the
center point o and the radius r, and describe the full-line arc
f-e, that portion of the ellipse f-e-f-e forming the rounded

corner in question. Fourth, in a similar manner draw in the
full-line curve a-b at corner X, as shown by the drawing.
The curves at corners Y and Z may be obtained in a similar
manner, though with a little less work. That is, now that the
scheme is known, in applying the method for drawing a circle,
only that portion of the entire construction used for the drawing
FIG. 27.
of a circle needed to locate the center point and the necessary

radius need be drawn, the construction being clearly shown in
the figure.
19. The Proper Arrangement of All Drawings with Reference to

the Center Lines, and the Manner of Laying Off Dimen-
sions.
have been noticed that all of the constructions given
It will
thus far begin with the drawing of the two center lines, and that
the figures then drawn are drawn square with the center lines.
Also, that the dimensions are all laid off on the center lines,
or on lines parallel to the center lines. This is the correct
practice in isometric drawing, and is but in strict accordance

with the usual and accepted practice in ordinary mechanical
drawing.
THE DRAWING, OF PLANE FIGURES 31
Fig. 28 shows at drawings A and ^.-1 the usual placing of

a hexagon with reference to the center lines; drawing A-2
shows an unusual arrangement. When such an arrangement
is to be drawn in isometric, the corners of the hexagon must
be referred to the center lines and the points located by plotting,
as directed in Article 12, and as shown by drawing B-2.
It be well to note the four right angles formed by the
may
center lines in drawings A-2 and B-2. The angle 7-0-1 of
drawing A-2 is shown as 7-0-1
of drawing B-2 (note that
this angle as drawn is more
than a right angle, but in
isometric drawing is used as
and called a right angle),
and the angle 7-0-6 of draw-
ing A-2 is shown at B-2 as
the angle 7-0-6 (note that
this angle as drawn is less
than 90, but is used as and
called a right angle). The A-2
other two angles are readily FIG. 28.
noted in the figure.

In mechanical drawings the two dimensions of plane figures
are always either vertical or horizontal; in isometric
drawing
one dimension is sometimes vertical and sometimes horizontal
(never one horizontal and the other vertical), and when it is
so the other dimension is always at an angle to the horizontal
or vertical (see Article 8), the arrangement depending upon
the arrangement of the center lines of the figure in question.
It should be remembered, therefore, to always lay off dimen-
sions parallel with the center lines of the figure drawn, and when
measuring an isometric drawing to scale it in directions parallel

with the center lines.
CHAPTER III
THE DRAWING OF SOLIDS

20. Preparatory.
The student is cautioned not to attempt the reading of this
chapter without first reading Chapter II and mastering, in so
far as possible, the principles and methods there set forth.
The drawing based on the drawing of plane figures,
of solids is
and the only new feature introduced in this chapter is the
drawing on different planes, not as set forth in Article 8 and as
illustrated by the Chapter II, exactly, but the drawing
figures of
on the planes mentioned, possibly in the same illustration,
all of
with a definite relation as to position to all of the other planes.

one has a thorough knowledge of the methods given in
If
Chapter II, the only difficulty likely to be encountered when

making isometric drawings of solids is to get the drawing of any
particular feature of the object drawn on the correct plane. This
is the one difficulty which is of serious moment to the
beginner,
and requires some experience and practice to eliminate.
little
To reduce such trouble to a minimum the student should care-

fully consider the part in question, note the plane (horizontal
or vertical) on which it lies, then note the center lines of the
plane of his drawing. If the center lines are drawn as set forth
in Article 7, the correct plane can always be established.
A second, minor, difficulty often encountered is to get the
correct position of the plane on which to draw. This is a matter
of dimension and lay-out, and the difficulty can only be eliminated
by the student's keeping in mind that all dimensions must be

laid out along lines which are parallel w ithr
the center lines
or axis of the figure or drawing.
Coming now to the drawing of solids, the drawings have

three dimensions, and use is made of the third of the three lines
32
THE DRAWING OF SOLIDS 33
mentioned in Article 7 (the axis) and illustrated in Fig. 8 at

.4., Bj
and C, and Fig. 9 at a, 6, c, and d. These three lines are
the basis of all of the constructions which follow.
21. To Draw a Rectangular Block.

Fig. 29 is an illustration of a rectangular block, drawing A
being a mechanical drawing and drawings B, B-l, and B-2
isometric drawings. The isometric drawings show the block
in three different positions, also three different constructions.
All of the constructions are simple, but should be considered.
They are :
-h-
i -
construct the face 5-6-7-8. Fourth, join the corners of two

bases as shown.
3. To construct drawing B-2, first draw the face 1-2-3-4
as in the second construction. Second, through the points
1, 4, and 3, draw lines parallel to the axis of the block, and on
them lay off lengths equal to the length of the block. This
locates points 5, 8, and 7. Third, join the points 5 and 8, and
7 and 8.
22. To Draw a Pyramid of Blocks.
Fig. 30 illustrates a number of square blocks, piled one upon

