ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP) AND

SYLLABUS DESIGN
By: Mohammed Mizel Tahir

MA. ELT Methodology

Abstract
This research has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions
about ESP and examined issues in ESP syllabus design. The content of the
paper was determined by a need identified based on my experience as an
ESL instructor designing and delivering the content-based language program
- Language Preparation for the Cadets and Employment in the Iraqi College
of Police . These issues, where possible, have been supported by current and
pertinent academic literature. It is my sincerest hope that these observations
will lend insight into the challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP
syllabus developer.
Introduction

This research presents a theoretical overview of the important notion of

English for Special Purposes (ESP) as a learner-centered approach by defining
it first. Then, the survey describes ESPs origins, key notions and
characteristics, and relatable types. This description is followed by a discussion
of the characteristics of ESP courses, their benefits, and procedural parameters.
Next, the research discusses the notion and types of needs analysis in relation
to ESP and syllabus design. The research then describes the requirements of
courses designed in accordance with the various provisions of ESP, and offers
a survey of the related previous studies in Iraq, and offers a survey of the
related studies in Iraq.
ESP: Definition
By the term English for Specific (or Special, Specified, Specifiable)
Purposes is meant that type of language learning which has its focus on all
aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of human activity (Wright,

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1992: 3). In other words, it is a way of teaching/learning English for specialized
subjects with some specific vocational and educational purposes in mind. In
ESP syllabus, the teaching content is geared to the special language 'repertoire'
pertaining to the specialized aims that are required of the learners.
ESP is a relatively new discipline within Applied Linguistics that bids a
new learner-centered approach to English language teaching whose
methodology is based on the specific needs of the learner. Kennedy and
Bolitho (1984: 3) point out that ESP is based on an investigation of the
purposes of the learner and the set of communicative needs arising from these
purposes.

ESP is contrasted with EGP, or English for General Purposes. If English

is taught as a second language along with other subjects for educational
purposes as some useful subject to the learners in the future, then this is EGP.
In this type of learning, there is generally no immediate requirement for the
learners to use English for any real communicative purposes. In contrast, if
English is taught for specialized learners with some specific vocational and
educational purpose in mind, then this is ESP. ESP is learning and learner
oriented, with a conception and preference for communicative competence.
Defined to meet the specific needs of the learners, ESP makes use of
methodology and the activities of the discipline it serves by focusing on the
language appropriate to these activities. As a specific approach to language
teaching, ESP requires that all decisions as to content and method be based on
the learners reason for learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19).

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The Meaning of the Word Special in ESP
One simple clarification requires to be made here about the two entirely
different notions of special language and specialized aim. It has been noted
that confusion arises over these two notions. Mackay and Mountford (1978)
explain the idea of a special language in the following manner:

The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of

special language is as a restricted repertoire of words and
expressions selected from the whole language because that
restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined
context, task, or vocation (ibid. 4).
In order to rule out the unintended interpretation of the term special to
mean unique, many researchers prefer to replace it with the term specific or
specifiable. The implication is that the terms special, specific, or specifiable
are not intended to qualify the language, but to highlight the purpose of
studying it. It specifies the focus on certain features of the language that are
immediately associated with the restricted use of the target language which is
required by the learner in order to achieve a particular purpose (Munby, 1978:
2).
As mentioned above, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for
which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language they
learn. Consequently, the focus of the word special in ESP ought to be
on the purpose for which learners learn and not on the specific jargon
or registers they learn.
The notion of a language with singular characteristics began to take root
in the sixties and the early seventies, being associated with the pioneering
research of Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens (1964). Then, many distinguished
linguists subscribed to the approach above, among them Widdowson (1983:
10) who states that ESP is simply a matter of describing a particular area of
language and then using this description as a course specification to impart to
learners the necessary restricted competence with this particular area.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19) second this by insisting that ESP must be
seen as an approach, not a product.

