maintenance and repair of transport infrastructure

TECHNICAL GUIDE

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Copyright LABORATRIO NACIONAL DE ENGENHARIA CIVIL, I. P.

Diviso de Divulgao Cientfica e Tcnica
AV DO BRASIL 101 1700-066 LISBOA
e-e: livraria@lnec.pt
www.lnec.pt
Publisher: LNEC

Collection: Manuals

Series: MN 13

1st. edition: 2012

Printing: 100 copies

Descriptors: Transport infrastructures / Steel structure / Reinforced concrete structure /

/ Maintenance of structures / Repair of structures / Durability of structures /
/ Structural testing / Guide / Europe
Descritores: Infraestruturas de transportes / Estrutura metlica / Estrutura de beto armado /
/ Conservao de estruturas / Reparao de estruturas / Durabilidade de estruturas /
/ Ensaio de estruturas / Guia / Europa
CDU 624.05[012.4]9:625(026)(4)
624.05[014]9:625(026)(4)

ISBN 978-972-49-2237-9 (paperback)

 STEEL STRUCTURES

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PART III
iNe protection systems
VOL 5
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Maria Joo Correia

Hugo Perneta
Manuela Salta
Authors
Maria Joo Correia
Postdoctoral fellow, LNEC
Hugo Perneta
Duratinet research fellow, LNEC
Manuela Salta
Principal researcher and head of Metallic Materials Division, LNEC

Other contributions
Maria Paula Rodrigues
Principal researcher and head of Organic Materials Division, LNEC

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Reviewers
Franck Schoefs
Professor, University of Nantes
Isabel Eusbio
Principal researcher, LNEC
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Final revision by Editorial Commission member
X. Ramn Nvoa
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Professor, University of Vigo
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PREFACE
This is Part III, Volume 5 of the DURATINET Technical Guide - Maintenance
and Repair of Transport Infrastructure, which contains guidelines on protection
systems for steel structures.
The content of this volume was prepared and reviewed within DURATINET
working group WG A4 Maintenance and repair of steel structures.
The aim of WG A4 was to harmonize the needs of maintenance and repair of
steel structures and identify knowledge gaps in the partner countries. Within this
WG, technical guidelines were developed relating to durability factors (both
environment and material related), deterioration processes (damage
mechanisms and defects), testing techniques for inspection, repair methods and
protection systems for steel structures. All these subjects are considered in the

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five volumes of Part III of the DURATINET Technical Guide.
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WG A4 Maintenance and Repair of Steel Structures
WG Leader:
Franck Schoefs
University of Nantes, France
Partners active members
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Country Institution members

Manuela Salta, Paula Rodrigues, Maria Joo
LNEC
Portugal Correia, Hugo Perneta
REFER Hugo Patrcio
France IFSTTAR Laurent Gaillet
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DURATINET project approved by the Atlantic Area Programme and co-financed
by ERDF

CONTRACT N: 2008-1/049
PROJECT TITLE: Durable Transport Infrastructure in the Atlantic
Area Network
ACRONYM: DURATINET
LEADER: Manuela Salta
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC)
Materials Department
Portugal

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GENERAL INDEX
Part III Steel Structures
Vol. 1 Durability factors and requirements
Environment
Material properties
Specific requirements for durability
Vol. 2 Deterioration
Classification of defects
Mechanisms

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Vol. 3 Testing techniques
Non-destructive testing methods (NDT)
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Destructive testing methods (DT)
Adequacy of testing to the damage
Vol. 4 Repair methods
Methods for improving fatigue performance
Methods for repairing damage in steel elements
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Adequacy of repair to the damage

Vol. 5 Protection systems
Cathodic protection
Coating systems
Surface preparation
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CONTENTS
Part III Steel structures: Vol. 5
1 General considerations .................................................................................1
2 Cathodic protection .......................................................................................2
2.1 Fundamentals .......................................................................................2
2.2 Applicability ...........................................................................................7
2.3 Equipment.............................................................................................7
2.4 Cathodic protection implementation ...................................................10
2.4.1 Prerequisites and design ............................................................... 10

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2.4.2 Installation...................................................................................... 10
2.4.3 Commissioning .............................................................................. 11

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2.4.4 Inspection and maintenance.......................................................... 11
2.5 Measurement methods .......................................................................12
2.6 Effects .................................................................................................14
3 Coating systems .........................................................................................15
3.1 Paint coatings .....................................................................................16
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3.1.1 Application methods and equipment ............................................. 18
3.1.2 Procedures .................................................................................... 19
3.1.2.1 Previous evaluation, selection of paint systems and
preparation of specifications..................................................................... 19
3.1.2.2 Execution conditions .............................................................. 25
3.1.2.3 Control of work....................................................................... 25
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3.1.2.4 Regulation of health, safety and environment ....................... 27

3.1.3 Maintenance painting .................................................................... 28
3.2 Metallic coatings .................................................................................29
3.2.1 Application methods ...................................................................... 29
3.2.1.1 Hot dip galvanizing ................................................................ 30
3.2.1.2 Thermal spraying ................................................................... 33
3.2.1.3 Electroplating ......................................................................... 38
3.2.1.4 Sherardizing ........................................................................... 40
3.2.2 Performance of zinc and aluminium metallic coatings .................. 43
3.2.3 Selection of metallic coatings ........................................................ 43
3.2.4 Maintenance of zinc metallic coatings ........................................... 44
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 3.3 Selection of coating systems ..............................................................45
4 Surface preparation ....................................................................................47
4.1 Generic procedures ............................................................................47
4.1.1 Previous evaluation ....................................................................... 47
4.1.2 Execution conditions ...................................................................... 48
4.1.3 Control of works ............................................................................. 49
4.1.4 Regulations on health, safety and environmental protection ........ 50
4.2 Surface preparation methods .............................................................50
4.2.1 Water, solvent and chemical cleaning ........................................... 50

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4.2.1.1 Water cleaning ....................................................................... 50
4.2.1.2 Steam cleaning ...................................................................... 50
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4.2.1.3 Emulsion cleaning.................................................................. 50
4.2.1.4 Alkaline cleaning .................................................................... 51
4.2.1.5 Organic-solvent cleaning ....................................................... 51
4.2.1.6 Cleaning by means of chemical conversion .......................... 51
4.2.1.7 Stripping................................................................................. 51
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4.2.1.8 Acid pickling ........................................................................... 51

4.2.2 Hand-tool and power-tool cleaning ................................................ 52
4.2.2.1 Fundamentals ........................................................................ 52
4.2.2.2 Equipment.............................................................................. 52
4.2.2.3 Application procedures .......................................................... 53
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4.2.3 Blast-cleaning ................................................................................ 53

4.2.3.1 Fundamentals ........................................................................ 53
4.2.3.2 Equipment.............................................................................. 56
4.2.3.3 Application procedures .......................................................... 58
4.2.4 Flame cleaning .............................................................................. 58
4.2.5 Innovative cleaning ........................................................................ 59
4.2.5.1 Cryogenic blast-cleaning ....................................................... 59
4.2.5.2 Laser cleaning ....................................................................... 59
4.2.5.3 Sponge media blast-cleaning ................................................ 59
4.3 Surface types and preparation grades ...............................................60
4.4 Specific aspects of surface preparation on coated steel structures ... 64

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 4.5 Selection of a surface preparation method .........................................65
5 References .................................................................................................69

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1 General considerations
Corrosion is one of the main mechanisms of deterioration of steel structures
and, thus, corrosion protection of steel structures is essential to reach their
required design life. Different protection systems can be used to prevent
corrosion and its related consequences affecting the safety, integrity, and
function of steel structures and, hence, their service life.
Applying coating systems is the most commonly used method to control
corrosion, which additionally provides a more pleasant aesthetic appearance
and other additional properties. Coating systems protection is normally given by
(i) barrier action, (ii) chemical inhibition, and/or (iii) galvanic protection,
respectively (i) if coatings isolate the substrate from the environment, (ii) if a
corrosion inhibitor is used in paints, and (iii) if the substrate is sacrificially

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protected by a more active metal. In addition, new technologies have been
applied to the development of coating materials. These developments have met
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the more stringent requirements, and have increased both effectiveness and
durability so improving the performance of the coating systems against
corrosion.
Another usual method of corrosion protection is cathodic protection, which
involves modification of the metal potential of the substrate, either by the
application of a direct current from a power supply or by the galvanic action
from connection to a dissimilar metal. In some cases, the associated use of
cathodic protection and suitable coating systems allows the improvement of
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their effectiveness as regards to corrosion protection.

Although a wide variety of protective systems exist, there is no universal
solution for corrosion protection of steel structures and, thus, the proper system
must be selected. This is done according to the specified requirements: by
considering design, surface preparation, cost, fabrication, performance, and
maintenance, as well as expected exposure conditions and environmental
aggressiveness.
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The optimum treatment, for a required durability in specific conditions, combines

suitable protective systems with good surface preparation, because adhesion of
coatings is assisted by surface cleanliness and roughness.
This volume of the technical guide details, according to the relevant
international standards, the most common corrosion protection methods, such
as metallic and paint protection systems, and cathodic protection. The included
information, related with basic concepts, applicability, and common procedures,
aims at providing guidance on the factors that determine the effective protection
of steel structures and, thus, at assisting the corrosion protection related
decision making process.
Surface preparation, which is one of the most important factors affecting the
service life of a coating protection system, is also detailed in this report
including general applicability, principles for selection of the available methods,
and relevant procedures.

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2 Cathodic protection

2.1 Fundamentals
The concept of cathodic protection is related with the thermodynamic stability of
species, generically represented in potential-pH diagrams (Fig. 1). The corrosion of
a metal can be prevented by shifting its potential from an active state condition,
where corrosion products are the stable species, to less noble values in the
immunity region.

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Fig. 1. Potential-pH diagram: active and immunity regions with schematic
representation of cathodic protection concept.

Hence, cathodic protection is a process that reduces the corrosion rate of a

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metal through a decrease in its potential, from its corrosion potential to a lower
value than the protection potential, as schematically illustrated in Fig. 2. As the
cathodic current density supplied is increased, the potential of the metal and its
dissolution rate decrease.
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Fig. 2. Polarization diagram representing the cathodic protection

criterion. (Adapted from [1])

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The criterion for cathodic protection is thus the reduction in the potential of
alloys, to values like those indicated in Table 1, so that their corrosion rate
becomes less than 0.01 mm/year. However, in some cases, the potential of the
metal cannot be more negative than a limiting critical value, in order to minimize
detrimental effects such as damage of coatings and hydrogen assisted cracking.

Table 1. Protection potentials of non-alloy and low alloy iron materials in

soil and in fresh and salt water. (Adapted from [2])

Protection potential,
Metal or alloy Medium
Ep
1
T < 40 C - 0.85
T > 60 C -0.951,2

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Water and soil
Aerated sandy soil
Non-alloy and low aerobic -0.75
alloy Fe materials
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conditions 100<<1000 m
with Aerated sandy soil
-2 -0.65
YS 800 Nmm >1000 m
Water and soil
anaerobic -0.95
conditions
NOTE: All potentials are IR free and refer to a copper/saturated copper sulphate
reference electrode, ECu/CuSO4 = +0.32 V vs NHE.
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1
For temperatures between 40 and 60 C the protection potential may be
interpolated.
2
Increasing risk of NaOH induced stress corrosion cracking with increased
temperature.

For complex structures, for which it is not always possible to determine by

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measurement, where these criteria of cathodic protection are met, alternative

methods of verification may be selected. In particular: (i) potential, (ii) current, or
(iii) depolarization measurement methods, as specified by EN 14505:2005 [3]:
i. The on potential should be equal to or more negative than -1.2 V in
specific conditions, except for entries to, and in the vicinity of large
foreign cathodes where values more negative than -0.8 V could be
acceptable.
ii. Directly or using either current density or potential shift measurements
at test probes or coupons, it may be demonstrated that the current is
entering the structure. An indication can be given, for example, by a
negative shift from the corrosion potential of at least 0.3 V when the
protection current is switched on.
iii. A positive shift on test probes or coupons of at least 0.1 V measured
from immediately to 1 h after disconnection from the structure indicates
that the structure is polarized.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

According to EN 14505:2005 [3], one of these criteria should be used as a

minimum, although more may be required to verify the adequate protection over
a complex structure.
A proper distribution of the protective current over the structure assures the
uniformity of potentials, which is essential for the cathodic protection. The
current required to achieve the criterion for protection depends on the type and
characteristics of the structure and on the prevailing environmental conditions.
According to EN 12473:2000 [1], especially in sea water, the main factors
affecting current density requirements are salinity, pH, temperature, as well as
depth and water flow. These affect directly the dissolved oxygen content, the
calcareous deposits, and marine fouling, which influence the corrosion rate and
so the current requirements for cathodic protection. Cathodic current is
considered to be proportional to the rate at which dissolved oxygen diffuses to

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the steel surface, and therefore current density requirements are extended by
increased sea currents, and decreased by an increase in salinity, in calcareous

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deposits and in marine fouling. Temperature, depth, and pH have complex
effects on the limiting current density requirements for cathodic protection.
Recommendations and guidance for each practical situation are given in the
respective standards, such as guidance for cathodic protection of harbour
installations with design current densities for the protection of bare steel given
by EN 13174:2001 [4] (Table 2).
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Table 2. Design current density guidance values for the protection of bare
(Adapted from [4])
steel in saline mud and in sea water.

Current densities, i
Environment Description | Conditions mAm-2
Initial Maintenance Repolarization
Saline mud All types of structures 25 20 20
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In poorly
Static or semi- 80 to
aerated 50 to 65 60 to 80
static 100
waters
conditions with
tidal flow less In well
120 to
than 0.5 m/s aerated 65 to 80 80 to 100
150
waters
Sea water
In poorly
Static or semi- 120 to
aerated 60 to 80 80 to 100
static 150
waters
conditions with
tidal flow more In well
170 to
than 0.5 m/s aerated 80 to 100 100 to 130
200
waters

Even though different thermodynamically stable reactions can occur, the most
likely cathodic reactions in cathodically protected elements are hydrogen

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reduction (1) and oxygen reduction (2) respectively in anaerobic acidic and in
aerated near neutral environments.

2 2 (1)

2 4 4 (2)
The anodic reactions depend on both the environment and the anode characteristics,
which depend on the cathodic protection system.
The cathodic protection can be accomplished either by impressed current
groundbeds or by sacrificial anodes (Fig. 3), respectively when the current for
protection is provided by an external power source in conjunction with relatively
inert anodes, or by a metal of a more negative corrosion potential than steel,
such as aluminium, zinc and magnesium alloys. Effective cathodic protection

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can also be achieved by hybrid systems, which comprise both galvanic and
impressed current anodes.
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Fig. 3. Representation of cathodic protection systems in seawater:

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(a) galvanic; (b) impressed current. (Adapted from [1])

The main reaction in a galvanic anode is its dissolution according to the general
equation:

(3)
In the case of impressed current anodes, since mostly do not dissolve, the
anodic reactions depend on the external environment, the decomposition of
water (4) and the oxidation of dissolved chloride (5) being common examples.

2 4 4 (4)

2 2 (5)
Groundbeds can be used, either remotely or locally, in distributed or continuous
configuration types, respectively if the anodes are placed at short intervals

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STEEL STRUCTURES

throughout or along the structure or in a continuous carbonaceous backfill at

suitable intervals. According to EN 14505:2005 [3], a continuous groundbed
provides a uniform current distribution along the structure with less overall
current and voltage output needs, and generally avoids shielding and
interference problems.
The driving voltage in sacrificial anode systems results from the potential
difference between the two metals that produce a galvanic cell when connected
together in an electrolyte. This coupling leads to corrosion of the more active
metal and to the protection of the noblest one. The anode is the less noble
material that is consumed in the galvanic interaction, while the structural metal
with the more positive potential is the cathode, and thus it will be protected as a
result of a galvanic current.
Sacrificial cathodic protection systems have the following advantages: they

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require no external power sources; are robust and easy to install; are unlikely to
cause cathodic interference on foreign structures; require low-maintenance and

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are self-regulating. They also provide relatively uniform potential distributions
with low risk of overprotection. The associated disadvantages are their limited
current and power output, their impractical application in high resistivity
environments, and their need for anodes replacement in high current demand
systems.
In sacrificial anode systems, the galvanic couple potential depends on several
factors including electrochemical parameters, relative sizes of anodic and
cathodic areas and the relative distance between them, environmental
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conditions, coating characteristics, and fluid velocity.
In impressed current systems, unless a consumable anode is used, a negligible
anode consumption rate is a requirement for a long system life. The associated
advantages include a high current and power output range, controllable
protection levels, large areas of protection, and the need for a low number of
anodes even in high-resistivity environments. The disadvantages are a higher
risk of causing interference with foreign structures, higher maintenance
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requirements that involve the supply of an external power source, a higher risk
of overprotection damage and incorrect polarity connections, being more
complex and less robust than sacrificial anode systems in certain applications
with the loss of anodes being more critical for the effectiveness of the cathodic
protection system.
The cathodic protection systems may be used in association with suitable
coating systems, which reduce current density and improve the current
distribution over the surface. The selection of the coating system depends on
the type of structure, on the environment variables, and on economy in due
regard to the design life.
However, some adverse effects of the cathodic protection systems limit the use
of certain coating systems, such as oleo-resinous or alkyd types due to
saponification, poly vinyl butyral shop primers due to loss of adhesion, and
some containing aluminium coating that may be attacked by alkali. Therefore,
this kind of limitations should be taken into account when designing the
protection systems.
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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The coating acts as a resistive barrier to current flow, which is limited to

holidays and pinholes on the painted surface, so reducing the current density
requirements. Thus, it is usual to introduce coating breakdown factors that
account for the reduction in cathodic current density due to the application of an
electrically insulating coating. This factor, which varies with time due to ageing
and mechanical damage, is between 0 and 1, respectively from a perfectly
insulating coating to a bare structure.

. (6)
-2
where Jc is the protection current density for coated steel (A m ), Jb the protection
current density for bare steel (A m-2), and fc the coating breakdown factor.

Guidance values of coating breakdown factors of usual paint systems for

designing cathodic protection systems, indicated by EN 13174:2001 [4], are

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initially of 1 % to 2 % in immersed areas and 25 % to 50 % in buried areas, with
1 % to 3 % depletion rate per year.
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2.2 Applicability
Cathodic protection is applied to protect structures, which are exposed to a bulk
electrolyte, from corrosion. Frequently cathodic protection is used together with
coatings.
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Galvanic anode systems are, relatively, more economical solutions for

structures with small protection current requirements and for low resistivity
environments, being also advantageous when no power sources are available.
These systems are not suitable for areas with interferences from equipment
with d.c. or a.c energy sources.
Impressed current systems are preferred under high-current requirements
and/or high-resistance electrolytes, and for complex structures.
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2.3 Equipment
In impressed current systems, the main equipment consists of d.c. power
supply units specified for each application, and shallow or deep type
groundbeds, which consist of anodes from materials such as graphite, high
silicon iron alloy, titanium or niobium coated with platinum or activated metal
oxides, and conductive polymers.
Galvanic anodes are the main material used in galvanic systems, since their
main driving force is the potential difference between the anode and the
element to be protected.
Other essential equipment used for both systems includes connection cables,
protection devices, calibrated reference and measurement electrodes (Table 3)
and measurement devices.

