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Gender, orientalism and

representations of the Other in the
War on Terror
a
Maryam Khalid
a
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

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 Global Change, Peace & Security
Vol. 23, No. 1, February 2011, 15 29

Gender, orientalism and representations of the Other

in the War on Terror
Maryam Khalid

University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

After 9/11, images of the Middle Eastern or Muslim Other have been highly visible in the
Western world. Although published 30 years ago, Edward Saids Orientalism provides a
useful critical lens through which to examine how these images function in War on Terror
discourses. Feminist IR scholars have also highlighted the role gendered representations
play in War on Terror discourse, and orientalism as a tool of critical analysis must
account for this. Using a concept of gendered orientalism and applying it to three particu-
larly prominent images from the War on Terror, I illustrate how gendered and orientalist
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logics in official and unofficial War on Terror discourses construct masculinities and feminin-
ities according to race, manipulating and deploying representations of the Other to justify
military involvement in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Keywords: gender; orientalism; War on Terror; Afghanistan; Iraq; representations

Introduction
In the aftermath of 9/11, gendered and orientalist depictions of the Middle Eastern or Islamic
Other have been highly visible in the Western world in both official discourses and mainstream
media. In particular, US War on Terror discourses have legitimised and normalised assumptions
about gender and race. This article will develop a framework that deploys concepts of gendered
and orientalist power to decode dominant discourses surrounding three significant post-9/11 events.
During the course of the War on Terror, a range of binaries situating the West in opposition
to the East for example, good vs. evil, civilised vs. barbaric, rational vs. irrational, progress-
ive vs. backward have been invoked. These binaries are deployed in US War on Terror
discourse in ways that are gendered and orientalist, that is, through harnessing and manipulating
perceived differences in gender, gender roles, and sexuality, along racial lines. The power of
Western representations of the East was explored in detail in Edward Saids Orientalism,
and I draw on his work to uncover the power relationships that underscore representations of
the Other in the War on Terror.1
Orientalism as a form of critical analysis is key to understanding US War on Terror discourse,
as it deals with the relationship between depictions by Westerners of non-Western subjects, and
the material power relations that arise out of such depictions. Western constructs of Easterners as
other have been used to justify conquest and colonialism for over two centuries. These con-
structs have been both racialised and gendered and continue to function in contemporary
times. The basic tenets of Saids thesis remain relevant in the War on Terror context, and,
taking into account historical context and the importance of gender, I use orientalism as an

Email: maryam.khalid@student.unsw.edu.au
1 Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
ISSN 1478-1158 print/ISSN 1478-1166 online
# 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14781158.2011.540092
http://www.informaworld.com
 16 M. Khalid

analytical tool to critically engage with dominant War on Terror discourses in order to
destabilise and unravel orientalist and gendered justifications for intervention.
Using the examples of the US-led interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, I examine how gen-
dered and orientalised visual representations of the Eastern Other have been deployed to facilitate
intervention as part of the War on Terror. I use gender as an analytical category, encompassing the
social construction of women, men, femininity, and masculinity, acknowledging the power
and inequality that comes from ascribing particular gender or gender traits to people(s).2 Drawing
on representations by the media, the Bush administration, and liberal, US-based feminist group the
Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF), I argue that womens rights discourses have been co-opted
into a broader discourse of gendered orientalism that marks Other women as voiceless victims of
a barbaric (male) Other enemy, and positions the USA as enlightened, civilised, and justified in its
military interventions. To illustrate this, I draw on three particularly prominent images from the
War on Terror the image of the veiled oppressed Muslim woman, images of US soldier
Jessica Lynchs rescue from Iraqi forces, and photographs of prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib
prison. Locating these in official and unofficial discourses, I examine how these images have
been deployed in the support of a gendered orientalist discourse that constructs categories of mas-
culinities and femininities (and ranks them) according to race. For example, a benevolent and
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enlightened USA, protective of women and controlled in its use of violence, is positioned as
superior to the backward, barbaric and uncontrolled masculinity of the Other; the femininity
of Lynch becomes a symbol of the superiority of US civilisation (through US womens perform-
ances of femininity) and the barbarity of the Other (through the Other woman who is oppressed
and brutalised). Ultimately, the discourse of gendered orientalism functions to preserve and
promote US masculinist power, and to justify violence under the banner of the War on Terror.

Aesthetics, orientalism and gender

As Cynthia Weber argues, although it is often disregarded by mainstream IR, much politics is
conducted through . . . visual language.3 Understanding visual language (expressed through
visual media such as photos, film, web pages) as a way in which we obtain information about
the world requires seeing it as a form of representation that allows others to read meanings
and values attached to various artefacts.4 Visual language (or indeed any language) does not
reveal a pre-existing truth about the world, but, rather, it creates meanings about the world
through representing it. Whereas a mimetic approach assumes there is a pre-given meaning or
truth to things or events, an aesthetic approach reveals there is a gap between a form of represen-
tation and that which is represented.5 As Roland Bleiker argues, the inevitable difference
between the represented and its representation is the very location of politics; political represen-
tations (along with other representations) are necessarily incomplete. That is, their meaning is
not pre-given or intrinsic, but is shaped by the knowledge and values of those who create and
perceive them, as we make sense of a representation by drawing on existing knowledge and
aesthetic values that are deeply embedded and tacitly assumed.6

2 Christine Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1994), 4; Iris Marion Young, The Logic of Masculinist Protection: Reflections on the Current Security
State, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 29 (2003): 1 25, at 2.
3 Cynthia Weber, Popular Visual Language as Global Communication: the Remediation of United Airlines Flight 93,
Review of International Studies 34 (2008): 137 53, at 137 8; Stuart Hall, The Work of Representation, in Rep-
resentation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices, ed. Stuart Hall (London: Sage, 1997), 13 74, at 5.
4 Weber, Popular Visual Language as Global Communication, 138.
5 Roland Bleiker, The Aesthetic Turn in International Political Theory, Millennium Journal of International
Studies 30 (2001): 50933, at 510.
6 Ibid., 511; Bonnie Mann, How How America Justifies its War: A Modern/Postmodern Aesthetics of War and Sover-
eignty, Hypatia 21 (2006): 147 63, at 150.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 17

Orientalism as a form of critical analysis is key to understanding and decoding the values that
shape the visual representations I have chosen, as it deals with the relationship between depic-
tions by Westerners of non-Western subjects and the material power relations that arise out of
such depictions. Orientalism, according to Said, is the corporate institution for dealing with
the Orient dealing with it by making statements about it, authorising views of it, describing
it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, orientalism as a Western style for dominating,
restructuring, and having authority over the Orient.7 Examining scholarly, fictional, and travel
writings and their representations of the Orient, Said concluded that orientalism characterised
(Eurocentric) Western writings, which established binary oppositions that along with othering
the Orient also represented the West self-referentially and positively, as everything the East
was not. Thus, orientalist binaries referred to an irrational, backward, exotic, despotic and lazy
East, while the West became the pinnacle of civilisation: rational, moral and Christian.
Although the representations of the East produced by the West did not necessarily resemble
the reality of the East, they served to define the nature of the East in Western knowledge and
ultimately contributed to Western control of the East. Said argued that, over time, this type of
knowledge about the East led to the construction of a tradition which then consistently influ-
enced all further learning and knowledge about the Orient much like a self-sustaining myth.
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This tradition is then orientalist.8

