OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Topic: 1 Introduction to Written Communication: Some Basic Principles

1.1 Introduction to Communication
Communication is :
Defined = as giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or ideas
Purpose = so that the message is completely understood by everybody involved.
Importance of the Message in Communication
Understand what your message Message is successfully received and comprehended
What audience you are sending only when both the sender and the receiver perceive it
How massege will be perceived in the same way.

1.1.1 Elements in Communication

a sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context.

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication

a) Status/Role
b) Cultural Differences
c) Choice of Communication Channels
d) Length of Communication
e) Use of Language poor choice of words/ weak sentence/ inappropriate punctuation
f) Disabilities impaired sight, dyslexia, poor mental health
g) Known or Unknown Receiver consideration traits , age, preferred style
h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities
i) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction
j) Clarity of Message
k) Lack of Feedback

1.2 Defining Written Communication

Written Communication is the sharing and exchanging of written symbols between people or groups, also the
presentation of ideas in a coherent manner in written form.

1.3 Why written communication?

the message is posterity, others can read it again and again, useful for research purposes
information can be stored & transferred without relying memory
sharing ideas/opinions, presenting & defending of viewpoints
serve as a form of acknowledgement proof
helps to clarify thoughts & thinking processes
cite & document all ideas & arguments borrowed from an outside source

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1.4 Tips on Written Communication
read extensively
do not over concerned with grammar & spelling when first start out
put your thoughts down on paper

1.4.1 The Writing Process

Three important stages of writing process
planning
writing
editing
1.4.2 Pitfalls to Avoid

Confusing words that can mislead

the reader use of too many words
Cause communication breakdown or overuse of words interferes with
barriers between the writer and the understanding
reader. interrupt the reader understanding
a. Ambiguous
b. Bombastic
c. Vague
d. Sexist
e. Trendy
f. Exaggerated
g. inflated and archaic.

Solution
1. Use the familiar word to the far-
fetched
2. Concrete word to the abstract writing fragments instead
3. Single word to the circumlocution of completesentences
4. The short word to the long and writing sentences
that lack unity.
sentence(s) short and
compact to ensure that
they are correct, logical
and easy to read
Solution
Too much information Words ave to be structured
Reader becomes overwhelmed and confused to the extent that what
Cause frustration and cast doubts on the writer credibility. precedes should be in
accordance with those that
Solution follow.
In order to produce a clear, concise and relevant written work

1.5 Challenges in Written Communication

1.5.1 New Technologies tools that can check and correct misspelt words, incorrect grammar

1.5.2 When Others Fail to Respond

Reasons of fail to respond:
their own poor writing skills
too much information in the text/ message
too many grammatical errors & mistakes
Barriers between the sender & receiver (cultural, status, role)
message is not clear/precise
wrong choice of delivery channel/format
past experienced
documents not structured, messy/ not laid out well

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1.5.3 Asking The Right Questions
Using Questions to Overcome Problems : Make it easy for others to understand:
Where did it go wrong? A clear indication of your purpose.
Why was the message not understood or interpreted by the Accurate and objective information.
receiver? Suitable headings.
Was the timing wrong? A suitable order of information.
Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message? concise and precise instructions desired action
Are there many errors or mistakes in the document? clearly spelled out

Topic 2: Communication Models- A Theoretical Perspective

2.1 Claude Shannons Model 2.3 A Model Based on Ulric Neissers Work
Information is transmitted from an information source Explore our world or specific phenomenon guided by
through a channel to a receiver our desires, needs, ideas, images of the world and
such, and this exploration gives us a perception or
new information of the world.
The new information, in turn, affects our needs,
desires, images, and such, thus changing our
perception of the world and so we begin our
exploration again.
2.2 Roman Jakobsons Model
This cycle goes on and on as long as we are still
Information is transmitted from an information source
learning and exploring.
through a channel to a receiver

2.4 A Model Based on Michael Polanyis Work

A person discovers meaning in an experience
The person expresses the meaning he gained from
his experience in writing (a poem, a novel, an essay,
a letter, a journal entry, etc).
Someone reads the text and discovers meaning in it.
The reader may be the writer himself or herself
Or a complete stranger
Text does not convey the original experience to the
reader. Instead, it conveys meaning to the reader.