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ESP as a Learner-Centered Approach
It is obvious from above that ESP is a new, learner-centered
approach. This notion requires further specification, at least in its
general sense. A learner-centered approach to learning and teaching
sees learning as the active construction of meaning, and teaching as
the act of guiding, scaffolding and facilitating learning. This approach
considers knowledge as being an ever-changing process, which is
built upon the learners prior experience (Hutchinson and Waters,
1987: 59f).
A learner-centered approach provides opportunities for students
to practice critical and creative thinking, proble m solving, and decision
making. This involves recall, application, analysis, synthesis, prediction
and evaluation; all of which contribute to the development and
enhancement of conceptual understandings. A learner-centered
approach also encourages students to demonstrate ownership of their
ideas and to reflect on and monitor their thinking as they make
decisions and take action.
In the key learning area of EFL, learning experiences should be
adjusted as required to meet the abilities, needs, and interests of
individuals and groups of students. This may mean providing
different amounts of time, space or materials, and offering a range of
levels and types of support to students. Students may engage in
experiences in different ways, or make choices from a range of
options so that learning is relevant and meaningful. This approach
can involve both students and teachers in the design of learning and
assessment opportunities, and requires negotiation and flexibility
(Wajnryb, 1992: 124).
It has been stated that ESP is an approach to language teaching
in which all decisions as to syllabus content and method are based on
the learners reasons for learning. Though the needs for using
English are varied, all learners need to use a specific area of the
English language in the shortest term possible. After identifying a
target situation - the need for a specific segment at school - the
learners' needs have to be identified; and their current situation and

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 the target situation must also be analyzed. Additionally, learners
potentials require to be identified, as well as the skills and knowledge
needed to attain the target situation without losing sight of such
constraints as aptitude, time, and technical resources. With these data
in mind, a course is designed and the materials are then chosen and
organized. Finally, evaluation is a very important tool so that learning
strategies can be redefined and results improved.
The Origins of ESP
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 5), there are three common
reasons to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of New World, a revolution
in linguistics, and focus on the learner. The co-authors note that two key
historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World
War brought with it an "age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in
scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for various
reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-war
world, the role [of international language] fell to English" (ibid. 6). Second, the
Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing
into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.
The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the
language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English
had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes,
needs and demands of people other than language teachers (ibid. 7) .

The other key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the

emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional
linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary
pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language
is used in real communication. One significant discovery was in the
ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the
particular context in which English is used, the variant of English
will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in
different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet
the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in
the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to

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 describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and
Waters (1987), Swales (1980), and Selinker and Tarone (1981) are
identified among the few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.
The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 18-9) cite as having
influenced the emergence of ESP is related to the psychology of
learning. Rather than simply focusing upon the method of language
delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners
acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired.
Learners were seen to employ different learning strategies, use
different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be
motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the
learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed
to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to
better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this
thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is both learner-
centered and learning-centered. In this way, teachers should
follow students target situation needs and learning needs by focusing
on the systems, procedures, and products that are at the heart of
what the students do in English and to be able to deduce from this
knowledge the language needs of each type of learners (Ellis and
Johnson, 1994: 26).
The discussion above is meant to clarify the fact that ESP should
not be considered as a product of language analysis; rather, it should
be seen as an approximation to meet the needs of the learners. In
this respect, Widdowson (1983: 10) affirms that ESP is simply of
matter of describing a particular area of language and then using this
description as a course specification to impart to learners the
necessary restricted competence with this particular area.
Key Notions of ESP
The following sections present the three key issues of: i) the distinction
between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, ii) types of ESP, and
iii) the characteristics of ESP courses. Then the discussion describes the
benefits of ESP courses.

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 Types of ESP
Different taxonomies of ESP are offered by different educationalists. For
example, David Carver (1983: 20f) identifies three types of ESP :
1. English as a restricted language;
2. English for academic and occupational purposes;
3. English with specific topics .
The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of
English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978: 4-5) clearly
illustrate the difference between restricted language and language with this
statement:

... The language of international air-traffic control

could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the
repertoire required by the controller is strictly
limited and can be accurately determined
situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a
dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such
restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a
tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a
restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to
communicate effectively in novel situation, or in
contexts outside the vocational environment. (ibid.)
The second type of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English
for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT'
(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three
branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English
for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies
(ESS) (See figure 1 on page sixteen). Each of these subject areas is
further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example
of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an
example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.

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 Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that there is not a clear-cut
distinction between EAP and EOP since people can work and study
simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for
immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes
up, or returns to, a job (ibid. 16). Perhaps this explains Carver's rationale for
categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP. It appears that Carver
is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same:
employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means
taken to achieve the end is very different indeed. One can contend that EAP
and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins' (1979) notions of
cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills (See 2.4.2).
The third and final type of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English with
specific topics. Carver notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from
purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated
future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for
postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign
institutions. However, one can argue that this is not a separate type of ESP.
Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus on
situational language. This situational language has been determined based on
the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in
target workplace settings.