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Table 3. Characteristics of common electrodes used for potential

(Adapted from [5])
measurements.

Phase Common EH 1 Usual

Electrode Remarks
constitution symbols V application
Reference electrodes

EHg Soil and water for

Saturated Hg/HgCl/KCI
+0,25 Laboratory specific
calomel saturated ESCE applications
Saturated EKCI
Ag/AgCI/KCI Laboratory Soil for specific
silver/silver +0,20
saturated ESSE water applications
chloride

ECu Water only for

Copper/saturated Cu/CuSO4
+0,32 Soil short exposure

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copper sulphate saturated ECSE time
Measuring electrodes

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Potential variation
depending on the
electrolyte
Silver/silver (brackish, fresh or
Ag/AgCI/ sea
chloride/sea EAg +0,25 Sea water sea water).
water
water
Should be
periodically
verified.
Potential after 2
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Zinc/sea water Zn/sea water EZn -0,78 Sea water days of
immersion.
1
EH is the potential of the reference or measuring electrode with respect to the standard
hydrogen electrode

Galvanic anodes are usually made of zinc, aluminium, or magnesium based

alloys. Magnesium anodes have generally a low efficiency (around 50 %) but a
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high theoretical capacity, unlike zinc anodes.

According to EN 12954:2001 [2], galvanic anodes should be installed in a
suitable low resistivity non-carbonaceous backfill to keep the current output as
constant as possible and to obtain a low ground resistance.
The galvanic anode current output depends on its shape and dimensions, as
well as on the environment characteristics. Therefore, for a given current output,
the anode lifetime will depend on the material and on its consumption rate. Over
its lifetime, the anode must maintain its capacity and efficiency, which is defined
by the ratio between actual and theoretical capacity determined by Faradays
law.
High-silicon cast iron alloys, mixed-metal oxides, lead silver, and platinised
metals are commonly used as impressed current anodes.
Anodes of high-silicon cast iron alloys may or may not contain chromium. These
alloys with chromium are suitable for all applications reducing the risk of pitting
while the chromium free alloys can only be used in halide-free environments.
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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The performance of the anodes depends on the formation of a partially

protective thin layer of silicon dioxide on their surface. These anodes are
recommended to be installed in a carbonaceous backfill.
Mixed-metal oxide anodes consist of electrocatalytic activated coatings, which
are made of a mixture of highly conductive oxides, on a high-purity substrate
like titanium, niobium, and tantalum. The oxides formed on these substrates
have protective properties similar to the passive film on the substrate materials,
but the passive film is an effective electrical insulator unlike the mixed metal
oxide film. These anodes are suitable for applications in both sea and
freshwater, as well as in mud and in soil, preferably in carbonaceous backfills.
The critical factor to anode life may be the formation of nonconductive oxides
between the substrate and the surface rather than electrode consumption.
Platinised anodes consist of titanium, niobium, and tantalum substrates with a

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platinum coating. These have a high corrosion resistance which is due to the
inherent corrosion resistance of the substrate materials, associated with the
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formation of protective passive films. The potential of unplatinised anodes
should not exceed the critical depassivation value, which is dependent on the
corrosiveness of the environment. These anodes, which are available in the
form of wire, mesh, rods, tubes, and strips, are normally used in carbonaceous
backfill.
Conductive polymer anodes consist of a carbon based anode material
incorporated into polymeric material and coated onto a copper conductor.
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The consumption rates of the different anodes, indicated in Table 4, depend on

the alloy composition, on the environment and on the maximum current density
applied.

Table 4. Typical characteristics of impressed current anodes. (Adapted from [3] and [4])

Maximum current Maximum

Consumption rates
density voltage
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Anode material
g/A year A m- V
High-silicon cast iron
100 to 500 10 to 50 50
alloys
Mixed-metal oxide 0.0006 to 0.006 35 to 1000 2 83
Platinised titanium 0.0012 to 0.004 1 500 to 3000 83
Platinised niobium 0.0012 to 0.004 1 500 to 3000 50
1
Platinised tantalum 0.0012 to 0.004 500 to 3000 100
Lead silver 25 to 100 250 to 300 24
1
The life of the platinum film may be affected by the electrolyte resistivity, and by the
magnitude and frequency of the ripple present in the d.c. supply.
2
Typical values in freshwater range from 35 to 50 Am-, in soil are about 100 Am-,
and in seawater are higher.
3
In sea water, the oxide film on titanium may break down with voltages exceeding 8
V. Higher voltages may be used with fully platinised or in less saline environments.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

2.4 Cathodic protection implementation

The design, installation, commissioning, inspection and maintenance,
performed by qualified personnel, are fundamental for an effective protection.

2.4.1 Prerequisites and design

Structure details, lifetime, coating properties, operating conditions, environment
characteristics, and possible interferences are decisive issues for designing a
cathodic protection system. According to EN 12954:2001 [2], prerequisites for
cathodic protection include: electrical continuity and isolation; avoiding metal
contact with parts of the structure not to be protected or with other structures;
suitable external coating that reduces the protection current demand; improving
current distribution; extending the protected area; and reducing interference

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with other foreign structures. Further prerequisites to design established by the
standard include: installation of test stations for measurements; bonding across

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components; mitigation of a.c. interference; contact and lightening protection;
impressed current or galvanic cathodic protection system characteristics and
specifications, as well as drainage stations. Especially for complex structures,
additional principles detailed in EN 14505:2005 [3], such as foreign electrodes
information and interference assessment, are fundamental for the design. Due
to the characteristics of complex structures, shielding effects and interferences,
the protection current requirements and current distribution cannot always be
accurately determined during the design stage, subsequent adjustments and
additional installations being usually performed.
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The cathodic protection system may be designed to be able to compensate for
a less efficient current distribution. According to EN 13174:2001 [4], for steel
harbour installations, the system should provide 1.1 to 1.5 times the calculated
total maximum current demand, depending on the geometry and the coating of
the structure.
The requirements for safety, design, verification, installation procedures and
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inspection should be contemplated in design documents.

2.4.2 Installation
According to EN 12954:2001 [2], for the installation of cathodic protection
systems the following aspects should be generally considered: (i) conformity of
materials and equipment and the local conditions indicated in or used for design,
before the beginning of the work; (ii) installation and materials in compliance
with the regulations during the work; (iii) deviations from the design justified for
approval and being reported on as built documentation. Further specifications
and checks are detailed, as regards to the installation of cables, galvanic
anodes, impressed current systems, as well as test and drainage stations.

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2.4.3 Commissioning
According to EN 12954:2001 [2], before the activation of a cathodic protection
system, a preliminary check to verify compliance with the design and safety
measures is essential. Resistance and potential measurements should be
performed to ensure the design requirements.
The start up of the system involves: (i) verification of functionality according
to design requirements; (ii) if necessary current limitation via galvanic
anodes; (iii) measurements of output voltage and of protective current output,
on potentials at drains and at the extremities of parts of the structure protected
by each rectifier, on potentials and current requirements of foreign electrodes,
as well as possible a.c or d.c. interference; (iv) examination of stray currents in
accordance with EN 50162:2004 [6] and determination of the respective
interference level.

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After a suitable polarization period, the effectiveness of the cathodic protection
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needs to be checked according to EN 13509:2003 [5].
Commissioning documents as indicated in EN 12954:2001 [2] should be
prepared after successful installation of cathodic protection systems.

2.4.4 Inspection and maintenance

Regular inspection is necessary for approving the procedures appropriate to the
type of structure and its cathodic protection system, which should reflect the
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operating experience and new technology through reviewing. Record systems,

for operation and maintenance, as well as procedures for accuracy and safety
of measuring equipment and instrumentation are essential.
As detailed in EN 12954:2001 [2], the frequency of inspection is determined by
several factors, which are related with the structure design and environment
and with the cathodic protection system design.
The inspection can be divided into: (i) equipment checks, such as transformer
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rectifier visual observations and outputs, and the mechanical integrity of the test
station; and (ii) structure measurements by qualified personnel. Procedures and
typical frequency of inspection are given by EN 12954:2001 [2], with particular
exceptions for remote controlled systems.
Assessment of cathodic protection effectiveness is done by comparison
between actual measurement values and reference values, measured at the
time of commissioning and in subsequent years, or protection criteria. If
cathodic protection is not effective, investigations and appropriate corrective
actions should be carried out to restore its effectiveness.
Maintenance on impressed current, test and drainage stations, periodical
calibration of instrumentation, and safety checks are essential to maintain the
effectiveness of the protection system.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

2.5 Measurement methods

EN 13509:2003 [5] specifies the methods used to assist in the design of the
cathodic protection system, with a view to verify its effectiveness and its
optimum operational conditions, and to ensure the correct operation of the
system after installation. Care should be taken when choosing the measuring
equipment and methods and when interpreting the results, especially due to the
existence of interfering currents.
Measurement of the potential is necessary to assess the effectiveness of the
cathodic protection because this is the main criterion for protection.
In buried structures, since the potential measurement at the metal/electrolyte
phase boundary is normally technically unfeasible, the measurement is
generally affected by the ohmic drop (IR) with the interference of currents from

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the environment, such as currents specific to the system, or from remote or
nearby foreign structures. Therefore, the most suitable technique must be

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selected on the basis of local environment and application conditions. The
possible measurement techniques that can be applied in specific current
interference are indicated in Table 5.

Table 5. Possible measuring techniques for determining the ohmic drop free
(Adapted from [5])
potential in relation to each type of interfering current.

Off potential measurement.

Protective current.
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External potential test probe.
Intensive measurement
Currents specific to the Equalising current. technique.
system External potential test probe.
Intensive measurement
Cell current. technique.
External potential test probes.
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Intensive measurement
Not fluctuating with technique.
time.
External potential test probes.
Currents from remote Special off potential
foreign sources measurement.
Fluctuating with time. Intensive measurement
technique.
External potential test probes.
Not fluctuating with
External potential test probes.
time.
Currents from nearby
foreign sources Special off potential
Fluctuating with time. measurement.
External potential test probes.

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

On potential measurements, conducted while the protective current is on, are

mostly used for monitoring cathodic protection but contain various unknown IR
drops.
The different techniques that can be used for IR free potential measurements
are specified in EN 13509:2003 [5].
In instantaneous off potential measurement, the current is briefly interrupted
producing a reading free from IR drop effects, as illustrated in Fig. 4.

t
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Fig. 4. Instantaneous off potential measurement.
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Special off potential measurements are used to assess the effectiveness of

cathodic protection in areas affected by stray currents. The principle of the
technique is the comparison between on potential records, at critical
measuring points, and off potential measurements done at the same points
with no interference of stray currents, according to the requirements indicated
by EN 13509:2003 [5].
The intensive measurement technique simultaneously measures the structure
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to electrolyte potentials and the associated opposed potential gradients. This

technique involves measuring simultaneously the potentials at two or more
different locations and the potential differences among them according to the
specifications given in EN 13509:2003 [5]. This technique can provide both
coating defect location and IR free potential measurement.
The basic principle concerning the potential measurements of an immersed
structure is identical to that used for buried installations, but the particular
conditions cause specific practical problems. Direct or indirect potential
measurements require the use of permanent or temporary test stations.
EN 13509:2003 [5] details other measurements, such as d.c. current, resistance,
and impressed current testing, which may be applied to coating condition
analysis, with a view to detect interferences with foreign structures or the
effectiveness of insulating joints.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

2.6 Effects
A structure under cathodic protection should not be over polarized in order to
avoid possible adverse effects such as those due to hydrogen embrittlement,
development of alkalinity, and generation of chlorine gas.
Alkalinity favours the formation of calcareous deposits, the latter having some
beneficial and adverse effects on the cathodic protection. Alkalinity may also
degrade some coatings by saponification.
Atomic hydrogen produced by over polarization can diffuse through the metal
lattice causing embrittlement that may impair the fatigue resistance and the load
bearing capacities of the metallic elements. This gas evolution may also affect
the adhesion of the coating.
Chlorine, which may result from the anodic reaction of impressed current

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systems, tends to form sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid that may
increase the corrosion rate. This gas may also be hazardous for inspection and

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maintenance personnel and may attack and discolour the paint.
Structures not fully insulated may be affected by stray currents or interference
effects from neighbouring cathodically protected structures. These effects are
commonly overcome by the use of drainage and/or insulating coatings.
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14
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

3 Coating systems
Coating systems, which may integrate several coats provided that compatibility
between coats is assured, are the most commonly used as a corrosion
protection system for steel structures. The coating process involves the
application of paints and/or coating material, metallic coatings, or the
combination of these two types of coating (duplex system) to the steel surface
in order to ensure the proper performance of the structure during its design life
without requiring structural repairs.
The following stages are essential to achieve an optimized performance by the
coating system [7]:
i. consideration of the coating requirements;
ii.

t
selection of the most adequate protective system for the specific
environmental conditions;
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iii. evaluation of the structure design to optimize coating application and
performance;
iv. adequacy of coating to fabrication techniques or the reverse;
v. preparation of clear and unambiguous specifications;
vi. tendering and acceptance of the requirements;
vii. quality control of the specified and supplied materials;
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viii. inspection at all phases of the coating process.

The most significant factors in the selection of coating systems are the type of
structure and its importance, environmental characterization, durability required,
coating performance, and cost of the coating system.
Effective, unambiguous, feasible and achievable specifications should be
prepared by experts with a good understanding of the technology involved in
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protective coating systems. This expert judgement is particularly important

when coatings are applied in very specific conditions of structural elements in
contact with water (piles, sheet-piles, etc.).
An adequate and detailed record of the coating procedures used for evaluating
the performance and durability of paints and/or coating systems should also be
prepared, because it may provide important information about possible
premature coating failure or any other problems regarding the coating
application or performance. This type of information may also be an important
tool for the future selection of suitable protective coating systems.
Inspection is essential to ensure that all requirements of coating specifications
are fulfilled, hence, with a good quality control of the whole coating process, the
applied system can reach its full potential performance.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

3.1 Paint coatings

Paint systems are the most applied protective systems to metallic structures.
These provide several advantages, such as: easy applicability, there is no
limitation on the size of protected steelwork, a decorative finishing and any
other required additional property.
Paint is defined as pigmented coating material which, when applied to a
substrate, forms an opaque and solid film (paint coating) having protective,
decorative and/or specific technical properties, after drying and/or curing
(hardening), depending on the manner of film formation. The film formation may
be by oxidation, solvent evaporation (if present) and chemical reaction.
Paint normally consists of binder, pigments, extenders, additives, solvents and
diluents, with the latter two being present in liquid paints. The binder gives, in

t
general, the name to the paint, e.g. epoxy paint, polyurethane paint, alkyd paint,
acrylic paint. The formulation of the paint constituents must be well balanced to

iNe
ensure that all requirements and properties are achieved. These properties are
preserved by an appropriate application technique. To provide a protective film,
the paint must be applicable under a specified set of conditions. It must be
dried/cured within a specified limit, and provide a coating with suitable
properties. It must fulfil the decorative requirements and must adhere to the
substrate [7]. The coating must provide durability, protection of steel from
corrosion, adherence to the substrate, and adequate physical properties [7].
Protection of steelwork by painting is usually assured by the application of
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several coats of different paints, each having a specific role and forming a
protective organic coating. The different types of coats are defined by the order
of application to the substrate: the priming coat or primer (first coat), the
intermediate coat or undercoat (any coat between the priming coat and the
finishing coat) and the finishing coat or topcoat (final coat). The different coats
must be with different colours to facilitate their identification.
The coating system is characterized by the number of coats involved and is
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designated by the name of the paint binder used in the finishing/topcoat. We

can also have systems without intermediate coating. Nowadays, a new family of
paints are being developed where the anticorrosive function as well as
decorative function or other required property are ensured by the same paint,
allowing the reduction of the number of coats used in a coating system.
The primer that is applied to the substrate must wet the steel surface and
provide good adhesion and anticorrosive protection. EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12]
defines two main categories of primer according to the type of pigment it
contains:
Zinc-rich primers contain zinc dust pigment with a percentage, in the
non-volatile portion of the paint, equal or greater than 80 % by mass.
The zinc dust pigment should be in accordance with EN ISO
3549:2002 [16] and its content can be determined by a method described
in ASTM D 2371:2005 [17].

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Other primers contain zinc phosphate pigment or other anticorrosive

pigments with a percentage, in the non-volatile portion of the paint,
lower than 80 % by mass. For health and safety reasons, zinc chromate,
red lead and calcium plumbates are not widely used.
Annex B, in EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12] provides specific information about
prefabrication primers, which are applied as thin films to provide temporary
protection during fabrication, storage, transportation, and erection of steel
structures.
The undercoats are used to increase the overall thickness of the paint system.
The finishing coat protects the paint system from environmental factors, e.g.
ultraviolet light from the sun, and provides primary abrasion resistance and
decoration, when required.

t
Annex A, in EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12], provides examples regarding the
selection of paint systems based on the corrosivity category in relation to the
expected durability.
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EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12] lists some available paint systems although new
validated technologies should also be considered. For purposes of application,
paints can be classified as solvent-borne, water-borne or solvent-free. EN ISO
12944-5:2007 [12] divides the coatings obtained by application of paint into two
main categories, according to the kind of drying and/or curing (hardening), as
reversible and irreversible. These are further subdivided by the generic type of
binder (Table 6). In reversible coatings, the film is formed by solvent
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evaporation and the re-dissolution of the film in the original solvent is feasible.
In irreversible coatings, initially the film also dries by solvent evaporation, if
present, followed by a chemical reaction or by coalescence in case of water-
borne paints. This process is irreversible, which means that the film cannot be
dissolved in the original solvent or in a solvent suitable for that generic type of
paint.
In air drying paints (oxidative curing), the dry film is formed by evaporation of
solvent simultaneous with the curing by reaction of the binder with oxygen from
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the air. In water-borne paints, the dry film is formed by evaporation of water and
coalescence of the dispersed binder in the water. In chemically curing paints,
the film dries by evaporation of solvents, if present, and/or cures by a chemical
reaction between the base and the curing agent components. In moisture curing
paints, the dry film is formed by solvent evaporation and hardens chemically by
reacting with moisture from the air.
Proper surface, with the required standard of cleanliness, is essential for a good
performance of paint systems. However in some situations, surface preparation
is very expensive and/or difficult to carry out, thus leading to the development of
a new type of coating named as surface-tolerant. This type of coating consists
of [7]: introducing hydrophilic solvents or surface-active agents in the coating,
which when combined with moisture on the surface, cause moisture dispersion
throughout the film paint; using two-pack epoxies, frequently prepared with
aluminium pigmentation, in order to provide good wetting and penetration.
Surface-tolerant coatings should only be used as last resort.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 6. Classification of paint coating types according with EN ISO

(Adapted from [12])
12944-5:2007.

