TABLETOP MODELS FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

GEOPHYSICS
Charles T. Young Department of Geological Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological
University, Houghton, MI 49931, (906) 487-2072, fax (906) 487-3371, ctyoung@mtu.ed

ABSTRACT current, in amps, circulated through the outer two

electrodes, and K is the geometry factor in meters
Tabletop models were created from common materials to computed from the electrode spacings. The equation is
demonstrate concepts in direct current electrical derived assuming that the subsurface is homogeneous,
resistivity, self potential and electromagnetic geo- in which case it would yield the true resistivity of the
physical methods. The models can be used as a subsurface. But, since the subsurface is rarely
laboratory exercise or as a classroom demonstration. homogeneous near the measurement station, the
Data profiles over the models are similar to those equation defines the apparent resistivity,ra , which
computed from equations and from field examples. The represents a weighted average of true resistivities of the
signals are generated with a function generator or subsurface. If the electrodes are spaced equally along a
battery and are measured with a digital multimeter. The line with separation (a) the array is known as a Wenner
experiment is greatly facilitated by using a multimeter array and K=2?a. In field settings, the metal electrodes
that can be connected to the serial port of a computer. The placed in the soil develop a potential due to local
tabletop models reinforce concepts learned in basic variations in the chemistry of the moisture in the soil. To
physics courses, introductory geology and geophysics minimize this potential, the current commonly used is a
courses, and in environmental engineering courses. square wave, and the polarity of the voltmeter is
switched accordingly.
Keywords: geophysics, DC resistivity, self-potential, In resistivity profiling, the electrodes are deployed
electromagnetic, table top model at a constant separation and the array is moved as a
whole along the survey line. The voltage is affected by
the material from the surface to infinite depth, but
INTRODUCTION shallow material has the most influence. Profiling can be
These tabletop models demonstrate concepts in direct used to find a buried geologic contact such as a fault
current electrical resistivity, self potential and between formations of differing resistivities. In
electromagnetic profiling. DC resistivity is commonly environmental work, profiling is used is to search for
used to find the depth to water table and bedrock, and to electrically conductive leachate from a leaking landfill.
locate buried geological contacts between formations of The method is used in archaeological work to locate
distinctive resistivities, and zones of contaminated, ancient buried foundations, moats, paths, roadways, etc.
conductive ground water. The self-potential method is It is important to select an electrode spacing that is
used to search for natural occurring voltages generated appropriate to the features of interest. The model
from conductive ore deposits, percolating groundwater experiment can demonstrate this by acquiring data over
and other causes. Electromagnetic methods are used in objects emplaced at various depths.
mining exploration to locate conductive ore bodies and In addition to constant separation profiling, data are
in environmental work to locate contaminated also obtained by vertical electric sounding, in which case
conductive ground water. The models use equipment the electrode separation is increased to find the variation
which is available in a school electronics shop or may be of resistivity with depth. In the last ten years profiling
purchased at an electronics store. and sounding have been combined by using apparatus
with 20 to 50 electrodes. The current and potential
DC RESISTIVITY PRINCIPLES measurements are switched among the electrodes to
produce a data cross section that reveals variations
Readers unfamiliar with geo-resistivity principles laterally and with depth (Berger, 1992, and http://www.
should read Boyd (2000), an online tutorial which uses agiusa.com/sections.shtml) Profiling and sounding can
minimal mathematics. More advanced discussions may be carried out with table top models but only the
be found in Berger (1992), Reynolds (1997) and Avants et constant separation profiling will be discussed here.
al. (1999). An essential summary follows. The DC
resistivity method uses four electrodes in a line on the DC RESISTIVITY MODEL
surface, as illustrated in Figure 1. Current is circulated
through the outer two electrodes, and the electrical Materials and Equipment - The measurements are
potential is measured at the inner two electrodes. The scaled-down versions of the procedure used outdoors
apparent resistivity,ra, of the earth, in ohm-m, is with commercial equipment. Tap water in a plastic tub
computed by ra=K (V/I), where V is the potential, in provides an ideal host medium. A four-terminal array is
volts, measured between the two inner electrodes, I is the deployed at the surface of the water. The geometric
factor is constant for the array. Only the voltage at the

594 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 50, n. 5, November, 2002, p. 594-601

