J Neurophysiol 115: 14221435, 2016.

First published December 30, 2015; doi:10.1152/jn.00030.2015.

Adaptation of multijoint coordination during standing balance in healthy

young and healthy old individuals

D. Engelhart,1 J. H. Pasma,2 A. C. Schouten,1,3 R. G. K. M. Aarts,4 C. G. M. Meskers,5

A. B. Maier,6 and H. van der Kooij1,3
1
Laboratory of Biomechanical Engineering, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of
Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands; 2Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden,
The Netherlands; 3Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands; 4Department of
Mechanical Automation, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands; 5Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, VU
University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; and 6Section of Geriatrics and Gerontology, Department of
Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Submitted 12 January 2015; accepted in final form 23 December 2015

Engelhart D, Pasma JH, Schouten AC, Aarts RG, Meskers CG, (Horak and Nashner 1986), describing the movement in these
Maier AB, van der Kooij H. Adaptation of multijoint coordination joints. Coordination of movements around the ankle and hip
during standing balance in healthy young and healthy old individuals. joints depends on the amount of external disturbances, such as
J Neurophysiol 115: 14221435, 2016. First published December 30, gravity and pushes having impact on the body, and on the
2015; doi:10.1152/jn.00030.2015.Standing balance requires multi-
support surface conditions (Creath et al. 2005; Fujisawa et al.
joint coordination between the ankles and hips. We investigated how
humans adapt their multijoint coordination to adjust to various con-
2005; Horak and Nashner 1986). Adaptability of multijoint
ditions and whether the adaptation differed between healthy young coordination is an essential feature of standing balance control
participants and healthy elderly. Balance was disturbed by push/pull to adjust to various conditions.
rods, applying two continuous and independent force disturbances at Previous studies showed that the elderly tend to have altered
the level of the hip and between the shoulder blades. In addition, multijoint coordination to maintain standing balance compared
external force fields were applied, represented by an external stiffness with young individuals. The elderly exhibited higher cross-
at the hip, either stabilizing or destabilizing the participants balance. correlation between the upper and lower body in quiet stance,
Multivariate closed-loop system-identification techniques were used indicating that the displacements of the two body segments
to describe the neuromuscular control mechanisms by quantifying the were less independent (Accornero et al. 1997; Garipy et al.
corrective joint torques as a response to body sway, represented by 2008). In addition, the elderly had a less-flexible joint coordi-
frequency response functions (FRFs). Model fits on the FRFs resulted nation pattern to compensate for externally applied balance
in an estimation of time delays, intrinsic stiffness, reflexive stiffness,
and reflexive damping of both the ankle and hip joint. The elderly
disturbances (Hsu et al. 2013). This possibly indicates that the
generated similar corrective joint torques but had reduced body sway elderly used less hip strategy and behaved more rigidly.
compared with the young participants, corresponding to the increased Various underlying mechanisms have been put forth as
FRF magnitude with age. When a stabilizing or destabilizing external contributing factors of altered multijoint coordination in the
force field was applied at the hip, both young and elderly participants elderly. Some studies indicated that the elderly increase their
adapted their multijoint coordination by lowering or respectively reflexive stiffness around the ankle joint when they are exposed
increasing their neuromuscular control actions around the ankles, to altered sensory information (Amiridis et al. 2003; Benjuya et
expressed in a change of FRF magnitude. However, the elderly al. 2004), whereas other studies found altered intrinsic prop-
adapted less compared with the young participants. Model fits on the erties of muscles and tendons having impact on stiffness in the
FRFs showed that elderly had higher intrinsic and reflexive stiffness elderly (Cenciarini 2010; Ishida et al. 2008; Kearney et al.
of the ankle, together with higher time delays of the hip. Furthermore,
the elderly adapted their reflexive stiffness around the ankle joint less
1997).
compared with young participants. These results imply that elderly The detection of the underlying mechanisms of altered
were stiffer and were less able to adapt to external force fields. multijoint coordination in standing balance is complex, as there
exists substantial redundancy at the joint, muscle, and neural
standing balance control; multijoint coordination; adaptation; healthy levels (Hsu et al. 2013). Multiple sensory systems contribute to
elderly balance control, i.e., the proprioceptive, visual, and vestibular
system. The sensory signals are integrated and processed by
AGING IS ASSOCIATED WITH impaired balance and falls (Muir et al. the central nervous system and are then used to generate
2010; Pasma et al. 2014b; Rubenstein 2006). To maintain corrective joint torques by precise muscle-activation patterns.
balance, several underlying systems work together. One of the Due to this redundancy, cause and effect remain unclear;
mechanisms to maintain balance is to alter the coordination of increased stiffness can be due to altered intrinsic muscle
postural responses, i.e., multijoint coordination, which is often properties or increased reflex activity, or it might be a com-
explored by analyzing ankle strategies and hip strategies pensation strategy and a result of the fact that the elderly
change their dynamic behavior to maintain stability. Multivar-
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: D. Engelhart, Lab-
iate closed-loop system-identification techniques (CLSIT)
oratory for Biomechanical Engineering, Univ. of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 (Boonstra et al. 2013; Engelhart et al. 2014) are required to
AE Enschede, The Netherlands (e-mail: denise.engelhart@gmail.com). unravel cause and effects. The application of multiple and
1422 0022-3077/16 Copyright 2016 the American Physiological Society www.jn.org
 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1423

Table 1. Participant characteristics participants with a score lower than 26 points were not included.
Physical functioning was assessed by handgrip strength and the Short
Young, n 15 Elderly, n 14 Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) (Guralnik et al. 1994). Walking
speed was obtained from the 4-m walking test of the SPPB. The total
General characteristics amount of medication was obtained by questioning the participants.
Age, yr 25.9 (2.8) 74.4 (3.5) The study was performed according to the principles of the Dec-
Women, n (%) 8 (53) 6 (43)
Weight, kg 71.7 (10.4) 78.7 (10.6) laration of Helsinki and was approved by the Medical Ethics Com-
Height, m 1.80 (0.09) 1.72 (0.08) mittee of Medisch Spectrum Twente (Enschede, The Netherlands).
Health characteristics All participants gave written, informed consent before participating in
Number of medication, median (IQR) 0 (00) 2 (03) the study.
MMSE, points; median (IQR) 30 (3030) 29 (2830)
Physical functioning
Handgrip strength, kg 50.8 (16.75) 36.7 (7.8) Apparatus
Gait speed, m/s 1.07 (0.16) 1.07 (0.15)
SPPB score, points; median (IQR) 12 (1212) 12 (1112) Multijoint coordination was investigated using a custom-made
device (Motekforce Link, Culemborg, The Netherlands)the double-
All parameters are presented as means with SD (in parentheses) unless