As a form of critical analysis used to decode Western-centric understandings, orientalism is
relevant to US War on Terror discourse precisely because it uncovers the ways in which non-
Western cultures, traditions and peoples are and have been perceived in the West through
binary oppositions depicting the East as irrational, backward, exotic, despotic and lazy, and
the West as rational, moral and the pinnacle of civilisation. Although he was primarily examin-
ing colonial Europe, Saids notion of orientalism can be applied to the American context, noting
the differing historical and political contexts of European and American involvement in the
Middle East. The USA has a long history of political, economic and cultural engagements
with the Middle Eastern and the Muslim world, and post-colonial scholars, including IR scho-
lars, have noted that Saids work offers ways of understanding Western interactions with the East
that remain relevant beyond the colonial context.9
The nature of orientalism as deeply related to Foucauldian theories of power and knowledge
means that Orientalism can be applied beyond the historical context on which the book was
immediately focused. The repository of representations which orientalist discourse draws
upon is fluid and shifting, constantly being added to by the changing dominant (but multifaceted)
discourses of the West.10 Ziauddin Sardar traces images of Arabs and Muslims as anti-Western
Others in the contemporary West to the 800 years of orientalist thought developed during
Western interaction with Islam that resulted in deeply ingrained reflexes and ideas that thereafter
affected the Wests experiences with new Orients. Sardar argues from film to fiction, foreign

7 Said, Orientalism, 3.
8 Ibid., 91 4.
9 For example, Priya Chacko, Modernity, Orientalism and the Construction of International Relations (Paper pre-
sented at the Oceanic Conference on International Studies, Canberra, Australia, July 14 16, 2004); Geeta Chowdhry
and Sheila Nair, eds., Power, Postcolonialism, and International Relations: Reading Race, Gender, and Class
(London and New York: Routledge, 2002); L.H.M. Ling, The Monster Within: What Fu Manchu and Hannibal
Lecter Can Tell Us About Terror and Desire in a Post-9/11 World, Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 12
(2004): 377400; Meghana Nayak and Christopher Malone, American Orientalism and American Exceptionalism:
A Critical Rethinking of US Hegemony, International Studies Review 11 (2009): 25376; Andrew J. Rotter,
Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History, The American Historical Review 105 (2000):
1205 17.
10 Yasmin Jiwani, Orientalizing War Talk: Representations of the Gendered Muslim Body Post-9/11 in The Mon-
treal Gazette, in Situating Race and Racisms in Space, Time and Theory, ed. Jo-Anne Lee and John Lutz (Mon-
treal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2005), 178203, at 181; Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture,
Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East since 1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 9.
 18 M. Khalid

policy to polemics, Islam is seen and evoked as a problem, resulting in an impasse: Islam as an
insurmountable obstacle between Western civilization and its destiny: globalization.11 Douglas
Little, Melani McAlister, and Dag Tuastad explore this in terms of a specifically American
orientalism (or neo-orientalism) in both official and popular discourses. Drawing on the colonial
practice of employing binaries of civilised West/barbaric East, American orientalism,
according to these scholars, is expressed in contemporary deployment in mainstream books,
films and news reports of contradictory images of Arabs/Muslims as both too weak to progress
politically yet strong enough to pose a threat, coupled with the corollary perception of the
superiority of American civilisation, images which contribute towards legitimising the need
for controlling or policing the region.12
Although Orientalism did not discuss gender in depth, Saids work has been utilised by
feminist scholars who have read women and gender into the uncovering of the relationship
between power and representation in orientalist discourses.13 Feminist and gender-conscious
works on orientalism have examined the impact of gendered orientalism in a colonial
context. For example, Melika Mehdid argues that orientalist depictions during colonial
times, created by both men and women, served to objectify female colonial subjects.14 As
Mohja Kahf explains, the image of the oppressed Muslim/Arab woman became important
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during the building of the French and British empires in the nineteenth century which, in sub-
jugating whole Muslim societies, had a direct interest in viewing the Muslim woman as
oppressed.15 The relationship between female liberation, orientalism, patriarchy, and imperi-
alism has been examined by Lila Abu-Lughod, Leila Ahmed, Margot Badran, Claire Midgley,
and Gayatri Spivak, amongst others, who have demonstrated the importance of the language of
womens rights in the service of empire.16 Indeed, the idea of saving brown women was taken
on by many British feminists as much as it was by male British colonialists. Drawing on orien-
talist notions of civilisation and barbarity, the colonial project put forward an image of victi-
mised and subjugated women for whom the civilising mission of colonialism would spell
freedom and liberation. However, although British colonialists urged British women to
support the liberation of their Indian sisters, colonialism actually undermined the feminist
cause. Imperialists did not show a genuine commitment to feminism, often trying to control
feminism at home; colonialism itself was highly patriarchal and oppressive and feminisms
co-option into this project ultimately weakened the fight for womens rights, both at home
and abroad.17

11 Ziauddin Sardar, Orientalism (Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press, 1999), 54 5.

12 Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945 (Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 2002), 314; McAlister, Epic Encounters, xiii; Dag Tuastad, Neo-Orientalism and the New
Barbarism Thesis: Aspects of Symbolic Violence in the Middle East Conflict, Third World Quarterly 24 (2004):
591 9, at 5912.
13 Lila Abu-Lughod, Orientalism and Middle East Feminist Studies, Feminist Studies 27 (2001): 101113; Sondra
Hale, Edward Said Accidental Feminist: Orientalism and Middle East Womens Studies, Amerasia Journal 31
(2005): 1 5; Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (London: Routledge,
1996); Meyda Yegenoglu, Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1998).
14 Melika Mehdid, A Western Invention of Arab Womanhood: The Oriental Female, in Women in the Middle East:
Perceptions, Realities, & Struggles for Liberation, ed. Haleh Afshar (New York: St. Martins Press, 1993), 18 58,
at 19, 25.
15 Mohja Kahf, Western Representations of the Muslim Woman: From Termagant to Odalisque (Austin: University of
Texas Press, 1999), 9.
16 Abu-Lughod, Orientalism and Middle East Feminist Studies; Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992); Margot Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1995); Claire Midgley, Female Emancipation in an Imperial Frame: English Women and the
Campaign Against Sati (Widow-Burning) in India, 1812 30, Womens History Review 9 (2000): 228 47;
Gayatri Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?: Speculations on Widow Sacrifice, Wedge 7 (1985): 120 30.
17 Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 153 4.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 19

