Quantitative Techniques for Management

Module 1 Module 3
Unit 1
Unit 1
1.1 The Revised Simplex Method
1.1 Origin of Operations Research
1.2 Steps for solving Revised Simplex Method in
1.2 Concept and Definition of OR
Standard Form-I
1.3 Characteristics of OR
1.3 Worked Examples
1.4 Applications of OR
1.5 Phases of OR Unit 2
2.1 Computational Procedure of Revised Simplex
Unit 2 Table in Standard Form-II
2.1 Introduction to Linear Programming 2.2 Worked Examples
2.2 General Form of LPP 2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
2.3 Assumptions in LPP
2.4 Applications of Linear Programming Unit 3
2.5 Advantages of Linear P. Techniques 3.1 Duality in LPP
2.6 Formulation of LP Problems 3.2 Important characteristics of Duality
3.3 Advantages and Applications of Duality
Unit 3 3.4 Steps for Standard Primal Form
3.1 Graphical solution Procedure 3.5 Rules for Converting any Primal into its Dual
3.3 Definitions 3.6 Example Problems
3.3 Example Problems 3.7 Primal-Dual Relationship
3.4 Special cases of Graphical method 3.8 Duality and Simplex Method
3.4.1 Multiple optimal solution
3.4.2 No optimal solution
3.4.3 Unbounded solution
Module 4
Unit 1
1.1 Introduction
Module 2 1.2 Computational Procedure of Dual Simplex
Unit 1 Method
1.1 Introduction 1.3 Worked Examples
1.2 Steps to convert GLPP to SLPP 1.4 Advantage of Dual Simplex over Simplex
1.3 Some Basic Definitions Method
1.4 Introduction to Simplex Method
1.5 Computational procedure of Simplex Method Unit 2
1.6 Worked Examples 2.1 Introduction to Transportation Problem
2.2 Mathematical Formulation
Unit 2 2.3 Tabular Representation
2.1 Computational Procedure of Big M 2.4 Some Basic Definitions
Method (Charnes Penalty Method) 2.5 Methods for Initial Basic Feasible Solution
2.2 Worked Examples
2.3 Steps for Two-Phase Method Unit 3
2.4 Worked Examples 3.1 Examining the Initial Basic Feasible Solution for
Non-Degeneracy
Unit 3 3.2 Transportation Algorithm for Minimization
3.1 Special cases in Simplex Method Problem
3.1.1 Degeneracy 3.3 Worked Examples
3.1.2 Non-existing Feasible Solution
3.1.3 Unbounded Solution
3.1.4 Multiple Optimal Solutions
 Module 1
Unit 1

1.1 Origin of Operations Research

The term Operations Research (OR) was first coined by MC Closky and Trefthen in 1940 in a
small town, Bowdsey of UK. The main origin of OR was during the second world war The military
commands of UK and USA engaged several inter-disciplinary teams of scientists to undertake
scientific research into strategic and tactical military operations.
Their mission was to formulate specific proposals and to arrive at the decision on optimal
utilization of scarce military resources and to implement the decisions effectively. In simple words,
it was to uncover the methods that can yield greatest results with little efforts. Thus, it had gained
popularity and was called An art of winning the war without actually fighting it
The name Operations Research (OR) was invented because the team was dealing with research
on military operations. The encouraging results obtained by British OR teams motivated US
military management to start with similar activities. The work of OR team was given various names
in US: Operational Analysis, Operations Evaluation, Operations Research, System Analysis,
System Research, Systems Evaluation and so on.
The first method in this direction was simplex method of linear programming developed in 1947
by G.B Dantzig, USA. Since then, new techniques and applications have been developed to yield
high profit from least costs.
Now OR activities have become universally applicable to any area such as transportation, hospital
management, agriculture, libraries, city planning, financial institutions, construction management
and so forth. In India many of the industries like Delhi cloth mills, Indian Airlines, Indian Railway,
etc are making use of OR activity.