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indicated otherwise. IQR, interquartile range; MMSE, Mini-Mental State inverted pendulum perturbator (DIPP) (Engelhart et al. 2015)which
Examination; SPPB, Short Physical Performance Battery. consists of two manipulators and applies forces using push/pull rods
at hip and shoulder level (Fig. 1). Both manipulators were adjustable
specifically designed external disturbances on the human body in height to align the rods to the participants hip and shoulder level.
allows the study of multijoint coordination in standing balance. The manipulators were force controlled, such that force disturbances
Multijoint coordination is expressed in the generation of cor- and force fields could be applied simultaneously. Force disturbances
rective joint torques as a response to body movement, i.e., the are pushes and pulls on the human body, required for identification of
dynamic behavior of the neuromuscular controller. the neuromuscular controller. Force fields were applied at hip level to
evoke adaptation of multijoint coordination. Participants experienced
With system-identification techniques, we investigated the
the force fields as if they were attached to a spring with varying
underlying mechanisms of multijoint coordination in standing
stiffness, pushing or pulling them back to an equilibrium position.
balance in healthy young and healthy elderly. Furthermore, we During the experiments, participants wore a safety harness to prevent
investigated the adaptation to externally applied force fields. falling. The harness did not constrain movements or provide support
Studies in the upper and lower extremities showed that postural in any way.
responses adapted when external force fields were applied
(Burdet et al. 2001; Franklin et al. 2003; Shadmehr and
Mussa-Ivaldi 1994; van Asseldonk et al. 2009). In standing Disturbance Signals
balance studies, it was shown that the elderly possess the
The force disturbances were unpredictable and continuous mul-
ability to adapt to external disturbances, although to a lesser
tisine signals in a range from 0.05 to 5 Hz (Fig. 2). The shoulder and
degree than the young (Pavol et al. 2002; Van Ooteghem et al. pelvis disturbances were the zippered multisine (Pintelon and
2009). Therefore, we hypothesize that a stabilizing force field Schoukens 2012), such that each disturbance contained nine excited
will down scale the postural responses and that this effect is frequencies at an interleaved frequency grid. Both multisine signals
more pronounced in the young than the elderly, indicating that had a period of 20 s and were repeated nine times over a time course
the elderly are less adaptive. In addition to existing studies, of 3 min. Disturbances had a peak-to-peak amplitude of 80 N.
identification of the underlying factors that change multijoint
coordination with age could provide insight into mechanisms
influencing the risk of falling in the elderly (Engelhart et al. Procedures
2014). Adequate treatment of balance disorders requires un- Participants were attached to the DIPP and stood with eyes open,
raveling the underlying primary causes and applied (adaptive) without shoes, and their arms folded across their chest. Participants
strategies. were instructed to maintain a normal, upright stance position. Force
disturbances at the hip and shoulder were applied simultaneously.
External force fields were applied only at the level of the hip. The
METHODS
(spring) stiffness of the force field was set such that it compensated
Participants partially for the gravitational stiffness around the participants ankle
joint and was normalized to mgl [where m is the mass of the
Fifteen healthy young (age range 20 30 yr) and 14 healthy elderly participant, g the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2), and l the
(age range 70 79 yr) individuals participated in the study (Table 1). height of the center of mass (CoM), estimated by 0.575 height of
Participants were excluded when they experienced the following: 1) the participant].
were in a dependent living situation; 2) were unable to walk a distance Within the five experimental trials, a fixed stiffness level was set,
of 250 m; 3) presented comorbidity (dementia, neurologic disorders, expressed in a percentage of full compensation. One baseline trial was
metabolic diseases, rheumatic diseases, heart failure, severe chronic recorded without force field (0%). Three force fields were stabilizing
obstructive pulmonary disease); 4) used medication with an influence the human body (20, 50, and 80%), and one force field destabilized the
on balance control (immunosuppressive drugs, insulin, anticoagula- human body (20%). All trials were randomized, and participants
tion); 5) were immobilized for 1 wk during the last 3 mo; or 6) had were allowed to rest between trials according to their needs. Before
orthopedic surgery during the last 2 yr with unresolved pain or the experiments, participants were allowed to get familiarized with the
functional limitation. disturbances according to their individual needs. In the case of the five
To illustrate the state of health of the study population, several force-field trials, participants were allowed to familiarize 10 s
outcome parameters were measured. Cognition was assessed using the before recording the data. This familiarization reduced any transient
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) (Folstein et al. 1975), and effects in the responses.

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1424 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

(Creath et al. 2005; Horak and Nashner 1986), multijoint postural

D control is described by the ankle and hip strategy, which is defined as
movements around the ankle and hip joints. Therefore, sway and
torque responses of young and elderly participants were compared,
expressed by the root mean square (RMS), which gives an indication
of the effective amplitude instead of a maximum, yielding a repre-
sentative value for the response amplitudes. Secondly, covariance
descriptors (Kuo et al. 1998) resulted from a kinematic analysis,
which included postural coordination between the ankle and hip
joints. To include multisegmental influences in postural control
(Boonstra et al. 2013), system-identification techniques were used,
which resulted in frequency response functions (FRFs), which de-
scribe the relationship between the torques and the angles as a
response to the disturbances only; i.e., intersegmental coordination of
the neuromuscular controller is identified. Finally, to find physiolog-
ically relevant parameters that describe the underlying mechanisms of