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Is ESP different to General English?

If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In
fact, one may ask 'What is the difference between the ESP and General English
approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply, "in theory
nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the
last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses,
while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English,
would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually
achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the
importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully
about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this
demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching
in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and
ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.

Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as

using an ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their
own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication, it is the
majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest from
that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the
field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even
conducting students' needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of
the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on
personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult
specialist texts to verify their contents.

ESP Course Overview and Objectives:

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered
approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the
needs of (mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in
their specific fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and
academic learning. This course is recommended for graduate students and
foreign and second language professionals who wish to learn how to design
ESP courses and programs in an area of specialization such as English for

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business, for Civil Engineering, for Academic Purposes, and for health service
purposes. In addition, they are introduced to ESP instructional strategies,
materials adaptation and development, and evaluation.

Its objectives include:

To develop an understanding about the factors that led to the emergence

of ESP and the forces, both theoretical and applied, that have shaped its
subsequent development.
To assist students develop needs assessments and genre analyses for
specific groups of learners.
To provide guidelines to adapt or create authentic ESP materials in a
chosen professional or occupational area and to critically evaluate
currently available materials, including technology-based ones.
To become knowledgeable about assessment procedures appropriate for
ESP and apply this knowledge in developing course and lesson
evaluation plans in their professional or occupational area.
To assist students in preparing a syllabus, lesson and assessment plan
based upon their needs assessments and genre analyses.
Characteristics of ESP Courses
Carver (1983) states that there are three features common to ESP courses:
a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction.
If one accepts Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at
an intermediate or advanced level, then the use of authentic learning materials
is entirely feasible. Indeed, the use of authentic content materials, modified or
unmodified in form, is one feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study
and research tasks.
Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative
tasks required of the target setting. Carver (1983: 101) cites student simulation
of a conference, involving the preparation of papers, reading, note taking, and
writing. At Algonquin College, English for business courses have involved
students in the design and presentation of a unique business venture, including
market research, pamphlets and logo creation. The students have presented all
final products to invited ESL classes during a poster presentation session. For

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the Health Science program, students attended a seminar on improving the
listening skills. They practiced listening skills, such as listening with empathy,
and then employed their newly acquired skills during a fieldtrip to a local
community centre where they were partnered up with English-speaking
residents. A large component of the student evaluation was based on an
independent study assignment in which the learners were required to
investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to
conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet.

Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the ... point of

including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users (Carver,
1983: 134). In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a certain
degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carver
(1983: ibid.) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to
teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. As
for the question of whether or not it is necessary to teach high-ability learners -
such as those enrolled in the health science program - about learning strategies,
the answer is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how to
access information in a new culture.

Benefits of ESP
On the basis of what has been said before, one is now in a position to
state the benefits of ESP. Basically; these are threefold in that they help achieve
speed, efficiency, and effectiveness in learning. As far as learning speed is
concerned, ESP results in faster acquisition of required linguistic items. This is
because it follows the pattern of the native speakers acquisition of language for
specific purposes, in which speakers learn what they need, when they need it, in
authentic, content-based contexts. ESP does not only follow this pattern, but
also improves upon it by providing an opportunity to learn in an accelerated,
intensive context (Wright, 1992: 5).
As for learning efficiency, on an ESP course, the trainees make the
maximal use of their learning resources, all of which are brought to bear on
acquiring specific, pre-identified linguistic items and skills. Obviously, the needs
analysis is of vital importance here since it enables trainers to determine the
specific requirements of trainees (ibid.).
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 Thirdly, there is learning effectiveness. On completion of an ESP
course, the trainees are ready to use language appropriately and correctly in job
related tasks, which have been identified prior to the course by means of a
needs analysis. Accordingly, English becomes usable immediately in the
employment context. In addition, the trainees are prepared for further job-
related training in English. Such preparation will result in greater academic
performance since no time is wasted in acquiring the necessary language (ibid.).

The benefits of ESP can be brought out further by contrasting ESP

courses with General English courses. Such courses deal with many different
topics, necessarily at a superficial level. In addition, they deal with many
different skills, usually attempting to give equal treatment to each.