1.2 Concept and Definition of OR

Operations research signifies research on operations. It is the organized application of modern
science, mathematics and computer techniques to complex military, government, business or
industrial problems arising in the direction and management of large systems of men, material,
money and machines. The purpose is to provide the management with explicit quantitative
understanding and assessment of complex situations to have sound basics for arriving at best
decisions.

Operations research seeks the optimum state in all conditions and thus provides optimum solution
to organizational problems.

Definition: OR is a scientific methodology analytical, experimental and quantitative which by

assessing the overall implications of various alternative courses of action in a management
system provides an improved basis for management decisions.
1.3 Characteristics of OR (Features)

1. Inter-disciplinary team approach The optimum solution is found by a team of

scientists selected from various disciplines.
2. Wholistic approach to the system OR takes into account all significant factors and
finds the best optimum solution to the total organization.
3. Imperfectness of solutions Improves the quality of solution.
4. Use of scientific research Uses scientific research to reach optimum solution.
5. To optimize the total output It tries to optimize by maximizing the profit and
minimizing the loss.

1.4 Applications of OR

Finance, Budgeting and Investment Marketing

o Cash flow analysis, investment o Product selection, timing
portfolios o Number of salesman, advertising
o Credit policies, account
procedures Personnel management
o Selection of suitable personnel
Purchasing, Procurement and on minimum salary
Exploration o Mixes of age and skills
o Rules for buying, supplies
o Quantities and timing of Research and development
purchase o Project selection
o Replacement policies o Determination of area of
research and development
Production management o Reliability and alternative design
o Physical distribution
o Facilities planning
o Manufacturing
o Maintenance and project
scheduling

1.5 Phases of OR
OR study generally involves the following major phases

1. Defining the problem and gathering data

2. Formulating a mathematical model
3. Deriving solutions from the model
4. Testing the model and its solutions
5. Preparing to apply the model
6. Implementation
1.6 Defining the problem and gathering data
The first task is to study the relevant system and develop a well-defined statement of the
problem. This includes determining appropriate objectives, constraints, interrelationships, and
alternative course of action.
The OR team normally works in an advisory capacity. The team performs a detailed technical
analysis of the problem and then presents recommendations to the management.
Ascertaining the appropriate objectives is very important aspect of problem definition. Some of
the objectives include maintaining stable price, profits, increasing the share in market, improving
work morale etc. OR team typically spends huge amount of time in gathering relevant data.
To gain accurate understanding of problem o
To provide input for next phase.
OR teams uses Data mining methods to search large databases for interesting patterns that
may lead to useful decisions.

1.7 Formulating a mathematical model

This phase is to reformulate the problem in terms of mathematical symbols and expressions. The
mathematical model of a business problem is described as the system of equations and related
mathematical expressions. Thus
1. Decision variables (x1, x2 xn) n related quantifiable decisions to be made.
2. Objective function measure of performance (profit) expressed as mathematical
function of decision variables. For example P=3x1 +5x2 + + 4xn
3. Constraints any restriction on values that can be assigned to decision variables in
terms of inequalities or equations. For example x1 +2x2 20
4. Parameters the constant in the constraints (right hand side values)

The advantages of using mathematical models are

Describe the problem more concisely
Makes overall structure of problem comprehensible
Helps to reveal important cause-and-effect relationships
Indicates clearly what additional data are relevant for analysis
Forms a bridge to use mathematical technique in computers to analyse

1.8 Deriving solutions from the model

This phase is to develop a procedure for deriving solutions to the problem. A common theme is
to search for an optimal or best solution. The main goal of OR team is to obtain an optimal solution
which minimizes the cost and time and maximizes the profit.
Herbert Simon says that Satisficing is more prevalent than optimizing in actual practice. Where
satisficing = satisfactory + optimizing.

Samuel Eilon says that Optimizing is the science of the ultimate; Satisficing is the art of the
feasible. To obtain the solution, the OR team uses
 - Heuristic procedure (designed procedure that does not guarantee an optimal
solution) is used to find a good suboptimal solution.
- Metaheuristics provides both general structure and strategy guidelines for
designing a specific heuristic procedure to fit a kind of problem.
- Post-Optimality analysis is the analysis done after finding an optimal solution. It
is also referred as what-if analysis. It involves conducting sensitivity analysis
to determine which parameters of the model are most critical in determining the
solution.

