T H E SOLUBILITY OF GASES I N LIQUIDS

RUBIN BATTINO'

Department of Chewistry, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois 60616

AXD H. LAWRENCE CLEVER

Department of Chemistry, Etnory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30392
Received October 2.5, 1965

CONTENTS
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
11. Nomencl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . 396
111. Methods ratus. . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. 397
A. Manome&-Volumetric Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
1. The Solubility of Oxygen in Ra te r as a Comparison Standard.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
2. Degassing the Solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
3. The Effect of Temperature on Solubility Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
4. The Apparatus of Cook and Hanson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 399
5. Saturation Metho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
13. M a s s Spectrometric b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
1. Regular Solution Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
2. Cell Potential and Cavity Models.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3. Ot,her Contributions to Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
4. Special Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
B. Temperahre Coefficient of Gas Solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
C. Partial Molal Volumes of Gases Dissolved in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
D. G M ,Solubilities in Mixed Nonelectrolyte Solvents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
E. Solvent Surface Tension and Gas Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
F. SaltEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
G. Solubility of Gases in Biological Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
H. Effect, of Pressure on Gas Solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
I. Solubility of Gases in Molten Salts and Glasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
J. The Solubility of Gases in Molten Metals and Alloys.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
VI. Solribilit,y Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
VII. References.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

I. IKTRODUCTION the solubility of gases in hunian tissues to the solubility

The solubility of gases in liquids has been under of gases in molten salts and metals.
quantitative investigation since the beginning of the This review brings up to date the earlier comprehen-
nineteenth century. The last decade has seen some sive review of Pllarkham and Kobe (393). An annotated
remarkable advances in theory, empirical correlations, bibliography (1907-1941) on the solubility of Ar, COZ,
systems studied, and apparatus. Much of the earlier He, and Nz in organic liquids was prepared by Croxton
work was more qualitative than quantitative. Gas (115). The two books by Hildebrand and Scott
solubilities have become increasingly more important (243, 244) contain chapters on gas solubility and many
for both the theoretical understanding of the liquid references. There are other papers containing either
state and solutions, and for practical applications from general correlations or many references (170, 206, 247,
(1) Department of Chemistry. Wright State College. Dayton, Ohio
248, 282, 353, 373, 485, 670). The review by Him-
4j431. melblau (249) on the diffusion of dissolved gases in
395
396 AND H. LAWRENCE
RUBINBATTINO CLEVER

liquids is of interest, and the review by Rowlinson and K Henry's law constant or Setschenow equation param-
Richardson (509) on the solubility of solids in com- eter
Ki Henry's law constant (to fit Eq 5)
pressed gases may interest some readers. The limited KP Henry's law constant (to fit Eq 6)
literature on the solubility of liquids in compressed KO Henry's law constant (to fit Eq 7 )
gases has yet to be reviewed. K' Henry's law constant, modified
The literature since Varkham and Kobe was searched K, Henry's law constant, reduced
and critically evaluated. The principal medium of the K", K." limiting Henry's law constants in water and in salt
solution
search was Chemical Abstracts through Vol. 59, or the L Ostwald coefficient (see section IVB)
end of 1963. All pertinent articles abstracted through M molecular weight
the end of 1963 were included, although many articles P pressure
which were published in 1964 and 1965 were also included. P., P o solvent vapor pressure
Where the original paper was not examined, a Chemical PT total pressure
Pi partial pressure or vapor pressure
Abstracts reference is supplied in the list of references. S Kuenen coefficient (see section IVA)
The emphasis in this review was placed on physical Si", Si solubility of gas in pure solvent, or s d t solution
methods of determining solubilities and on reporting 32 partial molar entropy of gas in solution
and discussing only equilibrium or saturation solubili- S: molar entropy of gas in gas phase
ties. Thus, the vast literature on the analysis of gases AS" molar entropy of solution
T temperature, "K
absorbed in liquids was ignored. Since most of these To critical temperature
analyses involve Chemical methods, the latter was Ti reduced temperature
also ignored except for oxygen in water. The extensive v,V volume, molar volume
literature on the solubility of gases in ponds, streams, VS volume of solvent
and ground waters was not included because of the volume of gas
molar volume of gas in cc/mole a t 0'
equilibrium criterion. partial molar volume a t infinite dilution of gas
There is an almost nonexistent dividing line between partial molar volume a t infinite dilution of electro-
gas solubility (in liquids) and vapor-liquid equilibrium, lyte
especially a t elevated pressures. The solubility of the XP, XI mole fraction solubility of gas in solution
vapors of some substances was included where the XPi ideal mole fraction solubility of gas in solution
Y vapor phase mole fraction
experimental conditions were such that the pressure
was lower than the normal vapor pressure. Also in- Lower Case Symbols
cluded are: (a) solubilities of gases in molten metals, arbitrary constants
salt concentration, moles per liter
alloys, salts, and glasses; (b) solubilities of gas mix- gas concentration, moles per liter
tures; (c) solubility in tissues and some biological activity coefficient of dissolved gas in salt-free solu-
systems; (d) solubility nomographs; and (e) partial tion
molal volumes of gases in liquids. activity coefficient of dissolved gas in salt solution
The large body of literature on the solubility of gases gravitational constant
excess Gibbs free energy
in plastic materials was excluded since much of this
Boltzmann constant
data is for plastic films. The solubility of gases in solids salting-out parameter
and substances whose composition would tend to be salting-out parameter for salt x
indeterminable (like molten slags) was also excluded. nonelectrolyte self-interaction parameter
salt-effect parameter
11. NOMENCLATURE molality
The system of notation used in this review follows. pressure
radius of spherical gas atom
Some specialized symbols which apply to a particular
temperature, "C
approach, and where we wished to use the author's decimal fraction of solute in solution
own notation for clarity, are defined where they are volume
used.
Greek Letter Symbols
Upper Case Symbols Bunsen coefficient (see section IVA)
A arbitrary constant interaction parameters
C1, C d concentration of gas dissolved in the liquid phase absorption coefficient (see section IVB)
c, concentration of gas dissolved in the gas phase compressibility of pure solvent
CW weight solubility (see section IVD) activity coefficient
AC, heat capacity change on solution
AEV molar energy of vaporization Hildebrand solubility parameter
Q molar Gibbs free energy LennardJones force constant
Hz Henry's law constant (see section VD) volume fraction or vapor phase activity coefficient
AH,A B " molar heat of solution density
AHy molar heat, of vaporization surface tension
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 397