As J. Ann Tickner points out, gendered narratives in which men must save women and
children have often been used to justify military intervention.18 I follow those feminist IR scho-
lars who conceive of gender and gendered identities not as natural or pre-given, but as socially
constructed, determining what counts as woman and as man.19 As such, they produce
people (barbaric Afghan men, benevolent Western men, oppressed Muslim women, for
example) so that men and women become the stories that have been told about men and
women and the constraints and opportunities that have thereby arisen as we take to our
proper places.20 Gender is in this sense a standard of normalization, a discursive regulation.21
Using gender as an analytical category allows us to look at how gendered identities give
meaning to the organization and perception of . . . knowledge.22 Gendered identities do not
exist independently of other factors, and must be viewed as intertwined with, for example,
race or ethnicity if we are to understand the hierarchical organisation of identities.23
Thus, taking gender and orientalism together as analytical approaches, we can examine how
gendered and orientalist identities, meanings, and images construct and organise the way we
give meaning to and interpret our world, its people and events, and the positions and possibi-
lities for action within them.24 That gendered narratives in the War on Terror have also
relied on the (re)production of orientalist stereotypes has been examined by feminists in
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terms of official narratives on womens rights in the War on Terror (Krista Hunt, Ratna
Kapur, Meghana Nayak), representations of the veil and narratives of female liberation (Jill
Steans, Shannon Walsh, Sonali Kolhatkar), and a clash of civilisations mentality (Dana
Cloud, Jasmine Zine).25 Indeed, womens rights rhetoric is a central part of War on Terror dis-
courses as articulated by media, officials, and US-based liberal feminists, whereby concerns for
the very real abuses of womens rights in Afghanistan and Iraq become co-opted into a discourse
that is deployed to justify military violence.26

Gendered orientalism in the War on Terror

At the outset of the War on Terror, the role that the USA envisaged for itself was clear the 9/11
attacks reinforced the self-perception of the USA as the brightest beacon for freedom and

18 J. Ann Tickner, Gendering World Politics: Issues and Approaches in the Post-Cold War Era (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2001), 57.
19 Judith Squires and Jutta Weldes, Beyond Being Marginal: Gender and International Relations in Britain, British
Journal of Politics and International Relations 9 (2007): 185203, at 186.
20 Sylvester, Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern Era, 4.
21 Judith Butler, Undoing Gender (New York: Routledge, 2004), 41.
22 Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 31.
23 R. W. Connell, Masculinities (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995); Charlotte Hooper, Manly States: Masculinities,
International Relations, and Gender Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).
24 Young, The Logic of Masculinist Protection, 2.
25 Krista Hunt, The Strategic Co-optation of Womens Rights: Discourse in the War on Terrorism, International
Feminist Journal of Politics 4 (2002): 11621; Ratna Kapur, Unveiling Womens Rights in the War on Terror,
Duke Journal of Gender, Law & Policy 9 (2002): 211 26; Meghana Nayak, Orientalism and Saving US State
Identity after 9/11, International Feminist Journal of Politics 8 (2006): 4261; Jill Steans, Telling Stories
About Women and Gender in the War on Terror, Global Society 22 (2008): 15975; Shannon Walsh, A Blindfold
of Compassion? Women as Pawns in the New War, Feminist Media Studies 2 (2002): 1535; Sonali Kolhatkar,
Saving Afghan Women: How Media Creates Enemies, Women in Action 1 (2002): 346; Dana Cloud, To
Veil the Threat of Terror: Afghan Women and the Clash of Civilizations in the Imagery of the U.S. War on Ter-
rorism, Quarterly Journal of Speech 90 (2004): 285306; Jasmine Zine, Between Orientalism and Fundamental-
ism: Muslim Women and Feminist Engagement, in (En)Gendering the War on Terror: War Stories and
Camouflaged Politics, ed. Krista Hunt and Kim Rygiel (Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2006), 27 50.
26 Krista Hunt, Embedded Feminism and the War on Terror, in (En)Gendering the War on Terror, ed. Hunt
and Rygiel, 54; Ann Russo, The Feminist Majority Foundations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid,
International Feminist Journal of Politics 8 (2006): 55780, at 559.
 20 M. Khalid

opportunity.27 The US governments conception of the world, and Americas place in it drew
heavily on binaries of good and evil, and marked the USA as the leader of the civilised world:
This war [War on Terror] will take many turns we cannot predict. Yet I am certain of this: Wherever
we carry it, the American flag will stand not only for our power, but for freedom. . . . We fight, as we
always fight, for a just peace a peace that favors human liberty. We will defend the peace against
threats from terrorists and tyrants. . . . And we will extend the peace by encouraging free and open
societies on every continent. Building this just peace is Americas opportunity, and Americas
duty.28
Bush also proclaims that that the United States welcomes our responsibility to lead in this great
mission and it is clear that this vision of the world is to be consolidated through American mili-
tary power.29
Although the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq were undertaken primarily for retaliatory or pre-
emptive purposes (response to 9/11 and weapons of mass destruction), the repeated references to
good, evil and womens rights in official rhetoric point to another layer of justification.30 As
the USA placed itself in the role of defender of the free world and liberator of the oppressed, and
linked the oppressors with fundamentalist Islam, this secondary justification operated accord-
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ing to the logic of orientalism. The them/us dichotomy at play in contemporary Western represen-
tations (for example, civilised vs. barbaric, good vs. evil) serves the purpose of Othering the
represented and constructing the creator of the representations in opposition to those who are
Othered. Orientalist justifications for intervention in the War on Terror depend on these binaries
as the division of the world into civilised and barbaric. With irrational violence and misogyny
intrinsic to their world, the US-led military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq can be pre-
sented as necessary in order to bring civilisation, democracy, and equality to the oppressed and
to discipline the barbaric enemy.31 In terms of War on Terror discourse, this can be seen in the
dichotomy between the benevolent, civilised and moral masculinity of the West and the back-
ward, barbaric, oppressive, deviant masculinity of the brown man, the free Western woman
and the oppressed, subjugated Muslim woman. These gendered orientalist representations rely
on these binaries, but also employ gendered and racialised hierarchies. For example, the multiple
masculinities and femininities seen in the War on Terror are organised in a hierarchy that places
barbaric brown men and oppressed brown women at the bottom of the scale.
The images examined in the next sections of this article are shaped by a gendered orientalist
logic that constructs and ascribes different masculinities and femininities to men and women
according to race. This logic marks out the male enemy as embodying a dangerous masculinity
that is irrational and expresses itself in acts of barbarism, such as the oppression of women. At
the same time, this enemy is also feminised by the superior masculinity of the USA, for example
through the Abu Ghraib abuses. The West, led by the USA, is marked out by this superior and
exaggerated masculinity and yet is also benevolent and paternal. Other women are ascribed