the other in such a manner as to keep the pile symmetrical.
FIG. 30.
To
construct the isometric drawing (B), first draw the center
lines a-a and b-b, and on them construct the square 1-2-3-4,
as explained in Article 9. Second, from the corners 1, 3, and 4,
drop vertical lines, and on the line through the point 4 lay off
a length 4-4' equal to the thickness of the block. Third, through
the point thus located (point 4') draw the lines 4 '-3' and 4'-l'
parallel to the center lines a-a and b-b, respectively. Fourth,

through the intersection of the center lines, point o, draw the
axis X-Y, and on it lay off a length equal to the thickness of
the top or smallest block. Fifth, through the point thus located,
point o', draw the center lines c-c and d-d', working to them
construct the square 5-G-7-8 and finish the drawing of the out-
line of the second block, all in a manner similar to the drawing

of the first block. Sixth, establish the plane of the top of the
third block by dropping down
from point o' to o" a distance
equal to the thickness of the

second block and drawing the
center lines e-e and f-f, and
construct the outline of the
third block as shown.
Seventh,
proceed in a similar manner
for the construction of the
fourth block, and complete the
figure.
23. To Draw an Hexagonal Prism.

Fig. 31 illustrates the con- FIG. 31.
struction of an hexagonal prism.
To construct the figure, first draw the center lines a-a and b-b,
and on these construct the hexagon 1-2-3-4-5-6, as explained
in Article 10. Second, draw the axis of the figure, the line
X-Y, and on it lay off a length o-o' equal to the length of the
prism. Third, through the
point o' draw the center lines
c-cand d-d, and working to
them construct the hexagon
l'_ 2 '-3'-4'-5'-6'. Fourth,
join the comers of the two
bases as shown, completing
the figure.
24. To Draw an Hexagonal

Pyramid.
Fig. 32 illustrates the con-
FIG. 32. struction of an hexagonal
pyramid.
To construct the figure, first draw the center lines a-a and
6-6, and working to them construct the hexagon 1-2-3-4-5-6
as directed in Article 10. Second, draw the axis X-Y, and
from the point o lay off a length o-o' equal to the height of the
pyramid. Third, join each corner of the hexagon with the
point o'.
25. To Draw Any Rectangular Solid which is of Uniform or

Similar Section.
Fig. 33 is an illustration of a clamp block, and is, like the

objects illustrated in Figs. 29 and 31, uniform in section, and
is drawn in a similar manner.
To construct the figure, first draw the center lines a-a and
b-b. Second, working from the point o, lay off, each way, the
lengths o-4, 4-3, etc., correspond-
ing to the widths of the object
as defined in drawing A .
Third,
working from point o, lay off
the lengths o-r and o-s, as
shown, corresponding to the

thickness of the block .
Fourth,
through the points on each
center line draw lines parallel
to the other center line; the
intersection of these two sets of
lines will locate all points of the
end face of the object, which
FIG. 33.
may be drawn by joining the
points as shown. Fifth, draw
the axis X-Y and on it lay off, from point o, a length o-o'
equal to the length of the block. Sixth, through the point o'
draw the center lines c-c and d-d, and working to them draw
the outline of the rear face of the block. Seventh, connect the
two faces by joining the corners, and complete the figure, as
shown.
Attention is called to the similarity of the above construc-
tion of the visible end face to that given for drawing any polygon,
" "
Article 12. It is as much plotting as the method there
described. Also, note that the center lines used are not, exactly,
what are usually termed center lines. The point to be noted is
that the method or scheme for executing the construction of all
figures is similar, and that center lines may be used as base or

reference lines.
From and 33 it may be taken as a general
Figs. 29, 31,
construction for objects which are uniform in section, to
all
first construct the two ends or bases, then join the bases
properly, forming the sides and completing the figure.

Fig. 34 illustrates two objects which taper from one end to
the other, objects of which a section at any point is similar to a
section at any and all other points. Drawing A is a mechanical
drawing of a crank blank, drawing B its isometric representation,
and drawing C an isometric drawing of a steel key.
FIG. 34.
The method for constructing such figures is similar to that

used when the section of the object drawn is uniform; that is,
to first draw the two ends (end sections), then join the two as
may be necessary to finish the figure.

For example, to draw the steel key shown at (7, first draw
the end section 1-2-3-4; second, the end section 5-6-7-8;
and, third, join the sections as shown.
The illustration of the crank is offered to show a very dif-
ferent type of model from those given thus far, namely, objects
of a rectangular nature; but it will be noted that the treatment
or method of construction of the drawing is the same. To
construct drawing B, first establish the three sets of center
lines of the large end, as when drawing- the pyramid of blocks
(Article 22), and working to them construct the three ellipses