Examples of typical
Classification of paint coating types
binders
Chlorinated rubber (CR)
Vinyl chloride copolymers
Reversible coating
(PVC)
Acrylic polymers (AY)
Alkyd
Air-drying paints
Urethane alkyd
(oxidative curing)
Epoxy ester
Acrylic polymers (AY)

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Water-borne paints
Vinyl polymers (PVC)
(single-pack)

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Polyurethane resins (PUR)
Epoxy paints Epoxy
(2-pack) base Epoxy vinyl/epoxy acrylic
Irreversible component Epoxy combinations
coating
Chemically curing Polyester
paints Polyurethane Acrylic
paints
Polyether
(2-pack) base
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component Fluoro resin
Polyurethane combinations
Polyurethane (1-pack)
Moisture-curing paints Ethyl silicate (2-pack)
Ethyl silicate (1-pack)

The durability of a paint system is defined by EN ISO 12944-1:1998 [8] as the

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expected life of a protective paint system to the first major maintenance painting.
The durability of paint systems depends on several parameters, such as [12]: the
type of paint system; the design of the structure; the condition of the substrate;
the quality of the surface preparation and the respective grade; the application
work, its control and conditions of application; the exposure conditions after
application of the paint system. Generally, increasing the total dry film thickness
and the number of coats will increase the durability of a paint system. Higher
durability is also provided by the selection of a system suitable for a corrosivity
category higher than the one envisaged.

3.1.1 Application methods and equipment

Paint systems may be applied either in shop or in situ although shop application
of the majority of coats ensures maximum performance of a paint system.
Application in shop offers more advantages, such as better control of
application conditions, the easier repair of damages, and better waste and

18
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

pollution control. Nevertheless, it has some associated disadvantages, such as

the limitation of the component size and the possibility of inducing damages
during handling, and also transport and erection. Particularly in maintenance
works, application is almost always carried out on site. On site application is
very influenced by daily weather conditions, but it offers some advantages, such
as the minor risk of damage and coat contamination.
The paint application methods are: manual application - brush and roller; spray
application (Fig. 5); and other application methods - dipping, flow-coating, coil
coating. All brushes and rollers should be suitable for their purpose and the
latter are not recommended for the application of anticorrosive primers. The
most commonly used spraying methods are [14]: conventional, low-pressure air
spray; airless spray; air assisted airless spray; and electrostatic spray. All
features regarding the method of application, e.g. paint viscosity, type of nozzle,

t
spraying pressure, spraying angle, and distance to the surface should be
selected with the objective of producing a uniform and continuous coating.
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Areas of the structure with bad accessibility, in which it is not possible to
achieve the required durability, should be precoated by brushing or spraying.
Other application methods should follow the instructions provided by the
manufacturer.
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(a) (b) (c)

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Fig. 5. Painting application by: (a) brush; (b) roller; (c) spray.

3.1.2 Procedures

3.1.2.1 Previous evaluation, selection of paint systems and preparation of

specifications
The preparation of suitable specifications is essential to ensure effective corrosion
protection by paint systems. According to Annex A of EN ISO 12944-1:1998 [8],
the following aspects are the basis to write adequate specifications for the project:
(i) analysing the corrosivity of the environment and establishing special conditions
and stresses that may affect the selection of paint system; (ii) examining and
optimizing the design of the structure; (iii) assessing the condition of the surface
to be treated; (iv) identifying the paint systems with the required durability for the
relevant environment and selecting the optimal one considering the method of

19
STEEL STRUCTURES

surface preparation that is to be used; (v) minimizing the risks of harmful effects
to the environment, health and safety; (vi) drawing up a work plan and selecting a
method of application; (vii) establishing an inspection plan; (viii) establishing a
maintenance plan covering the whole service life of the structure. The different
parts of EN ISO 12944 [8]-[15] provide guidance on most of these items.
The corrosivity of the environment is classified in EN ISO 12944-2:1998 [9] and
is also introduced in Part III, Vol. 1 Durability factors and requirements [18] of
this technical guide. The selection of a protective paint system should take
into account special corrosion stresses to which a structure is subjected, as
well as special situations regarding the location of the structure. This is
important because the design and use of the structure may lead to corrosion
stresses, which are not considered in the environment classification. Annex B
of EN ISO 12944-2:1998 [9] provides information on corrosivity for special

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situations as well as for special stresses.
EN ISO 12944-3:1998 [10] gives information on the basic criteria for the design

iNe
of steel structures, to be coated by protective systems, in order to avoid their
degradation and to improve their resistance to corrosion. Further details on
the mechanisms of corrosion and main influencing factors are given in Part III,
Vol. 2 Deterioration [19] of this technical guide.
Previous surface preparation is essential for the good performance of a paint
system. The surface preparation methods, in function of the different surface
types of steel structures, are described in EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11] and
further detailed in the next chapter of this volume of the technical guide
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(4.Surface preparation).
EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12] gives guidance on the identification and selection
of suitable paint systems that may also be assisted by laboratory test
methods for assessing the performance of paint systems as specified by
EN ISO 12944-6:1998 [13].
Annex A of EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12] provides an overview of the various
proposals regarding the most common paint systems, intended for the
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protection of low alloy steel as well as for galvanized and metalized steel
structures. These are characterized and divided according to the corrosivity
category of the environment and the required durability.
Table 7 and Table 8 respectively indicate the test procedures for assessing paint
systems in unprotected steel substrates and zinc-coated steel (hot dip galvanized
steel and thermally sprayed) as specified in EN ISO 12944-6:1998 [13].
The selection of a paint system should preferably be based on experience from
its use in similar cases of the envisaged situation. This is because durability
depends on several external factors. In case of pitting corrosion of the surface,
the dry film thickness or the number of coats should be increased (relatively to
the indications given in Annex A of EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12]) to compensate for
the increased surface roughness.

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 7. Test procedures for paint systems applied to steel. (Adapted from [13])

Corrosivity EN ISO EN ISO EN ISO 6270,

[22] EN ISO
category 2812- 2812- part 1:2001
[20] [21] 9227:2006 [24]
as defined Durability 1:2007 2:2007 and 2:2005 [23]
(salt spray
in EN ISO ranges (chemical (water (water
tests)
12944- resistance)1 immersion) condensation)
[9]
2:1998 h h h h
Low - - 48 -
C2 Medium - - 48 -
High - - 120 -
Low - - 48 120

t
C3 Medium - - 120 240
High - - 240 480
Low
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- - 120 240
C4 Medium - - 240 480
High - - 480 720
Low 168 - 240 480
C5-I Medium 168 - 480 720
High 168 - 720 1440
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Low - - 240 480

C5-M Medium - - 480 720
High - - 720 1440
Medium - 2000 720 -
Im1
High - 3000 1440 -
Medium - 2000 - 720
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Im2
High - 3000 - 1440
Medium - 2000 - 720
Im3
High - 3000 - 1440
Note: Not explicit durability ranges do not require test procedures. For corrosivity
category C5-I, the 2812-1:2007 [20] procedure can be replaced or supplemented by
[25]
ISO 2131:1972 test (10 cycles, 240h for low durability; 20 cycles, 480h for
medium durability, 720h for high durability).
1
Use method 1 (see subsection 5.6, in EN ISO 12944-6:1998 [13], for chemicals
used). The purpose of the chemical-resistance test is not to assess corrosion
protection properties but rather to assess the ability of a system to withstand highly
industrial environments. Thus, the test duration remains the same whatever the
durability range.

21
STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 8. Test procedures for testing adhesion of paint systems applied to

(Adapted from [13])
zinc coated steel.
[22]
Corrosivity category as defined Durability EN ISO 6270, part 1:2001 and
in EN ISO 12944-2:1998 [9] ranges 2:2005 [23] (water condensation)
Low 240
C2 | C3 Medium 240
High 240
Low 240
C4 Medium 240
High 480
Low 240

t
C5-I | C5-M Medium 480

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High 720

An effective protection during the service life of the structure is particularly

essential for components that are not accessible after assembly. In these cases,
it may be advisable to specify paint systems with a higher durability than that
required by the environmental category.
The main physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of different generic
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types of paint (for topcoat/finishing) (Table 9) and the compatibility between
paints in the paint system (Table 10), as well as between the paint to apply and
the coating of previously coated surfaces, are also important in the selection of
paint systems.
EN ISO 12944-8:1998 [15] provides guidance for developing specifications
intended for corrosion protection by paint systems, applicable to both new and
maintenance works. This standard indicates the contents that should be
specified for the project, the protective paint system, the paint work, as well as
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for inspection and assessment. The corresponding annexes [15] (Table 11)
provide further useful information.
At the design phase, the preparation of the maintenance plan should be based
on the required durability of the coating system, but it may be revised if the use
of the structure and/or the environment category changes, or in case of
emerging new materials and/or techniques.

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 9. General properties of different generic paint types. (Adapted from [12])

Suitability

Polyurethane,

Polyurethane,

combination
Chlorinated
Poly(vinyl

Ethyl zinc
chloride)

aromatic

aliphatic

silicate
Acrylic
rubber

Epoxy
G Good

Epoxy
Alkyd
L Limited
P Poor
Not PUR, PUR,
Nr PVC CR AY AK ESI EP EPC
relevant aromatic aliphatic
Gloss retention L L L L P G Nr P P
Colour retention L L G L P G Nr P P
Resistance to
chemicals:
Water immersion L G L P

t L P L G G
Rain /
G
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G G L G L G G G
condensation
Solvents P P P L G L G G L
Solvents (splash) P P P G G G G G G
Acids L G L L G L P L G
Acids (splash) G G L L G G P G G
Alkalis L L L L L L P G G
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Alkalis (splash) G G L L G G P G G
Resistance to dry
heat:
up to 70C P P L G G G G G G
70C to 120C Nr Nr L G G G G G L
120C to 150C Nr Nr L P L P G L L
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150C to 400C Nr Nr Nr Nr Nr Nr G Nr Nr
Physical
properties:
Abrasion
P P P L G L G G L
resistance
Impact resistance L L L L G L L G L
Flexibility G G G L L G P L L
Hardness L L L G G L G G G

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STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 10. Compatibility of different paints. (Adapted from [7])

First coat

Polyurethane
Chlor-rubber

combination
Bitumen

Epoxide

Epoxy
Alkyd
Vinyl
Bitumen Pa Nr Nr Nr Nr Nr Nr
Applied second coat

Vinyl Nr Pa Nr Nr Pa Pa and/or As Pa
Chlor-rubber Nr Pa Pa Rf Pa Pa and/or As Pa
Alkyd Nr Nr Nr Pa Pa Pa and/or As Pa

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Epoxide Nr Nr Nr Nr Pa Pa and/or As Nr

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C/T epoxide Nr Nr Nr Nr Pa Pa Nr
Polyurethane Nr Nr Nr Nr Pa Pa and/or As Pa
Pa - Probably alright
Nr - Not recommended
Rf - Results in fissures
As - Satisfactory adhesion but the appearance is affected by bleeding
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Table 11. Table of contents of the annexes contained in EN ISO 12944-8:1998 [21].

Annex Information provided

Basic information required for a protective paint system specification for
A
new work and maintenance.
B Information on reference areas and recommended form for a report.
C Flow chart for planning new work.
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D Flow chart for planning maintenance work.

E Checklist for the classification of environments.
F Example of a simple project specification.
Recommended form for a protective paint system specification regarding
G
new work.
Recommended form for a protective paint system specification regarding
H
maintenance.
Recommended form for a report on paint work progress and application
I
conditions.
J Recommended form for a final report on corrosion protection work.
Recommended form for a detailed inspection report on the condition of an
K existing protective paint system, including the assessment of the need for
maintenance.

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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

3.1.2.2 Execution conditions

EN ISO 12944-7:1998 [14] describes methods for the application of paint
coatings and provides guidance for carrying out paint work. According to this
standard, there are some preconditions required for the execution of paint work,
such as: qualification of personnel and achievement of the specified quality
level in each stage; substrate requirements as specified; compliance with all
applicable health, safety and environmental protection regulations.
When received and during application, the condition of the paint should be
verified in order to ensure [14]: conformity of the container label with the specified
product description; no skin formation; no irreversible settling; and usability
under the given site conditions. The supplied coating materials should be stored
at temperatures between 3C and 30C, unless other temperatures are
specified or indicated by the manufacturer, and respecting the indications
regarding the shelf life (storage time).

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The surfaces to be treated should be well illuminated and accessible. The
environmental conditions on site should be verified in order to comply with the
requirements provided by the paint manufacturer. Coating materials should not
be applied at temperatures below 3 C above the dew point [14], determined in
accordance with EN ISO 8502-4:1999 [26]. The technical data requirements
provided by the paint manufacturer concerning application should also be
observed. The application method will depend on [14]: type of coating material;
surface, type and size of the structure; local conditions; and environmental
regulations.
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Painting should take place in a separated or protected area from other trades,
such as blast-cleaning or welding, to avoid any influence that will be likely to
reduce the coating quality. Paint works should stop with the occurrence of any
adverse weather condition during application and the freshly coated area should
be protected as much as possible.
Any type of coating applied should be as uniform as possible, covering all areas,
especially the priming coat. Care should be taken to achieve the dry film
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thickness and to avoid excessive thickness. This is particularly important for

areas that are difficult to assess, such as edges, corners, welds, and riveted
and bolted connections.
Defects detected in any paint coat, which may lead to a reduction in the
protection given by the system or which may have a significant effect on the
appearance, should be repaired prior to the application of the following coats.

3.1.2.3 Control of work

The quality control of the work includes surface preparation work, coating
materials and their application, environmental conditions during work, and
verification of paint coatings.
The supervision of paint work is addressed in EN ISO 12944-7:1998 [14].
Accordingly, all stages of painting should be supervised, both on site and in the
workshop by qualified personnel with appropriate technical knowledge and

25
STEEL STRUCTURES

experience. The level of supervision depends on: type and importance of the
structure; difficulty level of the work; local conditions; type of coating; intended
durability.
The paint quality is usually verified before and during works. These types of
tests are usually carried out in laboratory but there are also some simple field
tests that can be performed, e.g. checking the colour, as well as the condition,
viscosity and density of samples from randomly unopened tins.
The wet film thickness can be periodically checked during application, the
respective results being recorded. All instruments used should also be checked,
calibrated and maintained at regular intervals.
The paint coating should be checked for compliance with specifications. For
example, by visual assessment to check the uniformity, colour, and defects, and

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by instruments, to check the compliance with the dry film thickness (EN ISO
2808:2007 [27]), the adhesion (EN ISO 2409:2007 [28] or EN ISO 4624:2003 [29]),

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and the porosity measured by flow or high-voltage detectors.
The thickness of the protective dry film is addressed in EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12].
Annex A from this standard, provides values for the nominal dry film thickness
(NDFT) for several types of paint applied by airless spray, according to the
required durability for the paint system. If the paint system is applied by another
method, the paint manufacturer should be consulted.
It is recommended that the maximum dry film thickness should not exceed
more than three times the NDFT [12],[14] or the limit provided by the paint
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manufacturer. ISO 19840:2004 [30] and EN ISO 2808:2007 [27] should be used
for checking the thicknesses of dry films, respectively on rough and smooth
galvanized surfaces. Unless otherwise agreed, the acceptance criteria are
stated in ISO 19840:2004 [30]. Accordingly, an individual dry film thickness,
less than 80 % of the NDFT, is not acceptable; whereas between 80 % and
100 % of the NDFT is acceptable, provided that the overall average is equal to
or greater than the NDFT.
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According to EN ISO 12944-7:1998 [14], test or reference areas must be

established on the structure to provide a minimum acceptable standard for the
work, with a view to verify the data provided by the manufacturer or contractor
and to facilitate the assessment of the coat at any time after completion. The
reference areas should be prepared in locations where the corrosive stresses
are typical for the structure concerned. As indicated in Annex A of EN ISO
12944-7:1998 [14], the size and number of reference areas and the assessment
of coatings should be agreed between the interested parties. Table 12 provides
the recommended number of reference areas according to the size of the
structure.

26
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 12. Recommended number of reference areas. (Adapted from [14])

Size of structure Recommended Recommended

Recommended
maximum percentage of maximum total area
(painted area) maximum
reference area relatively of reference areas
number of
to the total area of
m2 reference areas m2
structure
up to 2000 3 0,6 12
above 2000 to
5 0,5 25
5000
above 5000 to
7 0,5 50
10000
above 10000 to
7 0,3 75
25000
above 25000 to
9

t 0,2 100
50000
iNe
above 50000 9 0,2 200

3.1.2.4 Regulation of health, safety and environment

All requirements and/or regulations regarding environmental protection, health
and safety should be fulfilled. According to EN ISO 12944-1:1998 [8], the clients,
specifiers, contractors, paint manufacturers, inspectors and any other personnel
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involved in a project are responsible for safeguarding their health and safety
and that of others, while performing this type of work. So, each party should
carry out their work according to the requirements of their country. This
compiles with other important items such as: measures against harmful effects
of fumes, dust, vapours and noise, as well as fire hazards; protection of the
body, including the eyes, the skin, the ears, and the respiratory system;
protection of water and soil during corrosion protection work; recycling of
materials and waste disposal; reduction of emissions of volatile organic
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compounds (VOCs) during and after application; and items using toxic and
carcinogenic substances.
In most civilized world, the emission of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) is
limited or restricted. Low VOCs content products should be selected and
appropriate ventilation provided for confined spaces. Table 13 provides the
VOCs content of some generic types of paints, as well as information regarding
available alternatives.
EN ISO 12944-5:2007 [12] mentions three main products with low VOCs content.
These are as follows: a high-solids solvent-borne product, a solvent-free
product, or a water-borne product. Water-borne products may be used in almost
all atmospheric corrosivity categories. High-solids solvent-borne and/or solvent-
free products are, in general, best suited for immersion.
Paints should be handled with care because, in general, they are dangerous for
humans and hazardous to the environment. For example, epoxies may cause
dermatitis after prolonged contact, hardeners from polyurethanes may cause

27
STEEL STRUCTURES

pulmonary problems, and many solvents are flammable and harmful to human
skin. Health and safety recommendations provided by the paint manufacturer
should be followed by the paint applicators.

Table 13. VOC content of different generic paint types. (Adapted from [12])

Typical VOC Water-borne High-solids Solvent-free

Generic type range alternative alternative alternative 1
of paint
g/l available? available? available?

Poly(vinyl
chloride) > 500 Yes No No
copolymer
Chlorinated

t
> 500 No No No
rubber

iNe
Acrylic > 500 Yes No No
Alkyd 330 to 500 Yes Yes No
Polyurethane
0 to 500 Yes Yes Yes
(aromatic)
Polyurethane
0 to 500 Yes Yes Yes
(aliphatic)
Epoxy 0 to 700 Yes Yes Yes
Zinc silicate 350 to 650 Yes Yes No
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1
100% solids/no volatile content.

All involved personnel should be well protected and the working areas should
have good ventilation. Mixing the paint also requires protection due to the
danger of breathing paint particles and to solvent inhalation. A risk and safety
analysis should be performed. All personnel involved should be made aware of
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safety precautions, procedures and of the actions to take in case of accident.