Due to the general nature of these courses, they can be extremely useful,
which is why they comprise the vast majority of English courses. However, for
students with specific learning needs, they are seriously lacking because their
scope is too wide. The trainees learn many irrelevant things. Relevant material,
if it is included at all, is treated in insufficient depth. These deficiencies cause
the acquisition of the required linguistic items to be slow and minimal, and
upon the completion of the course, the trainees are not prepared to function
effectively in the required employment contexts.

Needs Analysis
Needs analysis involves the assessment of the needs for which a
learner or group of learners may require language. As a research area,
it started in the early 1970s along with the development of the
communicative approach, and has gone through substantial
developments in the 1970s and 1980s owing much to the work done
by Richterich (1972) and Munby (1978). Proponents of the
communicative approach argued that the selection of instructional
materials should be based on a systematic analysis of the learners
needs for the target language.
All authors seem to agree that it is essential to distinguish between
needs, wants and lacks. Needs are those skills which a learner perceives as
being relevant to him; wants are a subset of needs, those which a learner puts at
a high priority given the time available; and the lack is the difference a learner
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perceives between his present competence in a particular skill and the
competence he wishes to achieve (Dickinson, 1991: 91).
Some authors distinguish between the terms needs analysis and
needs assessment - which are often used interchangeably - claiming
that assessment involves obtaining data, whereas analysis involves
assigning value to those data (Graves, 1996: 12).
The rationale behind needs analysis is pretty straightforward: people
learn a foreign language for different purposes and need it to do
different things. The type of language varies along with the learners
needs for the language. So, to design an effective language course, it
is critical to know why a learner decides to study a second language
and under what circumstances she or he is going to use it.
Needs analysis involves compiling information both on the
individual or groups of individuals who are to learn a language and
on the use which they are expected to make of it when they have
learned it (Richterich, 1983: 2). A variety of data collecting methods
are used in needs analysis such as questionnaires, interviews, and
observations.
Needs Analysis: Munbys Model (1978)
Initial "objective" needs analyses focused on identifying learners' real
world communicative requirements so that courses could be designed reflecting
these and preparing users for their intended use of the target language (TL).
Munby's model (1978) is the most well-known of this type to the effect that it
has become "an unavoidable reference point"(Tudor, 1996: 66). It contained
nine components, relating to the learners' communicative requirements
(participant, purposive domain, setting, interaction, instrumentality, dialect,
target level, communicative event, and communicative key). A simplified view
of the relevant part of the model is shown in Figure 2.

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 Figure 3: Munby's Model of Needs Analysis (1978)

At the heart of the model is the Communicative Needs Processor (C. N. P.).
Information about the learner, the participant, is fed into the C. N. P. which
consists of a number of categories. After these categories have been worked
through, we finish up with a profile of needs - a description of what the learner
will be expected to do with the language at the end of the course. The
following are the relevant categories (Munby, 1978, 154-167):

0. Participant - the learners.

Give details of the participants identity and language as follows:

0.1 Identity

0.1.1 Age (specify either exactly or in broad terms)

0.1.2 Sex

0.1.3 Nationality

0.1.4 Place of residence

0.2 Language

0.2.1 Mother tongue

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0.2.2 Target language

0.2.3 Present level/command of the target language:

Zero/false beginner /elementary/ lower intermediate/upper intermediate

/advanced

0.2.4 Other language(s) known

0.2.5 Extent of command of other languages

1. Purposive Domain - this category establishes the type of ESP, for what
purpose.

1.1 ESP classification

Is the purpose for which English is required occupational or educational?

e.g. Educational: social science, communications studies.

1.1.1 If occupational,
will it be pre- experience or post- experience ESP?

1.1.2 If educational, will be discipline-based or school subject ESP?

1.1.2.1 If discipline-based, will it be pre-study or in-study ESP?

1.1.2.2 If school subject, will it be independent or integrated ESP?

1.2 Occupational purpose

1.2.1 Specific occupation

State the occupation for which English is required.

1.2.2 Central duty

Identify the central duty of that occupation (if it different from 1.2.1).

1.2.3 Other duties

Identify other known duties, if any, for which English is needed.

