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The stream of consciousness technique in the

novels of James Joyce
E. Delores Betts Stephens
Atlanta University

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 THE STREAM OP CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE

IN THE NOVELS OF

JAMES JOYCE

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ATLANTA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

BY

E. DELORES BETTS STEPHENS

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

ATLANTA, GEORGIA

AUGUST 1962

\i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii

Chapter

I. JOYCE AND THE BffLICATIONS OF THE STREAM OF

CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE 1

The Psychological Background

Literary Devices

II. JOYCE'S EARLY WORK IN THE LIGHT OF THE STREAM OF

CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE 22

His Aesthetic Purpose

A Portrait of the Artist as_ a Young Man

III. JOYCE'S USE OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE

IN THE LATER NOVELS 39

Ulysses
Finnegans Wake

CONCLUSION.... . 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY 71

li
 PREFACE

The following work was undertaken in hopes that the research required

to treat the subject would lead to a new knowledge of the particular tech

nique which is its subject and, at the same time, provide some foundations

or approaches to James Joyce which would make his novels more understand

able. Whether the ends for which the task was undertaken have justified

the means remains to be seen. One fact is fairly clear, it has been no

mean task.

James Joyce has proved an intriguing, but depressing subject for re

search, for I have discovered that an attempt to analyze him from any one

point of view has demanded a critical discipline which I am not at all

sure that I have been able to sustain. Trying to read his novels from

one limited point of view has been a violation of a personal principle, and

I am sure that I have missed much that is pleasant about Joyce. I have

been sidetracked many times as I discovered that critics have given as much

consideration to such trends in Joyce as: the Homeric parallels, the

nature of myth, the use of symbolism, the sources of his language and so

on ad infinitum. These topics have intrigued me and made me wish that I

had time to devote my study to these.

However, while I have been drawn to topics foreign to my own, I have

been depressed by the necessary inconclusiveness of this present work.

Without rationalizing my inadequacies, I have decided that the burden of

the responsibility for the inclusiveness lies with Joyce. His novels,

iii
 iv

Ulysses and Finnegans Wake, have lived up to my apprehensions^ they have

proved masterpieces which require more time than the time available allows.

Yet, I have come away with the feeling that two years more would not reveal

all of Joyce's technique to me. So, despite my frustrations I have the

greatest admiration for Joyce's words as technical masterpieces.

Inasmuch as this study has been limited to one particular technique

in Joyce's novels, the arrangement has had to be somewhat arbitrary. Be

cause of my anxiety not to overlook what was obvious in the novels, I

have devoted much space to a general treatment of the stream of conscious

ness technique. I feel that this inclusion will be no handicap, but will

serve as a sounding board and point of reference in later sections of the

work.

Therefore, the first chapter gives the psychological and literary

implications of the technique, the theories which have gone into the develop-

ment and the means and devices of expressing it. The second chapter at

tempts to present the aesthetic theory of Joyce as taken from A Portrait

of the Artist a a Young Man and relate it to Joyce's use of the stream

of consciousness technique. The third chapter looks at the last two novels

in relation to the technical devices already mentioned and the way in

which Joyce employed them to work out the stream of consciousness technique.

In the last chapter particular attention is given to the contributions

which Joyce made to the technique.

The writer wishes to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance given

in the preparation of this work by Dr. Thomas D. Jarrett, who has been

advisor in these efforts.

 CHAPTER I

JOYCE AID THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE STREAM

OP CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE

Psychology and a new interest in human "behavior patterns hay been

important influences on the twentieth century novel. William James and

Henri Bergson as philosophersj Turgenyen, Chekhov, Dostoyesvsky, Henry

James and Joseph Conrad as writersj and Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung as

psychologists, had been concerned with the complexities of inner chaos.

The new concern has had important effects on writers approach to charae-

terizationj they have discovered that physical outlines of character can

well afford to be drawn in vague outlines, but the inner "self" which

makes a character an individual must be concentrated upon. Healizing

this, writers have moved their emphasis away from external phenomena to

internal awareness. A new intimacy with characters in the novel has

demanded a subjectivism not needed in the "traditional" novel. As op

posed to the "traditional" novel, the "stream of consciousness" novel is

a "breadth-like cutting of the slice of life,"2 while the former was a

"mere record of private lives governed by an individualistic system of
ethics."3

TJilliam York Tindall, Forces in Modern British Literature; 1885-

(New York, 1956), pp. 1B7-190.
2
Joseph . Beach, The Twentieth Century Novel (New York, 1932e), p. 533,

3Ibid.
 2

In a chapter called "Selection and 'Significance'" David Diaehes

points out that the greatest problem of the writers of the twentieth century

has been that of the selection of significant incidents around which to

build his novel. Some standard of value mutual to both reader and writer

was necessary as basis or raison d'etre for the book. Coming when it did,

in the era when soeiety faced the instability of pre- and post war life,

the "stream of consciousness" novel presented a new standard of value.

Objective reality was no longer reality in sueh a transitional worldj

instead, writers turned to the subjective, the dwelling in the private

world and its values, as an area of expression. The Individual value re

placed the common value, so that during the first thirty years of the

century, novelists used a subtle technique which depended on the writer's

k
personal view rather than the audience's view of what was significant.

In another book, Daiches says that the shift in values had been

away from the morality and vitality of soeiety because society had reached

a point of disintegration. The novelist, then, turned to the problem of

experience itself and the nature and recording of consciousness.5 Conse

quently, the novelist had to work out new techniques to make the new

subject matter readable. For at least ten years, 1920-1930, the emphasis

in the modern novel lay on technique rather than content. The discoveries

in psychology, or psychoanalysis, had much to do with the kinds of techni

ques which experimenting realists used. Writers found that in dealing

David Daiehes, The Hovel and The Modern World (Chicago, 1939e),
pp. 7-11.

She Present Age in British Literature (Bloomington,

1958), pp.86f. ~~

6 2f.
 3

with the psyche no static patterns of description nor chronological order

of reactions sufficed. Instead, it was discovered that a dynamic pattern

was necessary to record the fluidity of consciousness. The stream of con

sciousness was discovered to toe the nearest answer to the novelists' pro

blem.7
What then is the "stream of consciousness" technique? Because the

phrase is half clothed in figurative language and half in the jargon of

psychology, there has been considerable attention given to its broadest

implications. William James provided critics with at least the word

"stream." In Psychology, he says,

Consciousness, then, does not appear to itself chopped up

in bits. Such words as 'chain' or 'train1 do not describe
it fitly as it presents itself in the first instance. It
is nothing jointedj it flows. A 'river' or a 'stream'
are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described.
IK TALKING OF IT HEREAFTER, ^the capitals are mine/ let
us eall it the stream of thought, or consciousness, or of
subjective life.8

James explains that the parts of consciousness move at different paces and

that these paces can be caught in the rhythm of language. Language was

also to become a special concern and problem for the writer just as dealing

with the privacy of thoughts was. James declared that "neither contem

poraneity nor proximity in space, nor similarity of quality and content

are able to fuse thoughts together which are sundered by this barrier

j/No thought even comes into direct sight of a thought in another personal

consciousness than its own^y of belonging to different personal minds."^

^Daiches, The lovel and The Modern World, pp. 18-23.

William James, Psychology (New York, 1900), p. 159.

9Ibid., m. I52f.
 k

However, it was not to William James alone that writers turned for

new material for their technique. As a natter of fact, it was after 1907

and Sigmund Freud's study in psychoanalysis that literary artists dared

to attempt to disclose the entire human consciousness. James Joyce's

friends and critics have acknowledged the writer's interest in and know

ledge of the works of Freud (Joyce himself gives this away in many allu

sions to Freud in Finnegans Wake.). One particular statement of Freud's

in his book, The Interpretation of Dreams, has perhaps explained Joyce's

later technique:

'The unconscious is the larger circle which includes the

smaller circle of consciousj everything conscious has a
preliminary unconscious stage,....The unconscious is the
true psychic reality; in its inner nature, it is as much
unknown to us as the reality of the external world,....10

Tindall's summation of Freud's work is also helpful in seeing the relation

which the psychologist was to have to Joyce the artist.

It will be enough perhaps to recall that Freud found

the unconscious, man's deepest being, to be sexual,
primitive, and childish, hence abhorrent to the civil
ego and carefully suppressed....For Freud our most
trivial acts-washing the hands, slips of the tongue,
or falling downstairs-acquire significance. Dreams,
too, may lead to the center of man's labyrinthj but
dreams require interpretation, for their manifest
content has been distorted and condensed by the cen
sorship of the ego. But symbols of dreams are uni-
seral, constantly recurring in the night of every
man and in the myths, literature, and popular sayings
of Ms ancestors.11

So then it becomes increasingly clear that the answer to the question,

"What is the 'stream of consciousness' technique?" lies at least partly

10Quoted in Melvin Friedman, Stream of Consciousness; A Study in

Literary Method (New Haven, 1955), pp. 991.

nTindall, op. eit., p. 212.

 5

within the realm of psychology. The other portion is purely literary. In

attempting to explain this new literary approaeh which Joyce took (after

his rejection of traditional patterns), Hoffman gives a detailed view of

the stream of consciousness elassifieations. He sees the technique as a

companion to the psychological novel because it depicts the psychic life

as anything but static. In his study of the technique he says, "the stream

of consciousness technique is designed to capture for us the sources of

human behavior which it is the task of the mind to keep from consciousness

/Freud/. For the coherence of our consciously controlled working lives,

it wishes to substitute the incoherence of our psychic lives."^

Robert Humphrey looks at the technique in terms of the subject natter.

His final definition follows:

The stream of consciousness novel is identified most

quickly by its subject matter. 3Ms, rather than its
techniques, its purposes, or its themes, distinguishes
it. Hence, the novels that are said to use the stream
of consciousness technique to a considerable degree
prove, upon analysis, to be novels which have as their
essential subject matter the consciousness of one or
more characters; that is, the depicted consciousness
serves as a screen on which the material in these
novels is presented.-o

Finally, Herman Gorman gives his interpretation of the technique:

This new method is an attempt through the application

of the author's psychological astuteness and intuition
and profound knowledge of his character's mind, its
depths, its subconscious impulses, inhibitions, and
buried urges, to set down the undisturbed flow of
thought- not always conscious, perhaps, to the thinker-
that puurs through the restless mind, a stream that is
diverted constantly by a thousand and one extraneous
objects, word connotations, strifled emotions, from the

Frederick Hoffman, "Infroyee," James Joyce: Two Decades of Criti

cism, ed. Seon Givens (New York, 1939C )7"ip"i Eo-J-6.

^Robert Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel

(Berkeley, 195*0, P 2. " " ~
 consistent and built up delineations of thought- pro
cesses to be found in the older novels.

Not only has there been considerable speculation as to the exact de

finition of the technique, there has also been some minor controversy be

tween two schools of thought in attempting to label the novel which employs

the technique. Some writers have disagreed with the bulk of opinion that

it can be labelled a techniquej these writers, the foremost spokesmen for

whom are Melvin Friedman1^ and Robert Humphrey,1** attempt to make the
distinction on the basis of whether the method presents consciousness, or

whether it concerns the whole realm of consciousness. It seems to be an

issue for the careful analyst of technique only. However, one reason for

the belaboring of the issue seems to stem from the application of the term

monologue interieur or interior monologue to the stream of consciousness

technique.

Just who the originator of the interior monologue was and how the

method was meant to be used has been another matter of controversy. Al

though the concern here is not the history of the technique, it is necessary

to fill in a few facts about monologue interieur so that Joyce's sources,

influences and contributions to the technique can be understood. According

to Harry Levin, Joyce admitted his debt to the French symbolist, Edouard

Dujardin, whose novel, Les Lauriers sont coupes (1887), Joyee read and

appreciated. After Joyee drew attention to Dujardin's technique in the

novel, the author assumed credit for the monologue interieur as a literary

German Gorman, Introduction, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young

Man, James Joyce (New York, 1920c), p. ix.

^Friedman, oj^eit., p. 3.
Robert Humphrey, "Stream of Consciousness: Technique or Genre?"
Philological Quarterly, XXX (October, 1951), k3k-k3J,
 technique. His own definition of the method of the technique follows:

The internal monologue, in its nature on the order

of poetry, is that unheard and unspoken speech by
which a character expresses his inmost thoughts
(those lying nearest the unconscious) without regard
to logical organization - that is, in their original
state- by means of direct sentences reduced to the
syntactical minimum, and in such a way as to give
the impression of reproducing the thoughts just as
they come into the mind.*17

In the essay from which the above statement was quoted, Levin points

out that although Dujardin's innovations were regarded as sensational,

neither he nor Joyce was the originator of the technique. Precedents have
-I Q

been noted in Shakespeare, Dostoevsky and in other Russian writers.

Another critic points out that Joyce probably gives himself and Dujardin

more credit than they deserve. Tolstoy and Cherny Shevsky are mentioned

as predecessors of Dujardin and Joyce. Shevsky, in a critical work on

Tolstoy, acclaims Tolstoy's ability in

observing how an emotion, arisen spontaneously

from a given situation or impression, and suc
cumbing to the influence of memories and the effect
of combination supplied by the imagination, merges
into other emotions, returns again to its starting
point and wanders on and on along the whole chain
of memories; how a thought, born of a primary sen
sation, is carried on and on, fusing dreams with
sensations and anticipations of the future with
reflections about the present.'19

This the psychic process which the interior monologue records.