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multijoint coordination, a model was fit to the FRF. This resulted in an
estimate of time delays and parameters describing intrinsic and
reflexive feedback properties.
Preprocessing. All signals were filtered with a phase-preserving,
fourth-order Butterworth filter, with a cutoff frequency of 10 Hz. The
ankle and hip angle was calculated with goniometric rules from the
recorded upper- and lower-body displacements and the participants
B dimensions. The ankle angle was described as the angle of the lower
C body with respect to the foot (and thus the horizontal, as the support
surface was fixed). The hip angle was described as the angle of the
upper body with respect to the longitudinal axis of the upper leg. From
the force plate data, the total ankle and hip torques were calculated
E with inverse dynamics (van der Linde and Schwab 1998; Winter
1990). Data were segmented in 20-s periods of the disturbance
signals, yielding 9 data blocks/trial. From each data block, the mean
and trends were removed. The responses were averaged over the nine
data blocks for each condition and participant and used for further
analysis.
RMS and covariance descriptor. A description of the response
amplitude of the ankle and hip angle and the ankle and hip torque was
given by the RMS.
To represent the upper- and lower-body movement and their
coupling, the two-by-two covariance matrix of the ankle and hip angle
was used (Kuo et al. 1998)
1 n
i i
T
Q cov (1)
n 1 i1
A
in which i is the ith time sample of the vector containing the ankle
and hip angles. The diagonal terms of the covariance matrix represent
the variances of the ankle and hip angle. The off-diagonal terms
Fig. 1. Double-inverted pendulum perturbator with a subject standing on a represent the intersegmental coupling between the ankle and hip.
force plate (A) and attached to 2 manipulators at shoulder and hip level (B).
Both manipulators are adjustable in height and driven by an electromotor,
The covariance matrix may be described by an ellipse (Kuo et al.
pushing and pulling the subject. Body kinematics are measured by potentiom- 1998; Speers et al. 2002). The extent of the ellipse along the horizontal
eters attached to the rod (C). A safety harness is attached to the pyramidal and vertical axes is proportional to the RMS motion of the ankle and hip,
construction (D), and an emergency button is mounted on the frame (E). respectively. The eigenvalues of the covariance matrix, 1 and 2,
describe the squared lengths of the major and minor ellipse axes, respec-
Recordings tively. The long axis of the ellipse (1) represents the amount of hip
strategy used by the participant, whereas the minor axis of the ellipse
Body kinematics were measured using two draw-wire potentiometers (2) is an approximate indicator of the amount of CoM movement.
(Celesco SP2-25; Celesco Transducer Products, Chatsworth, CA), which The eigenvector with the largest eigenvalue was used to calculate the
were attached to the end of the push/pull rods and measured the displacement orientation angle () of the ellipse. The angle quantifies the direction
of the participants upper and lower body segments. A dual-force plate of the relationship between the ankle and hip angles.
(Advanced Mechanical Technology, Watertown, MA) measured the ground Frequency response functions. The dynamical properties of the
reaction forces and torques in 6 of freedom under each foot. All signals were neuromuscular controller were quantified in the frequency domain by
recorded with a sample frequency of 1,000 Hz and processed in Matlab (The FRFs, which consist of two parts: a magnitude and a phase, describing
MathWorks, Natick, MA). the relationship between disturbances and the responses in terms of
magnitude and time, respectively. With the use of CLSITs (Engelhart
Data Analysis et al. 2015; van der Kooij et al. 2005), the FRFs of the neuromuscular
controller (Hc) are computed from the experimental data, according to
To study the age-related changes in adaptation of multijoint coor-
dination, different data analysis methods were used. In various studies Hc SdTSd1 (2)

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 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1425

Timeseries Disturbances [N] Power Spectral Density [N2 Hz-1]

40 300
Pelvis

200
0

100

40
0

40 300
Shoulder

200
0
100

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40
0
0 20 1 0 1
10 10 10
Time [s] Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 2. Time series of the applied force disturbances at the pelvis and between the shoulder blades, with the corresponding power spectral density. The force
disturbances are zippered multisine, as the excited frequencies (indicated with circles) are independent.

in which SdT and Sd are the cross-spectral density matrices be- Model description. An FRF describes the behavior of the system,
tween the external disturbances (d) and the corrective ankle and hip but it does not reveal which physiological mechanisms are underlying
torques (T) and the ankle and hip angles (), respectively, resulting in the system. To relate the changes in behavior to the changes in the
a two-by-two FRF matrix (Hc). The inverse of the Sd matrix and underlying physiology, a model of the neuromuscular controller was
multiplication of it with the SdT matrix requires that the matrix fit to the non-normalized FRFs (Fig. 3).
components are known at all excited frequencies, which is untrue for The neuromuscular controller stabilizes the human body by gener-
the zippered multisine, as both disturbance signals contain different ation of joint torques. The corrective joint torques around the ankles
frequencies. Therefore, the complex numbers of the cross-spectral and hips result from intrinsic feedback, together with delayed neural
densities were interpolated in terms of magnitude and phase to obtain feedback. Each system in the neuromuscular controller was described
all matrix components for the full range of excited frequencies in the by a mathematical formula (i.e., transfer function), with parameters
zippered multisine. The FRFs were only evaluated at the frequencies describing the physiology. This resulted in a model for the four terms
where the disturbance signals contained power. The FRFs were of the neuromuscular controller
normalized for the gravitational stiffness (mgl) to compensate for
differences in the participants mass and pendulum height, which Hc,ank2Tank Hank
p Hr
ank2Tank ank
HTD
influence the FRFs. Hc,hip2Tank Hrhip2TankHTD
ankhip
Hc consists of two direct terms covering the FRFs from ankle angle
to ankle torque (Hc,ank2Tank) and from hip angle to hip torque Hc,ank2Thip Hrank2ThipHTD
ankhip
(Hc,hip2Thip). These direct terms quantify the ankle and hip contribu-
tions to balance control. Furthermore, there are two indirect terms, Hc,hip2Thip Hhip
p Hr
hip2Thip hip
HTD (3)
which cover the FRFs from ankle angle to hip torque (Hc,ank2Thip) and
from hip angle to ankle torque (Hc,hip2Tank) and reflect the interseg- The transfer function of intrinsic feedback (Hp) describes the
mental coupling (Boonstra et al. 2013). muscle and tendon dynamics together with the soft tissue properties.

External Disturbances
Neuromuscular Controller Force2 Fig. 3. Schematics of the human balance
Force1 control system. The human body was repre-
Intrinsic dynamics sented as a double-inverted pendulum, with
hip (Hp)
Plant: disturbances acting at the hip and shoulder
Force2 Double inverted level. The model of the neuromuscular con-
Force1 pendulum
+ troller was used for parameter estimation.
hip Thip Force2 hat The inputs were the ankle and hip angle (ank,
- Reflexive Control
(Hr)
Time delay
(HTD)
g hip) and the outputs, the corrective joint
ank hat torques (Tank, Thip). Intrinsic dynamics were
-
Force1 Thip
leg modeled as a spring and were different for the
ankle and hip joints. Reflexive control and
+ - time-delay dynamics were multiple-input,
Tank
Intrinsic dynamics leg multiple-output transfer functions (shown as
ankle (Hp) Tank hip
dotted boxes), in which interaction existed
between the ankle and hip-joint signals. Hp,
intrinsic feedback; Hr, reflexive feedback;
HTD, feedback of time delay; hat, segment
angle of the head-arms-trunk segment; leg,
segment angle of the leg.