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1.2.4 Occupational classification

Using the framework provided by Munby, for more details see inventories and
schedules in (Munby, 1978, 154-167),classify the occupation by matching, as
appropriate, the type worker on the vertical axis with the field of work on the
horizontal axis (e.g. technical officer in industry).

1.3 Educational purposes

1.3.1 Specific discipline

State the specific discipline or subject for which English is required.

1.3.2 Central area of study

Identify the central area of study in which the participants will be engaged.

1.3.3 Academic discipline classification

Select, as appropriate, from the following: mathematic/physical

science/humanities/social science/biological
science/medicine/engineering/education.

2. Setting - the time and place.

2.1 Physical setting: spatial

2.1.1 Location

2.1.1.1 Country

In which country does the participant need to use English?

2.1.1.2 Town

In which town does the participant need to use English?

2.1.1.3 En route

If English is required while en route, specify the appropriate setting:

In flight/on board ship/in train/on bus/in car.

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2.1.2 Place of work (occupational)

In which occupational premise will the participant need English?

Specify, as appropriate, from the following list, supplying the item where
necessary (hotel, restaurant, caf, department store, shop, market, factory,
workshop, power station, laboratory, company office, government office,
school, university, research institute, conference room, hospital, law court,
police institutions, bank.

2.1.3 Place of study and study setting

Give the name and type of the educational institution where the participant
needs English and academic study setting is English required:

e.g. English University - lecture rooms, tutorials, seminars, library, laboratories,

art rooms, examinations.
2.2 Physical setting: temporal

2.2.1 Point of time

Where is English required most?

2.2.2 Duration

For approximately how many hours per day/week is English required?

2.2.3 Frequency

Is English required regularly/often/occupationally/seldom?

3. Interaction - the roles in which the participants will find themselves in

terms of status, age group, social relationships etc.

3.1 Position

State the participants position (i.e. in which he enacts a particular role)

3.2 Role-set

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Identify the target language role-set (i.e. the different people with whom he will
interact in English, by virtue of his `position`), taking account of the physical
setting, especially location and place of work/study.

3.3 Role-set identity

Identity particulars for each member/group of the target language role-set in

terms of the following:

Number

Select as appropriate from: individual/small group/large group/mass

Age group

Select as appropriate, modifying for degree or quantity if necessary, from:

elderly/adult/adolescent /child/ mixed

3.3.3 Sex

State: male/female/mixed, modifying if necessary (e.g. mostly male)

Nationality

State nationality, modifying if necessary (e.g. mainly British)

3.4 Social relationships

e.g. role: student

relationships: student-student, student-lecturer/tutor/technician

4. Instrumentality

a. medium of communication.

e.g. spoken - receptive and productive

Written - receptive and productive.

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b. channel of communication.

e.g. face to face, print

5. Dialect taking account the relevant variables, what dialects of English are
required by the participant?

e.g. Standard British accents and dialects.

6. Target level - level of linguistic proficiency, different skills may be different.

e.g. ELTS 7 for Law, JMB grade 3 etc.

7. Communicative event - what the learner will have to do with English.

e.g. attend lectures, take part in seminars, etc

8. Communicative key - the manner in which communication needs to be

carried out.

e.g. Formal/informal plus range of attitudes.

9. Profile - what the student needs to be able to do.

The model implies that a needs analysis should progress from an

identification of learners' target language needs, to an analysis of the
communicative activities they will need to perform in order to
achieve those goals, and the linguistic forms by which these activities
will be realized (Tudor, 1996: 72).
Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design
It has been shown that learners have their own, internal needs in
addition to the external demands imposed by the teaching institutions, which
complicate the issue of interrelated needs, wants and lacks. Teachers are not
authorized to prolong or shorten the scheduled courses, but they can foster

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their students' language skills by employing more effective techniques and
encouraging learners to plan their learning by setting realistic aims.
For successful ESP learning, the incorporation of learners future needs
what is known as real world needs and the development of learner ability
to transfer language knowledge to novel situations, together with the usage of
acquired skills in real life communication are considered to be vital parts of
ESP syllabus. This is why needs analysis has focused for the last thirty years on
learners communicative needs. It has generally been accepted that an initial
pre-course needs analysis can aim at establishing the structure and content of a
language course.