(Article 13) shown. Second, proceeding in a similar manner,
construct the three ellipses of the small end of the figure. And,
third, join up the two ends with tangent lines, as shown.
26. To Draw Any Rectangular Solid of Variable Section.
Fig. 35 is an a draughtsman's pencil-pointing

illustration of
pad, the handle of which varies in width. The construction

of the drawing of this part of the object demonstrates a method
of procedure applicable to the
representation of any rect-
angular object of variable

section.
The rectangular part of
the figure (drawing B) is
drawn in a manner similar to
that illustrated in Fig. 30 and
described in Article 22. To
construct the drawing of the
handle, first draw the center
or base line, m-n. Second,
divide this line into a num-
ber of parts (such as by a
FIG. 35. point every |" or |", or by
taking points at places where
the section of the object drawn changes) by marking off
points such as
points 1, 2, 3, etc. Third, through each
point draw aat right angles (so called in isometric
line
drawing) to the line m-n (note that the line through any
point is but a second center line), and on each line lay
off, each way from the point on the
line m-n, a length equal
to one-half of the width of the handle at that point, obtain-
ing the points a, 6, c, d, etc. Fourth, through the points

thus located draw the curve, the outline of the handle, as
shown. To draw the bottom curve, the line defining the
r
thickness of the handle, draw vertical lines j-j' 9 i-4 etc., througn ,
the points /, i, etc., and on each line Jay off a length equal to
the thickness of the handle, locating points /', i'', etc., and draw
through these points as shown.
The above example happens to be such that the curves
drawn (on the top plane) are symmetrical with the center line
m-n should the case be different, a base line may be used for
:
reference and from it the construction can be laid out, but the
method is similar to that just described.
27. To Draw a Cylinder.

The drawing of a circle is given in Article 13, and the draw-
ing of a solid of uniform section in Article 25, the drawing of a
cylinder is based on these two constructions.
5-2
FIG. 36.
Fig. 36 is an illustration of a right cylinder, drawing A being

a mechanical drawing and drawings B-l and B-2 isometric
drawings.
To construct drawing B-l, first drawr the center lines a-b
and c-d, and in accordance with Article 13 construct the ellipse
of the upper base. Second, draw the axis of the cylinder, the
f
line X-Yj and on it lay off the length o-o equal to the length
of the cylinder. Third, at the point o' establish the plane of
the lower base by drawing the center lines af-b' and c'-d' and
construct the ellipse a'-c'-b'-d' Fourth, draw vertical lines
.
tangent to the two bases, completing the figure.

To construct drawing B-2, first draw the center lines a-b
and c-d, and draw the ellipse representing the near end of the
cylinder in accordance with the above reference and as shown

by the centers 1, 2, 3, and 4, and the radii R, S, r, and s. Second,
shift the center points 1, 2, 3, and 4 along the lines 1-1', 2-2',
etc. (parallel to the axisX-F), a distance equal to the length
of the cylinder, and, with the
new position of the center
points, points 1', 2', 3', and
4', as centers and the same
radii as used to draw the
front end of the cylinder;
draw the rear end, as shown.
Third, draw lines tangent to
the two bases.
28. To Draw a Cone.

Fig. 37 illustrates the con-
FIG. 37.
struction of a cone.
Toconstruct drawing B, first draw the center lines a-b and
c-d, and working to them describe the ellipse a-c-b-d (Article
13) of the base. Second, through the point o, draw the axis
of the cone, the line X-Y, and on it lay off a length o-o' equal
to the altitude or height of the cone. Third, from the point o'
draw lines tangent to the base.
29. To Draw a Solid Made
Up of Circular Arcs and
Straight Lines.
Very often an object
will have a number of
curves which are circular
arcs. When such is the
case, the construction is
similar to that described

in Article 18.
Fig. 38 illustrates the

FIG. 38.
isometric drawing of two
objects the lines of which are either straight lines or circular

arcs. Drawing M
represents a core box, and drawing a cap N
for a bearing.
To draw
the circular arc showing at the bottom of the core
box (arc a-d), consider the arc as extended to complete the
circle of which it is a part; then lay out the construction for
drawing a circle (Article 13), locate the center point and the
radius for describing that portion of the ellipse covered by the
arc in question (in this case, one-fourth of the circumference),
and draw in the required curve.
The drawing cap is offered as a second example
of the bearing
of the application of the above method of drawing parts of
circles, and the construction, which is clearly shown in the
figure, should be carefully noted.
Attentionis called to the arc at the bottom of the figure;
this arc is drawn by dropping the point to m' a length equalm

to the length of the object, and, with this new point as a center,
and a radius s, the same radius used to draw the corresponding
arc at the top, drawing it in, as shown.
30. To Draw a Ring, Rectangular in Section.
Fig. 39 illustrates the drawing of a ring which is rectangular

in section. Drawing A is a mechanical drawing and drawings
B-l, B-2, B-3, B-4, and B-5 are isometric drawings. The
several isometric drawings are given to illustrate the choice
of view or position of the object open to the draughtsmen.
The figure should be compared with Fig. 9, and the similarity
of position of the center lines and axis of the various
drawings
noted. For example, the position B-l corresponds to position
d of Fig. 9, B-3 to 6, and position B-o to position c. The posi-
tions B-2 and B-4 have no corresponding position shown in
Fig. 9, but it will be noted that the relation of the lines used as
center lines and axis is the same as in allisometric drawing,
that is, adjacent lines forming an angle of 60, as shown.
The construction drawings is identical, and is
of the several
illustrated indrawing B-l. To construct this drawing, first
draw the center lines a-b and c-d, and working to them lay off,
each way from the point o, a length equal to the radius of the
inside of the ring, locating the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. Second,
through these points draw the figure e-f-g-h, and within this
the ellipse 1-2-3-4, all as directed for drawing the representa-