3.1.3 Maintenance painting

Maintenance painting is indispensable in the overall strategy of protection of
metallic structures and, even though it represents the largest part of structural
painted steel, the development of basic processes and technology is much less
than the one achieved for painting new steel structures [7].
The effectiveness of maintenance painting is related to the initial protective
system and to the standard of maintenance treatments and depends on three
main factors: the condition of the steel substrate; the compatibility with the
previously applied coat; and the overall thickness of the final coating.
Besides the common requirements pointed out for a good performance of
coating systems, additional requirements should be demanded for maintenance
painting, e.g. the survey of the paintwork and tests to determine the feasibility of
maintenance procedures. For the maintenance of previously coated surfaces,
28
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

the condition of both the coating and the surfaces should be checked by
suitable methods to determine whether partial or complete repainting is needed.
In many cases, it is more economic to clean and repaint the whole structure
than to carry out maintenance painting in several damaged parts. The condition
of the existing paint coating can be assessed by EN ISO 4628-1:2003 [31] to EN
ISO 4628-6:2007 [36]. Then, both the surface preparation and the paint system
should be specified. The complete renewal of the protective paint system
should be prepared in accordance with a specification for new work.
Maintenance is often required at more frequent intervals than the indicated
durability ranges [12] defined in EN ISO 12944-1:1998 [8] (Table 14), either
due to degradation, for aesthetic reasons or others. According to EN ISO
12944-5:2007 [12], the first major maintenance painting is usually needed
once the coating has reached Ri3 as defined in EN ISO 4628-3:2003 [33].

t
Table 14. Durability categories. (Adapted from [8])
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Categories Range
low (L) 2 to 5 years
medium (M) 5 to 15 years
high (H) more than 15 years

Maintenance painting may be difficult to carry out in areas with little accessibility.
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Thus, in these areas, the durability of a paint system may be extended by the
adoption of some measures, e.g. selecting a protective system for a higher
corrosivity category than the one required or increasing the total dry film
thickness and the number of coats.
Usually in maintenance painting, alkyd coatings with mild or slow evaporating
solvents are used due to their tolerance to small levels of contamination and
flaws in the existing coat. For this type of work, the most adequate type of paint
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is high solids with low solvent formulations due to requirements such as [7]:
faster drying, higher film build and low VOCs content.

3.2 Metallic coatings

Metallic coatings, which are normally composed of non-ferrous metals, most
commonly of zinc, aluminium, and their alloys, provide protection to steel
structures against corrosion, normally both by barrier and galvanic actions.
Besides the barrier action to the environmental factors, these coating metals
protect steel sacrificially at damaged areas or at small pores in the coating.

3.2.1 Application methods

The most frequently used application methods of metallic coatings are (Fig. 6):
(i) hot-dipping; (ii) thermal spraying; (iii) electroplating; (iv) diffusion.

29
STEEL STRUCTURES

(a) (b)

t
(c)
iNe (d)

Fig. 6.Schematic representation of: (a) hot dipping; (b) thermal spraying;
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(c) electroplating; (d) sherardizing.

The choice for the metal is determined by its cost, corrosion resistance under a
specific environment, and applicability. Zinc is the metal most widely applied in
hot-dipping (hot dip galvanizing) due to: its low melting point (420); the nature
of the alloy layer formed during the process; and its cost. Many metals can be
used to provide diffusion coatings, particularly [7]: zinc is frequently used for
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corrosion protection of steel (sherardized coatings); aluminium diffusion

coatings, formed by the calorizing process, are mainly used to resist high
temperature conditions; chromium diffusion coatings (chromizing) are normally
used to resist oxidation and for special purposes related with chemical
environments. Zinc is the most common electrodeposited metal for corrosion
protection of constructional steel work.

3.2.1.1 Hot dip galvanizing

a) Fundamentals
Hot dip galvanization is the process of forming a coating of zinc and/or zinc-iron
alloys on iron and steel elements by dipping them in a zinc melt. The protection
conferred by these coatings depends on the method of application, the element
design, and the environment characteristics.

30
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Design of the steel elements to be treated by this metallic coating method

should consider the method of manufacture and the function of the element, as
well as the limitations associated with hot dip galvanizing, which determine the
preferred designs like those described in Annex A of EN ISO 14713-2:2009 [38].
Special attention should be paid to the minimization of internal stresses,
avoidance of air pockets and entrapment of liquid, and to provisions for venting
and drainage of the molten metal.
Decision about the hot dip galvanizing of other ferrous materials like unalloyed
carbon steels, fine-grained steels, quenched and tempered steels, hollow-
sections hot- or cold-finished, fastener grade steels, and gray and malleable
cast iron, should be made by experts. EN ISO 14713-2:2009 [38] gives guidance
about the effects of steel composition in hot dip galvanizing coating
characteristics, because certain elements, in particular silicon and phosphorous,

t
can affect the process.
Selection of the coating system should take into account the general and local
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environmental conditions, the required life for the coating system, the need for
post-treatment and/or additional coatings, the availability, and the cost.
EN ISO 14713-1:2009 [37] provides the general principles of design and
corrosion resistance for the protection of iron and steel with zinc coatings.
b) Equipment
Hot dip galvanizing requires a container and auxiliary equipment to lift, hold,
and dip the element into the zinc bath.
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c) Procedures
Specific recommendations for hot dip galvanizing are given by EN ISO
14713-2:2009 [38].
c1) Execution conditions
For producing high quality coatings, it is also essential to assure a prior good
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surface preparation. Surface unevenness of the base metal should be

eliminated because it generally remains visible after galvanizing. Thus, it is
preferable to weld before hot dip galvanizing to ensure a continuous coating.
Sharp edges should be removed and areas modified by cutting methods should
be ground-off to attain the minimum coating thickness with good adhesion.
The surface treatment processes before hot dip galvanizing can include
organic-solvent degreasing and cleaning, alkaline degreasing, abrasive blasting,
and acid pickling. These processes and respective methods needed for the
preparation of the metal surface before application of hot dip galvanizing are
specified by ISO 27831-1:2008 [39], by taking into account the restrictions
associated with specific requirements in order to avoid embrittlement by
hydrogen absorption.
Tolerances that are determined mainly by the element characteristics are also
indicated by EN ISO 14713-2:2009 [38]. Particularly, EN ISO 10684:2004 [40]
provides information regarding the hot dip galvanizing of fasteners.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

After proper surface preparation required for hot dip galvanizing, the steel
product is dipped in a bath of molten zinc/zinc alloy at about 450 C, and is then
withdrawn when the metallurgical reaction is completed [38]. The time for
immersion into the molten zinc bath is approximately 4 to 5 minutes but more
time may be required [7]. Immediately after removing the steel from the zinc bath,
some treatments, such as wiping and centrifuging, may be employed to remove
some of the molten metal from the steel.
A series of iron-zinc alloy layers are formed by the reaction between steel and
zinc that forms very rapidly the main thickness of the coating. The bright finish
usually associated to galvanizing is provided by a small proportion of molten
zinc on the top of the alloy layer [7].
The coating thickness, which is specified considering the intended corrosion
protection and the minimum values indicated by the relevant standards, may be

t
influenced by different factors like the substrate characteristics and previous
surface preparation. For example, for steels with silicon in excess of 0.25 %,

iNe
thick coatings may be obtained; these can however be brittle and flake from the
surface when steel is under stress [7]. The coating thickness can also be
increased by grit blasting before the pickling process because it provides a
greater surface area for the reaction [7].
Freshly galvanized surfaces are usually shiny and too smooth to provide a good
adhesion for subsequent paint coating. In order to overcome these problems,
several approaches may be considered, such as [7]: blast-cleaning with a fine
grade non-metallic abrasive at low pressure; application of a T-wash solution;
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surface preparation after the occurrence of weathering; application of a specific
type of etch primers; and use of some new water-based proprietary products.
Advice should be sought before painting when galvanized steel has received a
chromate treatment.
c2) Control of work
Control of work involves assessment of the coated product appearance and
testing the coating thickness as specified by EN ISO 1461:2009 [41] for
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fabricated iron and steel. Specifically, EN ISO 10684:2004 [40] provides the
related specifications for fasteners.
Visually inspected surfaces should be free from nodules, blisters, roughness,
and uncoated areas. According to EN ISO 1461:2009 [41], those that fail visual
inspection should be renovated or re-galvanized. Flux residues and lamps on
zinc ash should not be permitted.
The coating thickness determined by the specified methods should not be less
than the values specified by EN ISO 1461:2009 [41] or by the relevant standards
for each product type.
d) Effects and limits
Any material susceptible to adverse effects due to the heat of the process
should not be hot dip galvanized.

32
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Heat treated or cold worked steels may be tempered by the heat of hot dip
galvanizing and lose some of the increased strength obtained from previous
treatments [38].
Care must also be taken during the design of steel products to ensure that the
products are adequately coated and to avoid detrimental effects. Any entrapped
liquid contained in enclosed areas may vaporise during the process which may
be sufficient to cause distortion or even bursting.
Deformation of the element may also be caused by the relief of some residual
stresses during the hot dip galvanizing process. If the residual stresses are
higher than the tensile strength of the steel, they may lead to distortion cracking.
Particularly in hardened and/or tensile steels, pickling may also increase the risk
of cracking. In some hard steels, care is necessary to minimize hydrogen
absorption. Special procedures may also be undertaken to reduce the risk of

t
strain age embrittlement and liquid metal embrittlement [38].
iNe
A type of corrosion known as white rusting may occur on freshly galvanized
surfaces. An incidence most likely in elements not properly stored, due to moist
or wet storage conditions. This form of rusting occurs when there is a restricted
access of air, and whenever moisture or condensates are present on the
surface, which limits the formation of the protective zinc carbonate. In this case,
the zinc oxide and the hydroxide layer are not protective and the corrosion
process develops. To prevent this, relevant control measures, like proper
storage conditions, no contact of moisture with freshly galvanized surfaces,
proper ventilation, avoidance of close nesting, or use of spacers to minimize
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contact areas, are recommended [7],[38].

e) Environment, health and safety
Venting and draining are important for safety during hot dip galvanizing [41]. Special
attention should also be paid to splashes of molten metal and to handling of
freshly galvanized surfaces [7].
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3.2.1.2 Thermal spraying

a) Fundamentals
Thermal spraying processes involve heating of surface materials until achieving
plastic or molten state and then propelling them onto a suitable surface by flame
or arc spraying [42]. To obtain specific properties of the deposit, a subsequent
treatment may be employed. EN 657:2007 [42] describes the thermal spraying
processes and classifies them according to the type of spray material, of
operation, and of energy carriers. Considering the type of spray material, it can
be subdivided into wire, rod, cord, powder, and molten-bath spraying. Spraying
can also be classified as a manual, mechanized, or automatic process. The
classification according to the energy carrier is that given in Table 15.
EN 15520:2007 [47] indicates the basic rules and gives examples for design
suitable for spraying. These include: adequate accessibility, visibility, and
attainability of the area to be coated; avoidance of narrow holes, slots, or blind

33
STEEL STRUCTURES

holes; minimization of dust inclusions; minimization of damage to the coating;

adequate preparation of welded areas before coating.

Table 15. Classification of thermal spraying processes according to the

energy carrier. (Adapted from [42]).

Spray process Energy carrier

TS by atomising a melt Molten-bath spraying.
Wire flame spraying.
High velocity wire flame spraying.
TS by means of gaseous or liquid
Powder flame spraying.
fuels
High velocity flame spraying.

t
Detonation spraying.

iNe
TS by means of expansion of highly
Cold spraying.
pressurised gases without combustion
TS by means of electric arc or gas
Arc spraying.
discharge
Shrouded arc spraying.
Plasma spraying in air.
Shrouded plasma spraying.
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Plasma spraying in a chamber under
TS by means of electric arc or gas
vacuum.
discharge
Plasma spraying in a chamber at pressures
exceeding 1 bar.
Liquid stabilised plasma spraying.
Inductively coupled plasma spraying.
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TS by means of a bundled light stream Laser spraying.

The advantages of thermal spraying include: avoidance of structural changes

and distortion of the substrate if the coatings are not thermally post-treated;
independence between the application and the component size; possibility of
coating complex components with appropriate equipment; provision of a good
bond coat for painting or sealing; possibility of applying different coating
thicknesses; appropriateness of different processes for site application. The
associated disadvantages of thermal spraying include [43]: deriving the bond
strength of coatings without thermal post-treatment exclusively from adhesive
forces; micro porosity of coatings; higher residual stresses in thick coatings;
sensibility of coatings without thermal post-treatment to edge pressure,
localized and linear loads, and impact stresses.
Thermal sprayed particles adhere and anchor to the surface by physical
processes, although fusion or diffusion bonding can be achieved by suitable
heat treatments. The quality of the coating is mostly characterized by its
34
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

structure, and distribution and size of features, such as phases, pores, oxides,
inclusions, and segregations.
Thermal spraying has a wide range of applications in diversified areas. In
particular, thermal sprayed metallic coatings are applied to structural steel
elements to improve their corrosion resistance.
b) Equipment
Thermal spraying equipment includes the spray device with all the electrical and
gas supply and regulating equipment, such as, spray gun, spray nozzle, contact
tube, feeders or injectors. Other auxiliary equipment, such as cooling equipment,
as well as equipment for removing and transporting spray dust may also be
used. The industrial gases used depend on the spray process employed and on
the purpose of the application. Selecting the spray materials most suitable for a

t
given application is also essential. For their selection, it is fundamental to
consider the demand profile of the coating related with corrosion and/or wear
iNe
loads, the subsequent operating conditions, and the suitable spray process to
fulfil the requirements. The spray materials must comply with EN1274:2004 [44]
for powder or EN ISO 14919:2001 [45] for wires, rods, and cords. Specific
materials for masking surface areas, which are not to be coated, may also be
needed.
c) Procedures
[43]
EN 14616:2004 includes general guidelines for producing thermal sprayed
coatings.
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EN ISO 2063:2005 [46] applies particularly to thermal sprayed metallic coatings

of zinc, aluminium, or their alloys for the protection of iron and steel against
corrosion. Accordingly, thermal sprayed metallic coatings, produced by heating
the coating metal until its molten stage and projecting it in a stream of gas onto
the surface, are classified in a scale according to their thickness.
According to EN 14616:2004 [43], it is essential to prepare a specification for the
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thermal spraying procedure. The coating specification must contain the type of
coating, pre-treatments, required values for relevant characteristics, test
procedures, spraying procedure and post treatments [47]. Due to quality
assurance requirements, a qualification of a spray procedure specification may
be required as defined in EN 15648:2009 [48]. In this case, the conditions
required for the procedure qualification, specified in the coating specification,
must be fulfilled. A quality system, qualified personnel, and properly maintained
spraying equipment are also required. Control and testing are means to assure
the quality of thermal sprayed structures. The quality requirements are further
specified by EN ISO 14922 [49]-[52].
c1) Execution conditions
The thermal spraying should be performed after surface preparation within a
period that ensures that the surface is still clean, dry, and not oxidized [46].
EN 13507:2010 [53] specifies the pre-treatments of surfaces for thermal spraying.
It refers to surface preparation methods and to general guidance to achieve a

35
STEEL STRUCTURES

suitable clean and roughened surface to meet the required criteria for thermal
spraying.
According to EN ISO 2063:2005 [46], for the manufacture of thermal sprayed
metallic coatings, it is fundamental to prepare a suitable roughened surface with
a high level of cleanliness to assure sufficient adhesion. After adequate
previous cleaning by processes such as those specified in ISO 27831-1:2008 [39],
blast-cleaning should be performed until a surface preparation grade Sa3, as
defined by EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54]. Hematitic chilled cast iron grit, copper
refinery slag, coal furnace slag, or aluminium oxide grit may be used as
abrasives [46].
Pre-heating in the temperature range between 80 C and 150 C is often
recommended in order to minimize stresses between the substrate and the
coating and to avoid moisture condensation on the surface [43].

t
Thermal spray procedures must comply with the spraying procedure

iNe
specification. This outlines the details related with the process, so considering
the characteristics required for the coating and its functionality. For example,
thermal spraying by means of gaseous fuels, arc spraying, and plasma spraying
may be used for thermal spraying metallic coatings.
Informative recommendations for use of thermal sprayed metallic coatings in
different environments are given by EN ISO 2063:2005 [46] (Table 16).

Table 16. Minimum thicknesses recommended for different types of

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environment. [46]

Metal
Environment and
classification Zinc Aluminium Al Mg5 Zn Al15
according to EN ISO U P U P U P U P
12944-2:1998 [9]

m m m m m m m m
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1 2 2 1
Salt water Im2 N.R. 100 200 150 250 200 N.R. 100
Fresh water Im3 200 100 200 150 150 100 150 100
Urban
C2|C3 100 50 150 100 150 100 100 50
environment
Industrial
C4|C5-I N.R. a) 100 200 100 200 100 150 100
environment
Marine
C5-M 150 100 200 100 250 b) 200 b) 150 100
atmosphere
Dry indoor
C1 50 50 100 100 100 100 50 50
environment
1
N.R = Not recommended.
2
Offshore application.
U Unpainted.
P Painted.

36
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

After thermal spraying, the metallic coatings can be sealed to reduce the
inherent porosity of sprayed coatings and then painted, either to extend the
service life of the protective system or for simple aesthetic reasons [46].
According to EN ISO 2063:2005 [46], sealing can be achieved naturally or
artificially, respectively by oxidation of the metallic coating under exposure
conditions and either by chemical conversion of the coating or by applying an
appropriate sealant. According to Bayliss and Deacon [7], sealants must have
low viscosity, be suitable for the environmental conditions, and be compatible
with the sprayed metal and with paint coatings if these are to be applied. It is
also important that the coating does not take up moisture or become otherwise
contaminated before sealing [58]. If required, a paint system should be applied,
within a space time limited to four hours, according to 12944-5:2007 [12]. This
system should be compatible with the substrate and meet the requirements for
durability, maintenance and resistance to the environment.

t
Further finishing and post treatments are generically specified by EN ISO
14924:2005 [58].
iNe
c2) Control of work
Coating quality is influenced by the different factors involved in the process,
such as surface preparation, spraying process, materials and equipment,
procedures involved in the work, personnel qualification, and post treatments.
EN ISO 14922 [49]-[52] includes guidelines for the quality requirements. For quality
assurance, it is essential to monitor all the factors involved in the process, such
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as installations, spray materials, process, personnel qualification and tests.

Destructive and non-destructive tests are normally carried out to assess the
quality of a spray coating. General guidance on tests normally used for the
characterization of thermal sprayed coatings is given by ISO 14923:2003 [59].
Their selection depends on the considered application and defined features for
the coating. The selected tests should be, if possible, carried out on the
component or, if not possible, on accompanying specimens for assessing the
coating quality as required.
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Appearance, adhesion, and thickness are the required characteristics of a

metallic sprayed coating specified by EN ISO 2063:2005 [46]. Accordingly, the
surface should have a uniform appearance without blisters or bare patches and
should be free from non-adhering metal and defects. The measurement
procedures of the minimum local thickness and the tests for adhesion are also
specified by EN ISO 2063:2005 [46]. Magnetic measurements for thickness
determination (EN ISO 2178:1975 [60]) are considered to be especially accurate
and advantageous [46].
d) Limits
The thickness of thermal sprayed coatings is limited due to shrinking forces
within the coating [43] and due to the type of spray material, the density of the
coating, the energy supply of the process and the differences between the
substrate and spray materials.