2.5 Some Ideas About Communication

Signs Symbols Abbreviations
Anything that is used to point use signs to refer to complex emoticons and shorthand notation
to/stand for something else (to things, we call them symbols are used to convey messages.
representideas, experiences, Symbols have complex meanings eg.: BTW (by the way), LOL,
images, objects, feelings, in addition to the literal ones
concepts and everything else.).

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Topic 3: What are Essay?

3.1 Planning to write essay
Four stages involved in essay writing:
1. Pre-writing
2. Draft
3. Editing
4. Final draft/essay

3.2 Types of Essays

1. Explanation Essay usually starts with a general statement, followed by a series of explanations to support the
statement.
2. Argumentation Essay is persuasive in nature & usually begins with a thesis statement.
3. Discussion Essay similar to the argumentation essay, except that it discusses both sides of the issue & let the
readers decide for themselves.
3.3 Discourse Markers 3.4 Writing Paragraphs

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Topic 4 Types of Essays

4.1 Explanation Essay 4.2 Argumentation Essay 4.3 Discussion Essay

clarify/ explain issues try to win readers agree with cover both sides of the
use simple present tense what you say, accept your issue/topic, provide
3 structural body styles: facts, embrace your values, evidence for ur discussion,
Temporal Sequesntial adopt ur arguments & way weigh the evidence to make
Cyclical of thinking ur conclusion
Cause and effect
4.4.1 Types of Evidence 4.4.2 How to use Evidence
Fact Ensure the accuracy of each fact
Quotes facts must be recent, reliable, not biased
Opinions of experts relevant facts
Anecdotes enough facts for each point
Examples arrange facts from general to specific
Charts/Diagrams

Topic 5 Tackling Essays

The topic sentence is usually a general statement about the topic.
Ways to develop topic sentence:
Describing the Topic Sentence Further
Providing Reasons
Defining and Giving Examples
Creative writing does not have specific rules, forms/ outlines that you need to follow.
Bibliographies a list of writings with time and place of publication (such as the writings of a
single author/ the works referred to) in preparing a document etc. 2 style: MLA , APA
Plagiarism considered a serious crime since it is actually stealing someone elses ideas/words
and claiming them to be your own. Avoid plagiarism.
Screening for useful resources read the abstract
Describing visual data tables, line graphs, bar charts, pictographs, pie charts.

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Topic 6 Persuasive Writing

6.1 Arrangement of Persuasive Writing
6.1.1 Reasons for and Purposes of Persuasive Writing
1. Introduction: begin by explaining the subject matter. 1) To influence or change an audiences thoughts or actions.
3. Body- 2) Want people to believe us, remember what we have written
2. Body-
Concession/ 1. Body- Proof and will take the necessary action based on our written
Assertion
Rebuttal work.
when the writer writer does not presents the evidence
asserts a certain exaggerate or for the assertion
6.1.2 Types of Reasoning Processes
opinion to the distort the using a series of facts,
reader opponents view examples, instances Deduction begins with a general principle or premise
state the problem or do not defend the and observations to Mode and draws a specific conclusion from it.
controversy and opposing side but support the argument Induction supports a general conclusion by examining
may appear clearly fairly and compelling Mode specific facts or cases.
and succinctly. reasonably state restatement of the The process itself
expressed in the what these views assertion.
Appeal to Reason
thesis statement are
argument is an appeal to persons sense of
2. Conclusion: rephrase the topic sentence at this stage reason
to emphasise the assertion. its a measured, logical way of trying to
persuade others to agree with you
6.1.3 Source of Information, and Relating to choose one side of an issue clearly in an
effort to persuade others
Arguments and Evidence
Appeal to Emotion
(a) Element Evidence
evoking emotion in our reader is to use
In order to convince the reader to agree with you. You must
vivid images.
ensure that your evidence is convincing & satisfy the following
Appeal to Good Personality/Character
questions: Evidence must The appeal to our good behaviour or our ethics
Enough evidence? valid,reliable, can occur at one or more of the following levels
The evidence trustworthy? Reliable? sufficient, trustworthy in any argument:
Informed, valid sources? and can be verified Are you a reasonable person? (Are you
Evidence verifiable?
willing to listen, compromise and concede
(B) Element Appeal To Authority points?)
To clear the uneasiness authoritative, we must consider the Can someone reason with you? (Are you
following elements. They are: ready to listen?)
Do people question your authority on a particular subject? Are you authoritative? (Do you have the
Is your expert opinion current or up to date? mandate or power to stand by your
Do your peers accept and respect your opinion? decisions?)
Is your expert advice free of bias? Are you an ethical/moral person?
Are you concerned for the well-being of
(C) Element Proper Evaluation Of Statistics
your audience? (Do you have them at
Use them ethically, accurately & as objective as possible.
heart?)
Have samples which are pool representative and unbiased.
Have statistics accurately tabulated and see that the
statistics are not taken out of context