^Quoted in Harry Levin, "Montage," Critiques and Essays on Modern

Fiction: 1920-1951* ed. John W. Aldridge (New York, 1952), p. ET

l8Ibid.
in Gleb Struve, "Monologue Interieur: the Origins of the
Formula and the First Statement of its Possibilities," FMLA, LXDf (December,
195*0, 1103. "~
 8

Who originated the stream of consciousness technique seems less im

portant than how it was put to use, and particularly in this work, who

developed it to its fullest possibilities. Before these particulars are

approached, there still remains a few generalities to be cleared up. The

kinds and/or methods of stream of consciousness presentation should be re

viewed so that Joyce's special use of them is obvious when they appear.

There are at least four types of presentations which stream of

consciousness writers use. The interior monologue has already been mentioned,

but there are also two kinds of interior monologue; namely, direct and in

direct. In the direct method, there is little author participation and no

emphasis on the narrator, but a straight forward revelation of thoughts

without the reader in mind. The reader is left on his own to reach under

standing, without directions from the author. As opposed to stage monologues,

the direct interior monologue does not attempt to fulfill the audience's

expectations as to conventional syntax and diction; it is concerned with

9ft
consciousness only.cw In the indirect method, the second or third person

pronoun (narrator) is used and the author's presence is left directing the

flow, or stream. Thus, there is more exposition from the author's point

of view. Usually there is a great deal of outside description of the con

sciousness of character given. There is much more coherence due to the

author's use of conventional patterns of diction and punctuation. In the

direct method, there is an attempt to reproduce the natural incoherence,

vagueness and indirectness of the "stream'.'21

20Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Hovel, pp. 25-26.

21Md., pp. 28-31.
 9

Whenever the interior monologue is used, the syntactical patterns

of the stream correspond to the intellectual capacities of the characters,

allowing them to be kept individually. It is a method of dramatizing the

mind of the character on several levels. Two other methods are also

found in stream of consciousness literature. These are description by

the omniseient author (related to indirect monologue); although it is a

quite conventional method, it has become more subtle in the hands of "stream"

writers. It is now used basically for presentation of psychic content of

character by an author who uses semi-conventional patterns of description;

it is seldom used alone, but in combination with the other methods. The

other method is soliloquy (related to direct monologue); in it the author's

presentation of unspoken material comes straight from the psyche, but

always assumes an audience. Thus, the level of consciousness is never far

below the surface and the syntactical patterns are quite "normal."

Offshoots of these methods are internal analysis and sensory impres

sions. The first is on the level of preconsciousness and is more like an

abstraction of consciousness. The second is nearest the unconscious level,

for it is the record of pure sensations and images. In this method, language

is of primary importance, for it must be expressive of word forms and usages

that are meaningful in context, but which may be meaningless outside.^

Since the levels of consciousness have been mentioned, somewhat prematurely,

it seems wise to clarify them at this point. Pour different levels have

been recognized; they are:

l) the "traditional" which involves the use of all

accepted controls of consciousness.

22
Ibid., pp. 33-36-

^Friedman, pp-eit., pp.

 10

2) the "preeonseious" which gives day dreams or

revery and requires more fluidity and less
emphasis on syntactical traditional discourse.
3) the "subconscious" which involves the freeing
of the will by the conscious mind.
k) the "unconscious" which involves no rational
control on style and content, but depends on
the psyche's behavior.2*

Although the stream of consciousness writer's success may well depend on

his ability to present these levels, too much emphasis should not be placed

on the accuracy with which these methods and levels are followed. The study

of the stream of consciousness technique has advanced to the stage that

the literary presentation of the psyche or psychic life can be measured,

but the criterion of great art is not accuracy. The analyst is interested

in complete straight forward fact or accurate reports, but the artist's

success depends on his ability to use his imagination to elaborate on the

factsj he turns to numerous devices to make his unintelligibility intelli

gible. The artist's problem, then, is a full understanding of and wise use

of his devices. ^

What, then, are the problems which the stream of consciousness writer

faces and what kinds of stylistic devices has he found to combat and solve

these? As has been pointed out, all consciousness is private and exists in

codes peculiar to itself; therefore writers face the problem of presenting

consciousness truthfully, with its incoherence, discontinuity and private

implications, while making it comprehensible to the reader. At the same

time, he must objectify it so that what he presents is objective reality

(for the character, if not for the writer). He must learn to present it

as a constant flow, instead of as static, and unhampered by conventional

^Hoffman, op. eit., pp. 408-410.

. PP-
 11

time notions; thus, the writer must find a new time - the prolonged present.

The problem of the artist has sucOinctLy stated in this manner:

... if an author wishes to create a character by

presenting that character's mind to the reader,
then the work in which this is done has per se
as its setting the character's mind. It has as
its time of taking place the range of the
character's memories and fancies in time; it
has as its place of action wherever the eharac-
tor's mind wishes to go in fancy and memory;
it has as its action whatever remembered, per
ceived, or imagined event the characters happen
to focus on. In brief, the writer commits him
self to dealing faithfully with what he con
ceives to be the chaos and accident of a con
sciousness - unpatterned, undisciplined, and
unclear.

In other words, in a stream of consciousness novel, the unities and style

are dictated by the characters' minds, not by the author's whims.

Who are the writers who have mastered the technique? In the preface

to his book on the technique, Robert Humphrey makes the following informa

tive declaration;

Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and

William Faulkner are the writers who appear most
prominently in the following pages - not arbitrarily,
but because they are, at once, important realists
and representative stream of consciousness writers....
If Joyce steals many of the scenes, it is because
he is, most versatile and skillful.2?

What Humphrey is pointing out is the skill which Joyce showed in the use

of stylistic devices to overcome the problems which faced and defeated many

of the "stream" writers. Joyce came to be the great technician of his day.

He showed great ability in bringing many areas of the arts and sciences

together into his books to give the "stream" pattern support. He saw the

traditional pattern of emphasis on content as no longer suitable to the

26
Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Hovel, p. 85.
 12

types of experiences expressed in the modern novel, and under his hand the

emphasis shifted from content to technique. As Mark Schorer puts it, the

technique came to be thought of as

the use to which language as language is put to

express the quality of the experience in ques-
tionj and the uses of point of view not only as
a mode of dramatic delimitation, but more parti
cularly, of thematic definition....In this sense,
everything is technique which is not the lump
of experience itself;...*"

To show from what areas Joyce drew his stylistic devices one can

turn to Levin's account of Joyce's seemingly unlimited knowledge of arts

and science. Levin says that Joyce probably inherited the ideas of im

pression and the viewer from the impressionistic school of painting, and

the thematic importance of sound from the Wagnerian school of music. As

easily, he was probably influenced by the international psychoanalytic

movement headed by Carl Jung and based in Zurich. His work is a mixture

of the montage of the cinema, impressionism in painting, leitmotiv in

music, free association in psychoanalysis and vitalism in philosophy.2^

One of the most important devices which Joyce used in his works

was a new language. There is manuscript evidence that he worked diligently

to find, and if he could not find, create, the right word for a situation.^

His fascination for words began early as he tells in A Portrait of the

Artist as a Young Man in the words of Stephen. As he grew older and as his

technique developed, he became more and more dissatisfied w|,th the traditional

28
Mark Sehorer, "technique as Discovery," Critiques and Essays in
Modern Fiction: 1920-1951, p. 68. ~*
29
Levin, op. eit., p. ikk.
10
J William Litz, "Early Vestiges of Joyce's Ulysses," FMLA, LXXI
(March, 1956), 58-59.
 13

usage of words. His works show two forces on the new language which he

discovered; there were historical and creative. Historically, he revived

old words and gave them freshness. Creatively, he extended word usage

into different parts of speech (functional shift). In every instance, he

sought to reproduce experience with sound and onomatopoetie words, build

ing syllables on syllables or sound on sound to reproduce action in pro

gress. For example, his creativity is shown in "reprippled" or in "chew-

chewchew."^

These are an almost impossible number of sources for his language.

He gives hints as to the source of his vocabulary in Stephen Hero in the

words of Stephen:

He had read Skeat's Etymological Dictionary by the

hour and his mind, which had from the first been
only too submissive to the infant sense of wonder,
was often hypnotized by the most commonplace con
versation. People seemed to him strangely ignorant
of the value of the words they used so glibly.'32

'It was not only in Skeat that he found words for

his treasure-house, he found them also at haphazard
in the shops, on advertisements, in the mouths of
the plodding public. He kept repeating them to
himself till they lost all Instantaneous meaning
for him and became wonderful vocables.'33

Vivian Mercier says that an Irish reader is more sympathetic to Joyce's

language because he can decipher many of the distorted words which are

really reproductions of the Dublin accent. Many writers have pointed to

3 Joseph Prescott, "James Joyce's I&iphanies/1 Modern Language Motes,

LXIV (May, 19^6), 306-312.
32
Quoted in Vivian Mercier, "Dublin Under the Joyces," James Joyce:
Two Decades of Criticism, ed. Seon Givens (lew York, 1939C), p. 29h. *

33rbid.
 Ik

Joyce's language as his greatest contribution to literature and as his

greatest weakness. David Daiehes is one such writer. He says that Joyce's

language represents the height of creativity, but at the same time its in-

genuity has caused great reading difficulties.

At the same time that critics have placed their sternest criticism

of Joyce on his language, some have "been mature and diligent enough to

pursue the key to his languages, and have recognized that the formlessness

of Joyce's words have amazing form. Louis Golding has found one key to be

the fact that Joyce used great economy in selecting words, using fragments

where thought is depicted as fragmentary and usually using the etymological

meaning of the word rather than its modern meaning.35 Throughout his books,

Joyce's language is coupled with other devices to make the stream of con

sciousness technique workable.

One example of this is Joyce's use of the "verbal leitmotiv" to show

the alignment of ideas and motivation of ideas in the characters' stream

of consciousness. Certain emotions become attached to these key words and

these change according to the language used. This alignment of sight and

sound is borrowed from Aristotle's theory of modality and from Wagner's use

of the leitmotiv. The concept of modality can be defined as

...the inevitable continuing presence of uncer

tainty and unpredictable possibility in the changing
world of the actual as contrasted with the necessity
found in the realm of the universal and eternal. The
ineluctable modality of the visible and the audible
is this complex of certainty and uncertainty both in

The Present Age in British Literature, p. 102.

Golding, James Joyce (London, 1933), pp. 58-59.

3 Hugh Kenner, "The Portrait in Perspective," James Joyce; Two De

cades of Criticism, p. 148.
 15

the process of seeing and hearing and in the world

perceived, but it is of course generally the realm of
the particular and actual, rather than that of the
universal and necessary, to which the senses respond.37

In chapter three of Ulysses, Stephen's contemplation of Aristotle's idea

of perception and modality is important to Joyce's use of the audible in

the physical world and in characters' streams. Joyce works on sounds until

they become keys to certain levels of consciousness, because during the

stream sounds from the external and internal worlds are reproduced in songs,

conversations and in free association. Finally, sound becomes a part of

the ineluctable flux of a character's total mental picture. It serves as

cause and effect in irregular patterns of psychological changes which are

produced by modality. Once a sound is heard, it sets off other sense per

ceptions, memories and ideas. Thus, by using ineluctable modality Joyce

assigned ar important role to the audible. This same verbal pattern

conforms to the operatic leitmotiv which Wagner introduced into his musical

compositions. He used small themes throughout to suggest the larger themes

of the work. Throughout Ulysses Joyce used this leitmotiv method to connect

the thematic pattern of his book.39

The use of the leitmotiv can also be Instrumental in showing how the

musical, literary and psychological uses of languages are combined in the

book. As Humphrey points out, the "suspension of mental content according

to the laws of psychological association, the representation of discontinuity

and compression by standard rhetorical figures and the suggestion of multiple

37j. e. Duncan, "Modality of the Audible in Joyce's Ulysses," PMLA,

LXXII (March, 1957), 289. "
38
Ibid., pp. 286-295.

39Friedman, pp-cit., pp. 131-132.

 16

and extreme levels of meaning by images and symbols" are inseparable

parts of the stream of consciousness technique. Joyce's use of words in

relating the sense perceptions at random is based on psychological free

association whereby a character's thought of one word, sound or smell

immediately becomes associated with something else.^1 Stephen's (Joyce's)

own thoughts on words are fitting to use here to substantiate the theory

that to Joyce words were of the utmost importance in rendering consciousness.

''The phrase and the day and the scene harmonized

in a chord. Words. Was it their colours? He allowed
them to glow and fade, hue after hue; sunrise gold,
the russet and green of apple orchards, azure of waves,
the greyfringed fleece of clouds. lo, it was not
their coloursj it was the poise and balance of the
period itself. Did he then love the rhythmic rise
and fall of words better than their association of
legend and colour? Or was it that, being as weak
of sight as he was shy of mind, he drew less pleasure
from the reflection of the glowing sensible world an
through the prism of a language many coloured and
richly storied than from the contemplation of an inner
world of individual emotions mirrored perfectly in a
lucid supple periodic prose?1^

Another important device which Joyce used with the aid of language

was the epiphany. In this device, he repeatedly uses a word, sound or

pattern to describe (not conventionally, but through the character's own

consciousness) a character. From this basic description, so often repeated,

the reader gets an etherealized picture of the character because that charac

ter has finally come to symbolize something rather than somebody. Thus

the reader's impression of that character ceases to be visual and depends

TCenner, op. eit., p. 139.