On the whole, needs analysis is a complex process which is usually

followed by syllabus design, selection of course materials, teaching/learning a
course, and its evaluation. Learners often find it difficult to define what
language needs they have and cannot distinguish between needs, wants and
lacks. Although these three concepts are interrelated, it is important for
teachers to be aware of their impetus on successful learning. Another stimulus
for successful learning is adjusting the course to the changes in learners needs.
This implies the significance of ongoing needs analysis.
An initial pre-course needs analysis is a conventional classroom
approach to start teaching a new language course to novice learners. The
common word need describes an item or an ability which is important to a
person, but which he does not have or is not very good at. In a linguistic
context, different authors define the term needs diversely, and thus different
meanings are implied. If needs are understood as specific requirements for the
foreign language, then the vast majority of learners do not have any. They are
deemed to require what the syllabus offers them, and the syllabus is likely to be
closely related to the examination, which is a highly realistic need for the
majority of learners (Dickinson, 1991: 88).
The conceptions of target needs and learning needs have been
widely used in the literature. Target needs are understood as what the learner
needs to do in the target situation; whereas learning needs are what the learner
needs to do in order to learn. The analysis of target needs involves identifying
the linguistic features of the target situation or learners necessities (what is

117
English needed for), lacks (what learner does not know), and wants (what
learner feels s/he needs) (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987: 55).
Obviously, the analysis of target situation needs is concerned with the
important area of language use, while learning needs cover circumstances of
language learning, i.e. why learners take course optional or compulsory, what
they seek to achieve, what their attitude towards the course, etc. (ibid. 62).
Contemporary attitudes to needs analysis pose the requirements that it
must be interrelated with course design, materials, teaching/learning,
assessment /evaluation and on-going (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998: 121).
Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998: 125) offer a comprehensive description of
needs analysis as presented in the following areas:

A. target situation analysis & objective needs

B. wants, means, subjective needs
C. present situation analysis
D. learners lacks
E. learning needs
F. linguistic and discourse analysis
G. what is wanted from the course
H. means analysis
According to Dudley-Evans & St. John, the interpretation of these
points can be outlined as follows:

A includes professional information about learners: what

they will be using English for; B includes personal
information about learners: attitude to English, previous
experiences. C includes English language information
about learners: their current skills and experiences in
language use; D defines the gap between C and A; E
includes language learning information: effective ways of
learning the skills and the language; H includes

118
 information about the environment in which the course
will be run. (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998: 125)
The main data collection methods for needs analysis are questionnaires,
discussions, interviews, observations, and assessments (ibid. 132). In other
words, the main sources for needs analysis are the learners themselves.
However, relevant documentation and information received from colleagues
are also important.
Questionnaires are thought to be the least consuming ways of collecting
information, and this is why learners needs are usually specified through
questionnaires which enable researchers to determine long-term aims and
short-term objectives. Questionnaires can generally be used for quantitative
presentation of collected data. Small amount of data may be easily analyzed by
a simple tally system, while large scale needs analysis requires statistical
approach and use of computer software.
Another important aspect of needs analysis is concerned with learning
styles and strategies. A learner-centered approach is considered to be a
cornerstone for successful learning. The current trend in teaching is to take into
account learners wants: they might want or need to carry out a variety of
communicative tasks in the target language. For this reason, information on the
ways in which learners prefer to learn must be obtained through the needs
analysis.

Initially obtained data on needs analysis allow researchers to set course

objectives and determine scientific approach to teaching. Ongoing needs
analysis allows to revise objectives and to modify teaching techniques and
materials. In ongoing needs analysis the conclusions drawn in the initial analysis
have to be constantly checked and re-assessed (ibid. 140).

Consequently, a final evaluation allows the placing of future activities. At

this stage, learners must be given feedback which is good for Public Relations
and for the quantity and quality of future cooperation (ibid. 139).

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ESP Syllabus Design
Generally seen as indispensable units of second language programmes,
institutional curricula and syllabi can take various forms, represent various
theories of learning, and be realized in various ways. Before reviewing
language-syllabus design, it is necessary to address the confusion in the literature
between the terms 'curriculum' and 'syllabus', since these can at times be very
close in meaning, depending on the context in which they are used (Nunan,
1988: 3).
Taba (1962) makes a distinction between goals, aims and objectives.
Goals are very general and broad. Aims are more specific, and are long-termed.
These are what Bell (1981: 50) refers to as 'key objectives'. Conventionally,
objectives are the short-to-medium-term goals that are 'critical' or have 'specific'
objectives. Both aims and objectives are generally regarded as important
because, without aims to provide direction, it is possible to become lost in the
attempt to satisfy a range of short term objectives. Hooper (1971: 202) neatly
summarizes the distinction between aims through the following analogy: The
satisfaction of hunger may be an aim. A plate of steak might be the correlated
objective. A similar distinction is drawn by Widdowson (1983: 7) in his
distinction of EGP and ESP when he contrasts them in terms of the place of
aims in type of course.
ESP specification of objectives: training: development of