tion of a circle in isometric, and as shown. Third, working
to the same center lines, since the two circles of the end face
are in the same plane, proceed in a similar manner and construct
the ellipse 5-6-7-8. Fourth, draw such portions of the right
end face of the ring as are visible, and finish the figure by draw-
ing the two outside lines (top and bottom) tangent to the two
bases.
The lines of the drawing show every line of the construction.
Attention is again called to the short method employed for
FIG. 39.
drawing the arcs of the ellipses showing in the rear base or end
of the ring. For example, consider the outside curve at the
rear, the line w'-S'-G'-/; this curve is parallel to the curve
i/>-5-6-2 of the front face. To draw the arc at the rear, first
draw through the points 5 and 6 the guide lines 5-5' and 6-6'
parallel to the axis (line XY) of the ring. Second, draw a
r
similar line through the point i, and on it lay off a length i-4
equal to the thickness or length of the ring, and, with the point
thus located, the point i', as a center and a radius H' equal to
radius R, describe the arc 5'-6'. Third, in like manner shift
the center point r to r', and s to s', and, with the new position
of the points as centers and the same radius as used for the
corresponding arc of the front face of the ring, describe the

arcs o'-w' and G'-z', thus finishing the arc entire.
31. To Draw a Circular Disc with Holes in it.
Fig. 40 is an illustration of a disc with three equally spaced

countersunk holes in it.
To construct the figure, the disc may be considered as a short

cylinder and its outline drawn accordingly (Article 27), the
FIG. 40.
center of the holes located by reference to the center lines of

the top face of the disc, the planes of the circles representing
the outline of the countersunk hole located as shown in Fig.
30 and explained in Article 22, and the ellipse defining the holes
drawn as explained in Article 13.
The new feature introduced by this figure is the location
and drawing of the countersunk holes. On the contrary, how-
"
ever, the so-called new feature " is not new, as the construc-
tion is only the application of methods already known. The
feature is an ever-recurrent one, and it is important that the
student understand the method of procedure.
Since it is correct practice to draw things square with the
center lines when drawing objects such as the disc shown,
square as many features with the center lines as possible. For
example, there should be but a single hole in the object,

if
construct the drawing with the center of the hole on one of the
center lines; if the object has two holes either 90 or 180 apart,
see that they are located on the center lines; if the object has
four holes equally spaced, place the centers on the center lines,
etc. When there is an unequal number of holes, as in the present
case of three, place one of the holes on one of the center lines,
and, by plotting, referring the centers to the center lines, locate
the centers for the other two holes as shown.
It must always be borne in mind that an isometric drawing
is not measured or laid out like a mechanical drawing, but
that all dimensions must be laid out or taken in some one of
three directions, that is, parallel to either center line or to the axis.
FIG. 41,
32. To Draw a Stepped Pulley.

Fig. 41 is an illustration of a three-stepped cone pulley.
To construct the figure (drawing B), first draw the center
lines of the plane of the top face, the lines a-b and c-d, and
working to them draw the outline of the hole through the center
(Article 13; also see Fig. 42). Second, working to the same
set of center lines, in similar manner draw the ellipse 5-6-7-8.
Third, drop the three centers used to draw the arc z-6-5-2/
a distance equal to the dimension T and, with the same radii

used to draw the above curve, draw the arc '-6'-5', all as
directed for drawing the cylinder (Article 27) and as explained
in connection with the construction of the drawing of the ring
(Article 30).
The remainder of the construction is similar to that already
given, the procedure being to drop down the axis dis- X-Y
tances T, S and E, locate the points o', o" and-o'", establish
new planes at these points, and working to the center lines
drawn draw in the several ellipses and complete the figure as
shown.
33. To Take Out a Section.
In mechanical drawing it is customary when
removing a
section to remove some portion limited by the center lines.
For example, in the case of the stepped pulley, Fig. 41, if a
half sectionis to be shown, the quarter assumed to be removed
would not be such a one as is

included in the angle w-o-z
(drawing A), but one such as
isincluded in the angle c-a-b.
This practice holds, also, in
isometric drawing, and a sec-
tion such as would show in
the angle u-o-y of drawing 5,
Fig. 41, is never given, the

correct method being illustrated FIG. 42.
by Fig. 42.
for drawing an object
Fig. 42 illustrates the usual procedure
with a section removed. The lines are all shown, and, in the
light of what has been given thus far, the figure should prove
self explanatory.
When executing such as the above, two methods may be
followed: (1) To first make the construction for the entire
figure, then remove the section; (2) To make the construc-

tion for only that portion of the object which is to show in the
figure. The first construction is the safer for the beginner,

and should be followed at first; after some experience the
work may be shortened in a number of ways which will then

be apparent.
34. To Draw an Eccentric.

Fig. 43 is an illustration of a small eccentric blank. The
dimensions are given on the mechanical drawing (.4) that the
student may make the exact construction, should he care to do
so. The figure does not introduce anything new, but is given
as an example illustrating the inaccuracy of the method used
for drawing the isometric representation of a circle.
FIG. 43.
The error of the method is discussed in paragraph (c) of

Article 13, and is illustrated at the points M and N of drawing
B, Fig. 43. If the method used were exact, the ellipse a-b-c-d
and the ellipse 1-2-3^ would be tangent at the point M
instead of intersecting; also, the slight discrepancy at point N
would be eliminated. However, the drawing is but an illus-
tration, and no harm done when the curves are made to
is
look right by joining them as shown.

