Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol.36, December 2011, pp. 327-335

Design and engineering of functional clothing

Deepti Guptaa
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India

The process of design and engineering of functional clothing design is based on the outcomes of an objective assessment
of many requirements of the user, and hence tend to be complex and iterative. In this paper, the user requirements
(besides the primary requirement of functionality) have been classified under four subtitles, namely physiological,
biomechanical, ergonomic and psychological. The correlation between various characteristics of clothing and these
requirements has been discussed. Subsequent steps involved in the ergonomic design process such as selection of materials,
size and fit determination, pattern making, assembling and finishing have been listed out. Influence of technological
advancements in related fields on each of these activities is discussed with a view to emphasise how the process
of functional clothing design is different from design of everyday apparel. The fast developing field of functional clothing
represents the future of textile and apparel industry, particularly in growing economies like China and India who will be
the largest producers as well as consumers of these high tech products. Challenges being faced by this sector and a road map
to meet the same have also been proposed.

Keywords: Clothing engineering, Comfort, Clothing design, Ergonomic design process, Functional clothing

1 Introduction ergonomic design process such as selection of

Unlike fashion clothing, which is essentially a materials, size and fit determination, pattern making,
product of the designers creative instincts, the assembling and finishing have also been listed out.
process of designing functional clothing begins
and ends with the user specific requirements. 2 Requirements from Functional Clothing
These requirements, whether for performance or Each class of functional clothing has a well
for comfort, are determined by the environment defined functionality which distinguishes it from
in which the user operates, and the activities that he the other classes. However, in addition to this
or she performs. specific functionality, all functional clothing
Clothing, by its nature has a restrictive effect on classes must fulfill certain requirements which are
body movement as well as on transport of heat and common to all users. These considerations can be
moisture from the body. Clothing can be abrasive, classified into the following categories: physiological,
noisy, smelly or unattractive. Clothing designed biomechanical, ergonomic and psychological
specifically for certain functionalities has been considerations. Effective functional wear is based
shown to cause heat stress, reduce task efficiency as on the integration of all of these considerations into
well as range-of-motion1 of the wearer. The process the design of a clothing system.
of design therefore begins by first establishing
the many requirements of the user. Subsequent 2.1 Physiological Requirements
processes are based on meeting, to the best possible These relate to the human physiology and
extent, these user requirements. Figure 1 shows the anatomy shape, size, mass, strength and metabolic
flow chart of steps involved in the design of activities of the body or the need of the human
functional clothing. In this paper, the user body to feel comfortable in a clothing system.
requirements (besides the primary requirement To what extent these needs are met is determined
of functionality) have been classified under four by the shape, size, feel and design of the garment,
subtitles and the correlation between various materials selected and their response to internal
characteristics of clothing and these requirements and external stimuli such as extreme cold, heat,
are discussed. Subsequent steps involved in the rain, sand or snow. Ease of use, wear and removal
has to be considered in case of first responders,
a
E-mail: deeptibgupta@gmail.com motor disabled and elderly groups.
328 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2011

the body, while the body is moving and working.