37
STEEL STRUCTURES

e) Environment, health and safety

Specific protective measures for the different energy sources should be taken.
Possible health hazards due to substances present in dust should also be
considered. Suitable ventilation to assure the removal of air contaminants
should be implemented in compliance with the relevant regulations. The
literature [7] refers to some common protective measures, which are usually
taken, related with safety and health of personnel. These protective measures
include the use of respiratory, ear, and vision protective equipment, the
extraction of flammable or explosive substances, and the application of earth
connection and circuit breaking to avoid short-circuits.

3.2.1.3 Electroplating

t
a) Fundamentals
Electroplating, also known as electrodeposition, is a process used to apply

iNe
different metals for the corrosion protection of the substrate. Zinc
electrodeposited coatings are the most commonly applied in constructional
steelwork and are able to prevent corrosion as a function of coating thickness
and service conditions. Chromate conversion coatings and other supplementary
treatments, like application of paints, varnishes, powder coatings and sealants,
further enhance the corrosion resistance of these coatings.
b) Equipment
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The equipment used for electroplating includes, besides the container, all
electrical accessories to induce the electrochemical process.
Adequate electrolytes, such as acid zinc chloride, alkaline non-cyanide zinc,
and alkaline zinc cyanide solutions are used for the electrodeposition of zinc
coatings. The electrolytes commercially used are often proprietary solutions and,
besides, salts of the coating metal may contain complex additions.
c) Procedures
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EN 1403:1998 [61] indicates the method for specifying the general requirements
for electrodeposited coatings and EN ISO 2081:2008 [62] gives the particular
requirements for electroplated coatings of zinc with supplementary treatments.
Both standards indicate the generic rules for the designation of the products
and the essential information to be supplied before the process including the
coating finish and the requirements for testing.
EN ISO 4042:1999 [63] specifies in particular electroplated coatings for fasteners.
c1) Execution conditions
The relevant standards do not address the surface condition and the respective
preparation methods before electroplating, although there is a clear indication
that defects on the surface can adversely affect the appearance and
performance of the coating. ISO 27831-1:2008 [39] includes practices for
cleaning the metal before electroplating by taking into account the strength of

38
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

the steel. Especially for high strength steels, cleaning procedures which avoid
the risk of hydrogen embrittlement are preferred.
Steel components having a high ultimate strength and containing residual
tensile stresses caused by machining, grinding, straightening, or cold forming
may be given a stress relieve heat treatment, before cleaning and
electrodeposition, if specified [62].
Electroplating is an electrochemical process, in which the metal to be coated is
the cathode and the coating metal is the anode of the cell.
EN ISO 2081:2008 [62] indicates the thickness requirements for corrosion
protection provided by zinc coatings under various service conditions. This
standard also indicates the requirements and products currently in practice for
conversion coatings and other supplementary treatments.

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Hydrogen-embrittlement-relief heat treatments after electroplating, according
to the procedures and classes of ISO 9588:2007 [64], or as specified, is
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especially recommended for steel components that have a high ultimate
tensile strength ( 1000 MPa) or surface hardened parts [62].
c2) Control of work
The main requirements indicated in the relevant standards are the appearance,
thickness, corrosion resistance and adhesion. EN ISO 2081:2008 [62] also
includes the requirements for conversion coatings and other supplementary
treatments, and for hydrogen-embrittlement-relief heat treatments.
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According to EN ISO 2081:2008 [62], the coated surface should be free from
plating defects, such as blisters, pits, roughness, cracks, or non-plated areas.
The minimum local thickness must be as specified, depending on the service
conditions [62]. This can be measured by the methods specified by EN ISO
1463:2004 [65], EN ISO 2177:2004 [66], EN ISO 2178:1975 [60], EN ISO
3497:2000 [67], EN ISO 3543:2000 [68], and EN ISO 4518:1995 [69]. EN ISO
4518:1995 [69] is particularly suitable in case of dispute, and special care is
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needed with rough or matte coatings when applying the methods given by EN
ISO 1463:2004 [65] and EN ISO 4518:1995 [69], which may present unreliable
results.
The zinc coating should maintain the adhesion to the basis metal [62] when
subjected to the burnishing test specified in EN ISO 2819:1994 [70]. The
chromate coatings should be tested in accordance with EN ISO 3613:2001 [71].
According to EN ISO 2081:2008 [62], the coated surface should remain free
from corrosive products when tested by the neutral salt spray test specified in
ASTM B117:2009 [72]. After testing, the results should comply with an
acceptable rating established in accordance with EN ISO 10289:2001 [73].
The effectiveness of hydrogen-embrittlement-relief heat treatment may be
determined in accordance with ISO 10587:2000 [74], for threaded articles, and
ISO 15724:2001 [75], for measuring diffusible hydrogen concentration.

39
STEEL STRUCTURES

d) Effects and limits

In threaded articles, the coating thickness may be limited by dimensional
requirements.
e) Environment, health and safety
Appropriate actions should be taken to comply with relevant regulations.

3.2.1.4 Sherardizing
a) Fundamentals
Sherardizing is a thermal diffusion process in which the steel components are

t
heated, in the presence of a mixture consisting of zinc dust with or without an
inert material, to a processing temperature normally below the melting point of

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zinc in a closed container. During the process, zinc/iron alloys are formed on
the surface of the component.
Sherardized components are normally post-treated by phosphating, chromating,
or another suitable passivating process (conversion coating) to increase the
lifetime of coatings in service and to prevent the formation of stains.
The coating has a matt grey appearance after sherardizing but during exposure
it may acquire a dark orange brown patina that is not detrimental to the coating
properties and performance.
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Sherardizing is a process that is mainly used to protect components against
corrosion and wear. The corrosion protection conferred by the sherardized
coating is influenced by the method of application, the design of the article, and
the exposure environment. Further protection can be achieved by the
application of additional coatings (duplex systems). Wear is provided by the
special properties of diffusion coatings as abrasion resistance and high
hardness.
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Unalloyed carbon steels, low alloy steels, sintered materials, and malleable grey
and cast iron are suitable for sherardizing. Spring steels and high-tensile steels
can also be sherardized at adequate temperatures.
EN ISO 14713-3:2009 [77] indicates the general principles of design that are
appropriate for sherardized coatings, such as for instance the fact that it is
preferable to weld before sherardizing, and that a proper clearance is necessary
on mating surfaces and holes.
b) Equipment
A closed container is usually used. It is rotated containing a mixture of zinc dust
with or without an inert material together with adequate equipment to control the
heating. The zinc coating used in the process, when determined in accordance
with EN ISO 3549:2002 [16], must contain a mass fraction of not less than 94 % of
metallic zinc and total impurities (other than zinc oxide) of not more than a 2 %
mass fraction [76].

40
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

c) Procedures
Good surface preparation is essential to produce a high quality coating. This
involves the removal of defects and contamination with the use of the most
adequate methods. ISO 27831-1:2008 [39] specifies the processes adequate
for the preparation of surfaces before sherardizing. According to EN ISO
14713-3:2009 [77], grit blasting is preferred because the treated surface
responds well to the process and the risk of hydrogen embrittlement and
damage in certain steels is avoided.
c1) Execution conditions
The process involves slow heating of the components, normally carried out in a
slowly rotating closed container, up to the processing temperature ranging from

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about 300 C to 500 C but normally below 419 C. After about 1 h to 2 h of
processing time, the components are cooled down slowly to room temperature.
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The temperature range used in the process may be limited for steels that have
tempering temperatures in the indicated range to prevent affecting their
properties. The use of lower temperatures also reduces the risk of cracking of
hardened or high-tensile steels during the process. Another form of minimizing
this risk is by stress relieving before sherardizing.
The coating thickness is accurately controlled by the amount of zinc dust and by
the processing time and temperature. Three classes of sherardized coatings,
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as indicated in Table 17, are specified by EN 13811:2003 [76]. According to

the given guidance, class 15 is suitable for normal environments, class 30 for
outdoor applications in more severe environments or when there is a
requirement for extended service life, and class 45 for use in highly corrosive
environments. Further guidance on the coating thickness of zinc coated
products for use in environments with different corrosivity categories is given
in EN ISO 14713-3:2009 [77]. Special applications may require thicker coatings
than those specified by EN 13811:2003 [76].
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The coating can be post-treated, which results in a passivated surface. After

treatments may include oils, paints, lubricants, or organic coatings to enhance
the corrosion resistance, for decorative appearance, or to regulate the
coefficient of friction of the coating.
c2) Control of work
The requirement for sherardized coatings is the minimum coating thickness
indicated in Table 17.
Acceptance inspection should be undertaken considering the sampling for
testing specified in EN 13811:2003 [76] or the procedures selected from ISO 2859
parts 1:1999 [78] and 3:2005 [79]. According to EN 13811:2003 [76] the coating
thickness should be determined by the magnetic method (EN ISO 2178:1975 [60])
or the gravimetric method (EN ISO 1460:1994 [80]) in the specified number of
reference areas. Microscopic cross-section method may also be used although
being inappropriate for routine verifications.

41
STEEL STRUCTURES

Since good bonding is characteristic of sherardized coatings, adhesion

generally does not need to be tested.

Table 17. Coating thickness classes. (Adapted from [76])

Local coating thickness

Class of coating (minimum value)
m
Class 15 15
Class 30 30
Class 30 45

t
NOTE 1: The three classes of coating thickness given in this table should be suitable
for the majority of applications. Guidance on the selection of the coating thickness is
given in Annex C.6, from EN 13811:2003 [76].

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NOTE 2: There can be a requirement for specific pre-treatment when thicker
coatings, e.g. Class 45, are specified. The purchaser should seek the advice of the
sherardizer in such cases.
NOTE 3: The local coating thickness should only be determined in relation to
[76]
reference areas selected in accordance with section 6.2.2, from EN 13811:2003 .

d) Effects and limits

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Materials that may be adversely affected by the process should not be
sherardized [77].
Heat treated or cold worked steels may be tempered by the heat used during
the process and lose some of their strength.
Since a steel component cannot be sherardized partially, there are limitations to
its size due to the dimensions of the containers used in the process.
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The chemical composition of the steel and the surface roughness do not
influence, respectively, the composition or thickness and the properties of
coating.
Deformation of the coated components may be caused by the relief of internal
stresses during the sherardizing process. The internal stresses, especially in
hardened or high-tensile steels, may be of such a magnitude that it increases
the risk of cracking during the process. Residual stresses and hardening
created in welded areas or areas affected by oxy-cutting may also be
responsible for damage or deformation of the coated component.
e) Environment, health and safety
Appropriate actions should be taken to comply with relevant regulations.

42
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

3.2.2 Performance of zinc and aluminium metallic coatings

Metal coatings corrode at a certain rate, depending on the environmental
conditions, which determines the loss of thickness and, thus, the period of coating
effectiveness. Metal coating corrosion protection is approximately proportional to
the respective thickness and is related to the exposure conditions. The method of
coating application also influences its performance due to the thickness and
nature of the coating produced by the different methods.
The corrosion rate of iron and steel is not significant for relative humidity below
60% but above this percentage, especially in chloride environments, it may be
10 to 40 times greater than that of zinc [7]. Zinc is stable in the 6-10 pH range,
being protected by oxides, hydroxides, or carbonates depending on the
environmental conditions. Nevertheless, zinc stability may be affected by
environmental pollutants and may corrode at different rates, according to the

t
environment aggressiveness, as indicated in ISO 9224:1992 [81], particularly for
atmospheric corrosion.
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Zinc coatings behave similarly to zinc metal with the exception of those
containing alloy layers, which are at least as corrosion resistant as zinc but
produce different corrosion products. EN ISO 14713-1:2009 [37] deals with the
performance of zinc coatings in different environments. Atmospheric corrosion
rate of zinc coatings is affected by wetness, pollution, and surface
contamination. Corrosion of zinc coatings in soils is complex and rarely uniform.
This is due to the heterogeneity and the wide range of soil properties, although
the average corrosion rate is normally less than 10 m/annum [37]. In waters, the
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corrosion rate, which usually ranges from 10 to 20 m/annum [37], is affected by

different factors including the chemical composition, temperature, pressure, and
flow rate of water, and oxygen availability.
Bayliss and Deacon [7] indicate that in the most aggressive environments
aluminium metal coatings are more protective than zinc coatings. According to
some tests, consisting in seawater immersion of sealed aluminium and zinc
coatings, aluminium coatings offered longer maintenance-free life than zinc
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coatings.
Usually in construction steel works, electrodeposited coatings of zinc are only
considered as temporary protection prior to a subsequent treatment due to their
slight thickness and thus a short life in exterior environments. Similar reasons
justify the additional protection treatments applied to sherardized coatings. Hot
dip galvanizing and thermal spraying produce thicker coatings that may meet
the requirements for corrosion protection in a given environment during a
considerable period of time. However, due to progression of corrosion these
coatings may produce an unattractive appearance in time [7].

3.2.3 Selection of metallic coatings

The selection of the metal coating includes parameters, such as its corrosion
resistance, and both metal and application costs. The metal most widely used
for metallic coating is zinc, followed by aluminium. According to the literature [7],
aluminium is considered to provide more protection than zinc in aggressive
43
STEEL STRUCTURES

environments, except for alkaline environments. However, the use of aluminium

has some disadvantages, which are related with the associated difficulties of
application methods and with cost. Coatings of aluminium and zinc alloys may
also be produced and they are considered to have higher corrosion resistance
than zinc even though less than aluminium.
In practice, the usual choice for the metallic coating type as regards structural
steel is between hot dip galvanized zinc, sprayed aluminium and sprayed zinc
coatings [7]. Hot dip galvanizing presents the advantages of an easier control of
fabrication and the possible production of reasonable thick coatings, despite the
size limitations imposed by the bath container dimensions. Spraying is
advantageous because it is the only one that can be applied on site, although
the execution of works is generally better controlled in shop. However, there is
always the risk of damage during handling, transportation and erection.

t
According to EN ISO 14713-1:2009 [37], the selection of the zinc coating system
should take account of the aspects as follows: the environment, both macro and

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micro climate, including identified future changes and any exceptional exposure;
the required life to first maintenance of the coating system; the need for post-
treatment, temporary protection and painting; the availability and cost; and the
difficulty of maintenance. This standard also provides the life to first
maintenance of zinc coating systems according to the atmospheric corrosivity
category to which the structure will be exposed.
For small steel components, such as nuts and bolts, the choice between hot dip
galvanizing and sherardizing is not straightforward [7]. Sherardizing is more
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expensive but it provides a more suitable surface for subsequent painting and
allows the control of tolerances, which is very useful for threaded components.

3.2.4 Maintenance of zinc metallic coatings

According to ISO 14713-1:2009 [37], if the corrosion rate of the zinc coating is
insufficient to affect the performance of the structure, in its designed period of
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use, the coating may be left unmaintained. Otherwise, maintenance of zinc

coatings is carried out by stripping and re-galvanizing the structure, or by
painting the remaining original coating.
The life to first maintenance, for a selection of zinc coating systems, is given by
ISO 14713-1:2009 [37] in a range of atmospheric corrosivity categories.
The life of duplex systems is usually greater than the sum of the individual life of
each component due to a synergistic effect between them.
If it is necessary to prolong the life of the zinc coating, then, the maintenance of
zinc coatings should be carried out before any steel rusting and preferably while
at least 20 or 30 m of coating thickness still remains [37].
The recommended first maintenance for zinc coatings should take place after
20 years but if it is covered by paint 10 years will be advisable in terms of
appearance. If the steel rusting process has initiated after the consumption of
the zinc coating, maintenance should be approached in the same manner as for
rusted painted steel [37].

44
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

When welding is required, it is recommended to remove the local coating of the

welding area to ensure a high quality weld. After welding, the surface should be
properly prepared and the coating restored by thermal spraying, solder sticks
and/or zinc-rich paints [37]. The application of zinc-rich paints to a blast-cleaned
surface with appropriate thickness may provide reasonable protection to the
steel, but the level of protection is less than that of metal coating [7].

3.3 Selection of coating systems

The selection of coating should take into account the aggressiveness of the
environment. This is in reference to both the macro and micro environments to
which it will be exposed and the climatic conditions (particularly temperature
and moisture) due to their significant effect on the coating performance and

t
durability. Highly resistant coatings should be applied in aggressive
environments, while less resistant and usually cheaper coatings are satisfactory
for mild environments.
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The accessibility and general requirements for maintenance are also important
factors regarding the selection of coating systems. If access is both difficult and
expensive the coating system should provide increased durability. The time
intervals between maintenance actions may also influence a low or high
resistant coating selection.
Preference should be given to coatings that dont require complex facilities and
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procedures. The high or low standard required for coating which depends on
the importance of the structure, is very relevant. The appearance may also be
determinant in some situations because some structures may require a certain
type of finishing, which will affect the overall maintenance.
Another important factor when selecting a protective system is the cost. This
cost comprises of both the initial and the maintenance costs during the design
life of the protected structure. In practice, it is difficult to accurately assess the
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maintenance cost because over the lifetime of the structure there may be some
changes that influence costs, such as those related to the actual use of the
structure, to the environment, or to the available coating technology.
The main costs to consider refer to [7]: surface preparation, coating material,
coating application and overheads. The overheads cover the required tools and
equipment, supervision, administration, inspection, scaffolding, delay and
disruption costs.
The cost of surface preparation largely depends on the condition of the surface.
The achievement of different surface preparation grades is related to the time
spent and thus to cost. The cost of the coating material is fairly easy to
determine. Paint coatings are determined by the dry film thickness and area
covered. Hot dip galvanized coatings are normally specified as weight per unit
area and sprayed coatings by thickness. According to Bayliss and Deacon [7],
the costs of coating application are in the order of 1:2:3:4 for airless spray, air
spray, roller and brush, respectively. The paint losses in application are
approximately 30 % for air sprays, and 5 % for rollers and brushes. The
45
STEEL STRUCTURES

application cost is also influenced by the type of paint, e.g. alkyd paints normally
cost 15 to 20 % less to apply than two-pack paints. Finally, other costs inherent
to coat application, e.g. spraying requiring masking and protection of the
adjacent steelwork, should also be considered [7].
During selection of the coating system for protection of structural steel, the
advantages and disadvantages of both paint and metallic coatings should be
considered (Table 18).

Table 18. Comparison between metallic and paint coatings. (Adapted from [7])

Paint coatings Metallic coatings

When further painting is required,
Generally, the application is
painting of a metallic coating is

t
straightforward.
probably more difficult.

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Easier application of different
type of coats to steel. The size of fabrication and the
availability of galvanizing plant are
Painting facilities are easy to Disadvantages limited, in hot dip galvanization.
Advantages

acquire.
Without additional protection,
No limit on size or type of
metallic coatings usually develop an
structure.
unattractive appearance with time.
Unlike metal coatings, provides When welding is carried out after the
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good resistance to acidic application of metal coating or when
conditions and can fulfil many severe damage to coating occurs, it
requirements due to the is difficult to accomplish the same
availability of a wide range of standard of protection in those areas
materials and colours. as in the rest of the structure.
Straightforward and easily controlled
application.
Specification more straightforward
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Application is susceptible of due to available standards and

many errors due to poor higher level of certainty of
workmanship. Thus, suitable performance.
quality control procedures
The durability is easier to predict and
Disadvantages

should be adopted.
Advantages

premature failure rarely occurs.