The student will, doubtless, encounter many similar con-
ditions in his work. When such cases do occur, adjust the
curves to match in such a way as to make the drawing appear

natural.
To
construct drawing B, first consider the outer rim of the
eccentric as a ring, and make the construction as directed in
Article 30. Second, consider the hub, or center, as a cylinder,
and make the construction as in Article 27. Third, locate
the points o' by dimension, draw the ellipses 1-2-3-4 and
5-6-7-8 as a guide, then adjust the curves to meet the ellipse
a-b-c-d, as mentioned above.
shows such
lines as will suggest the several steps
The^^ure
necessa^r the
f orconstruction, showing the particular radii
and centers necessary to be shifted to draw the curves at the
back, or rear, of the figure.
FIG. 44.
35. To Draw an Hexagonal Nut.

In all machine drawing there are always a number of bolt
heads and nuts to represent. Fig. 44 is given as illustrating a
typical construction, the figure being the representation of an
hexagonal nut.
To construct the figure, first draw the center lines andH-H
V-Vj and working to them construct the hexagon 1-2-3-4-5-6
as directed in Article 10. Second, at each corner point of the
hexagon erect a vertical line, and on each line lay off a length
equal to the length of a corner of the nut, locating the points
1', 2', 3', 4', 5', and 6'. Third, bisect each side of the hexagon
1-2-3-4-5-6, at each middle point erect a vertical line, and on
itlay off a length equal to the greatest width of a side of the nut,
locating the points 7', 8', 9', 10', 11', and 12' and giving, with
the two points already located, three points in the curve at the
top of each side face of the nut. Fourth, draw a curved line
(using the irregular curve) through the points thus located, as
shown. Fifth, draw the axis X-Y
through the point o, and on
itlay a length o-o' equal to the thickness of the nut. Sixth,
off
through the point 0' draw the center lines a-b and c-d, and
working to them draw the two circles showing in the top face
of the nut, in accordance with Article
13, completing the figure.
FIG. 45.
36. To Draw a Hollow Cylinder with a Section Removed.

Fig. 45 represents a hollow cylinder with a section removed
and is offered to further illustrate the taking of sections in
isometric drawing.
To construct drawing B, proceed as directed in Article 27
and as suggested by the lines of 'the figure, and draw the outline
of the cylinder; then consider the hole through the cylinder
as a second cylinder, and draw its outline in a similar manner.
To take out the section, pass a plane e-f-g-h through the cylinder
and on it draw the section of the cylinder, as shown; then remove
the section between the plane of the front end and the section
plane included between the planes l-l'-o'-o and 0-o'-2'-2,
the construction being evident from the illustration.
37. To Draw Any Solid of Revolution.

Figs. 46 and 47 are illustrations of certain objects with no
particular name, but typical of any object of revolution, that
FIG. 46.
is, any object a section at right angles to the axis of which is
circle.
FIG. 47.
To draw such an object, pass a series of transverse sec-

tional planes through it, draw the sections thus taken, then
draw the outline of the figure by drawing lines tangent to the

sections.
In the further discussion, sections used as above will be called
"
guide sections."
To construct Fig. 46, first draw the axis X-Y and on it
locate the points o, o' and o", according to dimensions as taken
from drawing A or from the object. Second, at each of the
three points draw center lines, and in accordance with Article
13 (taking the diameters of the circles from drawing A) draw
FIG. 48.
the three ellipses, as shown. Third, draw tangent lines to the

three ellipses, finishing the figure.
The construction of Fig. 47similar to that of Fig. 46,
is
the difference being that three intermediate guide planes are

used instead of but one, and the outline of the figure is a curve
instead of a straight line, as in Fig. 46.
The use of guide sections is not limited to the construction
of representations of solids of revolution, but may be used to
advantage when drawing many other types of figures, as, for
example, in Fig. 48, where the application is self evident.

38. To Draw a Ring, Circular in Section.
Fig. 49 illustrates a
mechanical (A) and an isometric (B)
drawing of a ring which is circular in section.
execute drawing B, first pass a number of radial planes
To
the ring
through the ring, as indicated in drawing A, cutting
in a number of sections. Second, refer the center lines of each
section of drawing A
to the center lines of the figure (as indi-
cated for section number 12), and by plotting establish their
position in drawing B. Third, on
each pair of center lines con-
struct a parallelogram, and within each parallelogram describe
FIG. 49.
an ellipse. Fourth, draw lines tangent to the series of ellipses,

all as suggested and shown by the figure.
39. To Draw Screw Threads.

To
actually construct a correct representation of a screw
thread is a somewhat difficult thing to do and consumes a con-
siderable amount
of time. In fact, such a procedure is so
laborious and time-consuming that in ordinary mechanical
drawing certain conventions are adopted to render the matter
practical. This is also true of isometric drawing; for while
it is possible to construct a true representation of a thread, it
is not worth w hile, as certain easily executed conventional

r
very w ell.
r
methods of representation serve
Fig. 50 illustrates one of the conventional representations

mentioned, drawing A being a mechanical drawing and drawing
B an isometric drawing.
To construct the isometric drawing, first consider the object

as a cylinder and construct the outline of the front and rear
bases and connect them with tangent lines as directed in Article
27. Second, on the plane of the front face of the cylinder
draw the center lines H-H and V-V (these will be the same
lines as used to obtain the ellipse of the front face), and working
to them lay out the construction for the isometric representation
of a circle of a diameter equal to the internal diameter of the
thread (Article 13). Third, through the points b and e draw
*1
each of the arcs first drawn and terminated by the lines m-n
and o-p, continue the curves until they disappear.