1.9 Testing the model

After deriving the solution, it is tested for errors if any. The process of testing and improving a
model to increase its validity is commonly referred as Model validation. The OR group doing this
review should preferably include at least one individual who did not participate in the formulation
of model to reveal mistakes.
A systematic approach to test the model is to use Retrospective test. This test uses historical
data to reconstruct the past and then determine the model and the resulting solution. Comparing
the effectiveness of this hypothetical performance with what happened, indicates whether the
model tends to yield a significant improvement over current practice.

1.10 Preparing to apply the model

After the completion of testing phase, the next step is to install a well-documented system for
applying the model. This system will include the model, solution procedure and operating
procedures for implementation.
The system usually is computer-based. Databases and Management Information System may
provide up-to-date input for the model. An interactive computer based system called Decision
Support System is installed to help the manager to use data and models to support their decision
making as needed. A managerial report interprets output of the model and its implications for
applications.

1.11 Implementation
The last phase of an OR study is to implement the system as prescribed by the management.
The success of this phase depends on the support of both top management and operating
management.
The implementation phase involves several steps
1. OR team provides a detailed explanation to the operating management
2. If the solution is satisfied, then operating management will provide the explanation to the
personnel, the new course of action.
3. The OR team monitors the functioning of the new system
4. Feedback is obtained
5. Documentation
 Module 1
Unit 2
2.1 Introduction to Linear Programming
A linear form is meant a mathematical expression of the type a1x1 + a2x2 + . + anxn, where
a1, a2, , an are constants and x1, x2 xn are variables. The term Programming refers to the
process of determining a program or plan of action. So Linear Programming (LP) is one of the
most important optimization (maximization / minimization) techniques developed in the field of
Operations Research (OR).
The methods applied for solving a linear programming problem are basically simple problems; a
solution can be obtained by a set of simultaneous equations. However a unique solution for a set
of simultaneous equations in n-variables (x1, x2 xn), at least one of them is non-zero, can be
obtained if there are exactly n relations. When the number of relations is greater than or less than
n, a unique solution does not exist but a number of trial solutions can be found.
In various practical situations, the problems are seen in which the number of relations is not equal
to the number of the number of variables and many of the relations are in the form of inequalities
( or ) to maximize or minimize a linear function of the variables subject to such conditions. Such
problems are known as Linear Programming Problem (LPP).
Definition The general LPP calls for optimizing (maximizing / minimizing) a linear function of
variables called the Objective function subject to a set of linear equations and / or inequalities
called the Constraints or Restrictions.

2.2 General form of LPP

We formulate a mathematical model for general problem of allocating resources to activities. This
model is to select the values for x1, x2 xn so as to maximize or minimize

Z = c1x1 + c2x2
+.+cnxn
Subjects o restriction
a11x1 + a12x2 + ..........+a1nxn ( or ) b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + .+a2nxn ( or ) b2
.

am1x1 + am2x2 + .+amnxn ( or ) bm

and x1 0, x2 0, xn 0

Where
Z = value of overall measure of performance
xj = level of activity (for j = 1, 2, ..., n)
cj = increase in Z that would result from each unit increase in level of activity j
bi = amount of resource i that is available for allocation to activities (for i = 1,2, , m)
aij = amount of resource i consumed by each unit of activity j
o The level of activities x1, x2xn are called decision variables.

o The values of the cj, bi, aij (for i=1, 2 m and j=1, 2 n) are the input constants for the
model. They are called as parameters of the model.

o The function being maximized or minimized Z = c1x1 + c2x2 +. +cnxn is called objective
function.
o The restrictions are normally called as constraints. The constraint ai1x1 + ai2x2 ainxn are
sometimes called as functional constraint (L.H.S constraint). xj 0 restrictions are called
non-negativity constraint.