27 George W. Bush, Statement by the President in his Address to the Nation, September 11, 2001, http://
georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html.
28 George W. Bush, President Bush Delivers Graduation Speech at West Point (United States Military Academy,
West Point, New York, June 1, 2002), http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/06/
20020601-3.html.
29 National Security Strategy of The United States of America, September 2002, Foreword by President George
W. Bush, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html.
30 For example, National Security Strategy of The United States of America; George W. Bush, No Nation Can be
Neutral in this Conflict (remarks by the President to the Warsaw Conference on Combating Terrorism, November
6, 2001), http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/11/20011106-2.html; see also Laura
J. Shepherd, Veiled References: Constructions of Gender in the Bush Administration Discourse on the Attacks
on Afghanistan Post-9/11, International Feminist Journal of Politics 8 (2006): 1941, 10; Nayak, Orientalism
and Saving US State Identity; J. Ann Tickner, Feminist Perspectives on 9/11, International Studies Perspec-
tives 3 (2002): 33350.
31 Nayak, Orientalism and Saving US State Identity after 9/11, 46.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 21

with feminine traits that deny them agency and require their liberation, whilst Western women
are allowed to engage in masculine activities to bolster the image of the USA as a civilised, ben-
evolent and egalitarian nation, but ultimately remain inferior to the masculine and militarised US
self. The moral superiority of the USA draws, in a sense, on ideals of feminism in terms of the
celebration of the free US woman (embodied for example in Jessica Lynch) and the desire to
save the oppressed Other woman. US masculinity is ultimately marked out as acceptable as it
is controlled; its power and (military) violence are directed at the enemy and its benevolence is
used to save those who are deemed to be helpless victims of this enemy. Thus, orientalist logic in
the War on Terror is gendered in this way; that is, the identities constructed in US War on Terror
discourse rely on harnessing and manipulating perceived differences in gender and gender roles,
and sexuality, creating the infantilised Other woman who needs to be saved, the dehumanised
barbarian, and the masculine and paternalistic US/Western self. I turn now to my three chosen
images to illustrate how this is achieved.

The veiled oppressed Muslim woman and the barbaric male enemy
The image of the veiled oppressed Muslim woman is pervasive and salient in War on Terror
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discourse. Indeed, the burqa and other forms of veiling are again under increasing scrutiny, most
recently in the burqa-ban debates in Europe. Here the veil and burqa have again become promi-
nent, playing a significant role in the construction of Western identity in Europe. The burqa
again has come to symbolise the non-European Other which must be excluded, and the
danger this Other poses to liberal democratic notions of society, and to our civilisation,
where freedom and gender equality is valued.32 These discourses rely on long-held assumptions
about the helplessness of Eastern women and the misogyny of Eastern men. In the lead-up to
the 2001 Afghanistan war, these assumptions were drawn on once again as the image of the
oppressed Muslim woman became highly visible in mainstream news media and official dis-
course.33 In the months after 9/11, the number of media stories on Afghan women sharply
increased, and pictures of women wearing burqas appeared on the covers of widely-read maga-
zines such as New York Times, Business Week, Newsweek, and Time, alongside reports of their
subjugation.34 An article in USA Today explicitly conflated the act of removing burqas and
American-led liberation, as women threw them [burqas] on the fire and lit the way for their
rescuers.35 President George W. Bush claimed in 2002 that the victory over the Taliban had
liberated the women of Afghanistan.36 State Department Spokesman Richard Boucher
linked liberation to the removal of the burqa, as these liberated Afghan women could now be
seen sometimes even without wearing a burqa.37

32 See, for example, Valerie Amiraux, The Headscarf Question: What is Really the Issue?, in European Islam: Chal-
lenges for Public Policy and Society, ed. Samir Amghar, Amel Boubekeur, and Michael Emerson (Brussels: Centre
for European Policy Studies, 2008), 12443, at 134; Annelies Moors, The Dutch and the Face-Veil: The Politics of
Discomfort, Social Anthropology 17 (2009): 393 408, at 399402; Joan Wallach Scott, The Politics of the Veil
(Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008).
33 Carol A. Stabile and Deepa Kumar, Unveiling Imperialism: Media, Gender and the War on Afghanistan, Media,
Culture & Society 27 (2005): 765 82, at 773.
34 Ibid., 772. For example, from 12 September 2001 to 1 January 2002 there were 93 mainstream newspaper articles
and 628 broadcast programmes on Afghan womens situation under the Taliban, compared to 15 articles in main-
stream newspapers and 33 broadcast programmes between 1 January 2001 and 11 September 2001. See also Cloud,
To Veil the Threat of Terror.
35 Paul Wiseman and Jack Kelley, Womens Escape was Straight out of a Movie; CIA Agent, A Signal Fire and A
Helicopter Led to Freedom, USA Today, November 16, 2001, 10A.
36 George W. Bush, 2002 State of the Union Address (Washington DC, January 29, 2002), http://www.whitehouse.
gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html.
37 Richard Boucher, Assistant Secretary and State Department Spokesman, Freedom is a Foreign Policy, Remarks to
the Pilgrims Society of Britain (London, United Kingdom, November 28, 2002), http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rm/
15567.htm.
 22 M. Khalid

The cover image of the November 2001 edition of Time magazine was typical of the
portrayal of Afghan women in the lead-up to and during the Afghan war. This particular
image featured Afghan women with their burqas removed along with the caption Liberation:
Women in Kabul showed their faces in public for the first time in years. This image and the
accompanying caption is a significant example of the ways in which orientalist knowledge is
manipulated to require intervention. The picture was part of a photo essay on the fate of Afgha-
nistan and Afghan women one month after war began, and was followed a week later by a special
issue titled Lifting the Veil, featuring an Afghan woman on the cover and an accompanying
story claiming that military intervention had freed Afghan women, with the removal of the
burqa providing evidence of this liberation.38 In Iraq the plight of women was used to similar
effect through the use of descriptions of rape rooms and a reference to womens role used to
frame womens political participation as a sign of progress that the USA would bring to
Iraq.39 US Administrator to Iraq Paul Bremers contention that womens rights were abused ter-
ribly by Husseins regime was followed by the claim that the USA was committed to promoting
womens rights in Iraq.40 These types of representations continue even now a recent issue of
Time carried an article arguing for continued US occupation in Afghanistan for the sake of
Afghan women, with the cover featuring a mutilated Afghan girl who became a sort of spokes-
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person for the occupation.41