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram for measurement of
earth apparent resistivity. The plane of the figure
represents a cross section of a uniform earth. Current
electrodes are shown at the earths surface, and are
connected to a battery and ammeter; potential
electrodes are shown at the earths surface, and are
connected to a voltmeter. The arrows in the Figure 2. Details of electrode array for the resistivity
subsurface indicate the direction of subsurface model.
current flow, each continuous line in the subsurface
is the location of a constant electrical voltage.
SAMPLE RESULTS FOR DC RESISTIVITY
PROFILING
potential electrodes is measured in the experiment; the Figure 4 presents a plot of the voltage measured for a
current is assumed to be constant. The current electrodes profile across an unwrapped brick with a water depth of
are energized by a function generator; profile data can be 15 mm to the top of the brick, with the unwrapped brick
obtained over a underwater body such as a brick. The and with the brick wrapped in aluminum for with a
brick can be wrapped in plastic wrap to make it resistive water depth of 30 mm to the top of the brick. For the
and wrapped in aluminum foil to make it conductive. shallow brick, the data show high values over the center
The electrodes are screws mounted 4 cm apart on an of the brick. In addition, there are two bumps in the data
insulating foam plastic bar, as shown in Figure 2. The that occur when the electrode array is over the edges of
foam is useful because it floats and tends to keep the the brick. If water depth over the brick were less, these
electrodes immersed in water at a constant depth. The bumps would be sharper. They are caused by current
signal source is a 1000 Hz AC signal from a function deflection at the edge of the brick. Examples of computed
generator. The theory of electrical resistivity apparent resistivities for profiles over narrow resistive
measurements assumes direct current, but in practice, bodies shows similar cusps, for example Figure 7.14 page
the use of low frequency AC is equivalent to using DC. 439 in Reynolds (1997). If the profile were conducted
The physical model is a plastic tub (dimensions 500 x with the electrode array parallel to the long axis of the
300 by 170 mm deep) filled about two-thirds full of tap brick, there should be no bumps. The data over the
water. The subsurface body for the resistivity model is a unwrapped brick at 30 mm depth show a one millivolt
common red brick (dimensions approximately 200 x 90 x positive anomaly over the brick, which is too small to
60 mm). The arrangement of the tub, brick and electrode show in the plot. The difference in the responses of the
array are shown in Figure 3. The finite size tank has some unwrapped brick at 15 and 30 mm illustrate that the
limitations; the ideal responses for resistivity and self constant spacing profile is much more sensitive to
potential assume that the target or source is immersed in shallow objects than to deeper objects. The strength of
a host medium which is an infinite half-space. If the tub is the response depends on the electrical conductivity of
placed on a surface that is not perfectly level, the the buried body. For the brick at 30 mm depth wrapped
variation in the depth of water may affect the in foil, the data show quite low voltages in the center of
background voltages from one end of the profile to the the profile. The strong negative response due to the
other. deeper brick wrapped in foil is primarily due to the fact
that the resistivity contrast between the water and the
aluminum foil is enormous. The foil is approximately 108

Young - Tabletop Models for Electrical and Electromagnetic Geophysics 595

Figure 3. Arrangement of apparatus for model
resistivity profiling.

more conductive than the brick. By comparison, the brick

without the foil is probably about 10 to 100 times more
resistive than the water.

SELF POTENTIAL PRINCIPLES

Self potential (SP), also known as spontaneous
polarization, is natural electrical potential caused by Figure 4. Profile plots of voltage versus distance for a
electrochemical (battery-like) reaction of buried brick in water. The depth to the top of the unwrapped
conductors with differences in soil moisture chemistry, brick is 15 and 30 mm, and the brick wrapped in
by seeping water, and by other causes (Reynolds 1997). aluminum foil is at a depth of 30 mm.
An SP field survey utilizes non-polarizing electrodes, a
digital voltmeter with a high input impedance, and a
long reel of single-conductor stranded wire. The field
survey is carried out by establishing a base location for
one electrode, moving the other electrode along survey
lines, and measuring the potential difference between
the electrodes with the voltmeter, as illustrated in Figure
5. A common conceptual model for self potential sources
is a buried vertical or inclined dipole; that is, a pair of
positive and negative current sources. To represent the
upper and lower edges of tabular deposits of metallic
minerals, the negative and positive current sources
would be horizontal lines at the top and bottom of the
body, respectively.