2.3 Assumptions in LPP

a) Proportionality
b) Additivity
c) Multiplicativity
d) Divisibility
e) Deterministic

2.4 Applications of Linear Programming

1. Personnel Assignment Problem

2. Transportation Problem
3. Efficiency on Operation of system of Dams
4. Optimum Estimation of Executive Compensation
5. Agriculture Applications
6. Military Applications
7. Production Management
8. Marketing Management
 9. Manpower Management
10. Physical distribution

2.5 Advantages of Linear Programming Techniques

1. It helps us in making the optimum utilization of productive resources.
2. The quality of decisions may also be improved by linear programming techniques.
3. Provides practically solutions.
4. In production processes, high lighting of bottlenecks is the most significant advantage of
this technique.

Question

A manufacturer produces 3 models (I, II and III) of a certain product. He uses 2 raw materials A
and B of which 4000 and 6000 units respectively are available. The raw materials per unit of 3
models are given below.
Raw materials I II III

A 2 3 5
B 4 2 7

The labour time for each unit of model I is twice that of model II and thrice that of model III. The
entire labour force of factory can produce an equivalent of 2500 units of model I. A model
survey indicates that the minimum demand of 3 models is 500, 500 and 375 units respectively.
However the ratio of number of units produced must be equal to 3:2:5. Assume that profits per
unit of model are 60, 40 and 100 respectively. Formulate a LPP.
 Module 1
Unit 3
3.1 Graphical Solution Procedure
1. Consider each inequality constraint as equation.
2. Plot each equation on the graph as each one will geometrically represent a straight line.
3. Shade the feasible region. Every point on the line will satisfy the equation of the line. If the
inequality constraint corresponding to that line is then the region below the line lying in
the first quadrant is shaded. Similarly for the region above the line is shaded. The points
lying in the common region will satisfy the constraints. This common region is called
feasible region.
4. Choose the convenient value of Z and plot the objective function line.
5. Pull the objective function line until the extreme points of feasible region.
a. In the maximization case this line will stop far from the origin and passing
through at least one corner of the feasible region.
b. In the minimization case, this line will stop near to the origin and passing through
at least one corner of the feasible region.
6. Read the co-ordinates of the extreme points selected in step 5 and find the maximum or
minimum value of Z.

3.2 Definitions
1. Solution Any specification of the values for decision variable among (x1, x2 xn) is
called a solution.
2. Feasible solution is a solution for which all constraints are satisfied.
3. Infeasible solution is a solution for which at least one constraint is not satisfied.
4. Feasible region is a collection of all feasible solutions.
5. Optimal solution is a feasible solution that has the most favourable value of the
objective function.
6. Most favourable value is the largest value if the objective function is to be maximized,
whereas it is the smallest value if the objective function is to be minimized.
7. Multiple optimal solution More than one solution with the same optimal value of the
objective function.
8. Unbounded solution If the value of the objective function can be increased or
decreased indefinitely such solutions are called unbounded solution.
9. Feasible region The region containing all the solutions of an inequality
10. Corner point feasible solution is a solution that lies at the corner of the feasible region.
3.3 Example
A manufacturer of furniture makes two products chairs and tables. Processing of this product
is done on two machines A and B. A chair requires 2 hours on machine A and 6 hours on
machine B. A table requires 5 hours on machine A and no time on machine B. There are 16
hours of time per day available on machine A and 30 hours on machine B. Profit gained by the
manufacturer from a chair and a table is Rs 2 and Rs 10 respectively. What should be the daily
production of each of two products?
3.4 Special Cases in Graphical Method
3.4.1 Multiple Optimal Solution
Max Z = 4x1 + 3x2
Subject to
4x1+ 3x2 24
x1 4.5
x2 6
x1 0 , x 2 0
3.4.2 No Optimal Solution
Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1+ x2 1
x1+ x2 3
x1 0 , x 2 0
3.4.3 Unbounded Solution
Max Z = 3x1 + 5x2
Subject to
2x1+ x2 7
x1+ x2 6
x1+ 3x2 9
x1 0 , x 2 0