Narratives of protection and salvation of women in US War on Terror discourses have not
only relied on deploying images of women defined by their dress, but also on racialising violence
against women. Images of the oppressed Muslim woman were often accompanied by commen-
tary that, for example, attributed Afghan womens abuse to the tribal and conservative nature
of Afghan society.42 At the same time, official and media discourses located patriarchy over
there, rather than something that also exists in our world. As Chandra Talpade Mohanty notes,
successful constructions of oppressed Other women are created by reference to Western
women who are presented as educated, as modern, as having control over their own bodies
and sexualities, and the freedom to make their own decisions.43 For example, when speaking
at an event on global progress in womens human rights in 2004, President George W. Bush
and his wife Laura Bush mentioned the struggle for womens rights in the USA only in terms
of the suffragette movement, and used examples from the Muslim world or Middle East to illus-
trate contemporary struggles for womens rights.44 Another Time article stated nowhere in the
Muslim world are women treated as equals45 the implication is that gender equality has been
achieved here and that patriarchal violence is the domain of the East, located in their
culture.46 Moreover, the complexities of gendered and patriarchal violence, and the role
factors such as economic policy, globalisation, domestic affairs, international politics or even
US foreign policy might play in the oppression of Afghan, Iraqi or other Middle Eastern/

38 Nancy Gibbs, Even Chaos is a Gift, Time, November 26, 2001, 3032; see also Time Magazine Special Report:
Lifting the Veil, December 3, 2001.
39 Nayak, Orientalism and Saving US State Identity after 9/11, 49; Shepherd, Veiled References, 26.
40 Donna Miles, Bremer Notes Human Rights Progress in Iraq (American Forces Press Service, Washington, Decem-
ber 10, 2003), http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=27654.
41 Aryn Baker, Afghan Women and the Return of the Taliban, Time, August 9, 2010.
42 Richard Lacayo, The Women of Afghanistan, Time, December 3, 2001, 34.
43 Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse, Feminist Review
30 (1988): 61 88, at 65.
44 President, Mrs Bush Mark Progress in Global Womens Human Rights (March 12, 2004), http://georgewbush-
whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/03/20040312-5.html.
45 Lisa Beyer, Islam: The Women of Islam, Time, December 3, 2001.
46 Michaele L. Ferguson, Feminism and Security Rhetoric in the Post-September 11 Bush Administration, in W
Stands for Women, ed. Michaele L. Ferguson and Lori Jo Marso (Durham, NC and London: Duke University
Press, 2007), 191220, at 199201.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 23

Muslim women are ignored.47 By contrast, the West comes to represent successful female
liberation.
Constructing the Afghan/Muslim/Middle Eastern everywoman as a victim in need of
liberation, whose liberation is achieved by the US invasion (as lifting the veil is supposed to
demonstrate) also serves the important purpose of marking out the deviant masculinity of the
enemy Other and linking it to security. The men who attacked the US on 11 September
2001 are the same faceless cowards who demonstrate barbaric behaviour as they are bent
upon slitting the throats of women.48 The masculinity of this enemy is deviant, barbaric and
irrational, and is marked as such by implicit reference to acceptable performances of mascu-
linity based on attitudes towards women in terms of the orientalist binary, our men are ben-
evolent and protect women (because women need protecting), whilst barbaric men have an
irrational hatred of women. Thus, War on Terror discourse, in ascribing certain masculinities
and femininities to male and female Others, assigns orientalist attributes (barbaric vs. civilised)
according to notions of traditional gender roles in which women are protected and men are pro-
tectors. The logic that constructs Other women as powerless victims to be saved requires the
simultaneous construction of Other men as barbaric, backward and a threat to be contained
as gender violence comes to symbolise the world the terrorists would like to impose on the rest
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of us,49 military intervention becomes not just legitimate, but necessary. The USA endorses a
masculinist and militaristic solution (Bush claims that American soldiers will save civilisation
itself),50 but at the same time embodies a benign paternalism as the military intervention is
accompanied by a benevolent desire to teach people in the backward East how to
empower themselves.
These kinds of representations gained even more salience and authenticity through the
responses of the FMF to the Bush administrations military interventions into Afghanistan
and Iraq. Although there was, and continues to be, much feminist critique and condemnation
of the gendered and orientalist nature of the Bush administrations interventions and the use
of womens rights rhetoric to justify the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, the FMF provided sustained
support for the Afghan war. A liberal-feminist group that has campaigned to end gender apart-
heid in Afghanistan since 1997, the FMF welcomed the Bush administrations womens rights
rhetoric, seeing military intervention as way to end the Talibans oppression of women and later
citing womens freedom to remove their burqas and go out in public unaccompanied by male
relatives as evidence of their liberation and the success of the war.51 This lent much support
to the gendered orientalist discourse of the War on Terror, adding to already dominant official
and media representations of wholly oppressed Other women, backward Other men and a
civilised, feminist-friendly USA. In support of the US-led war in Afghanistan, the FMF stated
in 2001 that the US and its allies must rescue and liberate the people, especially the women

47 Alison Jaggar, Saving Amina: Global Justice for Women and Intercultural Dialogue, Ethics & International
Affairs 19 (2005): 5575; Stabile and Kumar, Unveiling Imperialism; Russo, The Feminist Majority Foun-
dations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid, 566 7; Jacqui True, The Political Economy of Violence Against
Women: A Feminist International Relations Perspective, Australian Feminist Law Journal 32 (2010): 39 59.
48 George W. Bush, Guard and Reserves Define Spirit of America (Remarks by the President to Employees at the
Pentagon, September 17, 2001), http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010917-3.
html; George W. Bush, Honoring the Victims of the Incidents on Tuesday, September 11, 2001 (Proclamation,
September 12, 2001), http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010912-1.html.
49 Laura Bush, The Talibans War Against Women, National Radio Address (Crawford Texas, November 17, 2001),
http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/11/20011117.html.
50 President George W. Bush, Remarks by the President To United Nations General Assembly (UN Headquarters,
New York, November 10, 2001), http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/11/20011110-
3.html.
51 Janelle Brown, A Coalition of Hope, Ms Magazine (Spring 2002): 6574; Feminist Majority, Stop Gender Apart-
heid in Afghanistan, http://www.helpafghanwomen.com/Global_Petition_Flyer.pdf, both quoted in Russo, The
Feminist Majority Foundations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid, 563, 568, 574.
 24 M. Khalid

and children . . . the link between the liberation of Afghan women and girls from the terrorist
Taliban militia and the preservation of democracy and freedom in America and worldwide
has never been clearer.52 Echoing the language used by the Bush administration and main-
stream media, the FMFs statements are powerful in their impact because they become co-
opted into the dominant discourse, providing further evidence of the oppressed/barbaric
Other and the benevolence of US intervention. The FMFs statements also make more plaus-
ible the use of womens rights rhetoric by the Bush administration. For example, Secretary of
State Colin Powell, speaking at an event marking International Womens Day, put the USA
forward as the champion of human rights and well being of women . . . worldwide and
linked US foreign policy with a joint struggle with US womens rights supporters on behalf
of women of the world.53 This alignment with supporters of womens rights becomes more
believable at least in part because of the support lent by the FMF to both the Bush adminis-
trations foreign policy and the orientalist representations of the Other that justify it.

Do these women need saving?

