Potentiometer

A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential (voltage) in a circuit.
Before the
introduction of the moving coil and digital volt meters, potentiometers were used in measuring
voltage. The method was described by Johann Christian Poggendorff around 1841 and became a
standard laboratory measuring technique.[1]
In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a resistive slide wire is compared with an
unknown voltage by means of a galvanometer. The sliding contact or wiper of the potentiometer
is adjusted and the galvanometer briefly connected between the sliding contact and the unknown
voltage. The deflection of the galvanometer is observed and the sliding tap adjusted until the
galvanometer no longer deflects from zero. At that point the galvanometer draws no current from
the unknown source, and the magnitude of voltage can be calculated from the position of the
sliding contact.
This null balance measuring method is still important in electrical metrology and standards work
and is also used in other areas of electronics.
Measurement potentiometers are divided into four main classes listed below.
Constant current potentiometer

Constant resistance potentiometer
Microvolt potentiometer
Thermocouple potentiometer
Principle of operation
Potentiometer is a simple device used to measure the EMF, TPD, internal resistance of a cell. It
consists of a board where a tungsten or manganese wire is fitted on it. It works on the principle
that the potential dropped between two points in a wire of uniform cross section is directly
proportional to the distance between the points.
Driving cell (E) of some EMF which is always greater than the EMF (E) to be measured is used
to send current through the circuit. It drops uniform potential along the potentiometer wire AB.
Between A and X (some point in between A and B), some potential (say V) is dropped. Consider
the alternative path wire AGX for the flow of current in between A and X except the
potentiometer wire. The potential due to driving cell is same for both AX segment of wire and
the long wire AGX since they are in parallel. Thus, electric field exists along AGX. When a cell
E is introduced with positive connected to A in the path AGX, it creates opposite field to that
created by the driving cell, and thus when V = E, no current flows through the portion AGX
which is confirmed by the galvanometer (G). Thus, we get E d (from principle and the figure).
Constant current potentiometer

A potentiometer being calibrated and then measuring an unknown voltage.
R1 is the resistance of the entire resistance wire. The arrow head represents the moving wiper.
In this circuit, the ends of a uniform resistance wire R1 are connected to a regulated DC supply
VS for use as a voltage divider. The potentiometer is first calibrated by positioning the wiper
(arrow) at the spot on the R1 wire that corresponds to the voltage of a standard cell so that
A standard electrochemical cell is used whose emf is known (e.g. 1.0183 volts for a Weston
standard cell).[2][3]
The supply voltage VS is then adjusted until the galvanometer shows zero, indicating the voltage
on R2 is equal to the standard cell voltage.
An unknown DC voltage, in series with the galvanometer, is then connected to the sliding wiper,
across a variable-length section R3 of the resistance wire. The wiper is moved until no current
flows into or out of the source of unknown voltage, as indicated by the galvanometer in series
with the unknown voltage. The voltage across the selected R3 section of wire is then equal to the
unknown voltage. The final step is to calculate the unknown voltage from the fraction of the
length of the resistance wire that was connected to the unknown voltage.
The galvanometer does not need to be calibrated, as its only function is to read zero or not zero.
When measuring an unknown voltage and the galvanometer reads zero, no current is drawn from
the unknown voltage and so the reading is independent of the source's internal resistance, as if by
a voltmeter of infinite resistance.
Because the resistance wire can be made very uniform in cross-section and resistivity, and the
position of the wiper can be measured easily, this method can be used to measure unknown DC
voltages greater than or less than a calibration voltage produced by a standard cell without
drawing any current from the standard cell.
If the potentiometer is attached to a constant voltage DC supply such as a leadacid battery, then
a second variable resistor (not shown) can be used to calibrate the potentiometer by varying the
current through the R1 resistance wire.
If the length of the R1 resistance wire is AB, where A is the (-) end and B is the (+) end, and the
movable wiper is at point X at a distance AX on the R3 portion of the resistance wire when the
galvanometer gives a zero reading for an unknown voltage, the distance AX is measured or read
from a pre-printed scale next to the resistance wire. The unknown voltage can then be calculated:
Constant resistance potentiometer