111. METHODS
AND APPARATUS the physical properties of pressure, volume, and tem-
The variety of approaches which have been used to perature are usually adequately determined. The
determine the solubility of gases in liquids is an ade- discrepancies, often large, between published values
quate testimonial to mans ingenuity. The equipment which appear in the literature (for example, the solu-
used ranges in complexity and cost from mass spec- bility of atmospheric gases in water and sea water con-
trometers to the simple van Slyke apparatus, in time tinues to be measured and debated) are most probably
from minutes to many hours, and in precision from the due to other factors. Cook and Hanson (104) list
purely qualitative to the highly precise. these as being one or more of the folIowing: (a) failure
Primarily physical methods will be discussed in to attain equilibrium; (b) failure to completely degas
this section, although, in specific instances chemical the solvent; (c) failure to ascertain the true amount of
methods are sometimes more precise. There are several gas dissolved; and (d) failure to make certain that the
reasons for omitting chemical methods (except for transfer of gas from a primary container to the ap-
oxygen in water). First, they are normally specific for paratus does not involve contamination. The last two
a particular gas and thus do not show general applicabil- factors can be controlled by proper design, calibrations,
ity. Second, it is quite difficult to distinguish between and corrections. It is better to determine the initial
(chemical) absorption methods and those which quantity of gas in the dry state, Le., free of solvent,
involve purely equilibrium solubilities. The literature since P-V-T data can be used, especially if there is any
for the analysis of dissolved gases was in general uncertainty as to whether the gas is saturated with
ignored. Third, gas absorption studies usually involve solvent vapor. Where known, the more accurate
complex chemical equilibriums, and, since their purpose equations of state should be used since even a t 1 atm
is to study the chemical equilibrium involved, the pressure deviations from the ideal gas law can be signifi-
result frequently is that insufficient information is cant. The first two factors will be discussed further.
available to properly evaluate the study as an equilib- For equilibrium solubility determinations the at-
rium gas solubility. tainment of equilibrium is of prinie importance. I n
Physical methods can be divided into two broad clas- flow systems the attainment of equilibrium is checked
sifications : saturation methods in which a previously for by determining the solubility a t several rates of
degassed solvent is saturated with a gas under condi- flow. I n nontlow systems the agreement between
tions where appropriate volumes, pressures, and tem- solubility determinations found v,-ith varying both the
peratures may be determined; and extraction methods vigor of the stirring (or shaking) and the pressure of the
where the dissolved gas in a previously saturated solu- gas above and below the equilibrium pressure serves as
tion is removed under conditions where appropriate the main criterion. For each type of apparatus it is
P , V , and T values may be evaluated. Equilibrium important to provide these checks by varying the
between the gas and liquid phases has been obtained conditions.
by shaking a mixture of the two, by flowing a fiIm or
1. The Solubility of Oxygen in W a t e r
stream of the liquid through the gas, by bubbling the
as a Comparison Standard
gas through the liquid, or by flowing the gas over the
liquid held stationary on some supporting medium (as It would be a boon to workers in the field to have a
in gas-liquid partition chromatography). The de- reliable standard for comparison. The criteria here
termination of the quantities of the components in the mould be that the solvent and gas are readily available
gas and liquid phases has been carried out chemically, in high purity, and that at some convenient conditions
volurnetricalJy (and with the supporting use of manom- a number of workers would have obtained substantially
eters), by mass spectrometer, and by gas-liquid identical values having followed different approaches.
partition chromatography. These methods will be The solubility of oxygen in water a t 25 and 1 atm
discussed below. meets these criteria. There have been several recent
determinations following different approaches, in-
A. MANOMETRIC-VOLUMETRIC METHODS cluding both chemical and physical methods, which are
First, some general considerations are discussed. in substantial agreement (152, 166, 231, 318, 424,
Cook (103, also see 104) gives an excellent analysis of 425, 581), and the value suggested as a standard is the
the problems involved in gas solubility determinations, Bunsen coefficient of 0.02847. Considering these seven
the magnitudes and importance of contributing fac- values, the average deviation is 0.00006 in the Bunsen
tors, and his approach to achieving a truly high- coefficientor 0.21y0. This deviation is just about within
precision ( & 0.0570)gas solubility apparatus. He is to the independent experimental error of the seven de-
be commended for a major contribution to gas solubil- ternlinations. The values are summarized in Table I
ity determinations. along with other values of interest. As a further aid
I n gas solubility determinations contributing fac- Table I1 contains smoothed values of the solubility
tors like purity of materials and the measurement of of 02, Nz, and Ar in water as a function of temperature.
398 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