Ultimately, this gendered orientalist logic depends on the totalising image of the oppressed
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Muslim/Arab woman. Representing the voices of those who are deemed unable to speak for
themselves, orientalist logic requires that experiences of these women that might undermine
the civilised barbaric/victim saviour dichotomy are overlooked.
Alongside the very real and horrific abuses against women in Afghanistan, there has been a
longstanding resistance movement in the form of the Revolutionary Association of the Women
of Afghanistan (RAWA), which has made a significant impact in the struggle for womens
rights.54 In Iraq, the rhetoric of war securing womens rights disregarded the fact that women
in Iraq, although undoubtedly subjected to human rights abuses, had high levels of participation
in public life and were not the mute, helpless victims they were assumed to be.55
However, mainstream representations in support of the war put forward an essentialised
image of Arab/Muslim women as proof of the threat posed by the enemy Other. For
example, whilst RAWA was briefly courted by the Bush administration, once it began requesting
aid rather than intervention, and questioning the administrations commitment to womens
rights, the organisation became less important to the Bush administration.56 There was also a
strong reluctance in mainstream media to spell out the central role the USA played in helping
to create the conditions for (and supporting) the Taliban and Saddams regime, conveniently
ignoring the human rights abuses that the 2001 wars were supposed to remedy.57
Ann Russo points out that the FMFs campaign to save Afghan women was also, for the
most part, silent on US involvement with the Taliban. Moreover, she writes, the FMF never
questions the underlying premises of the US invasion and the right to control the future of Afgha-
nistan, even as it highlighted US failures in terms of the inability to provide adequate security
forces and follow through on securing womens rights in Afghanistan.58 Sonali Kolhatkar argues

52 Feminist Majority Foundation, Feminist Daily News Wire, September 18, 2001, http://feminist.org/news/
newsbyte/printnews.asp?id=5802.
53 Colin Powell, Secretary of State Colin L. Powell and Under Secretary for Global Affairs Paula J. Dobriansky at
Reception to Mark International Womens Day (Washington, DC, March 8, 2002), http://www.usinfo.org/wf-
archive/2002/020308/epf503.htm.
54 Anne E. Brodsky, With All Our Strength: The Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (New York:
Routledge, 2003).
55 Nadje Al-Ali and Nicola Pratt, What Kind of Liberation? Women and the Occupation of Iraq (Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2009), 156 7.
56 Steans, Telling Stories About Women and Gender in the War on Terror, 164, 170.
57 Abu-Lughod, Orientalism and Middle East Feminist Studies; Stabile and Kumar, Unveiling Imperialism.
58 Russo, The Feminist Majority Foundations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid, 559.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 25

that images of Afghan women marching for freedom and secularism, with their own texts on the
causes of and solutions to their problems, are not as useful in gendered orientalist discourse as a
helpless woman who needs saving, as it is the latter that justifies civilising the Other through
military interventions.59 Indeed, a selective memory and selective representations of the Other
are vital to the saving brown women scenario. Thus, although there were some cursory refer-
ences to Afghan and Iraqi womens agency, the dominant narrative remained that of the
oppressed veiled woman.

Camouflaging gendered orientalism

The rescue missions to save Afghan and Iraqi women were not the only War on Terror narra-
tives that were shaped by gendered orientalism. Two prominent stories the Jessica Lynch
rescue and the Lynndie England/Abu Ghraib incident illustrate another way in which gen-
dered orientalist discourses and representations were deployed, serving to justify intervention
and also to camouflage the paternalistic and imperialist nature of the interventions. Drawing
again on discourses of womens rights, the USA positioned itself as masculine, strong, egalitar-
ian and civilised, with the ideal type of US femininity (in the form of Lynch) playing a sup-
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porting role.
Some of the most powerful images of the Jessica Lynch story include the footage of Lynchs
rescue and pictures of Lynch, partially covered by an American flag, being carried by US
marines. The story was presented in the media as the rescue of a female solider who had dis-
played heroism in her willingness to fight to the death against Iraqi forces.60 Although
much of the story later turned out to be fabricated, I examine the form it took when being
released to the public.61 Lynch was held up as a heroic soldier and fighter, her presence in
the armed forces and her involvement in war became an example of the equality and liberation
enjoyed by US women.62 The image of a woman Lynch in military uniform serves to further
substantiate the claim that the USA is a land of civilised values, where women are given the
same opportunities as men (evidenced here by the inclusion of women in the military). Although
this image and the related narratives reference gender equality, a logic of gendered orientalism
operates to exploit superficial allusions to such equality in order to camouflage the construction
of a very traditionally masculine US self and the barbaric Other in broader service of the jus-
tification of the War on Terror.
As Laura Sjoberg points out, whilst Lynch was held up as an American heroine and symbol
of US gender equality, her agency was in fact limited by her femininity. Lynch was a hero
because she fought but the implication was that she fought despite being a woman.63
Lynch was celebrated as a soldier and fighter, yet she was ultimately held up as the symbol
of the heroic masculine power of the US military, and the uncontrolled masculinity of the
enemy Other. Although the battle she was involved in highlighted the perceived equality

59 Kolhatkar, Saving Afghan Women.

60 Susan Schmidt and Vernon Loeb, She Was Fighting to the Death, Washington Post, April 3, 2003, A01; see also
the unnamed US Army officials quoted in Jessica Lynch: Media Myth-Making During the War (September 20,
2004), http://www.journalism.org/resources/research/reports/war/postwar/lynch.asp.
61 John Kampfner, The Truth About Jessica, The Guardian, May 15, 2003. This was confirmed by Lynch herself in a
2003 interview (Too Painful: Jessica Lynch Says She Cant Remember Sexual Assault, ABC News, November
2003, http://abcnews.go.com/sections/Primetime/US/Jessica_Lynch_031106-1/html). See also Laura Sjoberg,
Agency, Militarized Femininity and Enemy Others: Observations From the War in Iraq, International Feminist
Journal of Politics 9 (2007): 82101, at 86.
62 Deepa Kumar, War Propaganda and the (AB)Uses of Women: Media Constructions of the Jessica Lynch Story,
Feminist Media Studies 4 (2004): 297 313, at 302 3; Veronique Pin-Fat and Maria Stern, The Scripting of
Private Jessica Lynch: Biopolitics, Gender, and the Feminization of the U.S. Military, Alternatives: Global,
Local, Political 30 (2005): 25 53, at 25, 278, 356.
63 Sjoberg, Agency, Militarized Femininity and Enemy Others, 85.
 26 M. Khalid