Quoted in Dorothy Hoare, Some Studies in the Modern Novel (Phila

delphia, 1953)i PP. Wfc """"""
 17

on the ear to pick out the sounds (in the "stream") which characterize the

character. In Joyce's own words,

'By an epiphany he meant a sudden spiritual mani

festation, whether in the vulgarity of speech
of gesture or in a memorable phase of the mind
itself. He believed that it was for the man of
letters to record these episodes with extreme care,
seeing that they themselves, are the most delicate
and evanescent of moments.'"

Joyce's definition and explanation of the epiphany as quoted above is very

important to an understanding of his literary technique. The use of the

epiphany is the eaiperienee he undergoes when he gains the "psychic distance"

of the artist. Most frequently he uses the epiphany to reveal characters

without giving any interpretation of their actions, having the characters

kk
themselves reveal the meaning directly to the reader.

As further indication of the wealth of devices which can be found in

his books, Friedman has pointed to the poetry in the works. J This should

not be surprising when one remembers Dujardin's definition of the monologue

interleur. Consequently, alliteration, assonance, onamatopoeia, spoonerisms,

not to mention rhythm and rhyme, can be found in the later books. The use

of drama and verse forms represents the newest device in the stream of con

sciousness technique. In Ulysses, Joyce turns to the use of a complete

dramatic scene. In an excellent essay in which he shows the influence of

Henrik Ibsen on Joyce's dramatic technique and characterization, James

Farrell concludes that the significance of time in Joyce's works - the

JQuoted in Irene Hendry, "Joyce's Epiphanies," James Joyce; Two De

cades of Criticism, p. 27-
kk
Ibid., PP 27-31.

^iedman, op. cit., pp. 18-23

 18

brevity of action - was a direct gift from Ibsen. He also shows that Joyce

probably inherited the idea of epiphany from Ibsen.

The dramatic method and its relationship to poetry in prose is the

goal to which Joyce's work aspires (see A Portrait...). This method entails

the objectivism of the author and finally his complete disappearance. The

goal of the method is to allow the mind of the character to be revealed

directly to the reader rather than reported to him as second hand fact.

The reader, who is spectator and listener, moves from his second-hand posi

tion to the direct angle of vision. There is no explanation or moralizing,

the story tells itself as the pages are turned. Episode and action are

purely scenic and nothing which is not pertinent to the "present moment"

gets in. Once an episode is over, nothing happens until a new one begins.

The story is limited to the sense perceptions of the character. The action

lies in the consciousness of a particular character, the story or growth

of his soul or the changing history of his temperament. ' When these

factors are present, "true drama" exists. Its definition can be plainly

put.

In the tale that is quite openly and nakedly some

body's narrative there is this inherent weakness,
that a scene of true drama is impossible. In true
drama nobody reports the scenej it appears, it is
constituted by the aspect of the occasion and the
talk and the conduct of the people....When it is
open to the author to withdraw from it /an actor's
particular point of view/ silently and to leave the
actor to play his part, true drama...is always
possible....Nothing is wanting save only that di
rect, unequivocal sight of the hero which the

"James T. Parrell, "Exiles and Ibsen," James Joyce: Two Decades

of Criticism, pp. 95-131* passim.

Lubback, "The Strategy of Point of View," Critiques and

Essays on Modern Fiction: 1920-1951, pp. 9-11.
 19

method does indeed absolutely forbid.

Mr. Lubbaekb limitations on the true dramatic form are acceptable with

the exception that the "direct, unequivocal sight of the hero" is possible.

Joyce managed to avoid the dangers which the dramatic artist must face. In

Ulysses and Finnegans Wake he has so worked out the dramatic method that the

story can proceed without any hint of a continuous life proceeding behind

the action. That is, the action in the later novels, nor in the first for

that matter, does not depend upon conventions of time and place. This is

found to be unnecessary because Joyce has made use of the device known as

montage or spatialization.

There are two recognizable attitudes toward art; one is based on co

existence in space, the other in time. All art deals in both, but the method

of showing the relationship between the two differs from artist to artist.

The method of seeing this relationship is a necessary ingredient in any aes

thetic theory. One critic has traced Joyce's attitude toward the relation

ship to the theories of Nicholas of Cusa and Bruno of Nola, early philoso

phers who believed in the ultimate coincidence of all contraries. This co

incidence is a necessary part of reality. Joyce say the space-time relation

ship "as contraries with durational flux as the only true reality."^ This
means that Joyce saw the necessity for presenting the "action" in a new

fluid medium of durational flux, a new time which, for want of a better

expression, can be called the prolonged present which is a blending of

"then's now with now's then."50

Ibid., pp. 14-5.

%hiv K. Kumar, "Space-Time Polarity in Finnegans Wake," Modern

Philology, LIV, 230-33.
 20

Joyce's concept of the relationship of space and time has been

compared to a technique in the production of movies. This is called montage.

The producer of Theodore Drieser's American Tradegy, Sergei Eisenstein, says

that external montage is an excellent method for

'presenting, as it were, the play of thought within

the dramatis personae - the conflict of doubts, of
bursts of passions, of the voice of reason, by quick
movement, or slow movement, emphasizing the difference
in the rhythms by this one and that, and at the same
time, contrasting the almost complete absence of out
ward action with the feverish inward debates behind
the stony mask of the face. '?

Outside of the movies and in fiction, montage is a device for controlling

movements in works which employ the stream of consciousness technique. It

shows multiple or dimensional views of one subject. It allows freedom of

movement unlike that of clock progression. It allows a shifting of tense

elements. Two kinds of montage involves the fixation of the subject in

space and the mobilization of consciousness; space-montage involves the

fixation of time and the fluidity of spaee. These two types allow co

existence of the inner and outer life to be depicted.

These then are some of the technical devices which can be found in

Joyce's works as evidence of his employment of the stream of consciousness

technique. Using them to make the direct and indirect interior monologues

more effective, Joyce was able to give form to a technique which seemed

basically formless. Because of his skill as a technician, Joyce has over

come the objections which have been made to this kind of fiction. The

objections have been based on (l) the necessity for the reader's trusting

Quoted in Levin, ojo. _cit, p. 156.

52
Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness In The Modern Hovel, pp. ^9-50.
 21

to the author for honesty in presenting logical thought patterns, and

(2) the inclusion of seeming irrelevancies- musings, cogitations, ineon^lete

thoughts - which interfere with an observance of the unities.^

It has been said that all of Joyce's works are about the same thing

and that each is but a part of the whole picture. It has also been said

that the novels develop in complexity in chronological order. If this is

true, there seems no better approach to an analysis of technical development

than to follow the order in which the "parts of the whole" were written.

For this reason, the next chapter will be concerned with A Portrait_of the

Artist as a Young Man.

53
Gorman, loe. cit.
 CHAPTER II

JOYCE'S EARLY WORK II THE LIGHT OF THE SIEEAM OF

CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUE

The most obvious approach to Joyee's aesthetic theory is by way of

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young_Man But even this direct approach

needs some directional guides from the general background of the school of

aesthetics (if this can be said to apply to Joyce figuratively, for he

belonged to no formal literary school) to which his novels belong. How

ever, because the writer laid a certain amount of stress on formal aesthe

tics, Joseph Beach has placed him in the "Art for Art's Sake" school of

thought which stressed the independence of the artist in choosing his sub

ject, and which saw a disparity between art and life which resulted in

the forsaking of society for literature and art. One particular branch

of this school was the Bloomsbury Group (Woolf, Forster and Strachey, among

others). Although Joyce did not belong to the group, his views of art were

akin to theirs. Their approach to art can be summarized as:

There is a common respect for the things of the

spirit; a belief that the inner life of the soul is much
more important than the outer life of action or the
outer world of material things...a desire that man
shall be whole and express himself emotionally as well
as intellectually; a love of truth and of beauty....
a profound respect for art, and a conviction that
form is as important to a work of art as content; that,
indeed, the two are inseparable since the artist cannot
egress emotions and ideas adequately except in signi
ficant form.2

"TBeach, op. eit., p. 550.

2
J. K. Johnstone, The Bloomsbury Group (New York, 195^)> P 375

22
 23

Aligning Joyce's beliefs (which have not been stated herein yet) with

theirs, one can see similarities! like them he saw the necessity for sensi

bility and intellect! like them, he saw that the novel should have aesthetic

unity and be a vision of life at the same time! like them, he believed that

form cannot be dictated but must be found intuitively! and finally, like

them, he reflected the emphasis on the artist as an independent individual

abiding by no rules except his own intuition.

The question has been raised as to just who the artist implied in

the title of Joyce's book is. The answer has been given that "the artist

in the title of Joyce's book is not the artist generieally. It is a state

ment of the forces that produced Ulysses...Joyce knew the work he envisioned

must make him as lonely a man as ever lived, however excitedly the left wing

and the left bank might applaud him."^ Golding's statement implies the
autobiographical content of Joyce's first full-blown novel. It also implies

the realization which Joyce is beginning to have that the artist must be

aloof and independent of socio-political ties. The realization becomes an

enlightenment when in A Portrait, Stephen - Joyce contemplates his own name

/Stephen DedalusJ and s@@s *be "symbol of the artist forging anew in his

workshop out of the sluggish matter of the earth a new soaring impalpable

imperishable being."^
So much emphasis has been given to the autobiographical elements of

the book that one critic felt free to acclaim that "...Stephen Dedalus,...

the chief character in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is James

%olding, op. cit., p. 37*

Ibid.
 2k
_ _5
Joyce recollected in tranquility." /0g/ Other critics have seen the

artist as a modified version of Joyce. For example,

In one sense, Joyce modifies Stephen's theories.

He grants to the artist the right, even the need,
to form at least a partial compact with life.
Bat he also extends and intensifies Stephen's
theory, for the partial compact releases the
artist from the man and provided him with the
conditions under which, burden-free, he can best
work.6

Most critics concur that the book is the record of a self exiled artist,

following in the footsteps of Ibsen, Dante and Swift. Hie Stephen of A

Portrait and later of Ulysses, deserts Ireland and all it represents. What

he will seek to replace his displaced home, country and Church becomes the
7
climax of the novel. The declaration of exile comes fairly early in the

novel whan Stephen declares that

'I will not serve that in which I no longer believe,

whether it call itself my home, my fatherland or my
Church; and I will try to express myself in some mode
of life or art as freely as I can and as wholly as I
can, using for my defence the only arms I allow my
self to use, silence, exile and cunning.'

The most characteristic trait of Stephen, both in that statement

and throughout the two novels in which he "stars' is pride of intellect.

He has escaped from life into himself and turns to laugh scornfully at

^Joseph Prescott, "James Joyce: A Study in Words," PMLA, LIV (March,

1939), *

Maurice Beebe, "James Joyce: Barnacle Goose and Lapwing," PMLA,

LXXI (June, 1956), 320.

7
William York Tindall, James Joyce: His Way of^Interpjreting the
Modern World (Hew York, 195O)7"ppI 7-8. "

James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist As a Young Man, Introduction

by Herman Gorman (lew York, 1920K), p. 29X "~~"
 25

others as at himself. He has, because of this scornful tone, caused cri

tics to see him as a parody of Joyce or as the author's wish fulfillment.

It seems hardly likely, since this is an older Joyce recreating the

9
thoughts and artistic theories of a young enthusiast. Prom reading most

of the critics on both sides of the question, it seems safe to conclude

that the theories which Stephen expounds are at least partly those of Joyce.

Stephen-Joyee gives his purpose as an artist as "to discover the modes

of life or of art whereby your spirit could express itself in unfettered

freedom."^" IMs statement of the need for freedom for true artistic
expression reflects the autobiographical facts of Joyce's exile from Ire

land to Europe. Kiis freedom-seeking remained a lasting incentive in the

author's life. His attitude toward society and man has sometimes been

attacked as bitter and clothed in satire. Tindall reassures the reader

that Joyce was more contemplative than satiric, saying that he was "less

concerned with what is wrong with man than with the nature of man and the

power of creation...." He sought to "create proudly out of the power of

his soul, as the great artificer whose name he ^/pedalus/ ha^> a living thing,

new and soaring and beautiful, impalpable, imperishable."

Most of the aesthetic theory of Joyce is given in the last pages of

A Portrait. The chapters in the book reveal the upward growth of the boy

'Tindall, James Joyce; His Way of JCntgrpreting the Modern World,

pp. 15-17-

10Joyce, op. eit., p. 290.

Tindall, James Joyce: His Way of Interpreting the Modern World,
p. 7.
12
Ibid.
 26

to the young artist, Stephen; consequently, the style of the chapters cor

responds to the stages of growth. (This pattern will be viewed in terras

of the stream of consciousness technique.) According to the theory which

Stephen expounds to his friend Lynch, there are three forms of art; lyrie,

epic and dramatic (in the order of aesthetic importance). It has been said

that A Portrait represents the lyric form, Ulysses, the epic, and Finnegans

Wake the dramatic.^

The passage in which Stephen expresses the artistic theory is perhaps

one of the most popular ones in A Portrait.