Equivalent to aims restricted competence

EGP specification of objectives: education: development

Leads to aims of general capacity

By 'objectives', Widdowson means 'the pedagogic intentions of a
particular course of study to be achieved within the period of that course, which
is measurable by some assessment device at the end of the course. By 'aims' he
means 'the purposes to which learning will be put after the end of the course
(Widdowson, 1983: 6-7).

120
 START Selection of
learning
Statemen experience
t of
general Organizatio
Diagnosis
goals n of
of needs learning
experience
Evaluation
Formulation
of Objective
Satisfactor Yes

Selection of y Formulate
No
content Detailed Procedures

Implement
Organizatio
n of content Procedures
End

Figure 4: Curriculum development Model,Taba (1962)

The Terms: Curriculum and Syllabus

The concept of 'curriculum' has been important in second-language
programmes throughout the history of EFL/ESL, though 'curriculum theory' as
a field of educational studies is fairly new (Stern, 1983: 434). As with other
generally accepted and widely-used terms (e.g. 'autonomy', 'communicative'),
there is little general agreement on their actual form and function, though
interpretations do fall into two main camps. In the first of these, the term
'curriculum' refers to the substance of a study-programme of an educational
system. Stenhouse (1975: 17) describes curriculum as "an attempt to
communicate the essential properties and features of an educational proposal in
such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective
translation into practice". Allen (1984) proposes:

121
 ... [a] clear distinction, similar to that which has been
prevalent in Europe, the curriculum being concerned with
planning, implementation, evaluation, management, and
administration of education programmes, and the syllabus
focusing more narrowly on the selection and grading of
content. (ibid. 61)
In the second (and more recent) meaning, 'curriculum' includes the entire
teaching/learning process, including materials, equipment, examinations, and
the training of teachers. In this view, curriculum is concerned with what can
and should be taught, to whom, when, and how. Nunan (1988: 14) adds to his
curriculum those elements that are designated by the term syllabus, along with
considerations of methodology and evaluation. Similarly, White (1988: 19) sees
curriculum to be concerned with objectives and methods as well as content.
Such a definition involves consideration of the philosophical, social and
administrative factors of a Programme.
Definitions of 'syllabus' vary between very general definitions that are
similar to some of the definitions of 'curriculum' already mentioned to very
specific ones. One of the first types of definitions is that of Breen's who sees in
a syllabus:

the meeting point of a perspective upon language itself, upon

using language, and upon teaching and learning which is a
contemporary and commonly accepted interpretation of the
harmonious links between theory, research, and classroom practice.
(Breen, 1987: 83)
On the opposite pole is Prabhu's more specific definition of
syllabus as the "specification of what is to be learnt" (1987: 89).
Likewise, for Allen, the syllabus is "that subpart of curriculum which is
concerned with a specification of what units will be taught" (Allen,
1984: 61), whereas for Yalden (1987: 26), it is primarily a teacher's
statement about objectives and content. Nunan (1988: 6) takes a wider,
non-specific view of "a framework within which activities can be
carried out: a teaching device to facilitate learning", and Prabhu (1987:

122
86) proposes "a form of support for the teaching activity that is
planned in the classroom and a form of guidance in the construction of
appropriate teaching materials". In contrast, Kumaravadivelu (1994: 72)
sees the syllabus as "a pre-planned, pre-ordained, pre-sequenced
inventory of linguistic specifications imposed in most cases on teachers
and learners", and claims that this is a "widely recognized" perspective.