The shape and fit of the garment vis a vis the human
body, pressure and friction exerted by the garment
on the body are some of the factors which affect
this aspect.
Depending on the design and fit, all clothing
exerts some pressure on the body. Pressure may
also be intentionally applied on specific body
parts for therapeutic and rehabilitation applications
in the form of compression garments. Distribution
of this pressure is determined by the mechanical
properties of body parts, e.g. fleshy parts sustain
pressure better than bony parts. Biomechanical
considerations form the basis of design of
specialized clothing classes, e.g. sportswear,
where compression may be applied on selected
muscles to enhance performance and reduce fatigue.
Similarly, clothing for body sculpting is designed
to preferentially compress, lift or support body
parts based on anatomical and biomechanical
considerations.
Application of too little pressure is ineffective
Fig.1Flow chart showing the steps involved in design of while too much pressure can restrict the blood
functional clothing
supply and cause edema or severe debilitation2.
The primary factors affecting the physiological Designer must know that body parts where major
needs are the energy metabolism, clothing thermal blood and lymph vessels lie, are more sensitive
properties (as determined by the heat and mass to pressure than the rest. Disregard for these
transfer characteristics of clothing assemblies) and considerations can lead to the wearer experiencing
the ambient climatic conditions. Given the multitude unpleasant and sometime debilitating sensations
of responsible variables, it is extremely complex to such as thermal discomfort, rubbing, chafing,
predict the comfort aspects of a garment accurately. localized pressure development and restriction
These are affected by clothing penetration by solar of movement.
and thermal radiation, interactions with moisture
2.3 Ergonomic Requirements
in clothing, effective latent heat of evaporation in
clothing, heat and vapour resistance and clothing Ergonomics is defined as the science of work:
ventilation (through fabrics and specialized openings of the people who do it and the ways it is done,
at optimal body areas). of the tools and equipment they use, the places
they work in, and the psycho-social aspects of
2.2 Biomechanical Requirements the working situation 3. It has been shown that
Biomechanics deals with the mechanical compared to a semi-nude body, the movement,
characteristics of human body as well as the speed, accuracy, and range of motion may be
kinematic, dynamic, and behavioral analysis of reduced in a clothed body, while muscular exertion
human activity. Its applications address mechanical may be increased, e.g. the integral joint mobility
structure, strength, and mobility of humans for of an astronaut can be reduced to 20% of normal
engineering purposes the unusual postures and in a typical space suit4. The ability to receive visual
movements of the users , such as crawling, crouching, and auditory feedback may also be compromised
fire fighting, flood relief, climbing, zero gravity when performance wear is worn1.
and manipulating objects. As clothing forms an Ergonomic considerations dictate that the
intimate covering of the human body, mechanical mechanical characteristics of clothing match the
interactions take place between clothing and motion, degree of freedom, range of motion and
muscles, skin and tissue at different parts of force, and moment of human joints. The working
 GUPTA : DESIGN AND ENGINEERING OF FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING 329

postures, materials handling, movements, workplace important. It has been reported that medical clothing
layout, safety and health considerations should which looks good can actually facilitate effective
be given due consideration while developing the social acceptance and lead to an improved quality
style, cut and features of a functional garment. of life for the disabled. Aesthetics of the clothing
Size of a garment vis a vis the size of body or are as important as performance aspects in some
fit is another critical consideration in design of sports such as tennis, skiing, motorbikers clothing
functional garments. Clothing which is too loose and swimming. Assessment of psychological aspects
can get caught during work and may impede of clothing can be done through subjective methods
movement but that which is too tight will be based on user surveys, feedback and preferences as
uncomfortable to work in. Either way, an ill well as study of cultural and demographic features.
fitting garment can severely compromise the safety
and performance of the wearer. In applications 3 Process of Clothing Design
where monitoring devices/sensors are built into Once the user requirements have been established,
the clothing, the fit is even more critical as the the next step is to identify and select appropriate
sensors have to be in intimate contact with the materials, followed by the design of clothing
body in order to be effective. The ergonomic assembly, pattern engineering and the final
efficiency of a clothing system can be evaluated assembling of these heterogeneous materials to create
objectively by using specially devised human multilayer or composite assemblies in a manner that
mechanics and operational performance tests5. allows them to adequately fulfill the requirements of
comfort, protection and functionality6.
2.4 Psychological Requirements
Psychological aspects relate to how human 3.1 Material Selection
beings feel, think, act, and interact under a given The material properties of fabrics can be
set of circumstances. As clothing is an extension extremely complex and difficult to predict.
of ones persona, strong feelings are often associated Textile fabrics are made up of a series of yarns
with its appearance and aesthetics. Considerations produced from fibres, which interact with each
in terms of users psychological and social behavior other in many ways. The constituent fibre or yarn
in response to events, people and/or environments properties, weave or knit patterns and geometry
e.g. acceptance by peer group, pride, identification, of yarn and fabric structures, affect the overall
etc becomes important. Clothing items which are material properties. Anisotropy, non- linearity and
perfect in comfort and function may be completely hysteresis are some characteristic features of
rejected by the users if they do not look right or textile structures. The stresses and strains to which
are not perceived as smart and conveying the textiles would be subjected by the working body
proper image. Psychological expectations and need to be considered while choosing materials.
preferences of the user must therefore be given Some requirements common to all functional
due consideration so as to create functional clothes are that they should be light in weight,
clothing which is in tune with their social and thermoregulatory, elastic, antimicrobial, aesthetic
cultural background, geographical location, age, sex, and durable. Specialised applications require
activity and work profile. materials that are anti UV, anti ballistic, anti impact,
These considerations are of vital importance fire retardant, abrasion resistant, cut resistant, water
when clothing is designed for special groups such repellent, high visibility and NCB (nuclear, chemical
as disabled or elderly. Clothing items have been and biological) barrier.
known to be often not accepted by the target Innovative fibres with special properties,
groups as it makes them stand out from the rest. special fabric and web forming technologies and
These groups prefer clothing which has enabling developments in chemical and mechanical finishes
features for their needs but does not look different make high performance textiles an important
and helps them to appear normal. In other words, element of functional clothing design. A variety of
people prefer the functionality to be unobstrusive. materials with widely varying properties are now
For other user groups, aesthetic requirements are available due to rapid progress made in the field
secondary in importance to functional requirements of technical textiles. Specific functional needs
in design of functional clothing, but are nevertheless may require the use of judicious combination of
330 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2011