!Die image, it is clear, must be set between the mind

or senses of others. If you bear this in memory you
will see that art necessarily divides itself into
[ three forms progressing from one to the next. These
* forms are; the lyrical form, the form wherein the artist
presents his image in immediate relation to himself;
the epical form, the form wherein he presents his image
p in mediate relation to himself and to others; the dra
matic form, the form wherein he presents his image in
immediate relation to others.'^

^ Furthermore, Stephen says, the forms are not always clear and distinctly
separate.

'Even in literature, the highest and most spiritual

art, the forms are often confused. The lyrical form is
i in fact the simplest verbal vesture of an instant of
emotion, a rhythmical cry such as ages ago cheered on
the man who pulled at the oar or dragged stones up a
slope. He who utters it is more conscious of the instant of
emotions than of himself as feeling emotions. The simplest
epical form is seen emerging out of lyrical literature when
the artist prolongs and broods upon himself as the centre
of an epical event and this form progresses till the artist
himself is equidistant from the centre of emotional gravity
and from others. The narrative is no longer purely per
sonal, the personality of the artist passes into the nar
ration itself, flowing round and round the persons and

, op. cit., p.

Joyce, op. eit., pp. 250-51.

 27

the action like the vital sea.... The dramatic form is

reached when the vitality which has flowed and eddied round
each person fills every person with such vital force "W18-*,,-
he or she assumes a proper and intangible esthetic life.' 3

He saw his life as an effort to extend the lyrical and narrative into the

dramatic form, thus becoming the impersonal artist dramatizing himself ob

jectively. The goal of his life was the point at which

'the personality of the artist, at first a cry or a

cadence or a mood and then a fluid and lambent
narrative, finally refines itself out of existence,
impersonalizes itself, so to speak. The esthetic
image in the dramatic form is life purified in and
reprojected from the human imagination. The mystery
of esthetic like that of material creation is accom
plished. The artist, like the God of the creation,
remains within or behind or beyond or above his
handiwork, invisible, refined out of existence, in
different, paring his fingernails.tlb

Stephen wishes to go beyond Aquinas and to establish a "new terminology and

IT
a new personal experience." '

This personal esqperienee becomes a necessary part of the artist

creating - or that picture which is given of Stephen's mind at work. He

ambers along in a semi-dream state of inspiration and the lines and rhym

of a villanelle become the material result of his "consciousness." At this

stage, the reader is given Stephen's thoughts, through Joyce, trusting his

honesty as the objective recorder of consciousness. The reader does not

know the association which Stephen's mind makes of each word nor the emo

tional content. He can only get the writer's lines as a result of mental

activity of memory. Stephen remembers a girl in scenes in which he has

pp.

l6Xbid., p. 1*81.
^., pp. 2hrj-hG.
 28

has seen her, then rejects her In jealousy and anger, doing to her image

what he wished to do to her. He calls himself "a priest of eternal imagi

nation, transmitting the daily bread of experience into the radiant body

of everliving life." These are the thoughts of a youthful, enthusiastic

Stephen crying,

Welcome, 0 Life.' I go to encounter for the millionth

time the reality of experience and to forge in the
smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my
race.rl9

This; then, is the Stephen, prior to exile, stating his mission as

an artist. As he grows older, he sees that his mission can never be completed

as long as he is an integral part of Irish society. He realizes that his

purpose places his above ordinary men - as Dedalus he must fly above the

world. By the time of the last chapter of A Portrait, he has grown Into

an arrogant, rebellious aesthete, part Aquinas, part Aristotle and part

Dedalus. The Aristolean part has expressed Itself in terms of Beauty.

Beauty expressed by the artist cannot awaken in us an

emotion which is kinetic or a sensation which Is purely
physical. It awakens, or ought to awaken, or induces, or
ought to induce, an esthetic stasis, an ideal pity or an
ideal terror, a stasis called forth, prolonged and at last
dissolved by what I call the rhythm of beauty.-
What is that exactly? - asked Lynch.
Rhythm - said Stephen - is the first formal esthetic
relation of part to part in any esthetic whole or of
an esthetic whole to its part or parts or of any part
to the esthetic whole of which It is a part.-

-Art- said Stephen - Is the human disposition of sen

sible or intelligible matter for an esthetic end.'20

l8Ibid., p. 260.
19Ibid., p. 299.
2QIbid., pp. 241-42.
 29

He is now the epitome of the self alienated artist whose view of art de

mands no rules except those which are self imposed. He has recognized ob

jectivity as the greatest need for the modern artist. He now sees every

action as significant and insignificant at the same time - thus eliminating

the problem of selectivity. *-

Climaxing the novel, Joyce gives pages from Stephen's diary which

restate the themes of the book and foretell those of Ulysses. These themes

are those of exile from home, love, Church and nation and the dedication

of his life to art. Each critic has noted a connection in theme in all of

Joyce's works and an upward development in technique. Irene Hendry points

out that his constant theme is "...the life of man, and his own life was

devoted to writing piece by piece a vast Human Dragedy, an epiphany of all

mankind, in which a profound anthropological sense of the mystery and power

of death takes the place of the Christian traditional faith in union with

God and the life everlasting."22

Each of the novels thus marks a stage. Dubliners, the collection of

short stories, reveals the restraint and discipline of the conventional

artist, with only hints of what is to become the technique of the master.

Stephen Hero is the catalogue of his mental and spiritual growth, but given

in the restrained fashion of the early period. A Portrait, autobiography

in generalities reduced from the particular facts of Stephen Hero, is

revealing, for it contains the first real indication of the freedom which

came to characterize the later style. Ulysses presents the fully grown

artist in exile and independence, but contains the reunion scene of the

Daiches, The Present_Age_ln British Literature, pp.

22
Hendry, op. cit., p. 38.
 30

wandering artist and his "father." Finnegans Wake is the climax of the

growth and symbolizes the eccentricities of the artist "refined out of

existence." Another interpretation of the growth of the artist has been

given by Hendry who sees a converse movement in the artistic pattern. She

says that A Portrait stresses the artist's movement from the personal to

the impersonal in theory, but in practice, Joyce's movement is from a phy

sical level to a conscious knowledge of the artist's "will" in A Portrait,

from an impersonal, direct statement to the pessimistic subjective expres

sions of "will" in Ulysses and finally, to an expressiveness which exalts

the "will" through the word in Finnegans Wake.

Two things are certainly recognizable in all of Joyce's novelsj the

first is that each book has the familiar setting of the rejected Irish home

land, and the second is that the differences in the novels is a difference

of technique. The goal for the technique has been clearly stated in A Portrait.

It remains now to see how the technique in each book does differ.

Although Dubliners is not a novel and therefore not be considered

here in the analysis of the novels on the basis of the stream of conscious

ness technique, it is important inasmuch as it is a collection of character

sketches. Many of the characters will reappear in Ulysses. It will not need

a detailed analysis, for its emphasis is mainly on a depiction of the Irish

background.

Gerhard Friedrlch had an interesting theory as to Joyce's purpose in

Dubliners. Joyce has already stated that his purpose is to write '"a chapter

23
Ibid., p. 39-
 31

of the moral history of my country and....^iyr chose Dublin for the scene

because the city seemed to me the centre of paralysis."1 Friedrich

believes that Joyce viewed the fifteen stories of the book as fifteen move

ments of a musical composition whose conception came to him upon mental

play on three words: "paralysis, gnomon and simony." This is based on

Joyce's association of paralysis with the word gnomon in Euclid and simony

in the catechism. He then undertook to treat gnomonie existence, or "slanted

and incomplete areas of human relationships...."^ Friedrieh's theory is

interesting because it stresses the importance which Joyce as an author

placed on mental association, so that his use of it as a device for controlling

the "stream" of his character's consciousness is understandable.

In Dubliners as in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man the narration

takes place through the third person point of view and occasionally through

the consciousness of Stephen. Even when it is third person, there is the

feeling that the view is internal, rather than external. In other words,

the narrator-observer is not an alien but one whose impressions make up the

reality of the novel. By using sensory impressions, Joyce can make past,

present, memory, contemplation, daydreams and hallucinations open to the

reader.2 In Stephen Hero, the first draft of A Portrait, the style and
technique are conventional. !Ehe work serves as a good basis of comparison

for the later works whose styles show a great deal of refinement. The

ok
Quoted in Gerhard Friedrich, "Gnomonie Clue to James Joyce's Dubliners,"
Modern Language Motes, LXXII (June, 1957), ^21.

25Ibid., pp. 421-22.

26
Tindall, James Joyce; His Way of Interpreting the Modern World,
pp. 40-41.
 32

details presented are not as selective as they are in later works, and

there is a use of dialogue between characters which is later replaced by

the interior monologue device. '

The technique of Joyce as a stream of consciousness writer begins

properly with the opening pages of A Portrait where the story told to the

infant Stephen is given. The identity of the storyteller is not related,

but the reader imagines that Stephen's mother is reading to him. There are

no quotation marks as in conventional dialogues. Then one realizes that

these are not real words, but the in medias res stream of preconsciousness.

The story, in the language of a young child, becomes indicative of the quality

of, or the epiphany of Stephen's mind at that age. .As Stephen grows, the

language changes to that of an adolescent, and finally becomes the philoso

phical words of a young aesthete about to launch his career as an artist.

The style shifts according to the epiphany. The interior monologue is not

used throughout, but when it is, it is important that time situations can

be leaped, so that without formal easplanation, the narrative shifts from

scene to scene as the assoeiational patterns permit. So that Stephen,

seen from the Clongowes schoolroom, can abruptly be at the Christmas dinner

at home, because something in his "stream" has suggested Christmas to him.

Thus, by revealing the mind of Stephen, Joyce gives the reader his

character's conceptions of absolute reality. Stephen's attitudes toward

Dublin are not black and white objective statements, but Dedalus - colored

impressions, because the progressive narrative of the story is given in

27
'James Joyce, Stephen Hero^A^Part of the First Draft of A Portrait
of the Artist as a Young Man, edited from manuscript in Harvard College
Library by Theodore Spencer (Hew York, 19^*0, Pjlgjjim.
 33

reflections from the mirror of his consciousness. The whole story reflects

the peculiar point of view of a lonely, introspective boy growing into a

lonely, introspective young man.2 Three different devices are employed

to give the e^erience of the growth of Stephen. In the early sections,

the indirect interior monologue is used. Incidents are given by the use

of objective details which the young boy is not old enough to evaluate. As

he grows older, he grows more selective, so that his first extensive monologue

is self questioning. In it h ponders his identity. Because there is no

complete use of the device, the monologue seems detached from the rest of

the chapter.

'Stephanas Dedalos ' Bous Stephanoumenas.' Bous Stephaneforos.'

Their banter was not new to him and now it flattered his
wild proud sovereignty. Now, as never before, his
strange name seemed to him a prophesy. So timeless
seemed the grey warm air, so fluid and impersonal his
own mood, that all ages were as one to him....Now, at
the name of the fabulous artificer, he seemed to hear
the noise of dim waves and to see a winged form flying
above the waves and slowly climbing the air. What did
it mean? Was it a quaint device opening a page of some
medieval book of prophecies and symbols, a hawklike man
flying sunward above the seas, a prophecy of the end he
had been born to serve and had been following through
the mists of childhood and boyhood, a symbol of the
artist forging anew in his workshop out of the sluggish
matter of the earth a new soaring impalpable imperish
able being?

His throat ached with a desire to cry aloud, the cry of

a hawk or eagle on high, the cry piercingly of his
deliverance to the winds. This was the call of life
to his soul...?

James T. Farrell, "Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young

Man," James Joyce;_ .Two^_Decades of Criticism, pp. 185^87^ ' "
29
'Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as A Young Man, pp. 196-97
 The use of the third person pronoun indicates that this device is the in

direct interior monologue. Stephen's mind has grown so that he can asso

ciate his name with all the symbols of Dedalus and can think of himself

as belonging to all ages as the mind before him.

Also in this section, Joyce's awareness of the importance of sense

impressions is brought out in constant allusions to Aristotle's theory of

possibility. This, in the stream of consciousness technique, means that

sight and sound make in^ressions on the human mind during perception and

afterwards in memory. Stephen's view of the world is thus affected and his

"stream becomes an expression of ineluctable modality in the mind, a realm

of seemingly infinite possibilities whose realization is uncertain and often

subject to chance."* Two examples of Stephen's reactions to his senses

are given below:

Hie faint sour stink of rotted cabbages came towards

him from the kitchen gardens on the rising ground above
the river. He smiled to think that it was this dis
order, the misrule and confusion of his father's house
and the stagnation of vegetable life, which was to win
the day in his soul. Then a short laugh broke from
his lips as he thought of that solitary farmhand in the
kitchen gardens behind their house whom they had nick
named The Man with the Hat. A second laugh, taking rise
from the first after a pause, broke from him involuntarily
as he thought of how The Man with the Hat worked, consider
ing in turn the four points of the sky and then regretfully
plunging his spade in the earth.31

A smell of molten tallow came up from the dean's candle

butts and fused itself in Stephen's consciousness with
the jingle of the words, bucket and lamp and lamp and

Duncan, op. eit., p. 290.