6.2 Persuasive Strategies

Possible persuasive strategies include:

1. Emphasising Readers explains to readers how they will benefit from performing the action/taking the position/purchasing
Benefits the product recommended
readers are members of organisation, stress organisational objectives and growth needs
2. Addressing Readers predict what thereaders responses.
Concerns to counteract any negative thoughts or arguments that arise in readers minds.
3. Showing Sound writer needs to persuade readers that the decisions or actions recommended will actually bring
Reasoning about benefits and explain why

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4. Presenting Reliable o readers are willing to accept Reliable evidence depending on the field.
Evidence o A writer needs to use common sense to determine what type of evidence is needed.

6.3 The Reasoning Process ( 2 basic types or reasoning processes: deduction and induction refer to 6.1.2 )
In order to have confidence in the writer, readers must understand the:
(a) Writers Claim The claim is the position the writer wants readers to accept.

(b) Evidence The evidence consists of observations, facts and other information provided in support of the claim.

(c) Line of Reasoning The line of reasoning is the connecting link between the claim and the evidence the reasons given for
believing that the evidence proves the claim.

6.4 Direct and Indirect Patterns of Organisation

(a) Organising to Create a Positive Response (c) Indirect Pattern of Organisation
carefully choose the organisational pattern which best Indirect pattern of organisation postpones the bottom-
suits your purpose. line statement until all the evidence and related
Ensure that all the parts of your persuasive piece fit information have been presented.
together tightly. You first discuss the situation, then make your
recommendations after presenting your arguments.
(b) Direct Pattern Organisation The writer can prepare readers for the
o In a direct pattern of organisation, the writers main recommendations about to be made
point is started first. Indirect pattern is particularly useful when you convey
o Evidence and other related information are given information which your readers might view as
afterwards. threatening.
o The direct organisational pattern works well when The indirect pattern avoids of inciting the readers
the readers initial response is all important initial negative reactions.
you recommend a course of action or presenting It can frustrate the reader who wants to know the
an analysis which you expect your readers to view abottom line first.
favourably.

6.5 Voice and Credibility

Be a credible and can be trusted writer
1) Consider the Reasoning Process and Types of Reasoning - to think and consider how he reasons out his writing
2) Choosing an Appropriate Voice
3) Establishing Credibility
Belief your readers have regarding whether you are a good source of information and ideas
When people believe you are credible, they are more likely to accept the things you say.
If people do not find you credible, they may refuse to consider your ideas seriously

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Topic 7: Report Writing

7.1 The Process of Preparing a Report
1. Stages of Report Preparation researched, gathered, presented in a coherent and easily understood way to
the relevant parties.
execute a plan and carry out a project
2. Gathering the Data Tips Data Gathering
Note your opinions and information relating to your opinions
Make note of how you want your data presented in the report
Keep progress notes
Document your plan in detail
3. Analysing and Sorting the Choosing relevant data and then review your earlier opinions in relation to
Results the report you want to write.
Following steps:
1) Write down results and observations in no particular order
2) Note down all the opinions
3) Note down new opinions
4) Choose the ones that you need.
5) Arrange all your data in the order of their importance.
6) Sort out the data you want to put into your conclusion
7) Turn your points into illustrations
8) Outline your final report and draft it.
4. Outlining the Report A clear report is logically organised, concise, and easy to read.
Natural progression from analysis and sorting.
3 key words: subject, scope, purpose.
Outline should contain descriptive headings of each significant part of the
report and your expanded outline
a. complete scope of the report;
b. relation of the various parts of the work discussed;
c. amount of space to be given each part;
d. order of treatment;
e. places for inclusion of illustrations;
f. conclusions.
three levels of headings and subheadings for simplicity and clarity, stick
to just
Main Heading
Subheading
Run-in heading: This heading is indented on the same line as
the first line of the paragraph.
5. Writing the Rough Draft First draft
Start writing soon after finishing your outline
Keep writing; follow your flow of ideas
Second draft
Check for style
Remember your audience (they be able to understand your draft easily or not)
Behonest. Be tactful. Be concise and logical.
6. Revising the Rough Draft The Three Stages of Revision
Stage One - Check for material
Stage Two - Check for organisation, mechanics and conventions
Stage Three - Check your language