TABLEI be initially gas free, and for extraction methods, where

SOLUBILITY
OF OXYGEN
IN WATER' the gas is to be completely extracted. The single
Esti-
mated Bunsen criterion for complete degassing which has been most
error, coed widely used is the reproducibility of a measurement or
Worker Date % a t 25' Ref
its corollary, the agreement between several workers
Winkler 1889 0.02831 657
Fox 1909 0.02890 194
for the same measurement. This criterion is open to
Morrison and Billett 1952 0.5 0.02848 428 two criticisms: (a) the repetition of systematic errors,
Truesdale, et al. 1955 0.27 0.02800 610 and (b) the perpetuating of older measurements as
Steen 1958 0.12 0.02863 581 standards when they may have been superseded by
Elmore and Hayes 1960 0.20 0.02824 166 more reliable measurements.
Morris, et al. 1961 0.27 0.02850 425
Klots and Benson 1963 0.16 0.02848 318
Two additional criteria (104) for complete degassing
Douglas 1964 0.25 0.02830 152 should be mentioned. The first is a dynamic method in
Montgomery, et al. 1964 0.26 0,02849 424 which a vacuum thermocouple gauge is located between
Green 1965 0.27 0.02843 231 the last liquid nitrogen trap (on the apparatus) and
Av (all 11) = 0.02843 Av dev (all 11) = 0.00016 before the vacuum pump. During the degassing pro-
Recommended standard value based on the agreement at- cedure in which the solvent is simu~taneous~y boiled
tained in recent studies is 0.02847.
and pumped on, the vacuum gauge reading slowly falls
2. Degassing the Solvent from greater than 1000 p to the base pressure of the
The complete removal of gas from a liquid is im- pump. When the pressure is at the base pressure of
portant for saturation methods, where the solvent must the pump, this indicates that only negligible amounts

TABLE 11
SOLUBILITY O F NITROGEN, OXYGEN, AND ARGON I N WATER .4T 1ATM
(Units: Bunsen Coefficient X 103)
Temp, OC: 0 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50
Nitrogen
Hamburg. 23.79 21.05 18.81 17.03 15.70 14.68 ... ... ... ...
Fox. 23.19 20.68 18.63 17.02 15.72 14.65 13.75 12.99 12.33 11.16
Winkler" 23.12 20.50 18.29 16.56 15.18 14.10 13.19 12.35 11.64 10.71
Adeney and Beckera . . . 21.22 18.70 16.96 15.55 14.35 13.27 ...
hlorrison and Billettb (428) . . . 19.25 17.36 15.86 14.63 13.64 12.82 12.17 11.23
Douglas (152) 20.91 18.75 17.05 15.57 14.41 13.45 . . , ... ...
Klots and Benson (318) . . . 21.18 18.99 17.24 15.84 14.66 13.45 . . . ... ...
Oxygen
Winklera 48.89 42.87 38.02 34.15 31.02 28.31 26.08 24.40 23.06 20.90
FOX. 49.24 43.21 38.37 34.55 31.44 28.90 26.65 24.85 23.30 20.95
Truesdale, Downing, and Lowden (610) 47.65 41.73 36.98 33.20 30.27 28.00 26.29 24.94 . . . ...
Elmore and Hayes (166) 49.30 43.15 38.16 34.12 30.88 28.24 25.97 ... ... ...
Morrison and Billettb (428) 38.32 34.35 31.13 28.48 26.30 24.48 22.97 20.71
Douglas (152) 37.97 34.03 30.95 28.30 26.20 ... ...
Steen' (581) . . . 42.80 38.37 34.38 31.06 28.65 ... ... ... ...
Klots and Benson (318) . . . 43.03 38.14 34.23 31.11 28.48 ...
Green (231) 49.43 43.31 38.39 34.39 31.12 28.43 26.23 2 ...
Montgomery, Thom, and Cockburn (424) 48.19 43.04 38.13 34.21 31.06 28.49 26.41 24.70 23.31 ...
Morris, Stumm, and Galal" (425) 49.36 43.33 38.34 34.27 31.03 28.50 26.58 . . . ...
Argon
Estreichera 57.80 50.80 45.25 40.99 37.90 34.70 32.56 30.54 28.65 25.67
Winklera 53.0 . . . 42.0 35.0 30.0 . . . 27.0 ...
Antropoff" 56.1 . . . 43.8 37.9 34.8 ... ...
Lannungn ... . . . 41.1 37.1 33.6 31.4 28.9 27.1 25.3 ...
Eucken and Hertzberg (173) 52.6 . . . . . . . . . 33.6 . . . ... ... ... ...
Friedman (197) ... ... . . . 38.2 . . . 31.1 . . . . . . . . . ...
Holland and Clever (260) ... ... ... ... . . . 31.5 28.8 26.9 25.2 ...
Morrison and Johnstoneb (429) 41.7 36.7 33.5 30.7 28.1 26.4 24.7 22.1
Koenig (327) ... 37.9 35.8 32.5 ...
Douglas (152) . . . 46.89 41.80 37.53 34.05 31.23 28.88 . . . ... ...
Ben-Naim and Baer" (38) 53.64 47.16 41.89 37.62 34.13 31.21 28.65 ... ... ...
Klots and Benson (318) . . . 47.13 41.82 37.59 34.21 31.37 . . . ... ... ...
'Values as corrected for impurities and smoothed in LandoltrBornstein, "Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen, 1936 Edition," Edwards
Brothers Printing, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1943. Calculated from Morrison's equations and converted to volume of water. Smoothed
by us using four-constant equation.
 OF GASES
SOLUBILITY IN LIQUIDS 399