The constant resistance potentiometer is a variation of the basic idea in which a variable current
is fed through a fixed resistor. These are used primarily for measurements in the millivolt and
microvolt range.
Microvolt potentiometer
This is a form of the constant resistance potentiometer described above but designed to minimize
the effects of contact resistance and thermal emf. This equipment is satisfactorily used down to
readings of 1000 nV or so.
Thermocouple potentiometer
Another development of the standard types was the 'thermocouple potentiometer' especially
adapted for temperature measurement with thermocouples. [4] Potentiometers for use with
thermocouples also measure the temperature at which the thermocouple wires are connected, so
that cold-junction compensation may be applied to correct the apparent measured EMF to the
standard cold-junction temperature of 0 degrees C.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer_%28measuring_instrument%29
Null measurements balance voltages so there is no current flowing through the measuring
devices that would interfere with the measurement.
Null Measurements
Standard measurements of voltage and current alter circuits, introducing numerical uncertainties.
Voltmeters draw some extra current, whereas ammeters reduce current flow. Null measurements
balance voltages, so there is no current flowing through the measuring device and the circuit is
unaltered. Null measurements are generally more accurate but more complex than standard
voltmeters and ammeters. Their precision is still limited.
The Potentiometer
When measuring the EMF of a battery and connecting the battery directly to a standard
voltmeter, as shown in , the actual quantity measured is the terminal voltage V. Voltage is related
to the EMF of the battery by V=emfIr, where I is the current that flows and r is the internal
resistance of the battery.
Voltmeter Connected to Battery

An analog voltmeter attached to a battery draws a small but nonzero current and measures a
terminal voltage that differs from the EMF of the battery. (Note that the script capital E
symbolizes electromotive force, or EMF. ) Since the internal resistance of the battery is not
known precisely, it is not possible to calculate the EMF precisely.
The EMF could be accurately calculated if r were known, which is rare. If the current I could be
made zero, then V=emf, and EMF could be directly measured. However, standard voltmeters
need a current to operate.
A potentiometer is a null measurement device for measuring potentials (voltages). A voltage

source is connected to resistor R, passing a constant current through it. There is a steady drop in
potential (IR drop) along the wire, so a variable potential is obtained through contact along the
wire.
An unknown emfx (represented by script Ex) connected in series with a galvanometer is shown
in . Note that emfx opposes the other voltage source. The location of the contact point is adjusted
until the galvanometer reads zero. When the galvanometer reads zero, emfx=IRx, where Rxis the
resistance of the wire section up to the contact point. Since no current flows through the
galvanometer, none flows through the unknown EMF, and emfx is sensed.
Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a null measurement device. (a. ) A voltage source connected to a long wire
resistor passes a constant current I through it. (b.) An unknown EMF (labeled script Ex) is
connected as shown, and the point of contact along R is adjusted until the galvanometer reads
zero. The segment of wire has a resistance Rx and script Ex=IRx, where I is unaffected by the
connection, since no current flows through the galvanometer. The unknown EMF is thus
proportional to the resistance of the wire segment.
Standard EMF is substituted for emfx, and the contact point is adjusted until the galvanometer
reads zero, so that emfs=IRs. In both cases, no current passes through the galvanometer. The
current I through the long wire is identical. Taking the ratio emfx/emfs, I cancels, and solving for
emfx gives what is seen in .
Because a long uniform wire is used for R, the ratio of resistances Rx/Rs is the same as the ratio of
the lengths of wire that zero the galvanometer for each EMF. The three quantities on the right-
hand side of the equation are now known or measured, and emfx can be calculated. There is often
less uncertainty in this calculation than when using a voltmeter directly, but it is not zero. There
is always some uncertainty in the ratio of resistances Rx/Rsand in the standard EMFs.
Furthermore, it is not possible to tell when the galvanometer reads exactly zero, which introduces
error into both Rx and Rs, and may also affect the current I.
Source: Boundless. Null Measurements. Boundless Physics. Boundless, 13 Apr. 2016.

Retrieved 18 Apr. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-physics-
textbook/circuits-and-direct-currents-20/voltmeters-and-ammeters-153/null-measurements-543-
11288/

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A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential (voltage) in a circuit.

Constant current potentiometer

Constant current potentiometer

Constant resistance potentiometer

Voltmeter Connected to Battery

A potentiometer is a null measurement device for measuring potentials (voltages). A voltage

Source: Boundless. Null Measurements. Boundless Physics. Boundless, 13 Apr. 2016.

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