Since different educational theories and approaches differ on syllabus

goals and functions, a universal definition for "syllabus" seems impractical.
What can be said is that syllabi tend to be representations, reflecting the
originator's ideas about language learning: every syllabus is a particular
representation of knowledge and capabilities. And this representation will be
shaped by the designer's views concerning the nature of language, how the
language may be most appropriately taught or presented to learners, and how
the language may be productively worked upon during learning (Breen, 1987a:
83). As far as the researcher is concerned, the two terms under discussion will
be used interchangeably since it is always the case that when one talks about a
curriculum the suggestion is that one is also talking about syllabus (Richards et
al, 1992: 94).
Regardless of such diversity, there appears to be a consensus as to the
general characteristics of curriculum, along the following dimensions:
1. Curriculum specifies the work of a particular department in a
college or school, organized in subsections, defining the work of a
particular group or class.

2. It is linked to time, specifying a starting point and an ultimate goal.

3. It specifies some kind of sequencing either in accordance with a
theory of language learning, or with the structure of specifiable
material relatable to language acquisition.
4. The mode of sequencing above is constrained by administrative
needs such as materials.
1. As a document of administrative convenience, it is both
negotiable and adjustable.

123
 2. It can only specify what is taught, rather than organizing what is
learnt.
3. As a public document, it is an expression of accountability
(Brumfit, 1984 cited in White, 1988: 3).

Breen sees every syllabus to be subject to six universal requirements,

which require the designer to: i) focus upon; ii) select; iii) subdivide; and iv)
sequence the appropriate outcome of language learning (Breen, 1987: 83):

1. provision of an accessible framework of required knowledge and

skills;
2. provision of continuity for its users;
3. ability to give a retrospective account of what has been achieved;
4. evaluation - provision of accountability to colleagues, to learners, and
to the wider institution and society;
5. precision of purpose, so that it may be assessed for appropriateness
through implementation;
6. Sensitivity to the environment for which the plan is intended. (cf.
Breen, 1987: 82).

Generally speaking, ESP syllabus design should cover the three factors
of: i) language description, ii) learning theories, and iii) needs analysis:

124
Key Issues in ESP Syllabus Design
In this section, key issues in ESP syllabus design for ESL contexts are
examined. Cummins (1979) has theorized a dichotomy between Basic
Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency (CALP). The former refers to the language skills used in the
everyday informal language used with friends, family and co-workers. The latter
refers to a language proficiency required to make sense of academic language
and its use. Situations in which individuals use BICS are characterized by
contexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However, CALP use
occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues.
The first ability required in order to successfully communicate in an
occupational setting is the ability to use the particular jargon that is
characteristic of the specific occupational context. The second is the ability to
use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and
responding to memoranda. With the health science group, this was largely

125
related to understanding a new culture. The third is the ability to use the
language of everyday informal talk to communicate effectively, regardless of
occupational context. Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a
colleague or responding to an informal email message.
The task for the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities
are integrated into the syllabus. This is a difficult task due to the incredible
amount of research required.
Because ESP requires comprehensive needs analysis and because the
learning-centered syllabus is not static, it is impossible to expect that the
developer be in a position to identify the perfect balance of the abilities noted
above for any particular group of learners.

Conclusion

This research has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about
ESP and examined issues in ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper
was determined by a need identified based on my experience as an ESL
instructor designing and delivering the content-based language program -
Language Preparation for Employment in the Iraqi College of Police. The
discussion then expands to discuss latest studies of ESP in Iraq. These issues,
where possible, have been supported by current and pertinent academic
literature. It is my sincerest hope that these observations will lend insight into
the challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP curriculum instructor
and developer.
Language is an enormous and highly complex phenomenon and that is
why it is impossible for any individual to learn even his own language
completely. The way in which native speakers maximize their learning resources
to combat the problem of achieving competency in their own language is
simply to learn what aspects of language they need, when they need it. ESP, the
study of a particular aspect of language so as to be able to accomplish certain
tasks, is an attempt to mimic the native speaker's way of learning so as to
maximize learning resources. In the intensive, accelerated and subject specific

126
learning contexts of ESP courses, trainees can increase their learning speed,
efficiency and effectiveness.
However, the above benefits may only be derived if the ESP course is carried
out properly. There are significant drawbacks to using local language schools
and existing textbooks as sources of ESP. For the courses to be maximally
effective there must be close contact between companies and the ESP supplier.
Then, training needs can be assessed thoroughly and exactly, and programmes,
courses and practice materials can be designed accordingly. In addition,
progress can be assessed. The result is a smooth running, highly effective
mechanism for training which is suited directly to company needs (Wright,
1992: 8).

127
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