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1426 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

Table 2. Overview of the parameters as used in the model fits sum squared error (SSE). The objective function is chosen, such that

Parameter Unit
Varied over
Conditions
there is more emphasis on the low frequencies, 1
1f k
, where
stiffness typically manifests. In addition, a relative error is calculated
Time delay for all frequencies on a logarithmic scale.
Ankle dank s No The optimization algorithm was run 20 times with random initial
Hip dhip s No conditions to assure that a global minimum was found. The best
Ankle-hip and vice versa dank hip s parameter set was obtained from the fit with the lowest SSE value.
Intrinsic feedback In addition, the goodness of fit (GOF) describes how well the data
Stiffness ankle Kpank Nm/rad No
compare with the estimation with the parameter set and is ex-
Stiffness hip Kphip Nm/rad No
Reflexive feedback pressed as

Hc,i f k, p Hc,i f k2 100%

Stiffness Ank2Tank Kank 2Tank Nm/rad Yes
Stiffness Hip2Tank Khip2Tank Nm/rad Yes
GOFi 1 (6)
Stiffness Ank2Thip
Stiffness Hip2Thip
Kank 2Thip
Khip2Thip
Nm/rad
Nm/rad
Yes
Yes
Hc,i f k2
Damping Ank2Tank Dank 2Tank Nms/rad Yes

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Damping Hip2Tank Dhip2Tank Nms/rad Yes
The models were fitted for each participant on all five experimental
Damping Ank2Thip Dank 2Thip Nms/rad Yes trials simultaneously. To limit the number of parameter combinations
Damping Hip2Thip Dhip2Thip Nms/rad Yes in the fit, lumped time delays and intrinsic stiffness were constant over
trials in which force-field levels were varied. The lumped time delays
The parameters were fit to the 5 force-field conditions simultaneously and of the indirect terms were calculated as the averages of the direct
for each subject individually. Time delay and intrinsic feedback parameters terms. Reflexive feedback was variable over trials, as it was assumed
were kept constant over the 5 conditions, whereas the values for the reflexive
feedback parameters varied over the conditions. The time delay for ankle-hip
that subjects alter their control action when they are exposed to a force
and vice versa was calculated as the average of the time-delay ankle and field. After the model-fitting procedures, the passive stiffness and the
time-delay hip. reflexive stiffness and damping values were normalized for the grav-
itational stiffness of each participant to correct for the differences in
Intrinsic feedback is described for each joint by only stiffness (Hp mass and height between participants.
Kp). Intrinsic dynamics only exists directly at joint level, i.e., the
direct terms of the neuromuscular controller, with different values for
the ankle and hips (Hank hip
p , Hp ).
Statistical Analysis
In the transfer function of the lumped time delay (HTD eds), d
represents the sum of neural conduction time (transport delay), an The characteristics of the participants were represented by means
electromechanical delay (to activate the muscles), and the processing and SD in the case of a Gaussian distribution. Else, median, and
time of sensory information. A separate lumped delay was introduced interquartile range or number and percentage were presented. To test
for each path length that the sensory information travels; e.g., the significant differences between groups, an independent, two-sided
direct terms of the neuromuscular controller had separate delays t-test was performed. In the case of the non-normal distributed values,
ank
(HTD hip
, HTD ), and the indirect terms of the FRF had equal delays a Mann-Whitney U-test was performed.
ankhip
(HTD ). To test significant differences in RMS and covariance descriptors
The transfer function of reflexive feedback (Hr) was represented by between age and force-field levels, linear mixed models were used.
a matrix with stiffness and damping terms, relating the joint torques to Age and force-field level were fixed effects. To account for the
the ankle and hip angles and angular velocities. This resulted in four repeated measurements, participant intercept was included as a ran-
transfer functions dom effect. In addition, interaction effects between age and force-field
Hrank2Tank Kank2Tank Dank2Tanks levels were studied.
For statistical analysis of the FRFs, the magnitude of each FRF was
Hrhip2Tank Khip2Tank Dhip2Tanks logarithmically transformed to make the data normally distributed.
Subsequently, the magnitudes were averaged within three frequency
Hrank2Thip Kank2Thip Dank2Thips (4)
bands (1, 12.5, and 2.6 5 Hz). The lowest frequencies generally
Hrhip2Thip Khip2Thip Dhip2Thips describe the stiffness properties of the system, whereas the magnitude
at middle and high frequencies is shaped by damping and mass
The model had a total of 13 physiologically interpretable parame- (inertia), respectively. Linear mixed models were used to test signif-
ters. Table 2 shows the model parameters and how they are estimated, icant differences in FRFs between age and force-field levels for each
as is outlined next. frequency band. Age group, force-field level, and frequency band
Model fitting. The transfer functions from the model were fitted to were fixed effects, and participant intercept was a random effect. In
the experimental, non-normalized FRFs using a nonlinear least- addition, interaction effects between age group and force-field level
squares optimization algorithm. The algorithm searches for a param- were studied.
eter set that minimizes the objective function (Ji,fk) To test significant differences of the estimated model parameters

Ji,f k 1
1 fk lnH c,i f k, p lnHc,i f k (5)
that were constant over trials, an independent, two-sided t-test was
performed, as there can only be an effect of age and not of force-field
level. To test significant differences between age and different force-
4 18 field levels in the estimated model parameters that were allowed to
SSE Ji,f
i1 k1
k
vary over trials, linear mixed models were used. Age group and
force-field level were fixed effects, and participant intercept was a
The logarithmic difference between the FRF (Hc) based on the random effect. In addition, interaction effects between age and force-
calculated parameter vector (p) and the estimated FRF (Hc) obtained field level were studied.
from experimental data was summed over the frequencies (fk, k For all tests, the significance level () was set at 0.05. All analyses
1:18) and the different terms of the FRFs (Hi, i 1:4), resulting in a were performed with SPSS version 22.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

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 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1427

Young Elderly
Ankle Angle [deg]

-5

5
Hip Angle [deg]

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Fig. 4. Joint angles and joint torques in re-
-5 sponse to the applied disturbances of a repre-
sentative young (left) and elderly (right) par-
ticipant in the baseline trial without force field
(0%). The average over the 9 disturbance cy-
Ankle Torque [Nm]

50
cles is indicated with the black line; the gray
area represents the SD.