SELF POTENTIAL MODEL

Figure 5. Conceptual diagram for field measurement
Materials and Equipment - The self potential model of self potential.
consists of horizontal wires in the water tank. One wire is
shallow and one is deep, representing the top and
bottom of a tabular conductive body as shown in Figure SAMPLE RESULTS FOR SELF POTENTIAL
6. The wires are energized by a battery instead of natural PROFILING
chemical activity. The wires may be kept in place by any
non-conducting improvised holder which does not float Figure 7 contains two pots, one is a plot of voltage
such as vertical columns of plastecine modelling clay, obtained over the submerged pair of wires for one wire
drinking glasses, etc. Because the voltages in the model directly over the other and the other is a plot of data with
are higher than those in the field, it is not necessary to use for the wires offset. The depth to the top wire is 15 mm
non-polarizing electrodes; the multimeter probe tips can and the depth to the deeper wire is 60 mm. For the
serve as the electrodes. vertical pair, the voltage is primarily due to the top wire
and the plot is symmetrical. The response is similar to
theoretical computations presented in Figure 8.8 part A,

596 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 50, n. 5, November, 2002, p. 594-601

Figure 6. Arrangement of equipment for model self Figure 7. Profile plot of voltage versus distance for
potential profiling. subsurface self potential sources.

page 505 of Reynolds (1997). The voltage is asymmetrical electromagnetic terrain measurement and presents data
for the offset wires, with the steepest side in the direction from sites surveyed with DC resistivity and with
of the offset of the deeper wire. The response is similar to electromagnetic terrain conductivity. The point of the
theoretical computations presented in Figure 8.8 part B, comparison is that an electromagnetic terrain
page 505 of Reynolds (1997). conductivity survey is much quicker to carry out than the
resistivity survey but obtains very similar information.
ELECTROMAGNETICS MODEL
ELECTROMAGNETIC GEOPHYSICS
Electromagnetic measurements are widely used in PRINCIPLES
environmental work to locate electrically conductive
zones associated with leachate leaking from landfill, and The most common electromagnetic method is called
in mining to locate conductive ore bodies. The field horizontal loop electromagnetics (HLEM). A conceptual
measurement has been duplicated in a tabletop model diagram of HLEM being used to detect a subsurface
using small coils. The subsurface conductor is a sheet of conductor is shown in Figure 8. HLEM utilizes a
aluminum. The signal from the receiver is recorded by a transmitter loop energized with an alternating current.
digital voltmeter connected to a computer. Usually the loop is placed so that the axis is vertical (and
Measurements may be carried out across vertical and the plane of the loop is horizontal). The transmitter
dipping tabular bodies, and at varying heights above a creates an oscillating magnetic field which resembles a
horizontal conductor. small bar magnet held vertically in the center of the loop
To understand the experiment the students need at along the axis. The important difference between the
least an appreciation of the following physics concepts: field of the loop and the field of a magnet is that the field
of the loop is oscillating, and thus can be detected by an
electrical conductivity and resistivity induction coil. A second loop is used to receive the signal
the magnetic field around a loop of wire energized some distance away from the transmitter, also held with
with direct and alternating current its axis vertical (and the plane horizontal). In field
the ability of a coil of wire to detect an oscillating equipment, the distance between the transmitter and
magnetic field receiver is typically 4 to 100 meters. In the model the
measurement of amplitude and phase of an AC distance is 4.5 cm. The primary field from the transmitter
signal, and the addition and subtraction of sinusoids loop penetrates into the ground. In conductive ground, it
of the same frequency but differing magnitudes and creates eddy currents, creating a secondary field. The
phases (phasor arithmetic) receiver loop detects the sum of the primary and the
the concept of eddy currents induced in a conductor secondary fields. Data shown in mining geophysics
by an oscillating magnetic field literature show two components of received data, an
in-phase and a quadrature component (e.g. Beck,
An introduction to commerical electromagnetic terrain 1991), which are used in quantitative interpretation of
conductivity meters modeled here may be read online or data, but the model uses the received signal unresolved
downloaded at http://www.geonics.com/lit.html into components. When data are acquired along a
(from McNeil, 1980). The paper presents principles of profile, a narrow vertical conductor produces a

Young - Tabletop Models for Electrical and Electromagnetic Geophysics 597

 Figure 9. Detail of transmitter and receiver coil
mounting.

Figure 8. Conceptual diagram of transmitter and receiver

loops, primary field, eddy currents, and secondary field.
From Grant and West (1965).