of white American women, much of the story focused on the actions of the men who rescued her.
The images of a distressed Lynch surrounded by her (overwhelmingly male) rescuers illustrates
that the threat posed by the Other enemy outlined earlier in relation to Other women
extends also to our women. The manufactured heroism of US marines daring rescue of a
female solider (who was, it turned out, not shot at and not injured by Iraq soldiers and in fact
cared for rather well by her captors) served to harness the orientalist image of a barbaric and
ruthless Arab/Muslim male who poses an uncontrolled threat to (white) women.
What is also notable about the Lynch images is that they feature Lynch over and above the
other soldiers captured along with her. As Cristina Masters argues, it had to be Lynch who was
rescued, as it was the image of the white woman that was at stake here.64 Shoshana Johnson, an
African-American single mother of two (whose story most closely resembled the embellished
version of Lynchs capture) could not symbolise the US self here. Under the racialised logic
of orientalism, the image of an African-American woman cannot be utilised in the same way
as a white woman in this scenario as this would not accord with notions of purity and (orientalist)
Western identity.65 Brunner argues that orientalist notions of the masculinity of the Eastern
male as uncivilised also inherently ascribe primitiveness, ineptness and a certain amount of
weakness to the barbarised Other.66 The heroic and successful rescue of Lynch by US
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forces symbolically reasserts this by simultaneously constructive the male Other as both hyper-
masculine and effeminate. The male (it is assumed) Iraqi soldiers in this story are both a threat to
Western values and Western (female) soldiers, but are also overcome by the US army. In this
way, the discourse of gendered orientalism exploits an element of womens rights discourses
to achieve the goal of positioning the USA as civilised and moral, yet also requires observance
of traditional gender roles (situating its own masculine character as superior to expressions of
femininity) to secure US superiority through the masculine power of its military.67
The deployment of gendered identities in the photographs of prisoners at Abu Ghraib, and
the resulting scandal, illustrates the workings of gendered orientalism in a particularly disturbing
way. Here, the images of sexualised torture served to feminise the (male) Other and simul-
taneously reassert the superiority of US masculinity. The images from Abu Ghraib illustrate
how the racialised Other becomes homosexualised and penetrable. Further, expert commen-
taries in response to the release of these pictures highlighted the humiliation the prisoners must
have felt, often linking this to an honour-based society, claiming to have insight into the psycho-
logical profile of the (male) Muslim mind.68 This reveals more about the Western mind in War
on Terror discourse, which draws on orientalist assumptions that the Muslim males greatest fear
is to be dominated by a woman (and as Mann points out, it is unsurprising that this conclusion is
reached as being dominated by women is humiliating in American logic also).69
Notions of heteronormativity are also central to the mainstream Western responses to the
abuses at Abu Ghraib. Mainstream responses to the photos appeared to be particularly concerned
with the humiliation the Iraqi male prisoners must have suffered because of implications of
sexual abuse, in particular homosexual acts, in Arab society. The concern is thus less about

64 Cristina Masters, Femina Sacra: The War on/of Terror, Women and the Feminine, Security Dialogue 40 (2009):
29 49, at 37.
65 Melissa Brittain, Benevolent Invaders, Heroic Victims and Depraved Villains: White Femininity in Media Cover-
age of the Invasion of Iraq, in (En)Gendering the War on Terror, ed. Hunt and Rygiel, 73 96, at 83; Claire
Sjolander and Kathryn Trevenen, One of the Boys? Gender Disorder in Times of Crisis, International Feminist
Journal of Politics 12 (2010): 15876, at 159 60.
66 Elgin M. Brunner, Consoling Display of Strength or Emotional Overstrain? The Gendered Framing of the Early
War on Terrorism in Transatlantic Comparison, Global Society 22 (2008): 217 15, 236.
67 Anna Agathangelou and L.H.M. Ling, Power, Borders, Security, Wealth: Lessons of Violence and Desire from
September 11, International Studies Quarterly 48 (2004): 517 38.
68 Mann, How America Justifies Its War, 158 9.
69 Ibid., 159.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 27

the inherent brutality of the acts but more about the perceived knowledge of Arab/Muslim
societys expectations of (heterosexual) men, where being raped and made powerless is akin
to being treated like a woman, and humiliating.70 This is assumed to be more so when inflicted
by a woman the impact of this particular type of abuse gains its strength from the undermining
of male supremacy that is supposedly integral to backward and unenlightened Eastern
societies.71
Rendering Iraqi males powerless through the imagery of the abuse that took place at Abu
Ghraib also serves to reinforce the differences between Other and US power and masculinity
outlined earlier. The images of England abusing prisoners are particularly relevant here. Images
of US soldiers abusing Iraqi male prisoners feminise these prisoners and reinforce the superiority
of US power and masculinity identified through the previous images. Images of a female US
soldier achieves this more so and differently, than seeing pictures of male soldiers inflicting
abuse on male prisoners as it inverts what is perceived to be the natural power relationship
between men and women. A gendered logic also operates in this scenario to prevent the accep-
table (but inferior) femininity of those such as Jessica Lynch from being sullied by the
deviant femininity of England.72 Perceived differences in gender roles and traits were har-
nessed to create acceptable and unacceptable masculine and feminine identities in this
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context, with England being cast as unfeminine and deviant. England became a scapegoat
of sorts for the Abu Ghraib scandal, painted as not a real woman, as embodying something
other than the ideal of femininity that the US aspired to project. Her appearance and other indi-
cators of her lack of conformity to the traditional feminine ideal type allows her actions to be
written off as something other than indicative of an endemic attitude of barbarism within the
US military.73 The USA then can still be projected as a place of virtue, maintain its superior
moral position, with the impact of its military might still apparent. However, as Timothy
Kaufman-Osborn explains, sexualised violence is a central part of the masculinised culture of
the military. What Kaufman calls the logic of emasculation stripping (male) prisoners of
their masculine gender identity through feminisation is not simply an anomaly. What Presi-
dent George W. Bush tried to write off as disgraceful conduct by a few American troops
who . . . disregarded our values are in facts acts of imperialist and racist and gendered violence
and deliberately implemented tactics of masculinised militarism.74

Conclusions
Gendered orientalism creates categories of people according to race and gender, defining
through these categories what men or women, us and them, Afghan/Arab/Muslim
and Western are and do. The images analysed in this article illustrate how this orientalist
logic constructs the Other hierarchically according to gender. Other women are constructed
as being in need of salvation and Other men are demonised, feminised and dehumanised. This
then allows the USA to construct itself by reference to these Othered people as morally and