31
Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, pp. 188-89.
 35

bucket.. The priest's voice* too, had a hard jingling

tone. Stephen's mind halted by instinct, checked by
the strange tone and the imagery and by the priest's
faee which seemed like an unlit lamp or a reflector
hung in a false focus. What lay behind it or within
it? A dull torpor of the soul or the dullness of the
thundercloud, charged with intellection and capable of
the gloom of God?32

Throughout the book, Stephen's consciousness reveals an intellectualism

which sets him above his peers. He is revealed as one who hordes experiences

for his own contemplation. Thought rather than action characterizes him,

but his thoughts pain him and leave scars on his personality. His thoughts

on the rector's sermons on Hell as the consequence of Sin are examples of

tfo'is as well as his reactions to his classmates at the Jesuit school.

But the word and the vision capered before his eyas as
walked back across the quadragle and towards the college
gate. It shocked him to find in the outer world a trace
of what he had deemed till then a brutish and individual
malady of his own mind. His monstrous reveries came
thronging into his memory. They too had sprung up before
him, suddenly and furiously, out of mere words. He had
soon given in to them, and allowed them to sweep across
and abase his intellect, wondering always where they came
from, from what dea of wondrous images, and always weak
and humble towards others, restless and sickened of him
self when they had swept over him.33

Stephen's trouble is the mingling of the conscious and subconscious states,

or the refusal of the levels to keep their plaeesj he is unable to control

the images from his mind, but must wait for them to subside. This is Joyce's

advance guard for Ulysses, in which Stephen and Bloom do not try to control

the subconscious level.

32Ibid., pp. 218-19.

33Ibid., p. 101.
 36

The fourth chapter of the book is almost a complete indirect mono

logue. It is the second stage of the growth of the consciousness and re

veals Stephen as he contemplates and ponders the decision which will shape

the remainder of his life. Should he become a Jesuit priest or should he

devote his life to art? It is the old question of participation vs. with

drawal. What happens to Stephen's mind at this stage is perhaps one of

the most important themes for the rest of the book and for Ulysses. At

this point, Stephen realizes the importance of the inner world of conscious

ness over the external world of physical phenomena. He takes upon himself

the task of experimentation with the "contemplation of an inner world of

individual emotions."^ The seashore scene at the end of the chapter can
be seen as a parallel to the one in Ulysses. It gives the reader the mind

in actual contemplation, allowing its consciousness to respond freely to

external phenomena (the sea, the girl, beauty). The revery of the precon-

scious state of Stephen reveals a level of consciousness not to be fully

explored until Finnegans Wake.

Yet, Joyce's presence is still felt in the stream of Stephen. The

thoughts which Stephen has are by way of the omniscient author rather than

directly from Stephen. In the passage below it is noticeable that Joyce

is merely recording his impressions of Stephen's mind; there is still the

feeling that the reader is looking at Stephen thinking, rather than hearing

him think.

As he descended the steps the impression which effaced

his troubled self communion was that of a mirthless mask
reflecting a sunken day from the threshold of the college.
....The troubling odour of the long corridors of Clongowes
came back to him and he heard the discreet murmur of the
burning gas flare. At once from every part of his being

3l|Tbid., pp. 170-200.

 37

unrest began to irradiate. A feverish quickening of his

pulses followed and a din of meaningless words drove his
reasoned thoughts hither and thither confusedly....
Some instinct, working at these memories, stronger than
education or piety quiekenpd within him at every near
approach to that life....3^

It is only in the fifth chapter that Joyce comes closer to the dramatic

technique or the complete interior monologue in the direct method. The

reveries of an older Stephen in Ulysses are anticipated in the daydreams

(preconsciousness) of young Stephen on a young girl. The imagination of

the artist is shown to be more elaborate than the real world and in highly

elated states, Stephen, the artist, is able to recreate the "liquid letters

of speech, symbols of the element of raystery, which flamed forth over his

brain."3& But if one compared Stephen's preeonseious thoughts in this

book with those of Molly in Ulysses, one can see that Joyce, in A Portrait,

has not arisen to his greatest heights as a stream of consciousness writer.

Here are Stephen's thoughts.:

The instant of inspiration seemed now to be reflected

from all sides at once from a multitude of cloudy circum
stances of what had happened or of what might have happened.
The instant flashed forth like a point of light and now from
cloud on cloud of vague circumstance confused form was veil
ing softly its afterglow. 01 In the virgin womb of the
imagination the word was made flesh. Gabriel the seraph had
come to the virgin's chamber. An afterglow deepened within
his spirit, whence the white flame had passed, deepening to a
rose and ardent light.... 37

In this passage there is the hint of the free association method which

is to be used more extensively in Ulysses and in Molly's rambling flux. How

ever, note that in Stephen's thoughts above, Joyce has not completely abandoned

his conventionalism. Time, place and action are aligned so that Joyce's role

as "chorus" to the "action" is still noticeable. Joyce admitted the importance

pp. 186-87

36 JMd., pp. 25^-263.

37 JMd., p. 255-
 38

of language in following and recording the stream of consciousness. Stephen

found himself glancing from one casual word to another on

his right or left in stolid wonder that they had been so
silently emptied of instaneous sense until every mean shop
legend bound his mind like the words of a spell and his
soul shrivelled up sighing with age as he waited on in a
lane among heaps of dead language. His own consciousness
of language was ebbing from his brain and trickling into
the very words themselves which set to band and disband
themselves in wayward rhythms:

The ivy whines upon the wall,

And whines and twines upon the wall,
The yellow ivy upon the wall,
Ivy, ivy, up the wall.3

So far Joyce's devices for following the stream of consciousness have

been rather mechanical and ephemeral. It is as if he lays down the rulesj

not to say that there is nothing noteworthy about the use of the technique

in A Portrait, rather the changes in style from chapter to chapter to show

the growth of the hero's mind is anticipating the changes in style from

episode to episode in Ulysses. The last chapters of the earlier book depict

Joyce's growth as a technician to a certain stage. During the interim be

tween the two books, there was a great spurt of growth. The reader has

been left in great expectancy by the closing lines of A Portrait. There is

an indication that the book does not mark the end of the technical growth,

but that the next book will be a continuation. But there is no hint that

Ulysses will be so profound and so full of technical virtuosity, or so

perfect an example of the stream of consciousness technique in full bloom.

3 Ibid., pp. 207-208.

 CHAPTER III

JOYCE'S USE OF THS STZEAM 0? CONSCIOUSNESS

IN THE LATER HOTELS

.Ulysses has been called the greatest stream of consciousness

novel in literature. It represents the culmination of the technique

and the greatest expression of impressions i^hich are the essence of

everyday life. It contains the record of thoughts, sense-impressions,

memozy, and experience. "Joyce has achieved an amasing air of reality,

a reality which proceeds not from ordinary external description but from

a reliance upon the psychological sensations presented to the mind."1

The year 1907 marked the turning point in Joyce's life and literary

outlook. At that time, as in A Portrait, he declared that he would no

longer serve the old literary gods, but would dedicate himself to founding

now ones. Zurich, where he took up residency after the self exile from

Ireland, was the seat of psychoanalysis (Freud and Jung). Joyce certainly
knew of the new interests and realised the literary possibilities.2 AH

the possibilities of psychological, a literary and artistic ideas are

put to work in .Ulysses. Because it is so full of devices Beach has

called it "a freak of nature, a thing sui generis, and hardly in any
proper sense a novel at all." He bases the accusations on these factors:

Richard Kain, Fabulous Voyager (Chicago, 191*7) pp. 1B-20

Hoffman, op_. cit., pp. 9h-95. 3Beach, op_. cit., p.)403

39
 1*0

lHysses_ had hardly any plot, only a series of ordinary oeeurenee, and it

lacks the dramatic elements. It is no surprise that so great a critic as

T. S. Eliot has defended Ulyj>se against this attack. He says:

I am not begging the question in calling Ulysses a novelj and

if you call it an epic it will not matter. If it.is not a novel,
that is simply "because the novel is a form which will no
longer servej it is because the novel, instead of being a
form, was simply the expression of an age which ted not suf
ficiently lost all form to feel the need of something stricter,
Mr. Joyce has written one novel - the Pjjrtrait; * * * I ^- no*
suppose that either of them/joyce or Wyndham Lewis)will ever
write another 'novel.' The novel ended with Flaubert and with
James. It is, I think, because Mr. Joyce and Mr. Lewis,
being in 'advance' of their time, felt a conscious or pro
bably unconscious dissatisfaction with the form, that their
novels are more formless than those of a dozen clever
writers who are unaware of its obsolescence.

Between the appearance of A Portrait and that of Ulysses, Joyce worked

hard on his technique. According to a biographer, he used "mnemonic notes,

rough drafts, underlined in an elaborate system of cross-reference in dif

ferent coloured pencils, each colour representing a theme or the relevance

of a particular phrase to a particular episode."-' Many people have claimed

that for all Joyce's devoted efforts, the work is still unreadable. William

Powell Jones has set out to make Joyce's books more readable by the "common

reader," and has set out in JamesiiiJoyce and the Common Reader to pave the

way to the later books by noting their kinship to the earlier ones. He

suggests that readers begin with Dubliners and A Portrait, giving special

attention to the beginnings of the development of themes, style and technique.

k
T. S. Eliot, "Ulysses, Order and Myth," James Joyce;i Two Decades of
Criticism, p. 201. .

Golding, op^jjit., pp. 170-71.

William Powell Jones, James Joyce and the Common Reader (Horman, 1955C)>
PP. 36-37.
 1,1

Perhaps the most facinating aspect of Ulysses is its style. It

is this which makes Stephen and Bloom, the main characters, independent.

The language is one device which makes the style so outstanding. The

point of view in the novel is also important, because, although Joyce

is much more interested in the "whatness" of characterization, rather

than the action, this determines the amount of realism which each

character has. Mr. Bloom represents Joyce's most multi-dimensional

character. Not only does Joyce allow his "stream" to expose him, but

he gives Bloom through other points of view as well. He is presented

dramatically, objectively, musically, subjectively, and through tra

ditional narration. This way there is no mystery surrounding him. The

whole presentation of character is worked out so that a new dimension

is reached. Levin's observation on the point of view devices has elicited

praise for Joyce:

y ignores the customary formalities of narration

and invites us to share a flux of undifl'erentiated experience.
Me are not told how the characters behave) we are confront-
with the stimuli that affect their behavior, and expected to
respond sympathetically. The act of communication," the bond
of sympathy which identifies the reader with the book, comes
almost too close for comfort. The point of view, the principles
of form which has served to integrate many amorphous novels, is
intimate and pervasive. Joyce's efforts to achieve immediacy
lead him to equate form and content, to ignore the distinction
between the things he is describing and the Tiord he is using
to describe them. In this equation, time is of the essence.
Events are reported7when and as they occurj the tense is a
continuous present.

Because Joyce's point of view in the novel is outside the author,

there has been considerable speculation as to the attitude which he has

for man. Humphrey maintains that as an artist viewing life, Joyce was

basically a writer of comedy. He says that in Ulysses, Joyce has reached

'Levin, op. cit., p.

 1*2

an objective distance where he can depict man's daydreams, mental delusions,

smallness and the disparity between his ideals and his attainment. He

contrasts the heroic and ordinary by using the internal monologue as a

mode of expression. All these ingredients are made realistic because

of the stream of consciousness method of presentation.d

If one reads Ulysses after A Portrait it becomes clear that the

technique in the later novel goes much further than that in the earlier.

Whereas in A Portrait the sentences seem complete thoughts and periods

are used to designate these, in Ulysses there is hardly any connection

between thoughts. Words seem to come haphazardly as the climax to the

mind's play. Once uttered or expressed, the consciousness flits off in

a completely new direction, based onlj on free association. But what seems

unconnected makes complete sense if one realizes that the style and subject

matter are interwoven and interdependent. Therefore, idioms are used to

suit situations and to suggest thoughts and actions. This is the Freudian
concept of association.

Freud's theories on the unconscious and the importance of slips of

the tongue in revealing suppressed feelings are well known. Joyce makes

use of some of the theories in his novel. Because the free association

method releases characters from the "niceties" of expression imposed by

society, Joyce has been accused of obscenity and for a long tiane Ulysses

was legally suppressed. So many scholarly investigations of Joyce's

technique have long ago led censors to gain the maturity with which the

Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel,p.16.

yIbid., pp.U3.Ju
i book must be approached. One of the most important attestments to the

book came from the judge whose decision aided in lifting the ban from the

\i book in America.

Joyce has attempted-it seems to me, with astonishing

I success-to show how the screen of consciousness with its
r ever-shifting kaleidoscopic impressions carries, as it
were on a plastic palimsest, not only what is in the focus
of each man's observation of the actual things about him,
but also in a penumbral zone residua of past impressions,
some recent and some drawn up by association from the domain
of the subconscious. He shows how each of these impressions
affects the life and behavior of the character which he is
describing.

What he seeks to get is not unlike the results of a

p double or, if that is possible, a multiple exposure on
a cinema film which would give a clear foreground with a
background visible but somewhat blurred and out of focus
in varying degree.

To convey by words an effect which obviously lends

itself more appropriately to a graphic technique, accounts,...
for much of the obscurity which meets a reader of 'Ulysses'.
And it also explains another aspect of the book, which I
have further to consider,namely, Joyce's sincerity and his
honest effort to show exactly how the minds of his charac
ters operate.