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7.2 STYLE MATTERS
7.2.1 The Report Style Style determine the 7.3 TIPS AND GUIDELINES
success of report a) Have a Catchy Title
Good reports are: b) Include an Abstract
c) Write a Good Introduction
clear;
Your introduction is important because:
concise;
it guides the readers to what they will encounter
flow smoothly;
in the rest of the paper.
written from an objective point of view.
It prepares the reader to easily receive what the
writer intends to present.
It launches you immediately into the task of
7.2.2 The Writing Style relating your readers to the subject matter of the
Use words and phrases that come naturally to report.
you It makes clear the precise subject to be
Concentrate on conveying your exact meaning considered, indicates the reasons for
Get to your point quickly. considering the subject, and lays out the
Always emphasise your main ideas. organisation and scope of the report.
Keep your facts and opinions separate. It tells your readers what you plan to tell and
Only add figures and tables that are why and how you will tell it.
valuable to your reports; It focuses your readers attention on the subject
never repeat something to be treated. It should enable them to approach
Choose to present the body of the report naturally and intelligently.
your data in a way that is easiest for your reader Primary functions of the introduction are
to understand. elaborated in the following paragraphs.
If your report is multimedia, Technical films, d) State of Subject
videotapes, video clips and animations can be e) State of Purpose
very informative f) State of Organisation and Scope
g) Style and Length
h) Format
3. Arrangement of Your Report - Title, Abstract,
Introduction, Method (and logistics), Results,
Discussion and Conclusion.
4. Citing References
5. Content and Style

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Topic 8 Writing and Presenting Proposals

8.1 Definitions of Terms: Proposals and Feasibility Studies
Proposals are informative and persuasive writing because they attempt to educate the reader and to convince that
reader to do something.
a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient
information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.
All research proposals must address the following The Good proposal should
questions: 1) have sufficient information to convince your readers
1. What do you want to do? to research idea, good grasp of the relevant literature
2. What do you plan to accomplish? and major issues and methodology is sound.
3. Why do you want to do it? 2) The quality of your research proposal depends on
4. How are you going to do it? the quality of proposed project and proposal writing.
5. What is the subject of the proposal?
6. For whom the proposal intended?
8.2 Writing a Proposal

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8.3 Proposal Writing to Fit the Needs of Organisation or Clients

8.3.1 Main Concerns of Proposal Writing

people who will carry out the work of the proposal who could be your tutor or supervisor

the supervisor or whoever you are dealing with is reputable and will be able to fulfill that contract the people in
the institution submitting the proposal

8.3.2 Recognition of Critical Factors in Proposal Assessment

A clearly outlined evaluation process can help to clarify goals, define objectives and refine procedures during
the initial development of the proposal
Evaluation serves a number of useful purposes
Assessment assists everyone in understanding what made the project successful and why and what hindered
its success.
Ask a few questions yourself

8.3.3 Problems in Proposal Writing and Getting a Proposal Together

1. Problem to get the right title
Weak title: Improving English Education in Primary Schools
Better title: Innovative Instructional Materials to Improve English
Education in Primary Schools

2. Problems keep on cropping up

3. Tough time in organising documents
4. What should or should not be included.
5. Cannot organise their material in a logical way.

Major points that a researcher has to address.

1) The filtration process for writing a thesis proposal.
2) Keep on filtering, redefine your title and content so that it becomes a doable project.
3) Talk to yourself keep on selling your ideas to your friends or supervisor. Talking assists in clarifying your
ideas.
4) Write a brief note about your idea in one or two pages, especially on your area of interest. Try to read through
and put it aside for a moment (as if to forget about it), come back to it and think whether you have done a good
job.
5) Keep on reading spend time in the library, read through various texts and
6) Attend to your areas of interest. Take notes (never forget to reference the texts).
7) Mull through the write-up because you might find some things to change.
8) Discipline, which is sorting out the various topics so that they are in order.
9) Referencing so that you acknowledge other peoples work.