-50

50
Hip Torque [Nm]

-50
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time [s] Time [s]

RESULTS 0.02 (P 0.001), the hip angle with 0.03 (P 0.001),

Characteristics of the group of healthy young and healthy the ankle torque with 0.7 Nm (P 0.001), and the hip torque
old participants are presented in Table 1 to illustrate the health with 0.07 Nm (P 0.001).
of the study population. The elderly used more medication An interaction effect was found between age and force-field level;
(P 0.001) and had a lower MMSE score (P 0.023) and with increasing force-field level, the decrease in ankle (P 0.007)
lower handgrip strength (P 0.014) compared with the young and hip (P 0.004) angle was less in the elderly than the observed
participants (Table 1). All subjects were able to maintain decrease in young participants. No interaction effect was found
balance during the disturbances and the force-field trials. between age and force-field level for the ankle and hip torque. The
elderly and the young participants showed comparable adaptation of
Root Mean Square their joint torques with different force-field levels.

Figure 4 shows the joint angles and torques as a response to Covariance Descriptor
the force disturbances for a representative young and elderly
participant (without application of a force field). Figure 5 Figure 6 shows the covariance descriptor for the young and
shows the RMS of the ankle and hip angle and the ankle and elderly participants for the different force-field levels. The
hip torque. The elderly had smaller ankle (P 0.001) and hip length of the ellipse major axis was lower in the elderly
(P 0.003) angles than the young participants. The exerted compared with the young participants (P 0.013). No differ-
ankle and hip torques were not found to be significantly ences were found for the minor axis or the orientation of the
different between the two groups. ellipse between the young and elderly.
For every 10% increase in external force field, the averaged With the application of a stiffer force field, the orientation
postural responses decreased, namely, the ankle angle with angle of the ellipse increased, and the covariance descriptors
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1428 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

Ankle Angle Hip Angle

1.5 3 -20 %
* * 0%
** **
*** *** 20 %

RMS [deg]

RMS [deg]
1 2 50 %
80 %
0.5 1

Fig. 5. Root mean square (RMS) values of the

joint angles and torques for young and elderly 0 0
Young Elderly Young Elderly
participants per force-field level represented by
means and SD. Significant differences with
*age, **force field, or ***interaction between Ankle Torque Hip Torque
20 8
age and force field.
** **
15 6
RMS [Nm]

RMS [Nm]

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10 4

5 2

0 0
Young Elderly Young Elderly

decreased. For every 10% increase in force field, the values 0.001) frequencies. For the other terms, the magnitude was higher in
(averaged over the repetitions of the disturbance signals) al- the elderly in the mid-range frequencies of Hc,hip2Tank (P 0.001) and
tered: 1 (0.013, P 0.001), 2 (0.001, P 0.001), and Hc,ank2Thip (P 0.006). No significant differences with age were
(0.002 rad, P 0.001). found in any of the frequency bands for Hc,hip2Thip, and no differences
An interaction effect between age and force-field level was were found for the high-frequency range of the neuromuscular con-
found; the decrease of 1 was less in the elderly compared with troller.
the young (P 0.01). No interaction effect was found between With the application of a force field, the FRF magnitude changed
age and force-field level for the 2 and ; the elderly adjusted (Fig. 8). With increasing force field, the FRF magnitudes became
these values compared with the young participants. lower for the entire frequency range in Hc,ank2Tank (P 0.001 for
Frequency Response Functions all frequency bands) and Hc,hip2Tank (P 0.001 for all frequency
bands). A significant decrease of FRF magnitude was also found
Figure 7 shows the neuromuscular controller FRF (Hc) of the for the lowest and mid-range frequencies in Hc,ank2Thip (P 0.005
young and elderly in the baseline trial when only disturbances for both frequency bands) and the mid-range frequencies of
were applied without external stiffness (0%). Hc,hip2Thip (P 0.016).
There was a main effect of age, as the magnitude of Hc,ank2Tank was An interaction effect between age and force-field level was
higher in the elderly for the lowest (P 0.002) and mid-range (P found for the low and mid-range frequencies in Hc,ank2Tank (P
Young Elderly

-20 %
2 2
0%
20 %
50 %
80 %
1 1
Ankle angle
Ankle angle

[deg]
[deg]

Fig. 6. Covariance descriptor of the young

and elderly participants per force-field level. 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 and 2, squared lengths of the major and
minor ellipse axes, respectively; , orienta-
tion of the ellipse.
1
1 1

2 2

Hip angle Hip angle

[deg] [deg]

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 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1429

ank 2 Tank hip 2 Tank

*
Magnitude [rad-1]

1 * *
10

0
10
Young
1 Elderly
10
180
Fig. 7. Baseline differences in normalized fre-
phase [deg]

quency response function (FRF) between

0 young (black lines) and elderly (gray lines)
participants, where only the 2 disturbances
were applied without additional force fields
180 (0%), represented by means and SD. The FRF
consists of 4 terms: 2 direct terms from ankle
ank2 Thip *
hip 2 Thip angle to ankle torque (ank2Tank) and from hip
1
Magnitude [rad-1]

10 angle to hip torque (hip2Thip) and 2 indirect

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terms from hip angle to ankle torque
10
0 (hip2Tank) and from ankle angle to hip torque
(ank2Thip). *Frequency bins in which there is
1
a significant difference with age.
10
180
phase [deg]