of noncondensible gases are present. After the base or more realistically, the change in the equilibrium
pump pressure has been reached, an additional quantity partial pressure of the dissolved gas with temperature
of solvent should be evaporated to be doubly certain a t an approximately constant concentration; (e) the
that the solvent is completely degassed. The second temperature level of the experiment; and (d) the
criterion requires cushioning the degassed solvent pressure level of the experiment. The magnitude of
between mercury. If a bubble appears, the degassing these factors will be quite dependent on not only the
operation should be repeated. This test is quite system studied but also on the type of apparatus used.
sensitive since gas bubbles much smaller than 0.001 After a complete analysis of all contributing factors,
cc can readily be detected. Since solution rates are Cook found that temperature control to 0.1O was ade-
slow, these gas bubbles will persist for several minutes. quate for an over-all precision of O.OS~ofor his ap-
The most frequently used method of degassing a paratus for the system Hz-n-heptane in the range - 30
liquid is to boil away a portion of it under vacuum. to 50". I t would appear that temperature control of
This procedure can be considered to be a batch binary 0.1" should be more than adequate for most purposes.
distillation. The Ramsey-Rayleigh equation for this
type of distillation predicts that the evaporation of as 4. T h e Apparatus of Cook and H a n s o n (103, 104)
little as 0.1% of the solvent should reduce the gas The apparatus and procedure of Cook and Hanson
content by several 1000-fold. However, this equation will be described in somewhat more detail than other
assumes that equilibrium conditions prevail between methods since they achieved an unusually high level of
the gas and the liquid and under actual degassing precision for a physical method. This apparatus is also
operations this is not the case. I n practice l0-20?& of described by blader, Vold, and Vold (384).
the solvent is evaporated, and one (or both) of the The basic apparatus is shown in Figure 1. It was
criteria mentioned in the previous paragraph should be mounted on a steel plate which was shaken a t a fre-
employed. quency of about 170 min-' and an amplitude of about
Another degassing procedure employs the method of 3/8 in. The shaking mechanism imparted a horizontal
pumping on the frozen solvent. This procedure gives motion to minimize pressure disturbances due to
good results when it is important to minimize the loss vertical accelerations of the mercury present. The
of solvent, but it is necessary to repeat the process a t entire apparatus was housed in an air thermostat con-
least three times and pumping on the frozen solvent trolled to a t least ~ 0 . 1 " . A millimeter scale mounted
for periods of an hour or longer in each cycle. It is more on the steel plate and observed with a cathetometer
important to test for completeness of degassing when provided a reference point for appropriate readings.
employing this method than when evaporating large An auxiliary gas-charging apparatus was connected to
amounts of the liquid. the solubility apparatus a t point 12. Once the appara-
Clever, et al. (97), employed a method for degassing tus was set up and charged all manipulations were
that operated in two stages. The first stage involved made remotely so as not to disturb the temperature
pumping on boiling solvent to evaporate a portion of equilibrium. Volumetric calibration was performed by
it, and to remove perhaps 90% of the dissolved gas. weighing mercury displaced from pertinent sections of
Then in the second stage this preliminarily degassed the apparatus which are the gas bulbs, A and C, the
liquid is sprayed through a fine nozzle into an evacuated gas burets, B and D, and the solvent bulb, E, from point
flask. This procedure was found to give rapid and com- 19 down to and including the solvent buret. Also
plete degassing. A similar method was employed by calibrated was the secondary gas buret and bulb from
Baldwin and Daniel (22) where they permitted an oil point 19 down to stopcock 2. The appropriate capaci-
sample to slowly drip into an evacuated vessel. They ties of the various parts of the apparatus are: solvent
found that this removed 97-98% of the dissolved gas. bulb, 200 cc; primary gas bulb, 22 cc; secondary gas
The technique of removing a gas completely from a bulb, 1 cc; solvent buret, 0.1 cc/cm; primary gas
liquid by stripping the liquid through bubbling an buret, 0.25 cc/cm; and secondary gas buret, 0.015
inert gas through the previously saturated liquid will cc/cm.
be discussed in the section on gas chromatographic An outline of the procedure used follows. First, the
methods where this technique is essential to the method. gas and solvent bulbs are filled with mercury, and then
by displacing mercury into the manometer a sufficient
3. T h e E$ect of Temperature o n quantity of solvent is admitted through the joint at
Solubility Measurements point 12 followed by about an inch of air to provide
A full analysis of the effect of temperature control on space for boiling the solvent. The solvent is degassed
gas solubility measurements is given by Cook (103) by pumping and boiling using the thermocouple gauge
who points out that there are four factors to consider: check described earlier, and also by checking for
(a) the temperature coefficient of the solvent vapor residual gas bubbles by confining the solvent between
pressure ; (b) the temperature coefficient of solubility, mercury admitted through stopcocks 3 and 6. About
400 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