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8.4 OTHER TYPES OF PROPOSALS

8.4.1 Informal and Formal Proposals
A formal proposal is usually submitted by or through an organisation such as a school, college, university, non-profit
organisation or museum to an organisation such as a foundation, funding agency or corporation.
A proposal often begins with a person acting upon a wholehearted desire to fulfill a need, to do something for ones own benefit
and for the benefit of others.
Motivated by deep personal convictions, people experiencing this strong desire often recognise that solving a pressing problem,
performing critically important research or achieving a particular goal, can make the world a better place.
The researcher will go all out and is willing to devote his or her personal time and energy to satisfy this burning desire.

8.4.1 Nature of Formal/Informal Proposal (Differentiate)

Formal Proposal Informal Proposal
1. to be written in a formal business-like manner 1. written neatly and structured like the formal one, it may be done on
2. means you have your to right and clear a smaller scale and normally carries less weight compared with a
3. present it to the board or to whoever it is for formal proposal
4. from the beginning, to the methods and the instruments. 2. it consumes almost the same amount of time
3. the informal proposal is prepared not to seek funding or for an
academic degree
4. done to undertake a small research project on something
5. can be completed sooner than a formal one.

8.4.2 Business Proposal

Proposal writing is a lengthy process and costs time and money every time you are not awarded the contract/tender
It takes researchers a long time to set up
Present business proposal in well laid-out, looks highly professional and is compelling
Lay out specific terms within the law to prevent being taken for a ride
With the right proposal, you will be assured of winning the contract
Business proposals are developed for two possible reasons (June Campbell, 2002)

1. A business company has called for tenders or has Your proposal must stand out among possibly dozens of
invited you to submit an RFP (Request for Proposal). submissions.
Goal is to be shortlisted
2. You have an idea, concept or project that you want No competitive bidding process
to propose to someone with the goal of gaining Make a favourable impression and explain all aspects of your
support, funding or an alliance. proposed concept clearly and quickly.

Business proposal guidelines

Clarity Visual elements
Strive to communicate Title page
not to impress Be politically correct
Error free Jargon free
Print and bind Technology
Layout

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8.4.3 Proposals for Feasibility Study
1. Designed to provide an overview of the primary issues related to a business idea
2. To identify any make or break issues that would prevent your business from being successful in the marketplace
3. Be considered a brief formal analysis of a prospective business idea
4. To give the entrepreneur a clear evaluation of the potential for sales and profit of a particular idea
5. Provides a lot of information necessary for a business plan
6. A feasibility study looks at three major areas

Market Issues Organisational/Technical Issues Financial Issues

Market analysis begins by Key questions to answer include: Third and final step of a feasibility analysis is to take a
asking: 1. What organisational structure is right for your project? look at key financial issues.
1. What precisely is the 2. Who will manage the business?
market? 3. What qualifications needed to manage business? Start-up Costs incurred at start of new business
2. The more specific you 4. Who will sit on the board of directors? What are their costs
can be, the better it is. qualifications Operating Ongoing costs, such as rent, utilities,
3. Is the market growing, costs wages
shrinking or staying the The cost and availability of technology may be of critical Revenue How will you price goods and services?
same? importance to the feasibility of a project projections
4. Is it worth your while? Key issues to answer include: Source of Need to borrow money
5. Is the market enough to 1. What technology needed? financing
make it worth the time? 2. What other equipment needed? Profitability Will the business bring enough revenue?
3. Where to obtain this technology & equipment? analysis Will it break even, lose money or make a
4. When can acquire it? profit?
5. How much equipment & technology cost?

8.6.2 Benefits of Feasibility Studies 8.6.3 The Feasibility Study

Benefit cost analysis developed during a feasibility
study may well attract more attention and produce
more controversy than any other product of the study.
Benefit cost analysis is generally considered the most
objective and credible product of such studies.
Implementing feasibility studies can:
1. Map out for lenders your proposals strengths
and potential.
2. Realistically analyse the impact of expansion.
3. Show you the pros and cons
4. Analyse the business data.