characteristic anomaly shaped like a smoothed, stretched

out letter M (Figure 7.21 in Beck (1991) and Strangway
(1966), and in model data shown later). Physical
arguments for the shape of the anomaly are given in
Figure 7.22 of Beck (1991). When the apparatus
encounters a broad moderately conducting zone, such as
a plume of conductive contaminants leaking from a
landfill, the response is mainly on the quadrature Figure 10. Suggested mounting of conductors.
channel (McNeil, 1980).
Some commercial electromagnetic terrain generator is connected to an optional step-down audio
conductivity instruments which are manufactured output transformer, and in turn to the transmitter coil.
primarily for the environmental market convert the The output of the pickup coil can be viewed on a digital
quadrature channel signal to apparent conductivity, voltmeter or an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope allows
which is displayed on the operating console or recorded visualization of the phase shift in the waveform, but the
on a digital data logger. This electromagnetic terrain digital voltmeter is quicker and easier to read.
conductivity measurement is probably the single most There are two essential demonstrations or ex-
commonly used geophysical tool for environmental site periments with the apparatus: The response of a buried
characterization over the past 20 years. The reason it is so horizontal conductor as a function of the height of the
popular is that the measurement is fast and simple and coils above the conductor like Figures 5 and 6 in McNeil
the instrument manufacturers have promoted their (1980), and the response of a vertical or dipping
equipment effectively with case studies and notes. conductor as a function of horizontal coil position., like
figures in Strangway (1966).
MODEL TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
RESPONSE TO A VERTICAL OR DIPPING
The transmitter coil is 28 AWG solid enameled copper SHEET
wire wound on a plastic sewing machine bobbin, and the
receiver is an induction coil sold for recording telephone The physical model - The conductive target for the coils
conversations. Both coils are hot-glued with 45 mm is a scrap piece of aluminum sheet approximately 6 by
between centers on a thin scrap of plastic or perforated 230 by 150 mm. The aluminum sheet can be mounted
board of approximate dimensions 3 cm by 10 cm by 2 inside a inverted shallow plywood box or plastic tub, as
mm, as shown in Figure 2. The transmitter is energized suggested in Figure 10, and may be attached to wooden
by a 1000 Hz sine wave. This signal from a function blocks by duct tape. A grid or traverse lines may be

598 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 50, n. 5, November, 2002, p. 594-601

Figure 11. Top: Data over vertical and dipping
conductor as a function of horizontal coil location.
The data were originally recorded in units of
millivolts but have been converted to percent of the
primary signal. Bottom: The configuration of the
subsurface conductor.

marked on the outside of the top of the box to guide data

acquisition.
Figure 12. top: Conceptual oscilloscope display
Signal detection and recording - A digital multimeter middle: Data over horizontal sheet conductor as a
is used to measure the output of the pickup coils to function of coil height with the coils axis horizontal.
acquire data along a profile over the model. To produce The coil height was originally measured in
the plots shown here, data were acquired with the millimeters but has been normalized by dividing by
voltmeter attached to a computer. The data were written the coil spacing. bottom: Definition of coil
to a text file, then the file was read into a spread sheet, configurations. (Side view).
and a distances were added. The signal voltage was
converted to percent of the primary signal as follows:
Percent of primary field = 100*(signal along profile - the dipping conductor, the profile data are asymmetrical
primary signal)/primary signal with the bigger shoulder in the direction of the dip. These
The primary signal is the coil voltage when it is far plots are essentially identical to sample curves found in
away from the conductor. the references, except that the signal is not resolved into
The secondary signal is expressed as a percent of the in-phase and quadrature components. Small
primary field because it is common practice, and some irregularities in the data are probably due to 1. the fact
commercial HLEM geophysics equipment is calibrated that the signal strength is close to the limit of detection of
to read out in percent. In the tabletop experiment, the the digital voltmeter. The data are accurate to only two
primary signal was about 10 millivolts, and the signal significant figures, and 2. the difficulty of positioning the
when traversing the conductor changed by about plus or (hand held) coils at the correct position along the line.
minus 5 millivolts. Depending on time and student interest, the
The top panel of Figure 11 shows the results of a experiment can be repeated for coils traversing the edge
profile over the aluminum sheet positioned vertically, of a horizontal aluminum sheet.
and dipping at 45 degrees. The bottom panel shows the
subsurface configurations of the conductor. Note that for