180
1 0 1 0
10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

0.027 and P 0.008) and Hc,hip2Tank (P 0.026 and P stiffness. The reflexive stiffness Kank2Tank was significantly
0.002). Elderly participants reduced the FRF magnitude around higher in elderly than in young participants (P 0.036). None
the ankle less compared with young participants. The FRF of the other reflexive stiffness and damping terms were found
magnitude adjustment around the hips was comparable in both significantly different between the young and elderly.
groups. For example, the magnitude of Hc,ank2Tank for the lowest When increasing the force-field level in both groups, all
frequencies in young participants was decreased by 21% for reflex stiffness and damping values decreased (P 0.04),
the stiffest force field (80%), whereas for the elderly, it was except for the reflexive stiffness around the hip, Kank2Thip and
decreased by 14%. For the destabilizing force field (20%), Khip2Thip. An interaction effect was found between age and
postural responses increased 28% in young, whereas for the force-field level only for Kank2Tank (P 0.04). The elderly
elderly, they were only increased by 8%. reduced their reflexive stiffness around the ankle joint less for
increasing force fields compared with the young.
Model Parameters
The GOF values were averaged (SD) over force-field DISCUSSION
levels and participants, resulting in a GOF value for each FRF The results of this study show age-related differences in
term (Hc,ank2Tank, Hc,hip2Tank, Hc,ank2Thip, and Hc,hip2Thip). The multijoint coordination. The elderly swayed less than the
average GOF values for the young participants were 81 young participants, and the elderly showed a reduced hip
14%, 70 18%, 50 23%, and 75 17% and for the elderly strategy. As the corrective joint torques were not significantly
were 75 13%, 70 13%, 63 20%, and 82 14%. Similar different between age groups, the FRF magnitude was higher
GOF values were obtained for the young and elderly. Different in the elderly. The ratio of the corrective joint torques and the
GOF values were found among conditions; e.g., some of the body sway was increased; i.e., the elderly exhibit a higher
conditions had higher GOF values and thereby, were fit better stiffness. Parameter estimation showed that the elderly have
than others. Furthermore, the GOF values of the direct FRF higher intrinsic stiffness and reflexive stiffness around the
terms were higher than those of the indirect terms, and the ankle joint. When an external force field was applied, both age
GOF values of Hc,ank2Thip were lowest. The GOF is also groups lowered their postural responses, expressed as lower
displayed in Fig. 9, which shows the estimated FRFs to- FRF magnitude around the ankle. However, the elderly adapted
gether with the model fit for a representative participant. their postural responses less compared with the young partic-
Figure 10 shows the estimated parameters for the young and ipants.
elderly participants. The elderly had larger lumped time delays
for the hips (P 0.001) compared with the young participants. Participant Characteristics
The lumped time delays of the ankle were not found to be
significantly different between age groups. Furthermore, the Based on the inclusion criteria, all young and elderly par-
intrinsic ankle stiffness (P 0.007) was higher in elderly, but ticipants were characterized as healthy. None of the young
no significant differences were found for the intrinsic hip participants were taking medication. The elderly used medica-
J Neurophysiol doi:10.1152/jn.00030.2015 www.jn.org
1430 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

Young
ank 2 Tank

Magnitude [[rad-1]
1
hip 2 Tank
10 ** ** ** ** ** ** -20 %
0%
0
10 20 %
50 %
0
10 1
80 %
10

ank 2 Thip hip 2 Thip

Magnitude [rad-1]
1 ** ** 1 **
10 10

0 0
10 10

Fig. 8. Adaptation of normalized FRF mag- 1 1

nitude in the young (top) and elderly (bot- 10 10

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1 0 1 0
tom) participants. For each force-field level, 10 10 10 10
the mean is shown. For displaying reasons Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
only, the SD was shown for the baseline
trial. SDs of the other force-field levels were
compared with the baseline trials. Fre-
quency bins in which there are **significant Elderly
ank 2 Tank hip 2 Tank
Magnitude [rad-1]

differences with force field or the ***inter- 1

*** *** *** ***
10
action between age and force field.
0
10

1
0 10
10

1 ank 2 Thip hip 2 Thip

Magnitude [rad-1]

10 10

0 0
10 10

1 1
10 10
1 0 1 0
10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

tion, but none of the medication had a known influence on sensory and motor noise, which cannot be corrected. The
balance control. Comparison between young and elderly par- alteration of feedback gains during quiet stance would amplify
ticipants showed a significantly lower MMSE score in the the internal disturbances, which increases body sway (Speers et
elderly. It is known that cognitive processing has an influence al. 2002). This could explain why in quiet stance, the elderly
on the control of balance (Ambrose et al. 2013; Doumas et al. sway more and that it is possible that in perturbed stance, the
2009; Stijntjes et al. 2015; Teasdale and Simoneau 2001); e.g., elderly sway less.
low cognitive function increases the risk of imbalance. Al- Covariance descriptors were used to describe not only
though all of the elderly were characterized as healthy with whether the application of force fields resulted in changes of
normal cognitive function, the lower MMSE score might have sway but also in postural coordination. Eigenvectors and eigen-
influenced the results. None of the participants reported fear of values were used to describe independent combinations of joint
falling or fatigue during the experiment. movements, defined by principle component analysis (Alexan-
RMS and Covariance Descriptor drov et al. 2001; Hsu et al. 2007; Kuo et al. 1998). From the
covariance matrix of the ankle and hip angle, the first compo-
Results show that the elderly swayed less when being nent 1 may be interpreted as double-inverted pendulum be-
disturbed by forces at the hip and shoulder compared with the havior and quantifies the amount of hip strategy. Our results
young participants. These results were in contrast with multiple show that 1 is smaller in the elderly, indicating that they have
studies of quiet stance, showing that body sway increased with less hip strategy and behave more like a single inverted
age (Abrahamov and Hlavacka 2008; Demura et al. 2008; pendulum. The second component 2 was not found to be
Pasma et al. 2014a). In our study, the balance control system significantly different between age groups, indicating that the
was externally disturbed. Humans altered their feedback gains control of the CoM was similar. In a previous study (Hsu et al.
to correct for these disturbances; i.e., the amount of joint torque 2013), where external disturbances (platform translations)
relative to the amount of joint motion was adjusted. To be more were applied, the elderly exhibited a less-flexible stance and a
specific, with increasing stabilizing force-field level, the feed- decreased covariance between the joints, whereas the CoM
back gains were reduced. In quiet stance, the balance control excursion was not significantly different between the groups.
system is mainly influenced by internal disturbances, such as This is in accordance with our findings.
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 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1431

ank 2 Tank hip 2 Tank

1
Magnitude [rad-1]

10
GOF = 92 % GOF = 87 %
0
10

1
10
180
phase [deg]

180 Fig. 9. Normalized FRFs based on measured

data (black dots) and model fits (gray lines) of
ank2 Thip hip 2 Thip a representative healthy young subject for the
Magnitude [rad-1]

1
10 baseline trial (0%). The goodness of fit (GOF)
GOF = 22 % GOF = 86 % values are shown for each term in the FRF.