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Topic 9 Fundamentals of Writing A Research Paper

Researching for a Paper 9.1 What is a Research Paper?
Research Papers Documented Essays 1. An extended essay that summarises information about a
Students search for and use outside Student uses quotes particular subject in order to prove a point.
sources to support their main argument. from one or more
2. A sustained inquiry about a particular subject
Sources are cited within the paper sources that he or
3. Research paper not an english assignment
Publication information about each she has read in a
source or reference is included at the class. 4. A tool for the student to use as he explores one of the
end of the paper in a a works cited
content areas of the curriculum something he is interested
page.
in.

9.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper

9.2.1 Choosing a Topic Key feature of successful research.
You need to choose a topic that
Read the assignment very carefully and select a topic or a
1. Fulfills the course requirements; and
thesis that fits within the assignment
2. Is doable.
Choose topic that you are interested & capable of adequately
3. Has available resources in the library or on the internet
pursuing in the space you have
Is not too extensive and, in actuality, is several topics in one, so
Avoid topics that too broad or too narrow. that it is manageable in the time available
Better to do something more narrowly focused

Ask Question
(1) have a strong opinion? (2) read a newspaper article that tested your curiosity?
(3) have a personal issue, problem? (4) have a research paper due in a class this current?
(5) Is there an aspect of one of your courses that you are interested in learning about more?
Write down any words or phrases that may be of interest to you.
Be aware of certain overused topic ideas.

Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are
considering.

Limit a topicgeographic region;culture,time frame, discipline and population group.

Topic more difficult if itlocally confined, recent, broadly interdisciplinary & popular
If uncertainties discuss topic with your tutor/instructor & librarian.

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.
words that best describe your topic.
synonyms, broader and narrower terms to expand your search capabilities.
Keep a list of these words

modify research topic during the research process.

develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word and then
begin to have questions about the topic

Use the key words, need some research and reading before you select your final topic

Write your topic as a thesis statement.

Development of a thesis assumes is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.
The title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.

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Remember to discuss and follow any specific instructions from your instructor.
9.2.2 Planning the Research Design and Process
1. Reason = to provide evidence to prove your thesis.
Methodology include laboratory research, surveys, close textual
2. Ways to research or analyse = methodology analysis and psychoanalytic search.
3. Research
Include looking up other research on the same or similar
topic Research Suggestions.
To find out what other people have said about it. Start Out by Reading a General Study or Two on Your Subject
Can help you prove your thesis, clarify your methodology Treat Research Like a Detective Story
or even find contrary opinions you need to disprove Look at the Most Recent Books and Journal Articles First
Photocopy Important Material
Make a careful and complete notation of source of your material

9.2.3 Compiling Research Sources

1) Reference Works 5) News magazines and Newspapers
materials in the reference room are valuable resources for not good sources of analysis
beginning to check with tutor to ensure that these are considered acceptable
structure the basic outline or your topic. Language sources
encyclopedias and 6) World Wide Web (WWW) Electronic
dictionaries are one of the many resources Resources
Government bureaucracies.
2) Books
Network government resources.
OUM Virtual System (VLS) Headings for ways to cross-
Malaysian government links.
reference your search for books
Included data references:
Author of the web page;
3) Scholarly Journal Articles
Date of the web page;
sources of new information and analysis
Title of the web page; and complete url.
4) Government Publications 7) Miscellaneous Sources
a report of a government agency, hearing or reports of a References to sources that are not found in your library
parliamentary committee, the PAC (Public Accounts 8) External Sources
Committee), the transcript of the proceedings of Conduct an interview with a decision-maker or some other
Parliament or a document from a government printer relevant person

9.3.1 Outlining and Organisation 9.3.2 Argument

Introduction establish your topic and state your thesis; convince your.
Move to the body of paper in a clear, logical manner organise your thoughts, logically and provide evidence
Prove your thesis, step by step and convince your reader Look for gaps in your own argument and try to fill those in
End with a conclusion Avoid errors in reasoning (stereotypes, invalid assumptions,
hasty generalisations or appeals to the emotions)

9.3.3 Writing Tips

1) Not to write in a colloquial style unless it is necessary;
2) Avoid lots of choppy short sentences and paragraphs
3) Each paragraph has a central idea and that paragraphs are
4) Clearly connected
5) Avoid using the same words repeatedly
6) Double check your paper for grammatical, punctuation, spelling and other errors