Young - Tabletop Models for Electrical and Electromagnetic Geophysics 599

RESPONSE TO A BROAD HORIZONTAL received signal becomes smaller, and returns to the same
CONDUCTOR amplitude as the primary field or less. With the coils
setting directly on the plate, the received signal is slightly
The purpose of this set of measurements is to visualize smaller than the primary signal alone.
the physical setting and response which produces curves The configuration of coils and conductor are shown
such as Figures 4, 5, and 6 in McNeil (1980). The in the bottom panel of Figure 12. The top panel is a
importance of the curves is that they illustrate the depth simulated oscilloscope display of the signals for various
sensitivity of the two coil configurations. A broad heights of the coils above the conductive plate. The
horizontal conductor may be encountered as a sequence of measurements is similar to that previously
contaminant plume in environmental work, or as described, except that the plate was horizontal and the
conductive overburden in mining exploration. coils were moved vertically, over a height from about 0 to
The aluminum sheet is placed flat on the table top. 60 mm above the plate. The data were processed as
The coils are held at heights above the sheet from zero to described earlier to yield percent of the primary field,
about 60 mm. Two sets of data are obtained, one set with resulting in the plots in the center panel of Figure 12.
the coil axes vertical, and the other with the coil axes These are essentially identical to Figure 5,6 and 7 in
horizontal. There is a possibility for confusion regarding McNeil, with the exception being that values could not
the nomenclature of these coil orientations. In the be obtained at zero height above the plate due to the
literature from Geonics , (McNeil, 1980) the finite thickness of the coils, and there is a small amount of
configuration with the coil axes vertical is termed noise in the data. The lessons to be learned from the
vertical dipole, in other literature, the same curves are:
configuration is termed horizontal loops, presumably
because the plane containing the coil windings is 1. Measurements made with the coil axes vertical have
horizontal for a large hoop-shaped coil. The Geonics their geatest sensitivity to conductive material at a
nomenclature is used here. depth of about 0.55 times the coil spacing (0.4 in
McNeil (1980) described the curves in his Figures 4, 5 McNeil (1980),
2. Measurements made with the coil axes horizontal have
and 6 as Relative response versus depth for vertical (or their greatest sensitivity to conductive material near
horizontal) dipoles. [The] plotted value represents the the surface,
relative contribution to Hs [the secondary magnetic field] 3. Both coil configurations are sensitive to conductive
from material in a very thin layer dz located at material over a range of depths.
normalized depth z. For the purpose of this set of
measurements the secondary field as percent of the The measurement should also be repeated over ferrous
primary field may be substituted for relative response. metal (e.g. a scrap of angle iron). The response is large
The normalization factor for the horizontal axis in the and the received signal is larger than primary signal
figures is the intercoil spacing, that is, the depth to the alone. The results could lead to a discussion about how to
thin plate divided by the coil spacing. In the model, the discriminate between ferrous and non-ferrous metal.
thin layer is a 6 mm thick plate of aluminum, and the This principle is used in metal detectors.
intercoil spacing is 4.5cm.
Some discussion with students is necessary to clarify CONCLUSIONS
that the signal received by the pickup coil is actually the
sum of both the primary signal from the transmitter coils Table top models have been described which
and the secondary signal that is created by eddy currents demonstrate electrical resistivity, self potential and
in the aluminum plate. The sum is not simply the sum of electromagnetic geophysics responses. The models are
the magnitude of the two signals, but is a sum of two made of simple materials and can be used to supplement
sinusoids with different phases. For the model, it is introductory classes in geology, mining, or
adequate to simply work with the magnitude of the total environmental studies. The results give data plots
received signal. similar to theoretical computations and field data. This
The coils should be held with their axes vertical, and approach should be useful in classes which cover
the received signal should be demonstrated at a great geophysical methods, but which may not have the
height above the conducting plate, in which case the opportunity for outdoor work. An electronic expanded
signal is only the primary signal, and at a range of version of this paper is available from the author which
heights, ending with the coils sitting directly on the plate. contains more detailed instructions for carrying out the
If a digital oscilloscope is used instead of a digital experiment and a list of materials.
voltmeter, the signal with the coils high above the plate
should be stored in memory for later comparison. It is AKNOWLEDGMENTS
quite evident in the demonstration that at an
intermediate height above the plate (5 to 10 cm) the The concept of the use of models to obtain characteristic
received signal is larger than the primary signal alone by response curves for electromagnetic prospecting is a
several percent. As the coils come closer to the plate, the classic subject which was well established at the time of
Strangway (1966). The authors interest in the subject

600 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 50, n. 5, November, 2002, p. 594-601

was stimulated by a attention-getting demonstration of a McNeill, J. D., 1980, Electromagnetic Terrain
model time domain electromagnetic transient system Conductivity Measurement at Low Induction
demonstrated in the convention booth of Numbers, Technical Note TN-6, Geonics Ltd., 1745
Electromagnetic Systems Inc, a commercial electro- Meyerside Drive, Ontario, Canada. Can be
magnetic geophysics service company, and by downloaded from http://www.geonics.com/
quantitative work by Clay et al (1974). lit.html.
Reynolds, J. M., 1997, An Introduction to Applied and
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Young - Tabletop Models for Electrical and Electromagnetic Geophysics 601