materials ranging from polymers and metals to 3.1.3 Biomimetic Textiles

ceramics, composites, laminates and membranes7. Biomimetics is a field which deals with
Some innovative developments in material science, development of materials which are inspired by
which are expected to play an increasingly important natural phenomenon. From mimicking skins
role in the design of functional clothing, are discussed function to enhancing skin performance, more and
below. more materials are being developed which imitate
living systems. Breathable wet suits - based on the
3.1.1 Stretch Fabrics pores of leaves, self cleaning effects based on the
Stretch fabrics are integral to design of functional lotus leaf and sharkskin effect (Fig. 2) for better
clothing. From additional comfort to enhanced hydrodynamics in water are some concepts which
mobility, muscle support, muscle alignment and have already been commercialized.
body part compressionall are now possible by
strategic use of stretch fabrics. The efficiency and 3.1.4 E-textiles
performance of textile sensors and electrodes, in Incorporation of ICT components into textiles
particular, depends on the nature of contact with has added a whole new functionality to this field.
the body which can be controlled by the stretch These sophisticated materials can exhibit complex
characteristics of the fabric. Fabrics with 1 way, multidirectional behaviour by sensing, reacting and
2 way and 4 way stretch are being developed to activating a specific function. Conductive yarns,
offer controlled stretch and functioning. Pattern flexible and elastic sensors, wireless tools and
pieces have to be suitably engineered to provide alternate power sources form an area of intensive
the required stretch and fit in a product. research for the development of electronic textiles.
Textile based wearable products for health and fitness
3.1.2 Smart Textiles monitoring in patients and athletes are available.
Smart textiles are materials that sense and react Research continues to expand the applications of
to environmental conditions or stimuli, such as use and develop products which are lighter and more
those from mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, comfortable to use.
magnetic or other sources. Examples include
chromatic materials which change colour with 3.1.5 Nanotechnology in Textiles
change in environment, phase change materials Developments in nano fibres (electrospinning),
for thermoregulation and shape memory polymers nano finishes, nano membranes and nano composites
which change shape with change in temperature. can be used to impart functionalities which were

Fig. 2Biomimetic fabric for low hydrodynamic surface drag for swimsuit inspired by shark skin8
 GUPTA : DESIGN AND ENGINEERING OF FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING 331