If Joyce did not attempt to be honest in developing

the technique which he has adapted in 'Ulysses' the re
sult would be psychologically misleading and thus un
faithful to his chosen technique. Such an attitude would
be artistically inexcusable.1"

Judge Woolsey showed great foresight in reaching his decision. He refuted

the claim that the book contained pornographic sections and praised the

literary skills displayed in the work.

Other critics have acclaimed Ulysses for its wealth of devices from

almost all the arts. The use of music indicates Joyce's adaptation of

10Quoted from "The Decision of the U. S. District Court Rendered

December 6, 1933, by.Hon. John M. Woolsey, lifting the Ban on 'Ulysses,'
James Joyce, Ulysses (London, 1937), p. 751.
 kk

that art to his technique* The use of the leitmotiv, or the recurring

image, symbol, word or phrase which carries a fixed association with a

particular idea or theme, is the best instance of the inclusion of music

in the book, Stephen's remorse, given continuously in the image of his

dying mother, is a vivid example. The deathbed scene, in his conscious

ness, leads to many of his interior monologues.11 The concept of the

leitmotiv comes from fegner and has been particularly will adapted into

fiction. Another example of its use in Ulysses is seen throughout Bloom's

stream in the meaning which the words Ageridath Netaim comes to have for

him. He first encounters them in the first episode in which he appears-

the butchershop scene. At that time he associates them with the Orient,

then to his ancestral home. Later he connects them with sensuousness and

women, for the association with the Orient returns when he grows excited

looking at women's clothes. Finally, in the last episode in which he

appears, he is seen burning the paper on which the words appear, having

associated them with money and then with his financial failures.

The aspect which has caused most critical consideration has been that

dealing with Ulysses as myth or epic. In 122 M. Valery Larbaud wrote an

essay which completely changed the literary importance of the book, for

until then, its reading difficulties had hindered its recognition as the

masterpiece which it is. M. Laubaud pointed out that the book contains

"Tlumphrey, The Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel, p. 91.

12
Joyce, Ulysses, passim.
 16

a parallel to the Odyssey, which until then had been overlooked. ^ Then

in 1930, Joyce authorized Stuart Gilbert to print what became known as

the "official" interpretation of Ulysses, Gilbert's book gave much

weight to the Homeric Parallels which Joyce followed as a framework for

his modern epic. How no one doubts the epic parallels. * "/Jhether Joyce

parodies the Homeric epic or just uses the parallels as a framework for

his story has become the next issue* Some critics (Tiniall "> and S.

Foster Damon ) have given a symbolic interpretation of the parallel,

while others (Humphrey^ and Abele^-) have chosen to see Ulysses as a

burlesque on the Odyssey, Abele asserts that at the beginning of the

novel, incidents and characters to be taken at face value and in an

ironic-comic sense. He says that some scenes depict Bloom and Dedalus
19
as they are human ratner than as they represent something sore complicated.

The final word in this issue remains a problem for the critics3 it suffices

here to point out the storehouse of possibilities which Ulysses represents

to critics and general readers all^e.

Ulysses is the third step up on the ladder of difficulty in the

1-5Golding, ojj.cit., pp. 83-88.

"Philip Toynbee, "A Study of Ulysses," James Joyce; Two Decades of
Criticisnij p. 2U7.
15
"Tindall, James Joyce; Mis I lay of Interpreting the Modern vlorlci, passim.
16
'S. Foster Damon, "The Odyssey in Dublin," James Joyce; Tiro Decades
of Criticism, pp,2O3-2U3
17
Humphrey, The Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel,pp#9^-97.

16Abele, "Ulysses: The Myth of Myth, "PMIA, LXIX (June, 19$h)$ 359-36U
p.
 k6

development of Joyce's technique. Its style Is completely new, although

hinted at in the earlier book, in its objectivity, emphasizing the inner

thoughts of characters in a very detached way. It continues the central

of all the work - the

strive toward an inclusive mythopoetic vision embracing in

an archetypal pattern of fall, struggle and redemption
every mode of human activity; their bulk and complexity
derive from their method of counterpointing within this
pattern particular chains of actions at a dozen different
levels: physiological, psychological, esthetic, theolo
gical, erotic - even commercial.... Joyce's interest is
psychological in a more than clinical sense: he is a
man in quest of the meaning of life.20
Each one of Joyce's books ranks in the consciousness pattern; so far,

Dubliners and A Portrait have fitted into the first two levels. Ulysses

marks the third level- the subconscious- in which narrative action is

internalized. However, the two preceding levels are used and there is

the anticipation of the highest level- the unconscious. The various

levels of the patterns are determined by the different episodes.21 For

example, since the first episode is basically introductory, the level of

consciousness is "traditional." By the time of the third episode, the

level has become suited to the mental wanderings of Stephen and his free

mental associations. Or from Bloom's stream,

Blank face, /the paper/ Virgin, should say: /paper

confused with Martha Clifford/ or fingered only. Write
something on it: page. If not what becomes of them
/shift to thoughts about frustrations of women/ them
selves, /loose women/'^
The unconscious level is anticipated in the "Circe" episode where Stephen

and Bloom have hallucinations. Their thoughts and desires are disguised

with past thoughts. The whims of the subconscious come to the fore-

20Kenner, op. cit., pp.

21
Hoffman,
Hoffman, ojKcit.,
op_.___eit., pp.
pp 413-18.

Quoted In Hoffman, op. eit., pp. In8-19

 hi
23
ground in distorted images and the language is fittingly distorted*

This episode shows Joyce's understanding of psychoanalysis

One method of creating -unity for the streams which shift from one

level of consciousness of another is montage* Joyce used it as a kind

of verbal photography whereby flash back?, in time, close-ups or fade-

2k
outs of scenes present the characters from different angles simultaneously.

In the "Wandering Rocks" episode, Joyce has used this device to present

several incidents occurring at once through the recurrence of images

in the stream of Stephen and Bloom. The parallel adventures of the

heroes are tied together by the slipping in of similar trains of thought

into their consciousness. They may dwell on the same image at the

same time without being aware of it. Stephen and Bloom do not actually

become the completed father-son symbol until the Nightown scene, but

they have flitted across each other's path all during the day. The

maximum amount of space-time unity has been reached by Joyce through the

presentation of all the adventures in the limits of one day, June 16, 190l|,

consuming eighteen hours, and set in one city, Dublin.

Although the dating of the "action" seems to be a conformity to

the traditional unities, Joyce's innovations with montage have completly

reworked the space-time relationship* The unities are not adhered to

per se, for the external setting shifts many ways within the consciousness

of the characters, so that they may mentally visit any scene in their past

^Joyce, Ulysses, pp,1410-57It, passim*

Levin, loc.cit>
 48

experience. ^ The form which the novel has taken has been the subject of
much discussion. T. S. Eliot's ansver to the claim that Ulysses' fault

26
was its formlessness has been partially given. He has not been alone in

noting the perfect form which Uly_ss_es has. The divisions of the "action"

into eighteen episodes (corresponding to the Homeric) have given the book

a pattern which lifts it above criticism for formlessness. These episodes

bring the action to a new time zone- the prolonged present. The heroes

start their day at approximately the same time (eight o'clock) and they
27
move through similar adventure until the "parallel" lines "meet." Hie

episodes differ in style, but are linked by common themes and allusions.

These episodes have been analyzed from many points of view and with

varying results and interpretations. The leitmotiv device has already been

mentioned! it is not the only musical analogy seen in the book. The book

has been seen as a symphony in three distinct movements.2 Without alluding

to the musical analogy, other critics have divided the work into three units:

the first is composed of episodes one through three which deal with Stephen;

the second is composed of episodes four through eight and ten through thirteen,

which concern Leopold Bloom; and the other third is composed of episodes

fourteen through eighteen. 9

, The Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Hovel, pp. 87-90*

Supra, p. kO.

'S. Poster Damon, op. eit., pp. 214-15.

2"Toynbee, loc. cit.

29
^Golding, op. eit., p. 99.
 k9

Ttxe genius of Joyee is revealed in his presentation of the first two

episodes. For the most part these are given in objective detail, but in

Stephen's mental cojiment. These slips are not identified by the traditional

tags, but in the third episode it becomes clear that they belong to Stephen.

In this episode, Joyce abandons the indirect monologue and omniscient author

point of view for the direct interior monologue. Joyce's genius is further

revealed when the fourth episode opens the second section and the time moves

back to the same time as episode one, so that the reader enters Bloom's mind

at the same time that he entered Stephen's. The newspaper scene with Bloom

is a parallel to Stephen's seashore scene; each characterizes the conscious

ness of the individual character. Bloom is revealed as the ordinary man,

preoccupied with domestic, personal affairs, while Stephen is the intellectual

concerned with universals.

An analysis of the individual episodes should be a revealing indica

tion of the devices and different styles used to present the levels of

consciousness. Episode one is given in a great deal of straight narrative,

with the omniscient author filling in the details from Stephen's life since

he was last seen in AJPortrait. But Joyce's innovations begin to stand out

early, for he abandons the conventional quotation marks which indicate dialogue

and uses dashes to serve the same purpose, leaving monologues and straight

narrative in paragraph form. For example:

Shouts from the open window startling evening in

the quadrangle. A deaf gardner, aproned, masked
with Matthew Arnold's face, pushes his mower on
the sombre lawn watching narrowly the dancing motes
of grasshalms. /narrator's details^

To ourselves...new paganism...oraphales /Stephen's thoughts/

-Let him stay, Stephen said. There's nothing wrong with

 50

Mm except at night. /Stephen's dialogue/

In the second episode* the stream of consciousness technique is more

obvious. Phrases and words spoken are recalled in assoeiational. patterns.

For exan^le, Mr. Deasy's mention of Englishman makes Stephen think of one

thing and answer another because he knows that as a member of society, Mr.

Deasy expects a certain answer, so the unsolicited answer is suppressed.

-He knew what money was, Mr. Deasy said. He made money.
A poet but an Englishman, too. Do you know what is the
pride of the English? Do you know what is the proudest
word you will ever hear from an Englishman's mouth?

The sea's ruler. His sea cold eyes looked on the empty
bay: history is to blame: on me and on my words, un-
hating. /Stephen's thoughts^/
-That on his empire, Stephen said, the sun never sets.

The third episode opens without the presence of the author at all.

It represents an example of the dramatic form which ean exist without the

supporting author. Stephen is presented in isolation and the language be

comes more fragmentary to match the uneven flow of his "stream." Allitera

tion, agglutination, snatches of foreign languages, poetry and all kinds

of imagery makes up the stream.

Won't you come to Sandy mount,

Madeline the mare?

Rhythm begins, you see. I hear. A eataleetie tetra

meter of iambs marching, lo, gallopj decline to mare.3

Leopold Bloom is presented by the omniscient author at the beginning

of episode four (Calypso). The time is eight o'clock so that we can see

3 Joyce, Uljgssgs, P 5
31 Ibid., p. 28.

32Ibid., p.
 51

Bloom in his familiar surroundings with the things which will come to

occupy his consciousness during the course of the day. The reader learns

that Bloom's appetite leans toward the "viscera," that he is a cuckolded,

pathetic husband and that, above all, he is quite ordinary. Two hours pass

before episode five begins. As he moves about the streets the reader sees

how, by mental association, his mind works. As he thinks of the soap he

sees at the chemist's his mind wanders:

Brings out the darkness of her eyes ^folly's lotion/.

Looking at me, the sheet up to her eyes, Spanish, smiling
herself, when I was fixing the links in my cuffs.... Pure
curd soap, /sees soag/ Water is so fresh, anticipates
bath .... Hammam. Turkish. Message, /bathhouse nearby/
Dirt gets rolled up in your navel....Curious longing I.
/anticipates using tub as urinal/. ...Funeral be rather
glum /pignam's funeral^/-"

Episode six of the book is the funeral scene in which Bloom sees

Stephen, without realizing the significance of it, for the first time.

Stephen is on his way to the newspaper office where he and Bloom will

eventually bump into each other again. The ordinary content of Bloom's

mind is all that is revealed in the episode. His inferiority complex

about his wife and race are his major concerns.

The "Aeolus" or seventh episode is important because it shows Joyce's

ingenuity in directing the stream of consciousness. Bloom's mind is gently

guided along by the headlines which he sees in the newspaper office. These

are given in bold faced capitals. The captions are indicative of the

thought and word content of each section.

FROM THE FATHERS

'It was revealed to me that those things are good

which yet are corrupted which neither if they were
supremely good nor unless they were good eould be
corrupted. Ah, curse you.' That's Saint Augustine. '^

Ibid., p. 77.

3l+Ibid., p. 132.
 52

That is Stephen's consideration of and rejection of a maxim from the

Church fathers. Episode eight or "laestrygorians" carries the images back

to the fourth chapter in which Bloom's eating habits were given. In this

episode, the indirect monologue is used to emphasize his sensory impressions.

His heart astir as he pushed in the door of the

Burton restaurant. Stink gripped his trembling
breath: pungent meatjuice, slop of greens. See the
animals feed.

Men, men, men.

Couldn't eat a morsel here. Fellow sharpening knife

and fork, to eat all before him, old chap packing
his tooths. Slight spasm, full, chewing the cud.
Before and after. Grace after meals. Look on this
picture then on that....Get out of this.35

Episode nine gives the library scene in which Stephen e^ilains his

theory of the relationship of Hamlet to Shakespeare. It is an example of

the intelleetualism which characterises Stephen's "stream." Something of

the enthusiasm of the young Stephen of A Portrait is recalled in the young

egoist's zest with which he confronts his audience. There is nothing parti

cularly new in stream of consciousness technique in the episode, but the

continued link between style, narrative and dramative devices is noticeable.