open during the dissolution process where the entire

~ l , 2 , 3 a 4 , 5 , B :2mm. apparatus is shaken. The initial dissolution is hastened
"HYVAG' sToPcoucs
S TRANSFER TUEL
Y 6,?.9 :4 mm.'nYWG*
by applying about 10 psig to the manometer. When
MARY GAS BULB. 2 0 s .
STQPCOCKS a residual gas bubble of about 1 cc remains, it is drawn
over into the secondary gas bulb and buret and its
p A R Y GAS BURETTE.6mm.I.D. volume (which can be measured to 0.005% as a check
SECONDARY GAS BULB on the rate of solution and the attainment of equilib-
rium) is measured. The residual gas is returned to the
solvent bulb and shaking is repeated. The process is
repeated until equilibrium is attained, and it is also
repeated at two or more pressures as a further guarantee
of attaining equilibrium. The equilibrium pressure is
determined to 0.1-0.2 mm. The entire process is
repeated a t successive temperatures, thus yielding for
a single charging a set of measurements for a range of
temperatures and pressures. The solvent volume is
determined a t 35" by draining mercury between
calibrated points on E out through 5, weighing it, and
calculating the solvent volume as the difference between
the calibrated volume of E and the volume of the
mercury which was drained off.
The authors estimate the reproducibility as better
than =tO.l'% in ref 104 and better than 10.05% in
ref 103. This is by far the most precise apparatus for
determining gas solubilities by physical methods
reported to date. A serious disadvantage is that a good
estimate of the solubility must be known beforehand
since the apparatus is designed such that 95% of the
gas should be absorbed. The size of the solvent bulb E
would have to be changed for different systems (or
ranges of solubility). This disadvantage is partially
offset by permitting the reasonably large pressure range
of 0.5-1.5 atm to be available through the manometer.

5. Saturation Methods
The apparatus (Figure 2) designed by Morrison and
Billett (427) was based on attaining saturation by
Figure 1.-The gas solubility apparatus of Cook and Hanson flowing a liquid film through the gas. A modification
(103, 104). Reprinted from U. S. Atomic Energy Commission of this design (for full details see ref 32) was used by
Report UCRL-2459 by permission of the author.
Clever and co-workers (95-98), Saylor and Battino
l0-20% of the solvent is evaporated in the degassing (530), and Koenig (327). The degassed solvent in M
process which takes several hours. The gas-charging is injected drop by drop through A and flows in a thin
system is connected a t point 13, and after the system is film down the absorption spiral B and into gas buret C.
purged and checked for tightness an appropriate quan- The absorption section is initially charged with gas.
tity of gas is admitted through stopcock 1. The gas- Saturated solvent flows out of E at such a rate that the
charging system is removed and the thermostat closed levels in C and in the leveling buret D are kept the
and set to control at 25". By appropriate pressure, same. Solvent from E is collected and measured.
volume, and temperature readings the quantity of gas Readings of C give the volume of gas dissolved, while
charged may be calculated from an applicable equation the volume of solvent is the amount collected a t E
of state. An interesting point here is that a change of together with the volume accumulating in C and D.
1-2 ern in the gas pressure can cause adiabatic heating The absorption section is thermostated. For high
or cooling sufficient to require an additional half-hour solubility gases an additional gas buret is sealed into
to attain temperature equilibrium. The gas is then the system above spiral B. The variation of the flow
completely transferred into solvent bulb E through rate within wide limits had no appreciable effect on
the gas transfer tube by alternately applying vacuum the solubility. The reproducibility was f0.5%. A
through 6 and pressure through 7. Stopcock 6 is left disadvantage of this apparatus is that normally only
 SOLUBILITY
OF GABESIN LIQUIDS 401

one gas in one solvent a t one temperature and one

pressure can be made on a single charging of the ap-
paratus.
The dissolution vessel and connections for the ap-
paratus of Ben-Naim and Baer (38) is shown in Figure
3. Degassed solvent is transferred to the previously
evacuated vessel A through point D. This vessel is
connected to a gas buret and manometer a t point C
and all of these parts are immersed in a water thermo-
stat (=!=0.03") with a window for viewing. The solvent
fills A entirely and the liquid levels are in the capillaries
h, 1, and k when the system is charged with solvent
saturated gas. Appropriate readings on the manometer,
gas buret, and dissolution vessel are recorded. Dis-
solution of the gas is caused by switching on a magnetic
stirrer which forces liquid up through capillaries h and
k into bulbs a and b. The gas enters A through the
capillary 1 and dissolves a t the cone-shaped interface
which is formed. At an initial high stirring rate some
solvent is forced through m into A and within 2-3 min
about 99% of the gas has dissolved. Equilibrium takes Figure 2.-The gas solubility apparatus of Morrison and Billett
an additional 4 hr to achieve with gentle stirring. The (427). Reprinted from the Journal of the Chemical Society by
over-all precision is estimated as &0.2%. permission of the Chemical Society.
A microgasometric technique (originally developed
by Scholander (544) whose paper should be read
for details on microgasometric analysis) embodying
some modifications of Steen's apparatus (581 )was used I\ d
by Douglas (152) to determine the solubility of oxygen,
argon, and nitrogen in distilled water. This method
takes advantage of the fact that the ratio of absorbed
gas volume to liquid volume is constant at a given equi-
librium pressure. Equilibration takes place within
30 min, small samples are used, and the estimated
precision is f0.25-0.50~0. The temperature was
regulated to f0.01 '. The procedure can be understood
by referring to Figure 4. With G and D filled with
mercury and H filled with water, degassed water is
introduced into the side arm D with a 10-cc syringe
Figure 3.-The gas solubility apparatu3 of Ben-Naim and Baer
and a blunt tipped needle. The plug E is replaced. (38). Reprinted from The Transactions of the Faraday Society by
With H half-filled with water and F filled with mercury permission of the Faraday Society.
to the top of the capillary, a conventional gas transfer
pipet (filled with the pure gas) is seated on the capillary simple, precise and rapid. Another apparatus using
and the gas meniscus pulled down to the mark on the small samples (5 cc) is described by Thomsen and
capillary. The micrometer is set (using the leveling Gjaldbaek (599).
bulb) to a zero reading and then some of the gas (using Burrows and Preece (85) used a manometric method
the micrometer) is pulled into the absorption chamber to determine the solubility of helium in three low-
G. The water is removed from H except for an in- pressure oils. Their mixing chamber is shown in
dicator drop in the capillary below H. When the sys- Figure 5. After the vessel J was charged with the
tem has equilibrated the gas volume is read. The gas- degassed liquid it was charged with gas by draining
free water is tilted in from the side arm, mechanical liquid from J and weighing it. The stirrer moves the
shaking begun, and the indicator drop kept a t its magnet-containing ring R (stirring the liquid in the
mark by adjusting the micrometer. When equilibrium thermostated bath) which nioves the perforated steel
is attained the final gas volume is read. Then by open- disk (stirring the oil and gas in the mixing chamber).
ing stopcock s-1the liquid volume is read by screwing The temperature is varied in 20" intervals from 20 to
the micrometer in until the liquid level reaches the 80". The precision appears to be of the order of *2%.
mark on the capillary. The procedure is said to be Ridenour, et al. (501), used a manometric method to
402 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