Higher resistance to damage and
easier handling.
The abrasion resistance is
approximately 10 times or more than
The expected life is often most conventional paint systems.
difficult to predict, even when
In case of damage, corrosion attacks
standards and specifications
preferably the metallic coating
are available.
instead of the structural steel.
Thick coating is possible on edges.

46
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

4 Surface preparation
The objective of steel surface preparation is to remove corrosion products and
other contaminants to assure the priming coat adhesion to the steel, which is
essential for the long-term performance of the coating. Poor adhesion of the
coating may cause peeling or detachment from the surface and lower its
resistance to moisture and corrosion.
The most effective adhesion is provided by a chemical bond between coating
and substrate, such as in case of hot dip galvanizing. However, adhesion of
most organic coatings is mostly polar adhesion helped or reinforced by
mechanical adhesion. Polar adhesion consists of resin molecules performing as
weak magnets, with their poles attracting opposite groups on the substrate. This
type of adhesion is only effective for a molecular distance from the steel, thus

t
requiring a clean surface. Mechanical adhesion is assisted by surface
roughening, thereby by an increase of the surface area, as well as by
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cleanliness and stability of the substrate [7].
Therefore, the performance of protective coatings depends mainly on the steel
substrate condition immediately before coating application [82]. The steel surface
should be free from contaminants such as oil, grease, mill scale, dirt, rust,
corrosion salts and other types of contaminants.
The details and applicability of the existing surface preparation methods are
introduced in this section, including the general principles for their selection,
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also, the most important features that must be considered when preparing
specifications, the relevant procedures and the control of works. The generic
procedures that should be taken into account during surface preparation,
indifferently of the method selected, are firstly introduced, the specific
procedures being detailed after introducing the general principles of each
method. The selection of the available surface preparation methods is preceded
by description of both surface type and surface preparation grade.
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4.1 Generic procedures

This section details the general procedures regarding surface preparation, while
specific procedures and associated requirements of each surface preparation
method are included in the next section (4.2 Surface preparation methods).

4.1.1 Previous evaluation

Before specifying the cleaning methods and preparation grades, it is essential
to assess the relevant information about the surface condition, as seen in the
items included in Table 19.
The assessment of other painted surfaces should be performed in accordance
with EN ISO 4628-1:2003 [31] to EN ISO 4628-6:2007 [35] to evaluate the coating

47
STEEL STRUCTURES

defects. Furthermore, the assessment of under-film corrosion and adhesion

may also be considered in accordance with EN ISO 2409:2007 [28].

Table 19. Information to consider before specifying surface

preparation. (Adapted from [82])

Type of
Information
surface
The type of steel (including special treatments that influence surface
preparation) and its thickness.
The worst rust grade, assessed according to EN ISO 8501-1:2007 , with [54]

Uncoated
relevant details, e.g. "rust grade D with heavy rust layers".
Supplementary details, e.g. concerning chemical and/or other

t
contaminants.

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The type, e.g. type of binder and pigment, approximate film thickness,
condition and age of the coating or coating system.
[33]
The degree of rusting assessed according to EN ISO 4628-3:2003 , with
relevant details on apparent under-rust.
Coated
The degree of cracking assessed according to EN ISO 4628-4:2003 . [34]

The degree of flaking assessed according to EN ISO 4628-5:2003 . [35]

Supplementary details, e.g. concerning adhesion and chemical and/or

other contaminants.
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Besides surface condition, all the remaining factors influencing the selection of
the surface preparation method and grade, as well as the coating performance
should also be appraised.

4.1.2 Execution conditions

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The surfaces to be treated should be accessible and well illuminated.

Environmental conditions should be accounted for and some related
precautions should be taken during surface preparation. To minimize
condensation, the temperature of the surface should be at least 3 C higher
than the dew point of the surrounding air. During rainfall or precipitation, the use
of dry surface preparation methods is prohibited. If surface preparation
proceeds under unfavourable conditions, special precautions should be taken,
such as [82]: working under a cover, warming the surface and/or drying the air,
etc. Working in areas with fire or explosion hazard also requires special
precautions, such as [82]: low-spark, flame free procedures, etc.
Proper surface preparation usually requires a previous cleaning of contaminants,
such as oil, grease, and dirt. Generally cutting oils, silicones and other residues
from fabrication should be removed before any further surface preparation. Prior
removal of firmly adhering rust and mill scale may also be necessary.

48
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Damage or defects also need to be removed or repaired by suitable methods

that are not deleterious to the integrity of the steel surface. Specifications
should also be provided for details, such as preliminary treatment of welds,
removal of weld spatter, burrs and other sharp edges. The respective
standardized preparation grades are defined in EN ISO 8501-3:2007 [56].
Special precautions may be required depending on the surface type being
prepared. The different surface types, besides being repaired, if defective or
damaged, and cleaned until being free from contaminants, may require specific
considerations regarding preparation before application of coatings, such as the
following: thermally sprayed surfaces should be immediately painted after the
process to avoid condensation (further information on thermally spraying may
be found in EN ISO 2063:2005 [46]); other painted surfaces should be also free
from poorly adhering and defective coatings; metal-coated surfaces should be

t
carefully treated to avoid the removal of sound metal; particularly zinc-rich
coatings should be excessively burnished or smeared by power-tool cleaning to
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permit a proper adhesion by subsequent coatings.
After surface preparation, the remaining priming coat may be part of the
complete paint system, provided that the surface profile is in compliance with
specifications and an agreement is reached by the interested parties. However,
if it is not compatible with a different type of coating, or repair or further coating
is not possible, it should be completely removed.
If the specified preparation grade has not been achieved, or if the condition of
the surface changes before the application of the coating system, all essential
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steps of the cleaning procedure should be repeated until the specified

preparation grade has been accomplished.
A temporary protection, e.g. prefabrication primers, adhesive paper, adhesive
film and other protective materials that can be removed, should be provided for
areas where no coating is to be applied and when the preparation grade is likely
to change before the application of coating.
Any contamination, corrosion and weathering products formed in the interval
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between surface preparation and coating should be removed by suitable means

before final coating. Joints and damaged areas should also be re-cleaned and
repaired after assembly by an appropriate surface preparation method [11].

4.1.3 Control of works

All steps of the surface preparation procedures should be inspected and
performed under supervision.
The main factors influencing coating performance, like the presence of rust
and mill scale, the presence of surface contaminants, and the surface profile,
are assessed by the methods specified in EN ISO 8501 [54]-[57] and EN ISO
8503 [120]-[124].
For coatings to be exposed to severe environments, additional tests should be
considered to verify if the prepared surface is free from soluble salts and other

49
STEEL STRUCTURES

invisible contaminants. The available physical and chemical methods are

described in the various parts of EN ISO 8502 [86]-[92].

4.1.4 Regulations on health, safety and environmental protection

Relevant regulations related with health, safety, and environmental protection
should be observed. These issues are usually covered by national regulations,
although if these do not exist, special care should be taken with waste, dust,
noise, odours, organic solvents, etc. Abrasives, rust, old coatings and other
types of waste should be collected and treated according to relevant regulations
and as agreed between the interested parties [11]. During surface preparation,
the use of protective gear by the workers is very important, mainly concerning
the protection of eyes, skin, ears and respiratory system.

t
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4.2 Surface preparation methods
EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11] describes several methods of surface preparation,
grouping them in three types of cleaning: water, solvent and chemical cleaning;
mechanical cleaning including blast-cleaning; and flame cleaning. Some of
these methods are further specified by EN ISO 8504 [82]-[84]. Other innovative
methods for surface preparation may also be found in the literature [7].
Each surface preparation method is briefly described according to the current
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standards, including also detailed information regarding specific procedures and
requirements of some of them. Although, as previously described in the
previous section (4.1 Generic procedures), generic procedures are applicable
as well.

4.2.1 Water, solvent and chemical cleaning

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4.2.1.1 Water cleaning

A jet of clean and fresh water is sprayed onto the surface to be cleaned with a
specified pressure depending on the contaminants to be removed. The removal
of oil, grease, etc., requires the addition of suitable detergents, and in this case,
rinsing with clean and fresh water is necessary.

4.2.1.2 Steam cleaning

Steam is frequently used together with a detergent to improve the effectiveness
in the removal of oil and grease. If a detergent is used, subsequent rinsing with
clean and fresh (hot or cold) water will be required.

4.2.1.3 Emulsion cleaning

It is used to remove oil and grease, using emulsion cleaners, followed by rinsing
with clean and fresh (hot or cold) water.
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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

4.2.1.4 Alkaline cleaning

Especially formulated alkaline cleaners, to avoid attack to the steel, are used to
remove oil and grease at relatively high temperatures by brushing, scrubbing,
spraying, or immersion. Thorough rinsing of the surface with clean fresh (hot or
cold) water is necessary until it becomes free of residues and alkalinity.

4.2.1.5 Organic-solvent cleaning

This is used to remove oil, grease, and other soluble contaminants using
suitable organic solvents. It may be accomplished by scrubbing, spraying, or
immersion of the surface in the solvent, and it is commonly followed by rinsing
and wiping dry.

t
4.2.1.6 Cleaning by means of chemical conversion
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It is used for hot dip galvanized surfaces, electroplated-zinc coatings and
sherardized surfaces to give a suitable surface for painting by chemical
conversion, e.g. phosphating, chromating. After this type of cleaning, it is
advisable to rinse with clean and fresh water. This type of treatment should only
be used after approval from the manufacturer regarding the paint system to be
applied.

4.2.1.7 Stripping
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It allows the removal of paint coatings by solvent-borne pastes (for coatings

soluble by solvents) or alkaline pastes (for saponifiable coatings). This method
is normally restricted to small areas and requires subsequent cleaning.

4.2.1.8 Acid pickling

This method allows the removal of mill scale and rust by immersion in a bath
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containing an appropriate inhibited acid. This type of cleaning is usually done in

shop with careful monitoring.
The general procedure for acid pickling normally involves previous cleaning by
suitable solvent cleaning, removal of heavy deposits of rust, scale and paint
coating by a suitable method: immersion in a bath of acid with inhibitors,
cleaning with water, and immersion in aqueous solutions with inhibitors where
appropriate [7].
Some of the hydrogen that evolves during the pickling process may diffuse into
the steel in the atomic form and, thus, it may lead to hydrogen embrittlement.

51
STEEL STRUCTURES

4.2.2 Hand-tool and power-tool cleaning

4.2.2.1 Fundamentals
Hand-tool cleaning is a method for preparing steel substrates by the use of
hand tools without power assistance.
Power-tool cleaning is a method for preparing steel substrates by the use of
power-assisted hand tools, excluding blast-cleaning.
Power-tool cleaning is more effective than hand-tool surface preparation,
covering a larger area with higher cleanliness. Power-tools are also normally
better for the adhesion of the primer than hand-tools, which usually require
primers with good surface wetting ability. However, care should be taken to
avoid notching as well as any other damage to the structural element by power

t
tools.

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Hand and power-tool cleaning methods are not as effective as blast-cleaning,
being more complicated and expensive when the aim is to achieve a similar
level of surface cleanliness. However, power-tools are adequate for high
surface preparation grades, particularly when the use of blast-cleaning is not
permitted or feasible [84].

4.2.2.2 Equipment
Hand wire brushes, spatulas, hand scrapers, synthetic-fabric pads with
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embedded abrasives, emery cloth and rust-chipping hammers are examples of
the equipment generally used for hand-tool cleaning. Power-tools are driven
either electrically or pneumatically and can be divided into impact and abrading
tools. Examples of the equipment generally used for power-tool cleaning include
rotary wire brushes, rotary de-scalers, abrasive grinders (Fig. 7), percussion
hammers, and needle guns. Information related with hand and power-tools and
their uses are respectively included in Annexes A and B of EN ISO 8504-3:2001 [84].
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Fig. 7. Surface preparation with abrasive grinder.

52
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

4.2.2.3 Application procedures

EN ISO 8504-3:2001 [84] describes hand and power-tool methods for surface
preparation of both new steelwork and steel surfaces requiring maintenance.
a) Previous evaluation
The presence of rust and mill scale, and of other surface contaminants should
be assessed according to EN ISO 8501 [54]-[57] and EN ISO 8502 [85]-[92].
The several factors influencing the performance of coating should be assessed
to support the specifications related with the selection of surface preparation
grade.
b) Execution conditions
Before hand and/or power-tool cleaning, an initial treatment should take place to

t
remove all heavy oil and grease and any other contamination.
iNe
The execution of hand-tool cleaning should preferably start by the use of impact
tools to remove laminated rust and rust scale, followed by the removal of all
loose weld slag and spatter. Subsequently, all loose paint, mill scale and rust
should be removed by hand wire brushing, abrading, scraping or other non-
impact methods.
As for power-tool cleaning, the sequence should be the same but with the
respective power tools, modified as necessary if hand-tool cleaning is carried
out before.
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Before painting, any possible burrs, sharp edges or cuts, produced during
cleaning, should be removed. No residual gloss should be present in any
remaining sound paint and the edges should be bevelled by one of the methods
previously described. If required, any residual loose matter from the cleaning
methods may be removed by brushing, vacuum cleaning or compressed air
cleaning [84].
c) Control of works
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Each stage of the cleaning procedure is recommended to be inspected.

The assessment of new and coated steel surfaces, cleaned by the use of hand
and power tools, may make use of photographic examples for St2, St3, PSt2,
PSt3 and PMa, according to EN ISO 8501 parts 1:2007 [54] and 2:2001 [55]. If
these are not sufficient, special photographs of the treated reference area,
acceptable to the interested parts, are recommended.

4.2.3 Blast-cleaning

4.2.3.1 Fundamentals
Abrasive blast-cleaning is a method that impinges the surface with a high kinetic
energy stream of abrasive particles to clean the steel surface. It is the most
effective mechanical method, which enables different surface preparation
grades and surface profiles. These methods allow a high production rate in

53
STEEL STRUCTURES

most types and forms of steel surface (new, corroded, coated, and uncoated);
and also makes it possible to partially remove defective coatings, leaving sound
coatings intact, and the production of other effects such as peening, roughening,
levelling and lapping [83].
The effectiveness of the method depends on the energy produced, which is
related to the mass of abrasive particles and their velocity. Other factors related
with abrasive properties also influence the effectiveness and the surface finish
obtained. The resulting characteristic secondary profile depends, besides the
abrasive properties, on the cleaning conditions, initial surface state, and steel
properties.
The blast-cleaning methods can be further classified as [83]: (i) dry abrasive blast
cleaning including centrifugal, compressed air, and vacuum or suction-head
abrasive blast-cleaning; (ii) wet abrasive blast-cleaning including moisture-

t
injection abrasive blast-cleaning, compressed-air wet abrasive blast-cleaning,
slurry blast-cleaning, and pressurized-liquid blast-cleaning.

iNe
a) Dry abrasive blast-cleaning [83]
a1) Centrifugal abrasive blast-cleaning The abrasive is uniformly thrown by
wheels or impellers at high velocity on the surfaces to be cleaned. This
method is a continuous operation and it may be applied in workpieces with
any rust grade provided that there is good surface accessibility. However,
this type of cleaning is not able to remove all chemical contaminants from
the surface and its equipment requires careful preparation for each
rat
application being thus limited to repetitive works. This method enables
achieving a preparation grade Sa3 according to EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54].
a2) Compressed-air abrasive blast-cleaning An air/abrasive mixture is
thrown at high velocity from a nozzle onto the surface to be cleaned. This
method may be used, in a continuous or discontinuous operation, to
clean any type of workpiece with any rust grade. The limitations for this
type of cleaning are the possible environmental restrictions due to the
rise in dust and, as the previous method, chemical contaminants require
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additional cleaning. It also allows achieving a preparation grade Sa3

according to EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54].
a3) Vacuum or suction-head abrasive blast-cleaning It is similar to
compressed-air abrasive blast cleaning but the blast nozzle is enclosed to
a suction head, sealed to the steel surface, which collects the
contaminants and remaining abrasive. This method produces little dust and
it is suited for localized cleaning, when the contamination associated to
other methods is not acceptable. This method is more time consuming than
the remaining two methods and should not be applied to irregular shapes
and for cleaning heavy rusted surfaces (rust grade D). Chemical
contaminants also require additional cleaning. This method can achieve a
surface preparation grade, Sa2 or Sa3, after an extended cleaning period,
according to EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54].

54
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

b) Wet abrasive blast-cleaning [83]

b1) Moisture-injection abrasive blast-cleaning It is similar to compressed-air
abrasive blast cleaning but with a very small amount of liquid added to the
air/abrasive upstream of the nozzle, resulting in a procedure, which is dust-
free in the suspended-particle range of less than 50 m. Normally, the
liquid used is clean and fresh water, occasionally with a suitable rust
inhibitor added, with a range of consumption from 15 to 25 l/h. This method
may be used to clean any type of workpiece with any rust grade, avoiding
high dust levels and the use of large amounts of water. The moisture may
cause the formation of a rust trace on the steel surface and, consequently,
suitable coating systems may be required. It also makes it possible to
achieve a preparation grade Sa3 according to EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54].
b2) Compressed-air wet abrasive blast-cleaning It is similar to compressed-

t
air abrasive blast cleaning but with the addition of liquid, usually clean and
fresh water, occasionally with a suitable rust inhibitor, to produce an
iNe
air/abrasive/water stream. This method may be used, in a continuous or
discontinuous operation, to clean any type of workpiece with any rust grade,
being particularly suitable for pitted and chemically contaminated steel
when the prepared surface requires low levels of residual soluble salts.
During maintenance, this method permits the partial and selective removal
of coatings by the adjustment of pressure and mixture proportions. This
method also makes it possible to reduce the water-soluble contaminants
and to minimize dust formation. Its limitations include: the production of
slurry over the blast-cleaned surface that affects the visual survey; the
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formation of a rust trace, which is detrimental to coating; the restriction of

abrasives to expendable non-ferrous materials. It also makes it possible to
achieve a preparation grade Sa3, as defined in EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54].
b3) Slurry blast-cleaning Fine abrasive distributed in a liquid, usually water,
occasionally with the addition of a suitable rust inhibitor, is thrown by
pumps or by compressed air onto the surface to be cleaned. This method
is adequate for producing a fine surface profile and an even texture, and it
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is particularly suitable to reduce the contamination by water soluble salts.

b4) Pressurized-liquid blast-cleaning An abrasive or abrasive mixture is
introduced, either dry or as a wet slurry, into a stream, which is a
pressurized liquid, usually water, occasionally with the addition of a
suitable rust inhibitor, thrown by a nozzle onto the surface to be cleaned.
The field of application of this method is the same as for compressed-air
wet abrasive blast-cleaning and it may achieve a surface preparation grade
Sa3 for rust grades A, B and C, and Sa2 for rust grade D, as defined in
EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54]. It is also particularly suitable to reduce the
amount of water soluble salts but attention should be paid to the high water
pressure. The limitations are the same as for compressed-air wet abrasive
blast-cleaning.
c) Other applications [11]
EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11] further details special applications of blast-cleaning,
such as sweep blast-cleaning, spot blast cleaning, and water blast-cleaning.
55
STEEL STRUCTURES

c1) Sweep blast-cleaning Is used to clean or roughen organic and metallic

coating surfaces or to remove the surface layer, e.g. a poorly adhering
coating, in such manner that the firmly adhering underneath coating is not
damaged. Usually, this type of cleaning uses low air pressure and fine grit.
These parameters and others, such as hardness of the abrasive, attack
angle, distance from nozzle to the substrate should be optimized by testing
and agreed between the interested parties.
c2) Spot blast-cleaning It is a common form of compressed-air or moisture-
injection blast-cleaning, which only blast-cleans individual stains such as rust
or weld spots. For surfaces that cannot be recoated without prior cleaning, it
may be combined with sweep blast-cleaning. Depending on the intensity of
blast-cleaning, preparation grade PSa2 or PSa2 can be obtained.
c3) Water blast-cleaning (Fig. 8) A jet of pressurized clean and fresh water is

t
directed onto the surface to be cleaned. The contaminants to be removed
determine the water pressure and rinsing with clean and fresh water is

iNe
required if detergents are used. The most common water blast-cleaning
techniques are high pressure water blast-cleaning with a range of water
pressure between 70 and 170 MPa, and ultra-high-pressure (UHP) water
blast-cleaning with a water pressure above 170 MPa. High pressure water
blast-cleaning is effective in removing surface contaminants such as
marine growth, and loose top coats. UHP water blast-cleaning makes it
possible to produce a white metal finish, without abrading the surface, and
to remove water soluble contaminants.
rat
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Fig. 8. Water blast-cleaning.