hitherto not possible to achieve in textiles. that include buttons, zippers, pullers, snaps, fasteners,
Antimicrobial, anti UV, stain repellent, fire resistant, tapes, cords and braids, high visibility strips, labels,
antistat, moisture control and thermoregulation wadding, padding, belts and buckles. Suitable
properties can be imparted at the molecular level selection and placement of accessories can go a long
without affecting the inherent flexibility and comfort way in providing multiple looks, ease of donning,
of fabrics. Progress in this field is expected to yield opening, maintenance, handling, improved comfort
multifunctional fabrics which are flexible, lightweight and safety to the user. Special fasteners for motor
and comfortable, making them the ideal choice for disabled, water proof and fire retardant zips for
complex functional clothing applications. specific applications are some such examples.
3.1.6 Use of Air in Textiles
4 Clothing Design
Another innovative development, specifically
As discussed above, technical textile materials are
relevant to the design of functional clothing is the
the primary building blocks of functional clothing.
increasing use of air in protective and medical
However, to capitalize on the special functionalities
clothing to keep the systems light in weight. Hollow
provided by high tech materials, it is important to
core fibres, woven spacer fabrics, raised knits and
club them with equally innovative methods and
3D fleece fabric are all means of introducing air
techniques of clothing design and manufacturing.
in the system for cushioning, insulation or moisture
New materials require newer methods of cutting,
transport. Double layer fabrics with a 3D spacing
sewing and joining to handle and convert them into
structure between the inner and the outer fabric
performance clothing systems. Design of clothing
face offer superb moisture management and great
must move away from the conventional domain
thermal insulation or ventilation, depending on the
of designing in 2D (material centric) to designing
construction9. These fabrics are used in medical
in 3D (garment shells). Availability of advanced
field for applying compression, providing support or
CAD/CAM technologies in the last few years has
transport of fluids10,11. They can also be used instead
made this possible to a large extent. For example,
of foams in protective gear for shock absorption.
3D body scanning technology allows the creation
3.2 Membranes and Coatings of anatomically accurate models of the human body
Breathability is an overriding factor in material which can be used as a base for virtual or real
selection today. Coatings while imparting special designing as well as fit testing of garments in actions
properties often make a fabric non breathable. and postures which closely simulate real life usage
Developments in membrane technology over the last of clothing. Once finalized, CAD systems are
few decades allow the fabric to remain breathable on further able to translate the final design into patterns,
the inside while being impenetrable on the outside. pattern grades and markers while CAM systems
Membranes have micro pores which provide a barrier including computerized sewing machines take care
against wind, water, chemicals, microbes and harmful of the sewing process12.
vapours present in the environment while allowing
vapour (perspiration) to escape. Other properties that 4.1 Steps in Clothing Design
can be imparted by membranes include transparency, Development of a piece of clothing takes place
flexibility, elasticity, oil resistance and high tensile in several interdependent yet disparate processes
and abrasion resistance. They are being increasingly with its final appearance, fit and functionality being
used to provide breathability to otherwise water or influenced by each one of these steps13. The following
wind proof clothing used in high-performance sports paragraphs discuss the steps employed in design of
apparel, foul weather clothing, military and industrial functional clothing and the way in which modern
uniforms and medical clothing. technologies and advances are transforming the same.

3.3 Accessories and Trimmings 4.1.1 Body Measurement and Sizing

While fabrics form the major component of Generating body measurements of the target group
functional clothing, an equally important component tend to serve as the first step in clothing design.
is the accessories that go into making up of the Conventional standardized size charts used for
complete assembly. Today, it is possible for a traditional apparel design cannot be used for design of
garment to be made up of up to 25 different materials functional clothing as those are based on traditional
332 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2011