determine gas solubilities (to about *3%) in molten

paraffin and microcrystalline waxes. Baldwin and
Daniel (22) describe a method for the determination
*
of gas solubility (to 1%) which is particularly useful
with viscous liquids. Yeh and Peterson's apparatus
(667) was used for gas solubilities in liquids and they
report their precision as *0.5Y0.
Loprest (374) developed an apparatus for the rapid
determination of the solubility of gases in liquids a t
k various temperatures. The apparatus was designed
for a precision of *lye and it is possible to obtain
solubility data over a wide temperature range and at
several partial pressures of the gas with a single charging
of the system. Solvent does not come into contact with
mercury surfaces. Wheatland and Smith (642) de-
scribe a simple gasometric method for the determination
of dissolved oxygen in water and saline water, and their
method is precise to *0.5%. Iflots and Benson (318)
give details for an apparatus for determining the solu-
bility of Nz, Oz, and Ar in distilled water in the tem-
a, perature range 2-27" and with an estimated accuracy
approaching 0.1%.
e -e Koonce and Kobayashi (330) designed an apparatus
Figure 4.-The gas Solubility apparatus of Douglas (152). for the solubility of methane in n-decane for the pres-
Reprinted from The Journal of Physical Chem6rtSy by permission sure range 200-1000 psia and the temperature range of
of the copyright owners, The American Chemical Society. -20 to 40F. They estimated their probable error
as +1.5%. Zampachova (674) also described a
simple manometric method for determining the solubil-
ity of vapors in liquids a t elevated pressures. Krichev-
skii and Sorina (337) give details for an apparatus for
determining hydrogen solubility in cyclohexane in the
temperature range 20-60" and up,to 700 atm.
Cox and Head (114) described a novel appa-
ratus for determining (to *l%) the solubility of
COz in H F solutions. The solubility chamber was
gold-plated. Karasz and Halsej1 (294) detail an ap-
paratus for measuring the solulbility of helium and
.. " range 83.9-
neon in liquid argon over the teniperature
87.5"K, and with the general limits 01 error as 0.1%.
- _-
The apparatus described by Kobatake and Hildebrand
(322) was used for determining (to *0.3% and the
range 5-30') the solubility of a large number of gases
in various solvents. Swain and Thornton (592) de-
scribe an apparatus for measuring the solubility of the
methyl halides in light and heavy water at 29 and 40'.
The apparatus of Tsiklis and Svetlova (615) was used
for the solubility of HCl, Ch, NOCl, NO, and H2S in
.
cycl.ohexane in thi3 range 10-40". Kogan and Kol'tsov
.\ aescrme
(328) ., an apparatus precise to *0.25% for
the solubility of Clz in CCI, in the range --20 G-71'.
Bodor, et al. (54), describe an apparatus for <ietermining
^ ^

gas absorption in liquids in the range -80 to U-.

Figure 5.-The mixing chamher of the gas solubility apparatus
of Burrows and Preeee (85): B, three-way tap; J, mixing cham- B. MASS SPECTROMETRIC METHODS
ber; N, tap; Q, heating-bath liquid; R, ring of magnets; V, The mass spectrometer may be used for gas solubility
perforated steel disk; W, driving crank. Reprinted from The
Journal of Applied Chemistry by permission of the editor. determinations. Basically, the technique calls for
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 103