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0
10

1
10
180
phase [deg]

180
1 0 1 0
10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

When a stabilizing force field was applied, a decrease of In the elderly, the RMS values of the joint angles were
both 1 and 2 was found, as maintaining standing balance lower, and the joint torques were compared with young adults.
became easier. A decrease in 1 indicates that the combination These results were also seen in higher FRF magnitude of the
of opposing ankle and hip motion was reduced; i.e., hip elderly at the lowest frequencies of the direct ankle term.
strategy became less with increasing force field. A decreased Stiffness is assumed to dominate the magnitude of the FRFs in
2 value indicates that a reduction was found in the combina- the low-frequency range, indicating that the elderly have
tion of movements, dominated more by the ankle angle. The higher ankle-joint stiffness. When the pull of gravity is com-
negative relation remained; a positive ankle angle was accom- pensated for by an external force field, the elderly adapted their
panied with negative hip angle. There was an interaction effect FRF magnitudes around the ankle less compared with young.
between age and force-field level. The elderly adapted their hip These age-related differences in adaptation to force-field levels
strategy less than young participants. This might be explained
were also found in the RMS outcomes and the covariance
by the fact that the 1 was lower in the elderly at baseline. The
descriptors.
elderly adapted their control of CoM similar to the young.
In addition to the adaptation at the lowest frequency range,
Frequency Response Functions in the mid-range frequencies, significant differences were
found between force-field conditions. The mid-range frequen-
Measured joint angles contain not only a sway response due cies are mostly affected by damping properties. The increase of
to the disturbances but also contain the subjects own sponta- damping reduces oscillations in the response to external dis-
neous body sway [remnant sway due to, e.g., motor and turbances (Cenciarini 2010). No significant differences were
sensory noise (van der Kooij and Peterka 2011)]. As both RMS found between force-field conditions at high frequencies, be-
measures and covariance descriptors are based directly on cause the FRF magnitude at high frequencies is generally
these measured joint angles, they do not distinguish between shaped by the mass properties of the participants, which were
the responses due to the disturbances and spontaneous sway. not significantly different between young and elderly (Table 1).
Therefore, in this study, we used system-identification tech-
niques to identify solely the neuromuscular control mecha- Model Parameters
nisms from the closed-loop feedback system, i.e., the correc-
tive joint torques as a response to body movement around the The estimation of model parameters on the FRF reveals the
joints. The neuromuscular controller dynamics and the coordi- underlying factors of the neuromuscular controller. The elderly
nation between joints have frequency-specific effects, which exhibit a larger intrinsic stiffness and reflexive stiffness of the
were shown in FRFs. Compared with RMS values and cova- ankle compared with the young, which is in concordance with
riance descriptors, the FRF is potentially a more informative our expectations following the results of the FRFs. When the
measure. The FRF describes only the part of the angles and force-field level was increased, both the young and elderly
corresponding corrective joint torques as a response to the reduced their reflexive stiffness and damping. However, the
disturbances, i.e., changes in the neuromuscular controller reflexive feedback gains around the ankle joint were reduced
only. less in elderly compared with young participants.
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1432 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

A dank dhip B Kpank Kphip

0.14 0.14 -20 %
0.4 0.4
* * 0%
0.12 0.12 20 %
0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 50 %
80 %

[rad]-1
[s]

[rad]-1
[s]

0.08 0.08
0.2 0.2
0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04
0.1 0.1
0.02 0.02

Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly

C Kank 2Tank Khip 2Tank D Dank 2Tank Dhip 2Tank

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2 * ** ** **
** 1 0.25 0.05
***
1.5 0.8 0.2 0.04
[rad]-1
[rad]-1

[rad/s]-1
[rad/s]-1
0.6 0.15 0.03
1
0.4 0.1 0.02
0.5
0.2 0.05 0.01

Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly

Kank 2Thip Khip 2Thip Dank 2Thip Dhip 2Thip
0.07
0.8 ** **
0.5 0.1
0.06

0.4
[rad/s]-1
0.6 0.08 0.05
[rad/s]-1
[rad]-1

[rad]-1

0.3 0.06 0.04

0.4
0.03
0.2 0.04
0.02
0.2
0.1 0.02
0.01

Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly Young Elderly

Fig. 10. Estimated parameters represented by means and SD (error bars) for young and old participants per force-field level. Stiffness and damping are normalized
to the gravitational stiffness (mass gravitation center of mass height) for each subject. A: estimated time delays (d); B: intrinsic properties (Kp); C: reflexive
stiffness (Kank2Tank, Khip2Tank, Kank2Thip, Khip2Thip); D: reflexive damping (Dank2Tank, Dhip2Tank, Dank2Thip, Dhip2Thip). Significant differences with *age, **force field, or
***interaction between age and force field.

The body is mostly represented as an inverted pendulum, al. 2005; Peterka 2002). Furthermore, others found a compa-
based on body rotation around the ankle joint. Our study rable reflexive stiffness between young and elderly, which is in
includes a hip joint, which might result in different values of accordance with our results (Ho and Bendrups 2002). Upper-
the estimated parameters compared with other studies. Kiemel body stiffness and damping between 100 and 300 Nm/rad and
et al. (2008) estimated intrinsic joint parameters of both the 20 and 60 Nms/rad were found in healthy young subjects
ankles and hips using system-identification techniques based (Goodworth and Peterka 2012), similar to our results.
on electromyography (EMG) signals and joint angles when The time delays as estimated in this study consisted of
healthy young subjects were faced with visual scene distur- processing time, electromechanical delay, and neural conduc-
bances. The intrinsic stiffness of the ankle and hips was found tion time. Previous studies, in which the human body was
to be 293 Nm/rad and 95 Nm/rad, respectively. Cenciarini represented as an inverted pendulum, found a time delay of
172 ms, which was not significantly different between the
(2010) found intrinsic ankle stiffness of 157 and 99 Nm/rad for
young and elderly (Cenciarini 2010). Other studies found time
the young and elderly, respectively, when exposed to support
delays in the range of 100 200 ms (Davidson et al. 2011;
surface tilts. The estimated stiffness values (i.e., the non-
Mahboobin 2007; Peterka 2002), and the elderly exhibited
normalized values) in this study are in the same range as the
significantly higher delays compared with the young (Davidson
other two studies; however, in our study, the elderly exhibit
et al. 2011). This compares with our results.
larger intrinsic ankle stiffness compared with the young.
Estimated reflexive stiffness and damping of the ankle in the Underlying Mechanisms
current study are within the ranges found earlier in the litera-
ture, varying from 898 to 1,500 Nm/rad and from 288 to 480 In this study, we used system-identification techniques to
Nms/rad (Cenciarini 2010; Davidson et al. 2011; Mahboobin et quantify age-related differences in adaptation of multijoint
J Neurophysiol doi:10.1152/jn.00030.2015 www.jn.org
 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION 1433