anthropometry, where the body measurements are Further, functional garments would require
taken in fixed, static poses and the data available zoning of patterns, i.e. several different fabrics to
is one dimensional in nature. Such data contains make up a pattern piece such as front or side panel,
measurements which indicate the size but do not mesh fabric for ventilation in the underarm area,
yield any information about the complex human body compressive fabric for applying pressure on specific
shape in curvature or postures. muscles, stretch fabric for providing additional joint
Ergonomic block development requires 3D mobility, spacer fabric for insulation or impact
anthropometric data captured in multiple realistic resistance in the chest area and so on (Fig. 3). Thus,
postures. 3D body scanners can be used to measure pattern blocks may need to be developed in totally
the population in static as well as dynamic mode to new ways to allow for use of multiple pieces in a
capture the shape, size and posture data. Ergonomic block. Based on the study of a moving body, patterns
measures such as the range of motion also need to need to be engineered for ergonomic design in such
be collected and considered in designing. For a way that they allow enhanced mobility and reach
more accurate understanding of the change in body in areas that show strain during vigorous activity
shape or the restrictions posed by clothing while (crotch, under arm, knee and elbow). Articulated knee
performing specific activities like swimming, and elbow designs need to be worked out. There
jumping, crouching, human motion analysis systems are number of current research efforts in the field of
can be used. 3D body modeling and computerized pattern making
The issue of sizing is further made complex by the systems using 3D data18-21.
fact that since the type and nature of measurements Availability of 3D body scans and corresponding
required varies from one type of application advances in pattern engineering has made it possible
(swimming, skating, cycling, skiing) to another, to design in 3D keeping the above considerations
independent size charts will be needed for each in mind. Pattern shapes are drawn directly on the
type of clothing. The size roll in each case will also 3 D scan of the body in action, conforming to the
have to be developed depending on the type of surface contours as shown in Fig. 4. These selected
clothing being designed. 3D regions are flattened to produce 2D patterns.
Mechanical properties of fabrics can be factored
4.1.2 Pattern Engineering in the 3D pattern and a coloured simulation of the
Making of patterns is the next step in the deformation stresses and strains when the garment
development of a garment. It is the process of is worn can also be seen. Such research will hopefully
converting a 3D garment design into flat 2D lead to reduction in development times and
constituent pieces. These flat irregular shapes improvement in fit, besides reducing the uncertainties
represent various sections of a garment which when inherent in the current design process 22-24.
joined together using a process such as sewing
will yield the 3 D garment shape14,15. Making of 4.2 Assembling of Garment Components
patterns currently is a multi-step process which is Pattern engineering involves the process of
largely iterative, empirical and based on trial and determining the shape and size of each 2D pattern that
error approach16,17. A lot of tweaking, adjustment or
fitting is required in this 3D-2D-3D process to
achieve the desired fit and performance.
Functional clothing design needs to be based on a
system that accurately represents the geometry of the
human body not only in a static mode but also in the
kinetic mode during work and motion. It is because of
this, that the traditional pattern making approach of
working on flat front/back/sleeve panels is found to
be limiting. Pattern shapes of ergonomic garments
need to follow the 3D contour and physiology of the
human body and correspond exactly to the size and
Fig. 3Garments showing zoning of patterns (a) first gear
posture of the user. Functional clothing patterns are Kilimanjaro motorcycle jacket, and (b) 2XU men compression
therefore best designed in 3D, i.e. on the body itself. shorts
 GUPTA : DESIGN AND ENGINEERING OF FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING 333

Fig. 4Designing in 3D (a) drawing patterns on a cyclist in

motion, and (b) flattening of the 3D patterns 24

will be put together to create a 3D shell. Once these Fig. 5Women's mountain hardwear effusion power jacket
patterns have been created, they have to be cut, having clean lines, non bulky appearance and better fit
assembled and joined. They also have to be
connected to the means of opening and closing severely. Hence, methods that test the whole
the garment (buttons, zippers, fasteners) and such garment assembly rather than just the fabric are
other accessories that go into the making up of a required25. The compatibility of materials with each
complete garment assembly. The shape of patterns as other, their durability and robustness of construction
well as the selection of joining and assembling are also important considerations. Other aspects
technologies (sewing, bonding, fusing) is again of concern relate to the interaction of garment with
dictated by the activity, posture and environment the human body, effect of garment design, size, fit
in which the user will be operating as well as the and manufacturing processes on material properties,
properties of materials used. etc. Hence, holistic test procedures which test
Assembling of multiple fabric panels having for physiological load, heat protection, loss
varying properties requires sophisticated handling of performance, rain/moisture protection and
techniques. Traditionally sewn seams can sometimes conspicuity/visibility of the clothing under actual
compromise the integrity and functionality conditions of use are the need of the hour.
of engineered clothing. New techniques of Development of such test methods can be quite
joining materials such as taped seams, welding complex as different classes of functional clothing are
(high frequency, ultrasonic and laser) and adhesive designed for performing under different conditions of
bonding are often used to assemble these systems. activity and the climatic conditions. Therefore, what
3D moulding is another technique used in contoured may work under one set of conditions (extreme cold)
garments used for body shaping and support. Because will be completely unsuitable in another set of
of these trends, the new age garments are looking conditions (hot and humid weather). The efficiency
cleaner, fitting better, they are also lighter in weight of a functional clothing system can thus be best
and less bulky (Fig. 5). determined by field testing on real humans and then
supported by more precise objectives measures of
5 Testing of Clothing for Functionality fabric properties that correlate to the field results26.
Once an assembly has been created, it has to be Therefore, testing of each type of clothing has to
tested extensively for performance. Test methods be carried out under environmental conditions that
such as EN469, 1995 are available for testing simulate the actual conditions of its use. Then again,
of performance clothing, particularly protective use of human subjects for testing and evaluation
clothing for certification purposes and quality raises several issues. Different people will react and
control. However, these methods continue to test respond differently under identical conditions making
the properties of constituent materials such as inter and intra subject variability a major problem.
material heat and vapour resistance, flammability, Statistical considerations pertaining to comparison of
tensile behaviour, etc. No matter how good the different data sets as well as the ethical issues of
properties of fabric are, poor garment design conducting tests on humans also have to be tackled.
or construction can compromise its functionality According to Havenith et al.27, standardisation on
334 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2011