outgassing a sample of a gas-saturated solvent, trapping liquid (supported on a solid phase) and in which the
the gas, and then analyzing the gas by mass spec- carrier gas is already equilibrated; (3) the process
trometry. Such equipment was described by Cseko involves steady states and transient equilibriums as
(116-118) for the determination of the solubility of the carried component is swept through the column;
gases and gas mixtures in liquid ammonia. I n this (4) in the portion of the gas stream where the carried
way he determined the solubility of argon in liquid component is, the carrier gas concentration is less than
ammonia at room temperature and the pressure range normal and as this portion of the gas stream passes
20-100 atm. Cantone and Gurrieri (91) used mass any given point some of the carrier gas must be out-
spectrometry to analyze water samples for CH4, 02,N2, gassed; and (5) it is difficult to ascertain the carried
and Ar. Faulconer and co-workers (17714, 241A, component partial pressure as it is swept along as a
469A, 479) describe mass spectrometric techniques for band which may or may not be symmetrical in its
the analysis of various gases in blood. concentration distribution. Despite such difficulties
A prime advantage of using the mass spectrometer Zorin, Ezheleva, and Devyatykh (685) were able to
as an analytical tool is the ability to determine the determine the soubility of CH4, CZHZ, C3H6, isobutaiie,
ratio of dissolved gases and isotope effects in dissolved isobutylene, and COz in certain solvents, and their
gases. Benson and Parker (42) describe the technique results were compared with static methods of determin-
they used for the determination of N2/Ar and N2/02 ing solubility.
ratios in distilled water and sea water in some detail. Of further significance is the fact that partition co-
The precison with which they determined these ratios efficients which are determinable from glpc are in a
was given as f l % . Of course, by using standard way gas solubilities, but the considerations mentioned
values for the solubility of any one of the gases in a in the last paragraph must be kept in mind. Two
pair, the solubility of the second gas may be determined. texts which give more details on determining partition
For a more accurate determination of the N2/Ar ratio coefficients (and other matters) are ref 124 and 80.
the extracted gas was cycled through a "Vycor" Kurkchi and Iogansen (349) used glpc for determining
furnace a t 700" filled with copper turnings. Benson the solubility of CZHZ, C3H4, and C4H4 in several sol-
and Parker (41) used the sanie basic technique, modified vents and found that their results agreed within
for collecting samples a t sea, to determine Nz/Ar 5% with literature values. They describe their all-
and nitrogen isotope ratios in aerobic sea water. IClots paratus in detail.
and Benson (319) determined the isotope effect in the The major use of gas chromatography in gas solubility
solution of oxygen (320z and 340z) and nitrogen (2sN, determinations has been as an analytical tool for the
and 29N2)in distilled water in the temperature range quantification of gases extracted from saturated solu-
2-27'. They found the extrapolated values of the ratio tions of liquids. I n this sense the gas chromatographic
of the Henry's law constants a t 0' to be 1.00085 methods are similar to the mass spectrometric methods
f 0.00010 for nitrogen and 1.00080 f 0.0001S for described in the last section. The advantage of gas
oxygen. Benson (42A) discusses applications of the chromatography as an analytical tool is the relative
mass spectrographically determined ratios to problems simplicity, low cost, and rapidity of the rneasuremen ts.
in oceanography. Reproducibility is of the order of 1-2%, but
uncertainties in the extraction of the dissolved gas
C. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS niakes the over-all precison a bit poorer. Some unique
I n gas-liquid partition chromatography (glpc) a extraction methods have been devised.
liquid (normally high boiling) is supported in a column A particularly simple procedure was described by
on an inert stationary phase. A carrier gas continually RIcAuliffe (400) who determined the solubility in water
bathes the liquid, and one can assume an equilibrium of CI-CS hydrocarbons. ii 0.05-0.10-cc sample of the
exists between the passing carrier gas and the amount of hydrocarbon-saturated water was directly injected into
this gas which has dissolved in the liquid. A third a gas chromatograph fitted with a suitable fractionator
substance (vapor, gas, or a mixture) is transported containing a drying agent to absorb water, the released
in the carrier gas and is partitioned between the carrier hydrocarbon passing directly into the chromatograph
gas stream and the stationary liquid phase. Partition column. Hydrocarbon concentrations were determined
coefficients are determinable from knowing the reten- by measuring areas under curves and comparing with
tion volumes and column characteristics. By also calibrations arrived a t by using known amounts of the
knowing the column dimensions and the quantity of pure hydrocarbons. The same author (401) used a
partitioning liquid it is possible to determine gas similar technique to determine the solubilities
solubilities. Of course, gas solubilities measured in in water of 65 (paraffin, cycloparaffin, olefin, acetylene,
this may are measured for systenis under special con- cycloolefin, and aromatic) hydrocarbons. Swinnerton,
straints: (1) the liquids are restricted to high boilers; Linnenbom, and Cheek (593) determined the amount of
(2) the solubility is for a gas or vapor in a film of dissolved gases in aqueous solutions by stripping the
404 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE CLEVER
RICH HELIUM
OUT
LEAN IN
HELIUM move the same quantity of gas. In the gas chromato-
graphic approach the rapidity of removal of dissolved
gas is extremely important. The stripping unit (Figure
6) is about 4 in. long and 2 in. in diameter. As the mylar
disks rotate through the liquid phase (kept a t an opti-
MUM WATER
LEVEL mum level of about one-fourth of the stripper volume),
a thin fl m of liquid (which is being continuously re-
newed) is spread over their surfaces and exposed to the
RICH HLO
*
I