Fig. 51 is an illustration of the object illustrated in Fig.
50, showing a section removed and disclosing the points and roots
of the thread. The outline of the figure and the arcs represent-
ing the thread are draw n as described for the construction of
r
Fig. 50. The new feature introduced by the illustration is
the construction of the section of the thread.

The construction of the thread on either side is identical
and is illustrated by the lines on the left side. To construct
the thread, first draw the two
guide lines on m-n and o-p a
distance apart (measured along
the center line b-c) equal to the
depth of the thread. Second, lay
off on line m-n a series of points
1, 3, 5, 7, etc., a distance apart
equal to the distance between
points of the thread (equal to the
pitch of the thread) Third, bisect
.
the length 1-3, and through the

FIG. 51.
middle point draw the line r-s
parallel to the center line b-cand cutting the line o-p in 2.
Fourth, join the points 1 and 2; then through each point
of division on the line m-n draw a line parallel to the line
1-2 and terminating at the line o-p. Fifth, join the points
FIG. 52.
2 and 3; then, proceeding as just described, draw the parallel

lines 4-5, 6-7, etc., completing the construction.
Figs. 50 and 51 illustrate an inside thread. The construc-

tion for an outside thread is similar, and is illustrated by Fig. 52.
The parallel curves of Fig. 52 are, however, drawn at a distance
apart equal to the pitch of the thread.

The matter of the spacing of the
center points and the resultant dis-
tance between 'he curves is a matter
of opinion with the draughtsman; it
may be equal to the pitch, to one-

half the pitch, or to something else.
As a matter of fact, the whole
scheme is but a representation
FIG. 53.
to suggest the thread, and any
combination that does this will
answer.
Square threads can be illustrated similarly to V-threads,

as illustrated by Fig. 53.
Fig. 54 illustrates three other conventions used to represent
threads, the construction for each being similar to that already
described. The short curve of
No. 3 is drawn with a shorter
radius than the middle por-
tion of the longer curve, taken
optionally by the draughts-

man.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
40. To Draw a Sphere.
To draw a sphere, execute
FIG. 54.
the isometric representation of

a circle of the same diameter as the sphere; then take as a radius
a length equal to the semi-major axis of the ellipse so drawn,
and draw a circle. The circle will be the isometric representa-
tion of the sphere.
The construction described above is illustrated in Fig. 55,
drawing A 'being the mechanical drawing and drawing B the

isometric drawing of the same sphere.
Fig. 56 illustrates a good example of the application of the
above construction. The figure illustrates a split-pattern of a
small dumb-bell, drawing A being a mechanical drawing,

drawing B-l an isometric drawing showing the pattern together,
and drawing B-2 an isometric drawing showing the pattern

separated.
FIG. 56.
Fig. 57 illustrates a good exercise for a beginner. The figures

are all isometric drawings, drawing B representing a sphere
with a horizontal and two vertical (at right angles) great circles
FIG. 57.
on its surface. Drawing B-l illustrates the sphere cut in twc
along the horizontal great circl(

and the two halves separated
Drawing B-2 illustrates th<
sphere again cut in two (thi;

time along one of the vertica
great circles) and the parti
separated, and
drawing B-l
shows it cut a third time anc
the parts separated.
Fig. 58, illustrating a hanc

wheel, is also an excellent
type
of figure to draw to test one'*
knowledge of the art and skil
FIG. 58. in execution.

CHAPTER IV
A COURSE IN ISOMETRIC DRAWING
41. Explanatory.
Thefollowing exercises are offered as covering practically
all of the different constructions given in Chapters II and III,
and as comprising a brief course in isometric drawing. They

may be followed exactly, or they may be used as examples
only, and similar, original drawings made. It is suggested,
however, that the course as outlined be followed out and then

supplemented as the student or teacher may elect.
The exercises are planned to go within a border line which
is 8"X11" in dimensions, and a space 2"X3" is reserved for the
title of the sheet. The sheets are all alike in this respect, Plate
No. 4 showing the lay-out which is to be followed.
57
PLATE No. 4.
A COURSE IN, ISOMETRIC DRAWING 59
42. Sheet No. 1.