The next episode yields many stylistic devices. It is the "Wandering Rocks"

episode in which the form and themes of the whole book are given in microcosm.

It gives a cross section of the characters of Dublin and each of the nine

teen minor episodes has an allusion which links it to the others. The

characters are presented partly in the details of the omniscient author

and partly by interior monologue.

35
Ibid., p. 158.
 53

Coming after the "Wandering Rocks" episode, episode eleven, the

"Sirens" provides a wonderful contrast in style and devices. It is the

most obvious in the use of musical devices. It is the musical elements

which are noticeable at the very opening:

Bronze by Gold Heard The Hooferons, Steelyrining.

Imperthnthn thnthnthn.

Later these leitmotivs are picked up and become major allusions to the

"action" of the episode. The lines from a song keep the musical analogy

constant throughout and keep the disjointed thoughts of Bloom, as he writes

a letter to Martha, in a pattern. The next episode, "Cyclops," is quite

conventional and the language and time remain that of dialogue between

Bloom and acquaintances. Its time is the past and is actually the retro

spective mind of Bloom, recreating the conversation, using historical present

tense.

'I was just passing the time of day with Old Troy of
the D. M. P...vhen who should I see dodging along
Stony Batter only Joe Bynes.

-Lo, Joe, says I....

-Soot's luck, says Joe....3'

This method of narration allows a new shift in the point of view, for Joyce

as omniscient author, does not shut off the thoughts of othersj instead he

allows the opportunity for Bloom to be seen through the eyes of other "ob

jective" characters, so that the reader feels he really knows Bloom from

all angles.

Ibid., p. 242.

Ibid., p. 277-
 Episode thirteen, "nausieaa" gives still another point of view.

In it, Gerty MaeDowell "brings out a new reaction in Bloom which is the

universal response of manhood to femininity. But the situation ends so that

the reader feels that Joyce is belittling the flirtation as a trivial reaction

of a trivial mind. The indirect interior monologue is used to present Gerty,

and then the point of view shifts to Bloom so that both are seen from two

points of view - internal and external, subjectively and objectively. Toward

the end of the episode Bloom's stream moves toward the unconscious level

as his desires distort his thoughts and allow his subconsciousness to come

to the surface.

0 sweety all your little girl white up I saw dirty

brace girdle made me do love sticky we two naughty
Grace darling she him half past the bed met him
pike hoses frillies for Roaul to perfume your wife
black hair heave under embon senorita young eyes
Mulvey plump years dreams return tail end Agendath
swoony lovey showed me her next year in drawers re
turn next in her next her next.3

This is most revealing in the light of Freudian slips of the tongue and anti

cipates a complete unconscious level as in Finnegans Wake and those bordering

levels in Molly's monologue later.

Next Joyce uses stylistic devices to symbolically present the history

and origin of the English language corresponding to the anticipated birth

of a baby in the hospital. The language is closely linked to the tension

which mounts as the time of birth approaches. Toward the end of the episode

the language is frenzied and incoherent. One of the most famous episodes

follows. The "Circe" episode has become famous; it is Joyce's example of

the pure dramatic form, with stage directions, etc.; it is better known as

38
'ibid., p. 365.
 55

the'Ilighttown" scene and employs all the levels of consciousness as It

progresses. Stephen's mind, distorted by alcohol, and Bloom's, by fatigue,

call up all the images, fantasies and hallucinations which have occurred

to them during the day. The episode also contains the climax to the theme

of the father-son quest when Stephen, seeing his mother's ghost, experiences

"an ideal terror; a stasis called forth, prolonged, and at last dissolved

by the rhythm of beauty"-*^ and finds his father, Bloom (at least Bloom
finds his son, Ruby-Stephen). Free association as a device is the method

of presentation for the levels. Joyce's abilities as a technician are

revealed here, if nowhere else in the book.

But he has not exhausted himself, for episode sixteen, "Eumaeus" is

given in a style which reflects the fatigue of the preceding episode. Com

pletely contrasting the dramatic seene, this episode is very conventional

in style, language and patterns, but its conventionalism, coming when it

does, is more remarkable than unfortunate. It reflects the fatigue felt

by the mind of Stephen and Bloom after the "Nighttown" scene's exhaustive

drain of their subconscious. It opens with the omniscient author's comment

on the aftermath of the foregoing seene.

Preparatory to anything else Mr. Bloom brushed

off the greater bulk of the shavings and handed
Stephen the hat and ashplant and bucked him up
generally in orthodox Samaritan fashion, which
he badly need. His Stephen's mind was not
exactly what you would call wandering but a bit
unsteady and on his expressed desire for some
beverage to drink Mr. Bloom,...hit upon an ex
pedient by suggesting, off the reel, the pro
priety of the cabman's shelter, as it was called, hardly a

39
Quoted in Golding, op. eit., p. 67.
 56

stones throw a-way near Butt Bridge, where they might

hit upon some drinkables in the shops of milk and
soda or a mineral....

The whole episode continues in dialogue and explanatory passages by the

omniscient author.

In the "ithaca," or seventeenth episode, the style again changes. In

contrast to the two preceding ones, its tone is crisp, coherent and highly

intellectual. The climax (or anticlimax) to the Bloom-Stephen quest is

given in rapid catechistie question and answer passages. The answers are

crammed with theories and facts from the external world of phenomena, but

the reactions to these are given in the "stream" patterns -which are indirect

and occasionally direct. Mental association is put to use throughout to

record these reactions to the questions and many of the images from the

subconscious minds of the two characters are explained and identified. In

the last pages, Bloom's increasing weariness from the day's adventures can

be seen through the levels of his stream as he prepares for bed.

With?

Sinbad the Sailor and Riribad the Tailor and Jinbad

the Jailor and Whinbad the Whaler and Ninbad the
Kailor and Finbad the Failer and Binbad the Bailer
and Pinbad the Pailer....

When?

Going to a dark bed there was a square round Sinbad the

Sailor roc's auk's egg in the night of the bed of all
the auks of the roes of Darkinbad the Brightdayler.

Where?

ko
Ibid., p. 575.

., pp. 697-98.
 57

The movement of Bloom's mind from the consciousness on the traditional

level to the unconscious level prepares the reader for the famous last

monologue- Molly's. This is Joyce's best example of the direct interior

monologue as it descends through the levels of consciousness and becomes

lost in pure unconscious states of sleep. The first noticeable device is

that of punctuation- the complete absence of any punctuation gives the

stream the natural flow which James has spoken of in his explanation of

the conscious states. Joyce's aesthetic theory has reached its peak in

the episode, for his presence as the author has been refined out of

existence. The intelleetualism which characterized his presence is com

pletely missing. Only her thoughts, feelings, fantasies and memories of

the past are given, presenting a marked contrast to the masculine minds

or streams of Stephen and Bloom. Her mind becomes representative of the

feminine image which is Flesh, not intellect. She shows none of the

restraints which society places on the consciousness, but flows on un

impeded, picking up the themes and images which have run throughout the

novel.

Humphrey has given an outlined analysis of the way in which Molly's

"stream" flows and shows how her mind uses sense impressions to form associa-

tional patterns;

Hears clock
1) imagines Chinese arising
2) anticipates (memory) the Angelus
3) imagines nun's sleep
k) anticipates next-door alarm
(the "alarm" stimulates her to attempt to control her
consciousness; counts)
Sees wallpaper
5) remembers star-shaped flowers
6) remembers lambard Street dwelling

ho
Ibid., pp. 698-7^2.
 58

7) remembers apron Leopold gave her

(Thought of Leopold; attempts to control consciousness)
Lowers lamp
8) reminded has to get up early
9) imagines the next day
10) imagines bake shop
11) shopping (imagination)
12) imagines making purchases
13) imagines receiving Dedalus
Ik) anticipates cleaning house
15) imagines entertainment for Dedalus
16) anticipates cleaning piano keys
17) imagines her attire
18) imagines flower for the table
19) imagines room swimming in roses
20) contemplates (memory and imagination) 'nature'
21) sees (imagination) panorama of nature
22) imagines argument she would give atheist;
(may as well stop the sun1
23) recalls statement of Leopold's during
courtship
2k) recalls scene of courtship
25) recalls details of Gilbraltor
26) recalls details of courting
27) fade- ^S

Humphrey's analysis shows how sense perceptions on the conscious level lead

to associational images on other levels. The thoughts gradually move internally

and she goes to sleep- completely unconscious. All the associational verbs}

images, anticipates, remembers, contemplates, and recalls, indicate the factors

of memory, sense and imagination.

Thus Joyce has distinguished between characters by the tone of their

consciousness. Stephen's mind is presented as the smooth, intellectual

flow of the aesthete and scholar, while Bloom's stream is interrupted, jerky

and greatly influenced by external factors. His stream becomes increasingly

difficult to fathom because, in each episode, new smaller streams flow in,

mingling and stirring up the main stream. Stephen, unless he is drunk - as

in "Nighttown," seems more in control of his stream. Molly's stream comes

ki
Humphrey, The Streamjgf_Consciousness in the Modern Novel, pp. k6-J.
 59

to symbolize the essential being of every woman. Each character has moved

from the general depiction, through the omniscient author, through the

particular, their own streams, and finally to the essence of character - the

epiphany.

It has been said that the chronology of Joyce's novels is also the

indication of the gradation of difficulty. Finnegans Wake remains as the

level. It narks the result of Joyce's "search for the universal to the

ultimate world of dreams where names and shapes are constantly shifting,

and where people, places, and events refuse to follow a realistic, or even

kk
logical pattern. Or in the words of Philip Toyribee:

lJLgses remains pitifully and preposterously unread....

It may be that Finnegans__Wjake, from which almost everybody
has felt himself excused, has thrown back the protection
of a reflected obscurity onto its predecessor. And in
deed Finnegans Wake would have to be a university course
of its own, if it were to be digested in a three year
course.... 5

Hie reader has not had three years to digest Finnegans Wake, indeed the time

limit placed on the digestion has been tremendously felt, but it is hoped

that the result of the perusal of the book will not be completely futile.

The authors of A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake agree that the book

is the logical culmination of Joyce's aesthetic theory and stream of con

sciousness technique. They say:

From the beginning, he strove to let the essential nature

of the subject matter dictate and shape his style: Dub-
liners he wrote for the most part in a style of scrupulous

William Jones, op. cit., pp. 4Q-4l.

lj.5
Toynbee, ogJL_eit., pp.
 60

meanness| to natch the society it portrayedj in A

Portrait of the Artist as amYoung Man the style "~
matures with the growth of the hero. In Ulysses,
it follows the modalities of the advancing day
across a city burned -out cliches.
And in Finnegans Wake, it sinks with the sun and
enters the world of night logjp, there to take on
the crowding shapes of dream.45
All critics agree that Joyce's technique in Finnegans Wake is one of great

complexity. It is on a level beyond that given in Ulysses,, unless one

thinks in terms of the last episode. It is Joyce's fulfillment of the

dramatic goal - wherein the artist renders himself invisible in his works.

No objective world is given until the next to the last chapter when the

hero-dreamer leaves the unconscious level and temporarily returns to the

conscious level so that his identity and other objective details are clari

fied.

The unconscious level of the stream of consciousness technique shows

Joyce's interest in the theories on the unconscious mind which were preva

lent at the time of the witing of this book. He was interested in dis

coveries of the innermost reservoirs of human consciousness, realizing

that only there could the real organs of human behavior be discovered.

He sensed that these organs of behavior are most actively at work during

sleep, so he chose "night logic" as his area of knowledge and created a

hi
special dream language to make it understandable. He had many predeces

sors in the use of the dream theme. The Bhagavad-Gita, Ovid's Mejtamgrjghoses_,

Dante's Inferno and Chaucer's The House of Fame. He undoubtedly knew the

^Joseph Campbell and Henry M. Robinson, A Skeleton Key to Finnegans

Wake (Hew York, 19^c), pp. 357-58.
w
Ibid., pp. 360-61.
 6l

theory of sleep In mythology and metaphyscls, where the individual in sleep

metamorphoses into an eternal primal conscious substance which has unlimited

wisdom. He becomes the seer of Mankind. Earwieker in Finnegans Wake Is

one such seer. He becomes the mythological cosmic giant, dreaming a dream

of the world.1*8
Carl Jung has expanded the theories of William James on the nature

of unconsciousness. In his book, Psychology of the Unconscious he says:

We can, in the following manner, complete these

definitions of William James.... Here, in the
unconscious, thinking in the form of speech ceases,
image crowds upon image, feeling upon feeling;
more and more clearly one sees a tendency which
creates and makes believe, not as it truly is, but
as one indeed might wish it to be. The material of these
thoughts which turns away from reality,, can naturally
be only the past with its thousand memory pictures. The^n
customary speech calls this kind of thinking 'dreaming.'