coordination. With current clinical balance tests, the subsystem neuromuscular controller may not be an adequate representa-
that is responsible for the observed behavior remains largely tion of actual postural control, and it may not describe all
unknown (Pasma et al. 2014b; Visser et al. 2008). With age-related changes in standing balance. We assumed that the
system-identification techniques and parameter estimation, the states of the human body (joint angles and angular velocities)
contribution of the underlying subsystems can be unraveled, as were fully known, and the sensory information was perfect.
the balance-control mechanism is expressed in physiologically However, with age, the sensory systems might become im-
relevant parameters (Engelhart et al. 2014). Identification of paired (Sturnieks et al. 2008). Furthermore, we did not model
the factors that contribute to altered postural responses in the the integration of sensory information, i.e., the process of
elderly may provide insight into the mechanisms resulting in sensory reweighting (Mahboobin et al. 2009; Peterka and
impaired balance and finally, falling. More insight into these Loughlin 2004). Therefore, age-related changes in the quality
factors and mechanisms might help to develop and test targeted of sensory information and sensory reweighting capacities
interventions to reduce the risk of falling. For example, a were not studied.
higher joint stiffness is found, which can increase the risk of Second, estimation of model parameters based on experi-
falling in the elderly (Ishida et al. 2008). Although it is mental data is a constant trade-off between a good model fit
currently unclear what causes the increased stiffness, it could and the least amount of parameters. The increase in the number

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result from, e.g., altered muscle properties, or could indicate of parameters improves the fit; however, the physiological
compensatory co-contraction for increased noise. interpretation becomes difficult. Two aspects are important
This study showed a higher intrinsic stiffness of the ankle in when interpreting a parameter set obtained from a model fit on
the elderly compared with the young, which could be explained experimental data. The first is independency; i.e., when two
by age-related changes in fiber elasticity in type I and IIa parameters give similar contributions to the FRF, redundancy
muscle fibers. This change in elasticity will result in a higher exists, which hampers the physiological interpretation. The
stiffness of the muscle (Ochala et al. 2007). On the other hand, second is identifiability, meaning that a parameter has to
a higher stiffness could be a way to compensate for the contribute to the FRF within the excited frequency band to
deterioration of sensory systems. Previous studies showed that assure that the influence of that parameter can be detected. The
the proprioceptive information from the distal joints (i.e., the goal of model fitting is to find the most compact model with
ankle) was insufficient to maintain standing balance due to parameters that are both independent and identifiable.
peripheral neuropathy (Horak et al. 1990). A higher intrinsic During the process of model fitting, various combinations of
stiffness, for example, generated by co-contraction (Benjuya et parameter sets were estimated and validated, based on previ-
al. 2004), would increase the response of the proprioception ously used models in literature (Goodworth and Peterka 2012;
and therefore, will enhance the proprioceptive input from the Kiemel et al. 2008). In our fitting procedure, the intrinsic
ankle (Accornero et al. 1997). damping properties and the activation dynamics (mapping of
Furthermore, we found significant differences in reflexive EMG signals to joint torques) were found unidentifiable. Mus-
stiffness around the ankle joint between the young and elderly. cle-activation dynamics did not influence the magnitude of the
Besides, the elderly adapt their reflexive stiffness around the FRF in the frequency range in which the data were obtained
ankle less compared with the young when the force field at the (0.055 Hz). However, the FRF phase was affected. Interaction
hip level was increased, resulting in a more stable ankle joint. existed with the lumped delays, which also shaped the FRF
This difference might be due to the loss of flexibility to control phase, resulting in poorly interpretable values. Therefore, we
multiple joints (Hsu 2013; Ooteghem 2009). It could be that decided not to include the muscle-activation dynamics in the
age-related changes, both in muscles (e.g., intrinsic stiffness model, and we attributed all phase changes to the lumped
and muscle strength) and sensory systems (e.g., peripheral delays (which represent the sum of transport delay, the pro-
sensory loss and afferent and efferent conduction impairment), cessing time of sensory information, and an electromechanical
result in less options to control balance. delay). Interaction also existed in the direct terms of the FRF
Last, the time delays of the hip were higher in the elderly (Hc,ank2Tank and Hc,hip2Thip) among the intrinsic stiffness, the
compared with the young. The time delays estimated in this reflexive stiffness, and the lumped delay. The FRF magnitude
study were comprised of processing time, electromechanical displayed the sum of the stiffness values. The identified FRF
delay, and neural conduction time. Therefore, a higher time phase was somewhere between the phase of zero (due to the
delay might be due to the slowing down of the nerve conduc- intrinsic stiffness) and the phase due to the lumped delay. The
tion speed in afferent and efferent pathways with age, due to a result is that only the product of reflexive stiffness and time
decrease in the number of neurons and loss of myelination and delay was identifiable. To solve the redundancy among
other neural changes (Barin and Dodson 2011; Sturnieks et al. the three parameters, we assumed two of the three interacting
2008). On the other hand, a higher time delay with age can be parameters to remain constant over the five experimental con-
due to deficits in stimulus encoding, central processing, and ditions. The changes in intrinsic properties and lumped delays
response initiation (Horak et al. 1989). were expected to be much smaller than the changes in reflexive
properties (Cenciarini 2010; Peterka 2002). Therefore, the
Strengths and Limitations intrinsic properties and lumped delays were averaged over
conditions, and the reflexive stiffness was left to vary over
In contrast with current RMS values and covariance descrip- conditions.
tors, system-identification techniques make it possible to de- However, the assumption of average intrinsic stiffness over
rive parameters of the neuromuscular controller in multiseg- the experimental conditions might have influenced our results.
mental balance control. Nevertheless, the results might be Intrinsic stiffness scales with the contraction level of the
influenced by various factors. First, the control scheme of the muscles, which is influenced by co-contraction or other exter-
J Neurophysiol doi:10.1152/jn.00030.2015 www.jn.org
1434 ADAPTATION OF MULTIJOINT COORDINATION

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