all these matters needs to be put into place, while therefore put forth in such cases. Good
developing what may be called as ergonomic test and reliable user feedback is crucial to the
procedures. design of performance wear. Direct channels of
communication between the user and producer
6 Challenges Faced by the Functional Clothing should be opened to facilitate two way flow of
Industry6 information to facilitate optimal design.
The field of functional clothing is one of the fastest
growing segments of technical textiles market and 7 Roadmap for Future
has seen tremendous growth in the last one decade. Functional clothing industry is a Greenfield
Yet there are following issues which need to be industry with tremendous prospects of growth. But
addressed before it can attain its real potential: in order for its true potential to be realized several
steps should be taken. The first relates to an accurate
This field requires intense R&D inputs to estimation of the size of the various sectors
grow but as of now, suffers from a lack particularly in the developing countries with large
of adequate research data base, scientific population and workforce. Guidelines for research
guidelines and procedures which are needed need to be proposed with global and regional
to aid the design process. Interdisciplinary nature focus. Multidisciplinary, collaborative, multinational
of the field further makes research difficult and research groups need to be developed for working
expensive. together. Technological developments across relevant
Though the industry has seen significant sectors need to be tracked and relevant technologies
growth in developed countries, there is a integrated into the field on a continuous basis. Active
total lack of information and awareness about support and participation by industries in research
the nature of hazards and current practices can provide a major impetus to the sector.
in developing countries. The problem is
compounded by the fact that functional clothing 8 Conclusion
design is based on geographical, psychological Design and engineering of functional clothing is a
and socio- cultural considerations. This makes it complex and challenging process. What adds to the
difficult to develop generic designs which are complexity is the fact that the existing systems
standardized and globally relevant. First hand governing the design of fashion clothing cannot be
data for each geographical and climatic zone used to design performance wear clothing and no
need to be generated. guidelines are available for designing these high
Many of the technological developments in the tech systems. User requirements and conditions
field of clothing production and assembling of use play a critical role in the entire process of
discussed above are still in incipient stages of design, manufacture and testing. Availability of
adoption by the manufacturing industry. Till the innovative materials and associated technologies for
time that these become mainstream, affordable production and assembling of clothing ensembles
and adequate numbers of workers become for specialized functional applications has paved
proficient in their use and operation, growth is the path for development of new and innovative
going to be sluggish. garments capable of providing enhanced comfort and
Market forces provide another challenge, in that productivity and reduced physiological strain for the
there is monopolization of high-tech materials users. Joint involvement of engineers, designers,
(fibre /yarn /fabric/membranes/ coatings) by a few physiologists and ergonomists and the user is needed
large international players. High material costs to fine tune the material choice, composition, sizing
and high technological inputs make entry difficult and assembling issues related to designing of
into this sector. clothing for a specific end use.
The largest buyers of functional clothing are
either government bodies or large corporates who References
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