9.3.4 Citation 9.4 TIPS AND GUIDELINES

a) To cite is to point to evidence, authority or proof. 9.4.1 Read, read, read
b) need to collect and assemble details of where your 1. Means that you as a writer have to do some background
information came from and note this in your text. reading, think hard and speak with your tutor or instructor in
c) Citing to protect ourselves against charges of plagiarism. order to identify a good topic.
It is also vital to: 2. Begin by reading in the field
prove that our work has a substantial, factual basis; 3. Read a few books or articles on topics you find of interest.
show the research we have done reaches our conclusions

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allow our readers to identify and retrieve the references for
their own use.
d) There are two main styles of citing 9.4.2 Organise your Discussion
Harvard Is a type of author-date style; 1) Start with a paragraph that summarises the key results in the
Requires only the name of the author(s) context of the question (s) you asked in the introduction
and the year of publication (with no 2) Compare and contrast with others in the literature.
punctuation between the two items) 3) List the limitations might resolve them.
Requires citations to be placed at the end 4) Discuss implications in other fields such as culture and
of a sentence (before the concluding religion.
punctuation). 5) Hypothesise and speculate on the data. (provide a model)
Example:
adnin (1990: 564) has argued that 9.4.3 Categorise Information
Vancouver A footnote/endnote style Materials for research can be divided into three categories:
References are numbered in the order in (a) Background Information - brief and to the point that a
which they are cited in the text. summary either:
Explains why the topic that you chose is significant
e) For Notes, Footnotes and Endnotes Provides a brief history of your chosen topic.
Make your argument coherent and sound (b) Supporting Information
Since they provide the reader with the sources/evidence Drive your argument forward.
to back your argument. Validates your opinion.(more believable and plausible)
Indicating thoughts and ideas of a secondary nature. (c) Opposing Information
Explain or to make a comment on something Its useful to strengthen your position on an issue.
Footnotes(little notes) found on the same page Include opposing information
Endnotes (little longer notes ) found on back pages Useful tactic to persuade the reader to take your side.

f) For Bibliography 9.4.4 Develop Note-Taking Skills

presents them in a way that permits a prospective reader to One note card should be used for each major point
see how you did your research Information incidentbe written in a corner of the note card
(name of book or article, place and year published and
Author (One Only)/ Title /Place Published Company/Year. published company.
process of note-taking.
(a) Examine the Books and Articles
9.3.5 Presentation Skim sources, locating useful material, then make good
a) writing it clearly sentences notes of it,. (icluding quotes & nformation for footnotes. )
b) need also be clear and concise Make these notes on separate cards for each author.
c) checked for syntax, punctuation and style. (b) Take Care in Note-taking
d) paragraphs and sentences should flow easily paper is Be accurate and honest.(not distort the authors
cleanly typed or printed without any missing pages or errors meaning.)
e) figures or illustrations are clearly labelled. do not want to collect only those things that will support
your thesis while ignoring other facts or opinions.
(c) Get the Right Kind of Material
Get facts, not just opinions.
Compare the facts with the authors: deas,
opinions.Deliberations.Quotations.Closure, conclusions.

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9.5 Looking at Examples

Steps to Ensure a Good Research Paper

Step 1 Choose a Topic Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned or specialised, very narrow
range of source materials.
Step 2 Find Information a) evaluate web sites critically and to search effectively on the Internet
b) Use Search Engines to search in the Net for general or background information, check out useful URLs,
general information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online
c) check out materials available in your own universityEs library or in other libraries
d) jot down full bibliographical information
Step 3 State Your Thesis Do some critical thinking and write your thesis statement in one sentence.
Step 4 Make a Tentative INTRODUCTION, a BODY and a CONCLUSION
Outline
Step 5 Organise Your a) Organise according to your outline and critically analyse your research data
b) Check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up to date and correct
Notes
c) Effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights and research findings to others through written
words or through spoken words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids.
d) Jot down detailed bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your
word cited page.
Step 6 Write Your First a) Use a technique that suits you to Summarise, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea you plan to use in
your paper.
Draft
b) Put all your note cards or paper in order of your outline
c) well-organised research paper completed exactly as outlined
Step 7 Revise Your a) Read your paper for any errors in content.
b) Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow your outline.
Outline and Draft
c) Reorganise your outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of your paper and your readers in mind.
d) Re-read your paper for grammatical errors
e) Correct all spoted errors and improve the overall quality of the paper.
f) Get someone else to read it over
Step 8 Type Final Paper a) be type-written using a word processor or in a rare case, a typewriter
b) Read the assignment sheet again
c) Proof read your final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated words
d) ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat and attractive.