Sheet No. 1 is some plane figures.
an exercise in the drawing of
The sheet is to be laid out, the figures located and drawn full
size in accordance with the dimensions given, and the title
filled in as shown.
When inking-in, ink the border lines, the outlines of each
figure, and its isometric center lines. Omit all dimensioning.
The finished sheet is to have a margin \" wide all around
outside the 8"Xll" border line, finishing 9"X12" in dimen-
sions.
The references for the several constructions are to be found
in Chapter II. For drawings 1 and 2, see Article 9. For
drawings 3 and 5, see Article 12. For drawing 4, see Article
10. For drawings 6, 7, and 8, see Article 13. Drawing 9 is
but the grouping of drawings 6, 7, and 8. For drawings 10 and
11, see Article 13 (/). For drawings 12 and 16, see Article 13
(d) and (e). For drawing 14, see Article 18. For drawing 17,
see Article 17.
To drawFig. 13, locate the six points of a hexagon of 1J"
diagonal diameter (Article 10) and the six points of a hexagon
of }" diagonal diameter (the latter diagonal to be at right angles
to the 1J" diagonal) and join the points as shown.
To draw Fig. 15, locate the six points of a hexagon of 1"
diagonal diameter (Article 10); through each of the six points
thus located draw center lines and working to them (Article
13) construct the isometric representation of a circle of \"
diameter.
PLATE No. 5.
A COURSE IN- ISOMETRIC DRAWING 61
43. Sheet No. 2.

Sheet No. 2 is an exercise in the drawing of some straight-
line objects.
The dimensions for the sheet, directions for finishing, etc.,
are the same as for Sheet No. 1.
The references for the several constructions are to be found
in Chapter III.
Drawing 1 represents two blocks piled one upon the other;

drawing 2 represents a small two-drawer cabinet, showing the
drawers pulled part way out; drawing 3 shows two rectangular
frames pinned together at right angles one to the other; drawing
5 is a representation of a minature stand; drawing 4, an illus-
tration of the same stand stood upside down; drawing 6 shows
a frustum of an hexagonal pyramid and drawing 7, an octagonal
;
prism with a section removed.

For drawings 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, see Articles 21 and 22:, For
drawing Fig. 6, see Article 24. The construction of the upper
base of the frustum is left for the student to figure out, the
upper base being at 30 with the lower base. For drawing 7,
see Articles 24, 25, and 33.
PLATE No. 6.
A COURSE IN ISOMETRIC DRAWING 63
44. Sheet No. 3.

Sheet No. 3 is an exercise in the drawing of some ex-
amples of bench work.
The conditions for executing the sheet are the same as for
Sheet No. 1.
The sheet is very similar to Sheet No. 2, and is offered as
giving additional practice in locating and drawing on different

planes.
Drawing 1 illustrates a half -splice; drawing 2, a pinned
mortise-and-tenon joint, showing the pieces ready to assemble;
drawing 4 is a keyed mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 3 being the
key; drawing 5 shows a splayed splice; drawing 6 illustrates a
plain dove-tailed joint; drawing 7, a blind dove-tailed joint;
and drawing 8, a bench-hook.
The reference for the entire sheet is to be found in Chapter
III, the construction being based on Articles 21, 22, and 27.
PLATE No. 7.
45. Sheet No. 4.

Sheet No. 4 is an exercise in the drawing of some cylindrical
objects.
The conditions for executing the sheet are the same as for
Sheet No. 1.
Drawing 1 is an a core-print; drawing 2 is a

illustration of
drawing of a circular nut; drawing 3 illustrates a core box;

drawing 4 is a special, combination nut-and-spacer; and drawing
5 a face-plate for a wood-turning lathe.
The references for the several constructions are all to be
found in Chapter III, are: For Fig. 1, see Articles 27 and 37;
and
for Fig. 2, see Articles 30 and 39; for Fig. 3, see Articles 21 and
29; for Fig. 4, see Articles 27 and 35; for Fig. 5, see Articles 27,
31 and 39.
PLATE No. 8.
46. Sheet No. 5.

Sheet No. 5 is an exercise in the drawing of some shop tools.
The sheet is offered as a suggestion only, and is not to be
copied, no dimensions being given.
To execute the sheet, it is suggested that the student obtain
the same or similar tools as shown by the plate and, working
from the tools, draw up an original sheet after the manner
illustrated.
The objects illustrated are (1) a cold chisel, (2) a claw hammer,
(3) an alligator wrench, and (4) a plumb bob.
All kinds of wrenches, hammers, mallets, screwdrivers, in
short, the whole line of hand shop tools make very good examples
to illustrate.
47. Suggested Sheets.

The foregoing given as typical exercises, and
five sheets are
for further exercise work the student or teacher should have
very little trouble in elaborating upon the course as given.
To thisend the following suggestions are offered A sheet of
:
shop tools other than those illustrated by Plate No. 8; a sheet

of pipe fittings, such as tees, ells, union couplings, etc.; a sheet
illustrating a globe or other type valve; a sheet illustrating a

simple building, or some architectural construction or feature;
or, in case the above suggestions are too advanced or the objects
named not obtainable, books, blocks, desks, cabinets, and all
kinds of furniture and household articles, such as spools, cups,
glasses, stove parts, etc., may be used as examples.
48. Remarks.
Dimensioning.Isometric drawings are used more for illus-
trating than for giving working directions working or shop
drawings. Such being the case, they are not often dimensioned.
As before expressed, however, they may be dimensioned, as
witness Plates Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7.
The dimensions may be given in any way which will make

them clear to the reader of the drawing, but they look best
when applied to the drawing as on the above named plates.
A reference to the plates will show that the dimensions
apparently lie in the plane of the part dimensioned, and always
in a direction parallel to one of the three isometric directions,
that is, either parallel to one of the two center lines or to the
axis of the drawing. This practice is recommended.
Enlargement. An
isometric drawing drawn full size will
appear slightly larger than the object drawn. This feature