4.2.3.2 Equipment
The equipment used may be fixed or mobile and adapted to the surface to be
cleaned. A wide variety of natural and synthetic solid materials and liquids may
be used for blast-cleaning. Solid abrasives, as those listed in Table 20, should
fulfil the general requirements and test methods indicated in EN ISO 11124 [93]-[96],
EN ISO 11125 [97]-[103] , EN ISO 11126 [104]-[112], and EN ISO 11127 [113]-[119].
The selection of an abrasive should consider the influence of the particle size
on the surface profile and should take into account the sub-group and type of
chemical composition, range of the particle size, and particle hardness that
should be measured by an appropriate method [83].
56
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 20. Commonly used blast-cleaning abrasives for steel substrate

[83]
preparation.

Comparator 2
Initial particle
Abbreviation

shape 1
Type Remarks

Mainly for
3

Cast iron Chilled M/CI G G compressed-air

Metallic (M) blast-
cleaning abrasives

blast-cleaning
S or 4
Cast High-carbon M/HCS G
S
steel Mainly for

t
Low-carbon M/LCS S S centrifugal blast-
Cut steel cleaning
4
- M/CW
wire
iNe C S

Olivine sand N/OL

Mainly for
Natural Staurolite N/ST S G compressed-air
Non-metallic (N) blast-cleaning abrasives 3

blast-cleaning
Garnet N/GA G G
Iron
(Calcium
furnace N/FE
silicate slags)
slag
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Cooper
refinery N/CU
slag Mainly for
(Ferrous
G G compressed-air
Synthetic Nickel silicate slags)
blast-cleaning
refinery N/NI
slag
Coal
(Aluminium
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furnace N/CS
silicate slags)
slag
Fused aluminium slag N/FA G G -
1
Designation (shape) - symbol: Shot (round) - S; Grit (angular, irregular) - G;
Cylindrical (sharp-edged) - C.
2
Comparator to be used when assessing the resultant surface profile. The method for
[121]
evaluating the surface profile by comparator is described in EN ISO 8503-2:1995 .
3
International Standards for the range of abrasives given here are listed in annex A:
[93]-[95]
EN ISO 11124 series for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives and EN ISO 11126
series [104]-[112] for non-metallic blast-cleaning abrasives.
4
Certain types of abrasive rapidly change their shape when used. As soon as this
happens, the appearance of the surface profile changes and becomes closer to that
of the "shot" comparator.

57
STEEL STRUCTURES

4.2.3.3 Application procedures

Blast-cleaning should be applied according to EN ISO 8504-2:2001 [83].
a) Previous evaluation
A visual previous evaluation should be carried out before blast-cleaning. The
presence of oil, salts and other contaminants should be checked and removed
by degreasing or by washing, according to the methods described in EN ISO
12944-4:1998 [11].
[54]
Rust grade(s) should be assessed in accordance with EN ISO 8501-1:2007
and/or EN ISO 4628-3 [33].
Surface preparation grade and profile should be defined because it will
influence the selection of a suitable blast-cleaning method, operating conditions

t
and the type of abrasive, including considerations related with shape, hardness,
density, and impact behaviour.

iNe
Blast-cleaned steel substrates are specified, considering the requirements for
ISO surface profile comparators described in EN ISO 8503-1:1995 [120], and
graded by comparison according to EN ISO 8503-2:1995 [121]. For protective
paint systems, a medium (G) or medium (S) surface profile is particularly
suitable.
b) Execution Conditions
The procedure for abrasive blast-cleaning should be carried out by specialized
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and/or supervised personnel. Health and safety matters should also be taken
into account during all stages of the cleaning process.
Blast-cleaning procedures are specific of both the method and the abrasive
used to achieve a given surface preparation grade and surface profile. Areas
without requirement for blast-cleaning should be protected.
After blast-cleaning, some measures should be provided to remove dust, debris
and blast-cleaning abrasive by mechanical means and/or washing. Before paint
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application, it should be assured that the surface is dry and free from flash
rusting.
c) Control of works
The prepared surface should be assessed according to EN ISO 8501 [54]-[57] and EN
ISO 8502 [86]-[92], for compliance with requirements of a contract/specification.

4.2.4 Flame cleaning

This type of cleaning consists in passing an acetylene-oxygen flame over the
surface to be cleaned, in order to remove all mill scale and rust by the effect of
the flame and action of the heat that induces differential expansion.
After flame cleaning, mechanically driven wire brushes should be used to treat
the surface and to remove any remaining dust and contaminants, prior to
painting [11].

58
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The advantages of the process include the mobility of equipment, wider

conditions of use, avoidance of condensation in priming paint, and slightly quick
drying of the primer. The associated disadvantages include fire hazard, relative
high cost taking into account its efficiency, and possible effect on the
metallurgical properties of the steel if not carefully controlled.

4.2.5 Innovative cleaning

Alternative methods to abrasive blast-cleaning are being developed to provide a
high cleanliness level in sensitive situations as reported in the literature [7].

4.2.5.1 Cryogenic blast-cleaning

It consists in blasting either carbon dioxide pellets or ice crystals, which are

t
supposed to remove old paint without damaging the substrate. This method is
safe and the only waste produced is water and paint debris. An advantage of
iNe
carbon dioxide is being nonconductive, which gives the possibility of cleaning
electrical equipment while it is in operation. It is also stated that due to little
airborne carbon dioxide generated, the operator of the blast-cleaning equipment
only needs standard eye and ear protection. An exception is made for confined
work spaces where, usually, it is necessary blasting suits and respirators. The
only disadvantage is the slower cleaning speed in relation to other cleaning
methods and the need for further development. At its current stage of
development, this cleaning method is best suited to clean soft metals or
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composite materials [7].

4.2.5.2 Laser cleaning

This is also under development and its major application is to strip old paints
from steel surfaces with CO2 or Xenon laser. The CO2 laser is considered to be
more effective than the xenon laser for coating removal because it generates
more power. The CO2 laser energy breaks the bonds in molecular structure of
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the coating and incinerates the paint binder, leaving a dry ash residue, which
may be vacuumed. Xenon laser works in the same way as a flashlamp with a
camera (but with production of a much more intense light) with the possibility of
optimization for the specific type of coating to be removed. This procedure
burns the coating to be removed and also leaves a dry ash residue. The main
disadvantages of this method are the slow speed of cleaning and the currently
high costs inherent to laser technology. However, the disposal of waste
products is much easier than with other conventional cleaning methods [7].

4.2.5.3 Sponge media blast-cleaning

This process was designed by taking into account health and environmental
restrictions. It consists of the impact by compressed air, of a synthetic open-cell
polymer sponge impregnated with abrasive on a steel surface. The sponge
deformation absorbs the energy from the impact, shearing the paint film, rust or
mill scale from the surface. The sponge captures debris and dust, unlike

59
STEEL STRUCTURES

conventional hard abrasives, which rebound from the surface, and then these
are collected, cleaned and re-used. The type of abrasive contained on the
sponge depends on the surface to be cleaned and the required surface profile.
Sponges without abrasives may also be used to clean oil, grease and other
contaminants [7].

4.3 Surface types and preparation grades

EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11] classifies the types of surface as: (i) uncoated
surfaces; (ii) metal-coated surfaces; (iii) surfaces painted with prefabrication
primer; (iv) other painted surfaces (metal-coated surfaces previously painted).
Uncoated surfaces correspond to bare steel covered or not with mill scale or

t
rust, and other contaminants. Metal-coated surfaces include hot dip galvanized,
thermally sprayed, electroplated, and sherardized surfaces. Hot dip galvanized

iNe
surfaces are further designated as unweathered and weathered surfaces, if they
correspond respectively to cleaned surfaces, according to the specifications,
and to corroded and contaminated surfaces. Surfaces painted with
prefabrication primer consist of an automatically prepared surface with an
applied prefabrication primer. Other painted surfaces correspond to already
painted surfaces.
According to EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11], surface preparation is classified as
primary or overall surface preparation, and secondary or partial surface
rat
preparation. The first type concerns the preparation of the whole surface to bare
steel, while the second type leaves sound parts of organic and metal coatings.
Several surface preparation grades are listed in Annex A (Sa, St, Fl and Be)
and Annex B (P Sa, P St and P Ma) of EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11], respectively
for primary and secondary surface preparation grades. Other preparation
grades may also be established based on photographic examples or reference
areas. These reference areas should be photographed as representative
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examples and/or protected from influences that might alter their appearance.
Preparation grades are further specified in EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54] and EN ISO
8501-2:2001 [55], respectively for primary and secondary surface preparation, by
description of surface appearance after cleaning together with representative
photographic examples. These are the most frequently used preparation grades,
although others may be used, based on photographic examples or reference
areas, by agreement between parties.
Secondary preparation of metal coatings and other painted surfaces down to a
metal coating cannot be referred to the indicated standardized grades.
Preparation grades corresponding to the highest degree of cleanliness can be
justified for long maintenance intervals and should be specified only if (i) required
by the surface condition, the intended coating system, and/or by the
aggressiveness of the environment, and if (ii) the condition for achieving and
maintaining the preparation grade can be met [82].

60
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

EN ISO 8501-1:2007 [54] defines a series of rust grades that are presented in
Table 21. It is recommended to carry out surface preparation, as soon as
possible, for rust grades A or B, and C for manual preparation, followed by the
application of a suitable primer.

Table 21. Rust grades. (According to [54])

Rust
Steel surface condition
grades
A Largely covered with adhering mill scale with little or no rust.
B The rust has begun and the mill scale has begun to flake.
The mill scale has rusted away or it may be scraped, but with slight pitting
C
visible under normal vision.

t
The mill scale has rusted away and general pitting is visible under normal
vision.
iNe
EN ISO 8501-3:2007 [56] describes preparation grades for edges (Table 22), welds
(Table 23) and other areas with surface imperfections (Table 24), which should
be removed or repaired assuring the integrity of steel surface.

Table 22. Edge imperfections and respective preparations

(A d a p te d f ro m [56])
grades.
rat

Type of imperfection Preparation grades

Description Illustration P1 P2 P3
Edges should be
rounded with a
Rolled No No
radius of not less
edges preparation preparation
than 2 mm (see EN
[10]
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ISO 12944-3:1998 )
Edges No part of the
Edges should be
made by 1 edge should Edges
rounded with a
punching, be sharp; the should be
radius of not less
shearing or edge should reasonably
2 than 2 mm (see EN
sawing 1. Punching be free from smooth
2. Shearing
ISO 12944-3:1998 [10])
fins
No part of Cut face should be
Surface
the edge and edges should be
should be
Thermally should rounded with a
free of slag
cut edges have an radius of not less
and loose
irregular than 2 mm (see EN
scale [10]
profile ISO 12944-3:1998 )

61
STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 23. Weld imperfections and respective preparations

(A d a p te d f ro m [56])
grades.

Type of imperfection Preparation grades

Description Illustration P1 P2 P3
Surface should
Surface be free from all
Surface
a) b) c) should be loose and lightly
should be
Welding free of all adhering welding
free from
spatter loose spatter (see a)
welding
welding and b)). Welding
spatter
spatter spatter shown in
c) may remain
Surface should Surface

t
be dressed, e.g. should be
Weld No by grinding, to fully

iNe
ripple/profile preparation remove irregular dressed,
and sharp-edged i.e.
profiles smooth
Surface
Surface
Surface should should be
Welding should be
be from welding free from
slag free from
slag welding
welding slag
slag
Surface should Surface
rat
No be free from should be
Undercut
preparation sharp and deep free from
undercut undercut
1 2 Surface pores
should be Surface
sufficiently open should be
Weld No
to allow free from
porosity 1. Visible preparation
penetration of visible
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2. Invisible (may open paint, or dressed pores

after blast-cleaning
out
Surface
End craters should be
No
End craters should be free free from
preparation
from sharp edges visible end
craters

62
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 24. Surface general imperfections and respective preparations

(Adapted from [56])
grades.

Type of imperfection Preparation grades

Description Illustration P1 P2 P3
Pits and
Pits and
craters
craters
should be Surface
should be
Pits and sufficiently should be
sufficiently
craters open to free of pits
open to allow
allow and craters
penetration
penetration
of paint
of paint
Surface Surface Surface

t
Shelling
should be should be should be
(also known
free from free from free from
as slivers
or hackles)
iNe lifted visible visible
material shelling shelling
Surface Surface
Roll overs / Surface
should be should be
roll should be
free from free from
laminations / free from
visible roll- visible roll-
cut lifted
overs / overs /
laminations material
laminations laminations
Surface Surface Surface
rat

should be should be should be

Rolled-in
free from free from free from
extraneous
rolled-in rolled-in rolled-in
matter
extraneous extraneous extraneous
matter matter matter
Surface
should be
The radius of
Grooves and free from
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grooves and
gouges grooves, and
No gouges
formed by the radius of
preparation should be
mechanical gouges
not less than
action should be
2 mm
greater than
4 mm
Surface
Indentations should be
Indentations
No and roll free from
and roll
preparation marks should indentations
marks
be smooth and roll
marks

63
STEEL STRUCTURES

4.4 Specific aspects of surface preparation on coated steel

structures
When dealing with the maintenance of coated structures, the following
parameters should be considered [82]: age and location of the structure, quality
of the previous surface, performance and extent of breakdown of the existing
coating system, environmental corrosivity, and the proposed coating system.
The decision making process regarding maintenance is also determined by the
reported issues that influence the performance of coating systems, also the
definition of preparation grade, and by the selection of the preparation method
and respective features. Nevertheless, some common procedures may be
found in the literature, which are established by taking into consideration the
surface condition and existing coating system.

t
According to Bayliss and Deacon [7], the objective of maintenance painting should
be to repaint when the minimum surface preparation is necessary. Accordingly,

iNe
the surface condition may be classified as shown in Table 25, 1 being the ideal
surface condition for maintenance, only requiring abrading of surfaces still
glossy and removal of any loose, powdery deposits by brushing or low-pressure
water jetting. In surface condition 2, any significant rusting of the steel, even in a
small area, should be cleaned by blast-cleaning or UHP water blast-cleaning. In
these cases, it is also necessary to ensure that the existing paint is sound
enough for the required cleaning to assure the adhesion of the new paint to the
old. In surface condition 3, the paint coating is not necessarily undermined by
rat
corrosion and washing/brushing with abrasion may be sufficient for surface
preparation. Finally, in surface condition 4, usually cleaning down to the steel
substrate is required, preferably by UHP water jetting or wet abrasive blasting.

Table 25. Surface condition of painted surfaces. [7]

Surface condition
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Final coats with loss of decorative appearance due to fading, chalking, possible
1 slight cracking, of the top coating only, no visible rusting or deterioration of the
substrate.

Similar to condition 1 but with visible rust in vulnerable areas, e.g. areas with
2
water entrapment.

3 Pinpoint rusting occurs and it is usually caused by inadequate thickness of paint.

4 Apparent random corrosion blistering, cracking or flaking down to the steel.

Other recommendations regarding surface preparation procedures adequate to

the surface condition of paint films are also reported [7]:
Coatings with firm adhesion and without signs of initial breakdown
should not be removed and further coating may usually be easily
applied after the removal of contaminants. In some cases, abrasion
may be required due to surface hardening or for removal of gloss.
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 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Minor deterioration of the paint without rusting of the steel substrate

requires the removal of all loose paint by methods such as power-tools,
UHP water jetting or blast-cleaning.
For coatings significantly deteriorated with rusting on the steel substrate,
the procedures are determined by the extent of the coating breakdown.
In most of these cases, the most suitable surface preparation methods
are either blast-cleaning or UHP water jetting. However, in some
situations where they are unfeasible, power-tools are recommended.
The maintenance of metal coatings is usually carried out with the application of
paint coatings [7]. Hot dip galvanized steel may be used without painting but it is
preferable to paint galvanized surfaces before the occurrence of rusting. If no
rusting has occurred in painted galvanized steel, the maintenance procedures
are similar to those for paint coatings. All lose paint should be removed and in

t
the presence of significant rusting, blast-cleaning is recommended to treat the
surface prior repainting.
iNe
Cleaning of zinc-electroplated and sherardized surfaces may be accomplished
by special detergents, hot water, steam, or surface conversion. Sherardized
coatings can also be further treated in the same way as hot dip galvanized [7].
As for sprayed metal coatings, two different procedures are referred to [7]: (i) once
corrosion occurs under the paint film, the whole coating system should be
removed with sharp abrasives; (ii) light blast-cleaning is satisfactory to remove
the paint and the surface zinc corrosion products provided that dry methods are
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used, otherwise the whole coating system is to be removed due to the difficulty
in ensuring that the surface is dry. It is not recommended to paint sprayed zinc
coatings but it may be necessary, either due to the extent of corrosion or when
it is not feasible to remove the coating by blast-cleaning. In these situations,
power-tools may be used to remove zinc and corrosion products but a layer of
sprayed zinc coating should remain unless it is corroded. Usually, sprayed
aluminium coatings do not pose much of a problem but if required, blast-
cleaning may be used to remove them [7]. Power-tools may also be applied but
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only for removing corrosion products because these tools are not very effective
in removing the whole coating.

4.5 Selection of a surface preparation method

The selection of a surface preparation method should take into account the
required preparation grade to give a certain level of surface cleanliness and a
surface profile appropriate for the coating system to be applied [82].
In particular, the selection of the preparation grade should consider the surface
condition, the coating system to be applied, the environment corrosivity, the
complete or partial surface preparation, and the practicability of the surface
preparation method. Annex A and Annex B, of EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11],
provide indication regarding the standard preparation grades of different surface
preparation methods.