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 OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Topic 10 Writing Collaboratively

10.1 Stages in Collaborative Writing (Three stages)
Learners are engaged in preliminary discussions of ideas and approaches using
The Note sharing
Invention Brainstorm about the topics first then trade notes and materials with the others
Stage Preliminary debating
Prepare a debate/idea on a topic
Group members gather support for their positions, which then becomes shared materials for papers.
Three models
The Chunk model - divides the writing of a project into sections.
Drafting Good everyone involved
Stage Bad-result in an incoherent paper
Blended model-learners be present in the same place and discuss every aspect of the paper
Compiler model-each group member does the whole assignment, final best product be selected to create the final draft.
Group members have to revise the paper
The
1) The group members can revise one anothers drafts.
Revision
2) The best writer of the group can become the chief editor of the draft.
Stage
3) Other group members can give comments or suggestions.

10.2 Team Communication 10.3.2 Management of Time/Writing/Documents

Effective writing teams know what they intend to accomplish. # Time - deadlines affect group writing tasks constantly
They know their responsibilities, resources, strengths and # Writing - bulletin board to show the writing cpmpleting
weaknesses and know how to communicate well. progress, using a type of story-board format to post sections
But such problems can include: of the work Itself.
1) unsatisfactory negotiations; # Document - an outline of the steps that will occur in the
2) non-acknowledgement of ideas/opinions; writing process
3) over-zealous editing;
4) missed deadlines/non-delivery; and When all done, they must make decisions
5) non-understanding of subject matter 1) Group versus Individual Work
decide activities to be done by group and by individual group
members
2) Equivalency of a Task
Each group member have an equal amount of work
complete the job as quickly as possible and will ensure
fairness
3) Best Use of Individual Skills
Match up individual skills with a job that utilises those skills.
If group members are comfortable with each other, they will be
less hesitant to state their own strengths and weaknesses.

10.4 Managing Collaborative Writing Projects

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10.3.1 Team Building 10.5 Practice in Writing Step-By-Step

Practising democracy is another aspect of team building. Instructions
Every member needs to be given the chance to speak and
# Develop a style and format guide at the very beginning of
respect must be shown for each persons ideas or opinions.
the writing project.
More creative energy as well as better quality product will
emerge as a result of team- work. # questions to consider
1) What style guide? Which spelling conventions?
Students working as a team will maximise use of resources
2) What size for font type, margins and headings ?
and improve their profile.
3) Will abbreviations be allowed and which ones?
4) Which technical terms necessary to define?
10.3.1 Analysis of Task 5) Will processes be explained in point form or paragraph
The group must analyse the task to be done so that each form?
member has the same interpretation.
They must consider the major questions to be answered
concerning the writing project.

10.6 Conflict Management Writing as a Group

Groups need to face these conflicts with patience, Writing collaboratively tends to take a bit more time than

understanding and respond to them directly writing alone.

Take steps to resolve the conflict as soon as they become Each writer might have different ideas on what to write, how

aware that it exists to write and how much to write.

Process Group should lay out a detailed series of deadlines and

Find the source of the problem dates for meeting in order to eliminate as much of the last-

What is the issue minute rush as possible.

Where did it come from Collaborative writing also has the potential to be far superior

Who started it to individual writing, because

The weaknesses and inadequacies of individuals are
checked upon by one another
10.7 Collaborative Writing Practice
The strengths of the individuals are pooled together.
Group members need to know what they are supposed to do
Tips for
following is an example of a group project
Get students to work as a team to brainstorm, research,
outline, draft and revise the material which will be submitted
to the tourism board

Preparing Manuals and Other Forms of Team Writing

# Guidelines in the manual should be clear, straightforward
and easy to understand
# Guidelines to be considered when preparing a manual:
1) Purpose of the manual
2) Amount of detail
3) Heading
4) Format
5) Inclusion of diagram
6) Level of language
7) User friendliness
8) Other appriopriate consideration

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