will, doubtless, have been noted in looking over the figures
of Chapter III, as, for example, Figs. 31, 44, 50, 55, and others.
There is a reason for this, but it has no connection with the
"
How " of the art and is purposely not discussed further.
Distortion. Some figures do not appear natural when illus-
trated by an isometric drawing. This is particularly noticeable

in objects of uniform section and of some length. The eye
seems to instinctively sense that parallel lines should converge
A COURSE IN ISOMETRIC DRAWIXG/A. : . . : :
'
'-.8<K :'
and, since, in isometric drawing they do not, the drawing

appears distorted, as, for example, Figs. 50 and 52. This dis-
tortion is so marked in some representations that it renders the
art unsuited for illustrating that particular object. Distortion
is one of the objections to isometric drawing.
Shading. "While the examples given in the text are not
shaded, or back-lined, it is not to be assumed that isometric
drawings cannot be shaded. To shade an isometric drawing,

make those lines heavy which represent the intersection of a
light and a dark plane, or those lines which cut off the light
the same as in ordinary mechanical drawing.
ENGINEERING DRAWING
BY
THOMAS E. FRENCH
Professor of Engineering Drawing, Ohio State University
289 pages, 6x9, over 450 illustrations, $2.00 (8/6) net, postpaid
CJ A general text on the language of
drawing, with distinctive qualities in its
breadth of scope, thoroughness, balance

of treatment, and logical and topical
arrangement.
J The Author has had an unusual expe-

rience both as a teacher and in practice.
He was assisted by an especially compe-

tent staff in the preparation of this book.
<][ It covers modern practice in drawing

in every branch of engineering, empha-
sizing the practical value of the subject.

MACHINE SHOP
DRAWINGS
BY
FRED H. COLVIN
Managing Editor, "American Machinist"
180 pages, 4x7, illustrated, $1.00 (4/6) net, postpaid
CJ A book intended to teacli the reading
of drawings rather than drawing itself.
fl It explains the representation of seen

and unseen portions, the uses of lines,
and of different views. It describes
methods of laying out work and of
simple sketching.
t| The Author makes use of a broad
practical experience in preparing a splen-

did book for shop men.
J companion volume to
It is a Machine 4 c
u Machine Shop
Shop Mechanics" and
" It is a of the Home
Calculations. part
Study Series.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
DEC 3 1947 REC'D LD

APR 1
l9)an'56TF
RECD
DEC 8i1
!4Jan'57PWX
iTVClv^ ~~ i^-sw
-14 1357 REC'D

JAN
-LD 21-100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476

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LIBRARY

McGraw-Hill Boole Company "

Publishers of Books for

A COURSE IN THE ART

ALPHA PIERCE JAMISON, M.E.

MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

THE writer has been a teacher of mechanical drawing since

PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONS

THE DRAWING OF PLANE FIGURES

THE DRAWING OF SOLIDS

PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATIONS

then, it is proposed to present the Art of Isometric Drawing

they must not be allowed to affect the reader's interest; as a

Students are urged, therefore, to read this work through

From an engineer's standpoint (so designated to distinguish

main divisions, namely: Mechanical Drawing, Perspective Draw-

ing, Isometric Drawing, and Cavalier or Cabinet Projection

ing the several drawings so as to show the relation of the faces

being a two-view mechanical drawing, Fig. 2 (A and B) a

parallel lines of the object are shown parallel in the drawing;

in the drawing, as in isometric drawing, and the figure shows

opposite is true as to the reading of the two drawings, as one

3. Uses of the Art.

such drawings, for manufacturing and erecting purposes, in

spective drawing is not much used in engineering drawing, its

ings of theAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers (Vol. 29,

showing the framing of a house with then* product.

Reproduced by permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engi-

and the objects drawn are of a rectangular character. It is

objects, it requires more time to make an isometric drawing

than it does to execute a mechanical drawing the increase in

rectangular objects, with few curves and circular holes or

In general, therefore, it may be said that isometric drawing

made with isometric drawings with but very little increase in

It has been stated (Article 1) that isometric drawing has

jection and has a certain definite underlying principle. This

ment and the further explanation of the theory are purposely

drawing (Fig. 6), the only difference being in the triangles.

All of the figures given in the text oan be drawn in pencil

7. Center Lines and Axes.

in the conventional manner at A, B, and C, respectively. All

horizontal, and are characteristic center lines for use when

in the cases A, B, and C mentioned above in connection with

Being thus able to select a number of directions for drawing

the axis of a drawing, isometric drawing permits an object to

A, B, C, and D, Fig. 9, and at 5-1, B-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, Fig.

In addition to being able to show an object in different

Plate 3 illustrates the flexibility of the art: Fig. 1 is a two-

showing the same section removed as in Fig. 1 and Figs. 2, 3,

and 4 show the pulley in different positions.

THE DRAWING OF PLANE FIGURES

lying on the horizontal plane;

suming the square to be V

or one-half of the length of

Drawings C and D are drawn in like manner, the only dif-

however, be drawn, as before, with the T-square and 30-60

10. To Draw a Hexagon.

isometric drawings. Of the isometric drawings, B-l and B-2

drawings produced and because of the greater convenience and