65
STEEL STRUCTURES

The selection of a surface preparation method also depends on [82]: feasibility,

for e.g. operating conditions, target dates, health, safety and environmental
considerations, etc; economic considerations; particular requirements regarding
the operating conditions or a particular result.
EN ISO 8504-1:2001 [82] provides guidance on the surface preparation methods
and the general principles for selecting their main features, which must be taken
into account in prior specifications, and on the application of the protective
system.
Specific guidance on adequacy of surface preparation methods may be found in
current standards, either considering the matter to be removed or the surface
type to be prepared. EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11] (annex C), provides information
regarding common procedures for the removal of scale, rust, paints, and other
contaminants from surfaces (Table 26).

t
According to EN ISO 12944-4:1998 [11], unweathered hot dip galvanized

iNe
surfaces may be treated by sweep blast-cleaning. While weathered hot dip
galvanized surfaces may be cleaned with fresh water and detergent using
synthetic-fabric pads with an embedded abrasive followed by thorough rinsing
with hot water or, alternatively, by hot water, pressurized water, steam cleaning,
sweep blast-cleaning or hand- or power tool cleaning. Zinc-electroplated and
sherardized surfaces may be cleaned with special detergents, hot water, steam,
or by surface conversion, and may also require similar treatments to those
indicated for hot dip galvanized surfaces. Coated surfaces require the removal
of contaminants and of poorly adhering and defective coatings using adequate
rat
cleaning methods, and subsequent surface treatment by, for example, sweep
blast-cleaning using a suitable material.
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66
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 26. Procedures for removal of extraneous layers and foreign matter. [11]

Matter to be 1
Procedure Remarks
removed
Water Fresh water with addition of detergents. Pressure
cleaning (< 70 MPa) may be used. Rinse with fresh water
Steam Fresh water. If detergents are added, rinse with
cleaning fresh water.
Emulsion
Rinse with fresh water.
cleaning
Aluminium, zinc and certain other types of metal
Grease and oil Alkaline
coating may be susceptible to corrosion if strongly
cleaning
alkaline solutions are used. Rinse with fresh water.

t
Many organic solvents are hazardous to health. If
cleaning is performed using rags, these will have to
Organic-
solvent
iNe be replaced at frequent intervals as otherwise oily
and greasy contaminants will not be removed but
cleaning
will be left as a smeared film after the solvent has
evaporated.
Water Fresh water with addition of detergents. Pressure
cleaning (< 70MPa) may be used.
Water soluble Steam
Rinse with fresh water.
contaminants, cleaning
e.g. salt
rat

Aluminium, zinc and some other types of metal

Alkaline
coating may be susceptible to corrosion if strongly
cleaning
alkaline solutions are used. Rinse with fresh water.
The process is normally not performed on site.
Acid pickling
Rinse with fresh water.
Dry abrasive Shot or grit abrasives. Residuals of dust and loose
blast- deposits will have to be removed by blowing off with
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cleaning dry oil-free compressed air or by vacuum cleaning.

Mill scale Wet

abrasive
Rinse with fresh water.
blast-
cleaning
Mechanical cleaning will be required to remove
Flame
residues from the combustion process, followed by
cleaning
removal of dust and loose deposits.
1
When rinsing and drying, structures with slots or rivets should be treated
withparticular care.

67
STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 26 (continuation). Procedures for removal of extraneous layers and

[11]
foreign matter.

Matter to 1
Procedure Remarks
be removed
Same
procedures as
mill scale, plus:
Mechanical brushing may be used in areas with loose
Power tool rust. Grinding may be used for firmly adhering rust.
Rust cleaning Residuals of dust and loose deposits will have to be
removed.
Water blast- For removal of loose rust. The surface profile of the
cleaning steel is not affected.

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Spot blast-
For localized removal of dust.
cleaning

iNe
Solvent-borne pastes for coatings sensitive to organic
solvents. Residues to be removed by rinsing with
Stripping solvents. Alkaline pastes for saponifiable coatings.
Rinse thoroughly with fresh water. Stripping is
restricted to small areas.
Shot or grit abrasives. Residuals of dust and loose
Dry abrasive
deposits will have to be removed by blowing off with
blast-cleaning
dry oil-free compressed air or by vacuum cleaning.
rat
Paint Wet abrasive
coatings Rinse with fresh water.
blast-cleaning
For removal of poorly adhering paint coatings. Ultra-
Water blast-
high-pressure (> 170MPa) cleaning may be used for
cleaning
firmly adhering coatings.
Sweep blast- For roughening coatings or for removal of the
cleaning outermost coating layer.
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Spot blast-
For localized removal of coatings.
cleaning

Sweep blast- Sweep blast-cleaning on zinc may be performed with

cleaning aluminium oxide (corundum), silicates or olivine sand.
Zinc
corrosion 5 % (m/m) ammonia solution in combination with a
products synthetic-fabric pad with embedded abrasives may be
Alkaline
used for localized spots of zinc corrosion. Alkaline
cleaning
cleaners may be used for larger surfaces. At high pH,
zinc is susceptible to corrosion.
1
When rinsing and drying, structures with slots or rivets should be treated
withparticular care.

68
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

5 References
[1] EN 12473:2000, General principles of cathodic protection in sea water.

[2] EN 12954:2001, Cathodic protection of buried or immersed metallic

structures General principles and application for pipelines.

[3] EN 14505:2005, Cathodic protection of complex structures.

[4] EN 13174:2001, Cathodic protection for harbour installations.

[5] EN 13509:2003, Cathodic protection measurement techniques.

[6] EN 50162:2004, Protection against corrosion by stray current from direct

current systems.

t
[7]
iNe
BAYLISS D.A. and D.H. DEACON. Steelwork Corrosion Control. 2nd ed.,
revised. London: Spoon Press, 2002.

[8] EN ISO 12944-1:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 1: General introduction.

[9] EN ISO 12944-2:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 2: Classification of
environments.
rat

[10] EN ISO 12944-3:1998, Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 3: Design
considerations.

[11] EN ISO 12944-4:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures Part 4: Types of surface and surface preparation.
Du

[12] EN ISO 12944-5:2007, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 5: Protective systems.

[13] EN ISO 12944-6:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 6: Laboratory
performance test methods.

[14] EN ISO 12944-7:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 7: Execution and
supervision of paint work.

[15] EN ISO 12944-8:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of

steel structures by protective paint systems Part 8: Development of
specifications for new work and maintenance.

[16] EN ISO 3549:2002, Zinc dust pigments for paints Specifications and test
methods.

69
STEEL STRUCTURES

[17] ASTM D2371:2005, Standard test method for pigment content of solvent-
reducible paints.

[18] CORREIA, M. J., H. PERNETA and M. SALTA. Maintenance and repair of

transport infrastructures Technical guide. Part III Steel structures. Vol.
1 Durability factors and requirements. DURATINET project WG A4.
Lisbon: LNEC, 2012.

[19] CORREIA, M. J., H. PERNETA and M. SALTA. Maintenance and repair of

transport infrastructures Technical guide. Part III Steel structures. Vol.
2 Deterioration. DURATINET project WG A4. Lisbon: LNEC, 2012.

[20] EN ISO 2812-1:2007, Paints and varnishes Determination of resistance

to liquids Part 1: Immersion in liquids other than water.

t
[21] EN ISO 2812-2:2007, Paints and varnishes Determination of resistance
to liquids Part 2: Water immersion method.

iNe
[22] EN ISO 6270-1:2001, Paints and varnishes Determination of resistance
to humidity Part 1: Continuous condensation.

[23] EN ISO 6270-2:2005, Paints and varnishes Determination of resistance

to humidity Part 2: Procedure for exposing test specimens in
condensation-water atmospheres.

[24] EN ISO 9227:2006, Corrosion tests in artificial atmospheres Salt spray

rat
tests.

[25] ISO 2131:1972, Surface active agents Simplified classification.

[26] EN ISO 8502-4:1999, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 4: Guidance on the estimation of the probability of
condensation prior to paint application.
Du

[27] EN ISO 2808:2007, Paints and varnishes Determination of film

thickness.

[28] EN ISO 2409:2007, Paints and varnishes Cross-cut test.

[29] EN ISO 4624:2003, Paints and varnishes Pull-off test for adhesion.

[30] ISO 19840:2004, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection of steel

structures by protective paint systems - Measurement of, and acceptance
criteria for, the thickness of dry films on rough surfaces.

[31] EN ISO 4628-1:2003, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of

coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance Part 1: General introduction and
designation system.

70
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

[32] EN ISO 4628-2:2003, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of

coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance Part 2: Assessment of degree of
blistering.

[33] EN ISO 4628-3:2003, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of

coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance Part 3: Assessment of degree of rusting.

[34] EN ISO 4628-4:2003, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of

coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance Part 4: Assessment of degree of
cracking.

[35] EN ISO 4628-5:2003, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of

t
coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance - Part 5: Assessment of degree of flaking.
iNe
[36] EN ISO 4628-6:2007, Paints and varnishes Evaluation of degradation of
coatings Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of
uniform changes in appearance Part 6: Assessment of degree of
chalking by tape method.

[37] EN ISO 14713-1:2009, Zinc coatings Guidelines and recommendations

for the protection against corrosion of iron and steel structures Part 1:
General principles of design and corrosion resistance.
rat

[38] EN ISO 14713-2:2009, Zinc coatings Guidelines and recommendations

for the protection against corrosion of iron and steel structures Part 2:
Hot dip galvanizing.

[39] ISO 27831-1:2008, Metallic and other inorganic coatings - Cleaning and
preparation of metal surfaces Part 1: Ferrous metals and alloys.
Du

[40] EN ISO 10684:2004, Fasteners Hot dip galvanized coatings.

[41] EN ISO 1461:2009, Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and
steel articles Specifications and test methods.

[42] EN 657:2005, Thermal spraying Terminology, classification.

[43] EN 14616:2004, Thermal spraying Recommendations for thermal

spraying.

[44] EN 1274:2004, Thermal spraying Powders Composition, technical

supply conditions.

[45] EN ISO 14919:2001, Thermal spraying - Wires, rods and cords for flame
and arc spraying Classification Technical supply conditions.

[46] EN ISO 2063:2005, Thermal spraying Metallic and other inorganic

coatings Zinc, aluminium and their alloys.

71
STEEL STRUCTURES

[47] EN 15520:2007, Thermal spraying Recommendations for constructional

design of components with thermally sprayed coatings.

[48] EN 15648:2009, Thermal spraying Component related procedure

qualification.

[49] EN ISO 14922-1:1999, Thermal spraying Quality requirements of

thermally sprayed structures Part 1: Guidance for selection and use.

[50] EN ISO 14922-2:1999, Thermal spraying Quality requirements of

thermally sprayed structures Part 2: Comprehensive quality
requirements.

[51] EN ISO 14922-3:1999, Thermal spraying Quality requirements of

thermally sprayed structures Part 3: Standard quality requirements.

t
[52] EN ISO 14922-4:1999, Thermal spraying Quality requirements of

iNe
thermally sprayed structures Part 4: Elementary quality requirements.

[53] EN 13507:2010. Thermal spraying - Pre-treatment of surfaces of metallic

parts and components for thermal spraying.

[54] EN ISO 8501-1:2007, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1: Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates
and of steel substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
rat
[55] EN ISO 8501-2:2001, Preparation of steel substrates before application of
paints and related products Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 2: preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after
localized removal of previous coatings.

[56] EN ISO 8501-3:2007, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
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Part 3: Preparation grades of welds, edges and other areas with surface
imperfections.

[57] EN ISO 8501-4:2006, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 4: Initial surface conditions, preparation grades and flush rust grades
in connection with high-pressure water jetting.

[58] EN ISO 14924:2005, Thermal spraying Post-treatment and finishing of

thermally sprayed coatings.

[59] EN ISO 14923:2003, Thermal spraying Characterization and testing of

thermally sprayed coatings.

[60] EN ISO 2178:1995, Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates

Measurement of coating thickness Magnetic method.

72
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

[61] EN 1403:1998, Corrosion protection of metals Electrodeposited coatings

Methods of specifying general requirements.

[62] EN ISO 2081:2008, Metallic and other inorganic coatings Electroplated

coatings of zinc with supplementary treatments on iron or steel.

[63] EN ISO 4042:1999, Fasteners Electroplated coatings.

[64] ISO 9588:2007, Metallic and other inorganic coatings Post-coating

treatments of iron or steel to reduce the risk of hydrogen embrittlement.

[65] EN ISO 1463:2004, Metallic and oxide coatings Measurement of coating

thickness Microscopical method.

[66] EN ISO 2177:2004, Metallic coatings Measurement of coating thickness

t
Coulometric method by anodic dissolution.
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[67] EN ISO 3497:2000, Metallic coatings Measurement of coating thickness
X-ray spectrometric methods.

[68] EN ISO 3543:2000, Metallic and non-metallic coatings Measurement of

thickness Beta backscatter method.

[69] EN ISO 4518:1995, Metallic coatings Measurement of coating thickness

Profilometric method (ISO 4518:1980).

[70] EN ISO 2819:1994, Metallic coatings on metallic substrates

rat

Electrodeposited and chemically deposited coatings Review of methods

available for testing adhesion.

[71] EN ISO 3613:2001, Chromate conversion coatings on zinc, cadmium,

aluminium-zinc alloys and zinc-aluminium alloys Test methods.

[72] ASTM B117:2009, Standard Practice for Operating Salt Spray (Fog)
Apparatus.
Du

[73] EN ISO 10289:2001, Methods for corrosion testing of metallic and other
inorganic coatings on metallic substrates Rating of test specimens and
manufactured articles subjected to corrosion tests.

[74] ISO 10587:2000, Metallic and other inorganic coatings Test for residual
embrittlement in both metallic-coated and uncoated externally-threaded
articles and rods Inclined wedge method.

[75] ISO 15724:2001, Metallic and other inorganic coatings Electrochemical

measurement of diffusible hydrogen in steels Barnacle electrode
method.

[76] EN 13811:2003, Sherardizing Zinc diffusion coatings on ferrous

products Specification.

73
STEEL STRUCTURES

[77] EN ISO 14713-3:2009, Zinc coatings Guidelines and recommendations

for the protection against corrosion of iron and steel structures Part 3:
Sherardizing.

[78] ISO 2859-1:1999, Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes Part

1: Sampling schemes indexed by acceptance quality limit (AQL) for lot-by-
lot inspection.

[79] ISO 2859-3:2005, Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes Part

3: Skip-lot sampling procedures.

[80] EN ISO 1460:1994, Metallic coatings Hot dip galvanized coatings on

ferrous materials Gravimetric determination of the mass per unit area.

[81] ISO 9224:1992, Corrosion of metals and alloys Corrosivity of

t
atmospheres Guiding values for the corrosivity categories.

iNe
[82] EN ISO 8504-1:2001, Preparation of steel substrates before application of
paints and related products Surface preparation methods Part 1:
General principles.

[83] EN ISO 8504-2:2001, Preparation of steel substrates and related products

Surface preparation methods Part 2: Abrasive cleaning.

[84] EN ISO 8504-3:2001, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface preparation methods Part 3: Hand
rat
and power-tool cleaning.

[85] EN ISO 8502-1:2006, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 11: Field method for the turbidimetric determination of
water-soluble sulphate.

[86] EN ISO 8502-2:2005, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

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paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface

cleanliness Part 2: Laboratory determination of chloride on cleaned
surfaces.

[87] EN ISO 8502-3:1999, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 3: Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for
painting (pressure-sensitive tape method).

[88] EN ISO 8502-5:2004, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 5: Measurement of chloride on steel surfaces prepared
for painting (ion detection tube method).

[89] EN ISO 8502-6:2006, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface

74
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

cleanliness Part 6: Extraction of soluble contaminants for analysis - The

Bresle method.

[90] EN ISO 8502-8:2006, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 8: Field method for the refractometric determination of
moisture.

[91] EN ISO 8502-9:2000, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface
cleanliness Part 9: Field method for the conductometric determination of
water-soluble salts.

[92] EN ISO 8502-12:2004, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Tests for the assessment of surface

t
cleanliness Part 12: Field method for the titrimetric determination of
water-soluble ferrous ions.
iNe
[93] EN ISO 11124-1:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application
of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 1: General introduction and classification.

[94] EN ISO 11124-2:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 2: Chilled-iron grit.
rat

[95] EN ISO 11124-3:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 3: High-carbon cast-steel shot and grit (ISO 11124-
3:1993).

[96] EN ISO 11124-4:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 4: Low-carbon cast-steel shot.
Du

[97] EN ISO 11125-1:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 1: Sampling.

[98] EN ISO 11125-2:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products - Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution.

[99] EN ISO 11125-3:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products - Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 3: Determination of hardness (ISO 11125-3:1993).

[100] EN ISO 11125-4:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 4: Determination of apparent density.

75
STEEL STRUCTURES

[101] EN ISO 11125-5:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 5: Determination of percentage defective particles and of
microstructure.

[102] EN ISO 11125-6:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 6: Determination of foreign matter.

[103] EN ISO 11125-7:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives Part 7: Determination of moisture.

[104] EN ISO 11126-1:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-

t
cleaning abrasives Part 1: General introduction and classification.

iNe
[105] EN ISO 11126-3:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application
of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 3: Copper refinery slag.

[106] EN ISO 11126-4:1998, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paintsand related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 4: Coal furnace slag.

[107] EN ISO 11126-5:1998, Preparation of steel substrates before application

rat
of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 5: Nickel refinery slag.

[108] EN ISO 11126-6:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 6: Iron furnace slag.

[109] EN ISO 11126-7:1999, Preparation of steel substrates before application

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of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-

cleaning abrasives Part 7: Fused aluminium oxide.

[110] EN ISO 11126-8:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 8: Olivine sand.

[111] EN ISO 11126-9:2004, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 9: Staurolite.

[112] EN ISO 11126-10:2004, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Specifications for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 10: Almandite garnet.

76
 PROTECTION SYSTEMS

[113] EN ISO 11127-1:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 1: Sampling.

[114] EN ISO 11127-2:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution.

[115] EN ISO 11127-3:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 3: Determination of apparent density.

[116] EN ISO 11127-4:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 4: Assessment of hardness by a glass slide test.

t
[117] EN ISO 11127-5:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application
iNe
of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 5: Determination of moisture.

[118] EN ISO 11127-6:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-
cleaning abrasives Part 6: Determination of water-soluble contaminants
by conductivity measurements.

[119] EN ISO 11127-7:1997, Preparation of steel substrates before application

rat

of paints and related products Test methods for non-metallic blast-

cleaning abrasives Part 7: Determination of water soluble chlorides.

[120] EN ISO 8503-1:1995, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface roughness characteristics of
blasted-cleaned steel substrates Part 1: Specifications and definitions
for ISO surface profile comparators for the assessment of abrasive blast-
cleaned surfaces.
Du

[121] EN ISO 8503-2:1995, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface roughness characteristics of
blasted-cleaned steel substrates Part 2: Method for the grading of
surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel Comparator procedure.

[122] EN ISO 8503-3:1995, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface roughness characteristics of
blasted-cleaned steel substrates Part 3: Method for the calibration of
ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface
profile Focusing microscope procedure.

[123] EN ISO 8503-4:1995, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface roughness characteristics of
blasted-cleaned steel substrates Part 4: Method for the calibration of
ISO surface profile comparators and for the determination of surface
profile Stylus instrument procedure.

77
STEEL STRUCTURES

[124] EN ISO 8503-5:1995, Preparation of steel substrates before application of

paints and related products Surface roughness characteristics of
blasted-cleaned steel substrates Part 5: Replica tape method for the
determination of the surface profile.

t
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rat
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78