70 Timothy Kaufman-Osborn, Gender Trouble at Abu Ghraib?, Politics & Gender 1 (2005): 597 619, at 610;
Sjoberg, Agency, Militarized Femininity and Enemy Others, 945.
71 Melanie Richter-Montpetit, Empire, Desire and Violence: A Queer Transnational Feminist Reading of the Prisoner
Abuse in Abu Ghraib and the Question of Gender Equality, International Feminist Journal of Politics 9 (2007):
3859, at 47, 51 2; Zine, Between Orientalism and Fundamentalism, 33.
72 Brittain, Benevolent Invaders, Heroic Victims and Depraved Villains, 85, 89.
73 Robin Riley, Huda, Rihab, and Jessica: Imperialism, Representation and the Construction of Gender in the War on
Iraq (paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Montreal, Canada, March 17,
2004).
74 George W. Bush, President Outlines Steps to Help Iraq Achieve Democracy and Freedom: Remarks by the Presi-
dent on Iraq and the War on Terror (United States Army War College, Pennsylvania, May 24, 2004), http://
georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040524-10.html; Kaufman-Osborn, Gender
Trouble at Abu Ghraib?
 28 M. Khalid

physically superior, and ultimately legitimate in pursuing military intervention. These gendered
orientalist discourses also make appeals to womens rights discourses, and, in doing so, attempt
to camouflage the patriarchal and militarised masculinity that drives the projects justified by
these discourses. Anti-war IR feminists have highlighted that (imperialist) militarism has
rarely helped the women it purports to.75 Feminist criticism of the Bush administrations co-
optation of womens rights discourses in its security rhetoric has also highlighted the lack of
a genuine commitment to womens rights both abroad and at home.76 Unsurprisingly, the mili-
tary operations in Afghanistan and Iraq that were supposed to save women have led instead to
increasingly worse situations, as war exacerbates existing economic and social problems, and
creates new ones, that have ultimately had a negative impact on these women.77 Whilst there
were promises of support for Afghan and Iraqi womens rights, these pledges seem to have
fallen through, as women were largely marginalised in post-war political processes and the
re-building of Afghanistan and Iraq.78
Thus, the narratives of female liberation and rhetoric of womens rights that characterised
much War on Terror discourse ultimately ring hollow, and expose the very women who were to
be saved to new forms of violence. In addition to legitimising military interventions, gendered
orientalist War on Terror discourse has, in the Abu Ghraib scandal, also attempted to depict sex-
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ualised and racialised violence as an aberration rather than an expression of an endemic orient-
alism in the US military that normalises sexualised violence against the Other. And the
scapegoating of England, made possible by gendered logics, resulted in an anti-feminist back-
lash in the USA.79
In this context, the FMFs contribution to gendered orientalist discourses, through its support
for the Bush campaign in Afghanistan, is disturbing. As Mrinalini Sinha argues, feminisms are
never articulated outside macropolitical structures that condition and delimit their political
effects.80 In adding to the mainstream media and official representations that construct
Other women as mute and helpless and Other men as irrational and barbaric, the FMF has
become complicit in reproducing discourses that allow US hegemony and imperialism to
operate under the pretext of paternalistic protection, liberation and freedom.81 The status
of womens rights in Afghanistan and Iraq (or indeed in the USA, or anywhere else in the
world) is a legitimate concern, particularly for feminists, but adequate engagement with these
issues demands that we interrogate motives for foreign policy and the ways in which they are
justified, if we are to avoid accepting (and possibly contributing to) hegemonic discourses,
and the gendered, racialised and sexualised violence they rationalise. This also important
because feminist complicity with the colonial project can have the effect of tainting indigenous
feminisms, making it all too easy for some to discredit all feminisms as a tool of Western

75 See for example, Cynthia Enloes Bananas Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) and Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarising
Womens Lives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Zillah Eisenstein, Against Empire: Feminisms,
Racism and the West (Melbourne: Spinifex, 2004).
76 For example, the Bush administrations stance on reproductive rights and violence against women has been heavily
criticised see the collection of essays in Laura Flanders, The W Effect: Bushs War on Women (New York: The
Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 2004); Ferguson and Marso, W Stands for Women.
77 Al-Ali and Pratt, What Kind of Liberation?; Amnesty International, Afghanistan: No-One Listens to us and No-
One Treats us as Human Beings, October 6, 2003, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA11/023/2003;
Human Rights Watch, We Want to Live as Humans: Repression of Women and Girls in Western Afghanistan
(New York: Human Rights Watch, 2002).
78 Rosemarie Skaine, War, Islam, and Politics, in Women of Afghanistan in the Post-Taliban Era (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2008), 3156; Elaheh Rostami-Povey, Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion (New York: Zed
Books, 2007); Al-Ali and Pratt, What Kind of Liberation?, 88 95.
79 Kaufman-Osborn, Gender Trouble at Abu Ghraib?, 600 603.
80 Mrinalini Sinha, Mapping the Imperial Social Formation: A Modest Proposal for Feminist History, Signs: Journal
of Women in Culture and Society 25 (2000): 1077 82, at 1078.
81 Russo, The Feminist Majority Foundations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid, 559.
 Global Change, Peace & Security 29

domination.82 This concern has emerged in the War on Terror context, as some conservatives in
Afghanistan equate the Bush campaign for female liberation with an attack on Afghan religion
and culture.83
Critical engagement with these discourses and the representations that create and reproduce
them (undertaken largely through alternative readings of these discourses and representations)
serves to destabilise and unravel the racialised and gendered justifications for intervention,
and critical feminism has been particularly useful in developing the critical tools to do this. A
postcolonial and feminist understanding of gender, race, power, and violence is essential for
undertaking the important task of decoding dominant discourses and the representations that
create and reproduce gendered orientalisms. Critical feminist IR provides alternatives to the
dichotomies that shape dominant understandings of US foreign policy in this context, with its
focus on recovering knowledge about the marginalised and oppressed. In particular, an anti-
imperialist feminist IR can, as Russo explains, help us to resist hegemonic and imperialist
power by uncovering the ways in which this power operates, so that we disrupt rather than
(re)produce relations of imperialist domination.84 In order to do so, employing a feminist-
informed, self-reflexive research ethic can help make us attentive to the ways in which our
own privileges shape not only our approaches to conducting research, but also the sorts of
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research questions we conceive of.85

In addressing gender, orientalism and Self/Other relationships in a post-9/11 world, we
must, as Meghana Nayak argues, ask questions that identify and probe binaries of race and
gender, interrogating how and why some are constructed as victims of violence and deserving
of empathy, and for what purpose.86 The role of gendered orientalist tropes in justifying policies
of intervention has a long history. These discourses require continued interrogation because they
are harnessed so easily and so often. By contesting the truths of gendered and orientalist knowl-
edge and uncovering the power relations underlying these representations, the legitimacy and
power of these discourses can be challenged.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Penny Griffin for her comments on an earlier version of this paper. I am particularly grateful to
Jacqui True for her helpful criticisms and suggestions.

Note on contributor
Maryam Khalid is a PhD candidate in the School of Social Sciences and International Studies at the Uni-
versity of New South Wales, Australia. Her research focuses on the ways in which neo-imperial power
relations are legitimated through the prism of gender and orientalism, with particular attention to the
War on Terror.

82 Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 166 7; Nawal El Saadawai, The Nawal El Saadawi Reader (London: Zed
Books, 1997), 32; Hunt, Embedded Feminism and the War on Terror, 54.
83 Hunt, Embedded Feminism and the War on Terror, 51.
84 Russo, The Feminist Majority Foundations Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid, 559 60.
85 Brooke Ackerly and Jacqui True, Reflexivity in Practice: Power and Ethics in Feminist Research on International
Relations, International Studies Review 10 (2008): 693 707, at 694 6, 704.
86 Nayak, Orientalism and Saving US State Identity after 9/11, 57.