Finnegans^ Wake still presents a special problem in the analysis of

the stream of consciousness technique. This is because it can not be

easily digested into episodes or into distinct monologues of different

characters. Its greatest difficulty is, paradoxically enough, presented

by its greatest innovation - the realm of the unconscious sustained for a

complete book. Its very internality makes it necessary to see everything

from the inside out, rather than yica versa. The only clue is that the

whole dream belongs to one man, H. C. Earwieker. The novel is the history

of the world written by him in his sleep. At the end of the book when he

48
Joseph Campbell, "Finnegan the Wake," James Joyce: Two Decades of
Criticism, pp. 368-375.
kg
Carl Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious, trans, by B. M. Hinkle
(New York, 1916), p. 21.
 62

awakens, Finnegans Wake has begun. During his sleep he transcends the

world of time and space. His dream is given in phases; young-old, awake-

sleeping, beginning-ending. When he finally awakens, the modern world begins

anew.

The problem of the space-time relationship which is presented by the

unconscious state in the book has caused one critic to view the "story" as

"wrong." Frank Budgen says it is wrong,

for a story is one happening after another along a

one-way-time street, coming from and going no place,
whereas Finnegans Wake is going nowhere in all directions
on an every-way roundabout with infiltrations from above
and below. On every page, Joyce insists on this all-
time dream-time by every device of suggestion and allusion
and by a continual modification and cancellation of all-
time words.51

What Mr. Budgen has unknowingly hit upon is not a fault, but a necessary

part of dream fiction. Freud's theory of dreams lists three characteristics:

condensation, distortion and the dream symbol. Mr. Budgen need only have

known that a logical time-place order is a fault in depicting the changing

"reality" of dreams. The unifying motif in Finnegans Wake is the "stream

of life"; this serves as a logical bouncing point for the shifts in time;

place and identity. The stream of life runs eternally so that the cycle

is shown from the beginning of the book,'tiverrun" to the end-"A way a lone

a last a loved a long the."-*2 A careful analysis of the book also shows

Edmund Wilson, "The Dream of H. C. Earwicker," James Joyce: Two

Decades of Criticism, p. 319*

' Frank Budgen, "Going Forth By Day," Jamea Joyce: Tito Decades of
Criticism, p. 3hQ.

* James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (New York, 1S&7), p. 628.

 63

that the contents of each book follow a definite time pattern, although

it does not correspond to the usual chronology. Books one and three contain

the past and present of Earwicker's dream; Book two contains the psycholo

gical strains of the "prolonged present" moment of the dream; and Book four

contains the future.

The nightmare and fantasies of Earwicker's dream are all related to

phases of his life and environment. Objects from his surroundings cause

him to project himself into characters who symbolize mankind in general-

!Eristram, Adam, the Devil, Humpty Durapty and Kapoleon. Each character has

a mutual share of the total picture of the fall and resurrection of man

theme. As man in general, he of course has a guilt complex. He is sometimes

Here Comes Everybody and sometimes Haveth Childers Everywhere. Aa each of

these heroes, he has a psychologieal taint which shades his dreams. His

many Freudian slips indicate the guilt and shame of his "ageribite of inwit"

(Stephen's words for his guilt) which derives from his illicit and incestuous

desires for young girls. The dreams, nightmares and states of his psyche

that interrupt his sleep symbolize the sin of man everywhere.^3

The greatest problem in the book is that of identity, taken off the

symbolic level. It is difficult to understand that since Earwicker exists

unconsciously on many symbolic levels, he can represent something different

on each level. Earwicker, aesthetically, represents the quidditas of the

Acquinas-Aristotelian theory of A_Portra,it. He equals the soul, the what-

ness of character, having been refined into a generality. He is no longer

identified by outward appearances but by the collective consciousness or

53
Campbell and Robinson, op. cit.f pp. 6-8.
 6k

epiphany of character. This is the reason that Joyce felt free to include

allusions and knowledge which an individual of Earwieker's intelligenee-

on the traditional level of eonseious - rarely has. Many foreign languages,

literary allusions and historical facts pour out of Earwieker's "stream."

The myth of Earwieker as universal man, possessed with universal knowledge,

depends on this. Thus, Joyce can not be said to have violated the principle

of the invisible author whose intelleetualism must be kept outside his

characters' minds; enqployed throughout, the collective consciousness allows

him to freely draw on all knowledge. Edmund Wilson^ and Harry Levin"
have questioned Joyce's drawing on his own storehouse of knowledge to build

up Earwieker's "stream." Joseph Campbell has responded by pointing out

instances when the reader is definitely within the mind of others of the

Earwieker family.^ He has concluded that Finnegans Wake

is not by any means the literary reproduction of this
simple citizen's stream of night thought,...but a view
of his whole world, micro-and maerocosmie, through the
eye of clairvoyant-sleep, instead of the eye that we are
used to in the modern novel, namely that of day.57

Campbell has stated the artistic solution to the problem of identity.

However, there is also a psychological and technical solution based on the

theories of collective consciousness as formulated by Carl Jung. This con

cept stresses that at the bottom of the individual consciousness there is

always the collective consciousness. Jung's theory is quoted for clarifi

cation.

^Wilson, op. eit., pp. 329-30.

Levin, loe. cit.

56Joyce, Finnegans Wake, pp. 228-230; 556-571 576-80; 619-28.

57
Campbell, op. cit., p. 385.
 65

'if it were permissible to personify the unconscious,

we might call it a collective human being combining
the characteristics of both sexes, transcending youth
and age, birth and death, and, from having at his
command a human experience of one or two million
years, almost immortal. If sueh a being existed,
he would be exalted above all temporal changes;
the present would mean neither more nor less to
him than any year in the one-hundredth century
before Christ; he would be a dreamer of age-old
dreams and, owing to his immeasurable experience,
he would be an incomparable prognosticator. He would
have lived countless times over the life of the in
dividual, of the family, tribe and people, and he would
possess the living sense of the rhythms of growth,
flowering and decay .'58

Finnegans Wake, then, becomes "the literary storehouse for Jung's theory.

lot only is this book a direct transcription of Jung's conception of the

dreamer as a myth maker, but the intended ambiguity of the relationships

gives the dreamer the universal aspect of being everyone. Jy

In the "Ciree" episode of Ulysses, Joyce dramatized the unconscious

thought of Stephen and Bloom, giving stage direct on as visual aids. In

Finnegans Wake the visual aid for the dramatization of the myth of the cosmic

giant is the power of words. Words replace the traditional visual content

of dreams. For effectiveness, Joyce has used the etymological meanings

of words rather than the modern usage. The "Anna Livia Plurabelle" chapter

is an excellent exai^le of the exploitation of words to create visual content.

There the huge list of river names contributes to the impression of life

as the flow of a river. This chapter shows the anastomasis theory of Joyce's

58Quoted from Carl Jung, Modern Man In Search of a Soul (Hew York,
1936), p. 215.

^Friedman, qp_._git., p. 115

60,
DHoffman, op. cit., pp. 425-27.
 66

wherein the form or subject matter dictates the form of expression. As

in Ulysses, the final monologue belongs to the female whose potential for

continuity is important to the "stream of life" theme.

Language always held an in^ortant part in Joyce's stream of conscious

ness technique. The dream language of gignegans__Wakg has been investigated

from all points of view by critics. They have noted his use of puns, dis

tortions, and portmanteau words to effect Freud's characteristics of dis

placement and condensation. He changes proper names to get the sounds he

wants; for example, "Nabuckelnozzler" for lebuehadnezzarj "Shaggspiek*

Shakhisbeard, Seheepspair, or the Great Shapesphere" for Shakespeare. ^ All

of Joyce's efforts to perfect a dream language are conscious efforts and

not hidden away. Joyce is reputed to have said, in answer to the question

as to whether there were not enough words in the dictionary without coining

more, '"Yes, ther are enough words in the Oxfo_rddictionary, but they are

not the right ones.*' ^ In other words, the existing language is not adequate
to express the e^erience of dreams.

The thoughts of Earwieker just before he awakes from his dream typify

the method of dream language.

What was-thaas? Fog was whaas? Toomilt sleepth. Let

sleepth."5

Most of the mature critics of Joyce have concluded that his books are not

William York Tindall, A Reader,'s Guide to James Joyce (New York, 1959e),
p. 215.

Joyce, Finnegans Wake, pp. 619-28.

Walton Litz, "The Evolution of Joyce's "Anna Livia Plurabelle,"

Philological Quarterly, XXXVI (January, 1957), 1*6-1*7.
Gk
Quoted from Budgen, op. eit.j p. 350.

5Joyce, Finnegans Wake, p. 555.

 67

full of obscenities. Earwicker's unconsciousness is the revelation of his

subconscious. What haunts him by day is released by night. Joyce was always

conscious of the difficulties which his books would pose. Eugene Jolas,

friend to Joyce and his critic, tells of Joyce's attitude toward his book

and the painstaking care he took in developing his technique:

'I might easily have written this story in the tradi

tional manner.... Every novelist knows the recipe....
It is not very difficult to follow a simple, chrono
logical scheme which the critics will understand....
But I, after all, am trying to tell the story of this
Chaplezod family in a new way.... Time and the river
and the mountain are the real heroes of ray book.... Yet,
the elements are exactly what every novelist might use;
man and woman, both, childhood, night, sleep, marriage,
prayer, death.... There is nothing paradoxical about
this.... Only I am trying to build many plans of narra
tive with a single esthetic purpose....1^

Thus through a conscious artistic effort, Joyce has substituted the chain

of unconsciousness for the traditional sequence of events. He knew

that what vould result would ereat problems, but he also expected the

reader to overcome these problems. He never assumed that a reader would be

able to get the full meaning of the book in one reading or from one point

of view. The cycle of time in the novel represents the cycle of experience.

The book is held together by a theory of flux which sees life as a river

forever flowing and the consciousness of man as a stream flowing like that

river.

Quoted in Eugene Jolas, "VSy Friend James Joyce," James Joyce:

Two Decades of Criticism, pp. 11-12.
 CONCHJSION

There is no doubt that for at least ten years (1920-1930) the stream

of consciousness novel was a genre whose influence was as great as that of

the psychological novel, a stricter form. The stream of consciousness

technique was applied to the old patterns of the psychological novel in an

attempt to relieve the genre of its conventionalism and to give it a new

vitality. Writers contributed mueh to the establishment of the technique,

but James Joyce was its greatest innovator. Not one English, or if you will,

Irish, writer can be given credit as the originator of the technique.

The technique has roots in psychology as well as in aesthetics. It

grew out of a conscious (and the word is used advisedly) need for a greater

depth in fiction; writers looked upon the old emphasis in novels- physical

action, eccentric plots, detailed description, setting, etc. - as trivial.

They wanted to concentrate on the interior of life, on the psychic development

of man rather than is physical responses. Several devices became the tools

of writers who followed this "school" of thought. The interior monologue,

direct and indirect, the space-time relations of consciousness, the use of

montage and the devices of language, all became the marks of the stream of

consciousness writer.

But even the innovations of some writers can become conventional, un

less the artist is gifted with the power to extend the innovation or new

technique to new levels of expression. Such an artist was James Joyce. His

generic background put him outside the mainstream of British literature

68
 69

during his era, for this reason and for others, he was never a member of

a formal school of aesthetics. However, because his intellectual powers

were superior to his peers, and because they transcended racial identity,

he found it necessary to reject Ireland and domestic ties, so that, guided

by his oxm intuition, he could become an artist.

His first novel, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young ten, was quite

conventional. It is important because it gives autobiographical information

and because it contains the statement of his aesthetic beliefs. It also

can be said to mark the beginning of his use of the stream of consciousness

technique. Between this novel and the next, he had exiled himself from Ire

land and from conventional literary genres. By the time of Ulysses, he had

incorporated much of the psychoanalysis theory that was a part of Zurich

life. But this book did not mark the end of his career as a technician.

This was to come in Finnegans Wake, a novel whose rationale is the uncon

scious level - forbidden ground for novelists in the conventional schools.

Each of his novels marks a step upward, both in his aesthetic fulfill

ment and in his growth as a technician. Ulysses is the novel which is the

best example of the stream of consciousness technique per se. It records

the stream of consciousness technique in episodic fashion in a style that

has been yet unmatched. It has caused more stir in the literary world of

the twentieth century, barring perhaps, Lady Ghatterly's Lover and Lolita

(which are conventional in style, but daring in content). It alone, could

have served as an ample subject for treatment if this work and the length

and breadth would not have been altered.

My conclusion about Ulysses is not meant to throw shadows on the other

novels, but as the length of the section on Ulysses indicated, it requires

 70

much more space to discuss. Nothing could be said about Finnegans Wake

that ean not be said about Ulyssesj Finnegans Wake only needs more intensity

in description. Joyce's books, the last two, are indicative of an era when

technique became as important as content. It has been argued that the result

was formlessness. Ulyjses proves otherwise, for one of Joyce's most obvious

contributions to the stream of consciousness technique was form. The others

were: (l) language (the ability to use it functionally)j (2) ne%* levels

of interpretation of the human problem (by probing the several levels of

man's consciousness as a layman, he was successful in making it clear that

action is not as important as thought in viewing the history of civilization);

(3) dramatic immediacy (the method of presentation of character which can

leave the author's presence invisible); (k) style (a new attitude which

demands the wedding of subject matter to style so that the two are inseparable)!

and (5) point of view (the interpretation of point of view as raulti-dimen

sional, rather than full flush, attained by employing the devices known as

montage whereby several characters are made to face reality simultaneously

without the restraint of conventional time-space laws.

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