LEAN Ht0
gas phase. The rate of gaseous exchange is very rapid.
IN OUT They found essentially 100% gas removal for helium/
Figure 6.-Detail of the stripper used by Williams and Miller water ratios of 10: 1 through 1:2 for up to 100 ml/min
(652) to remove dissolved gases from a saturated liquid. Re- flow rates. Since i t is necessary to have both accurate
printed from Analytical Chemistry by permission of the copyright
owners, The American Chemical Society. knowledge and control of the gas and water flow rates,
a ratio of 1:1 was arbitrarily chosen for their work to
gases from the solutions in an all-glass sample chamber simplify the calculations. This simple and efficient
which is divided into two parts by a coarse glass- gas stripper should find wide use.
fritted disk. A known quantity of the saturated liquid Ikels (266, 267) used a gas chromatographic tech-
is admitted to the sample chamber through a rubber nique to determine the solubility of nitrogen and neon
serum cap. The carrier gas coming up through the in water and extracted human fat. Kruyer and Nobel
fritted glass disk in a stream of fine bubbles completely (347) measured the solubility of hydrogen in five sol-
strips the solution of its dissolved gases quickly and vents by stripping the gas from the solvent and measur-
effectively. The same authors (594) described an im- ing areas under an expulsion curve. The method was
provement of their sampling procedure. Elsey (167) said to be precise to 1 3 % .
describes a similar procedure for the determination of
D. CHEMICAL METHODS FOR DISSOLVED O X Y Q E N
dissolved oxygen in lubricating oil. Wilson and Jay,
et aE. (656), used a fritted-glass sample chamber coupled Chemical methods have been long used for the de-
with gas adsorption chromatography for the analysis termination of dissolved oxygen in pure water, natural
of blood gases and found that their approach gave waters, and aqueous solutions. I n recent years there
results of equal precision to the van Slyke technique. has been much controversy over oxygen solubilities
I n a subsequent paper Jay and Wilson, et al. (278), in water, and this has sparked many new studies.
utilized the same apparatus for determining absorption The manometric approaches were discussed earlier, and
coefficients for nitrous oxide in distilled water and in most workers take the results of Mots and Benson (318)
whole blood. The gas chromatographic technique to be the most reliable.
again gave results comparable to the van Slyke tech- The Winkler method (657) and modifications of it
nique, but the former method has some advantages in have been among the most popular and the most
speed, the ability to resolve gas mixtures readily, and accurate. Briefly, the Winkler method involves the
overcoming the disadvantage found in the van Slyke oxidation of freshly precipitated manganous hydroxide
method of having to make a correction for the small by the dissolved oxygen to form manganic hydroxide.
but variable amounts of gas which are not extracted. This step is favored by high pH. The solution is then
The problem of stripping or extracting dissolved gas made acidic under which conditions the manganic ion
was solved by Williams and Miller (652) in an interest- oxidizes iodide. In the presence of excess iodide the
ing way. Figure 6 shows the details for their device iodine is largely present as the complex triodide. In the
which is used for stripping on a continuous basis (the last step the jodine is titrated with thiosulfate which is
gas-saturated liquid flows countercurrent to the carrier oxidized to tetrathionate. Excess thiosulfate is back-
gas which also serves as the inert stripping gas) with titrated aniperometrically with standard potassium
intermittent sampling and analysis by a commercial iodate reagent. The equations for these steps are
gas chromatographic unit,. They compared several Mn2+ + 20H - = Mn(OH)2
common techniques for purging water: dynamic and 2Mn(OH)2 + + HzO = 2Mn(OH)*
l/202
static vacuum, with and without manual and ultra- +
2Mn(OII)a 6H + + 31- = 2MnZ+ + IS- $. 6 H a
sonic agitation; ultrasonic treatment alone; and purg- I* + I- = Ia-
ing with an inert gas (argon and helium). The most
I* + 25*00*- = 21- + s10*1-
effective system tested was inert gas purging a t Aow
rates of 500-1000 cc/niin of 100-cc water samples. The method depends on strict control of pH and iodide
This technique removed 9 5 9 8 % of the dissolved oxy- concentration. Possible errors in the Winkler method
gen in 15-30 sec, where the next best technique of have been recently and extensively discussed (91A,
dynamic vacuum with agitation took 1-2 min to re- 91B, 424).
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 405

The work of Truesdale, et at. (610), began the ; +0.2, I I I

modern determinations of dissolved oxygen. They d
critically evaluated earlier work and made new meas- 5 +0.1

urements but, unfortunately, their work contains a E

m

systematic error and is low by some 2.5% Dr. B. A. 4 0

Southgate, who is Director of Water Pollution Research

at the Water Pollution Research Laboarory, Steven- -g 2. -0.1

age, Herts., England, believes that the true story is a g

*::
contained in ref 424, although both studies were A
' 0
LI -0.2
3
carried out at his institution. I n part, a private e
communication from Dr. Southgate states, "One
thing which has come out of this work (424) is that it
-
4
0
-0.3

is pretty obvious that a very large proportion of the -0.4

.-+c
.e

determinations of dissolved oxygen made before about

1961 or 2 must have been incorrect for the same reason a" -0.5
0 10 20 30 40
that the solubility values determined by Truesdale (610) Temperature, W.
were incorrect. The biggest source of possible error Figure 7.-Comparison of oxygen solubility values in pure
of course occurs if one uses the present-day accurate water obtained by various authors with the values of Mont-
values for solubility with incorrect determinations of gomery, et al. (424). (1) Whipple, G. B., and Whipple, M. C . ,
concentration in water, and from these two values J . Am. Chem. Soc., 33,362 (1911); (2) Truesdale, et 01. (610); (3)
Carlson, T., Akad. Afh. Stockholm, 1912; (4) ref 424; ( 5 ) Klots
calculates the oxygen deficit.'' and Ben-on (318); (6) Winkler (657); (7) Elmore and Hayes
The paper by Montgomery, Thom, and Cockburn (166). * Root mean square deviation of the work in ref 424.
Reprinted from The Journal of Applied Chemistw by permission
(424) described their modification of the Winkler of the editor.
method, and with their improved procedure they
determined the solubility of oxgyen in pure water is restoppered (excluding air "bubbles) and the contents
(0.4-27') and in sea water (2-27'). The agreement mixed by shaking. After 10 min an aliquot is removed
hetween their results and that for other workers (for by pipet and titrated without delay with 0.0025 N
solubilities in pure water) is shown in Figure 7. The thiosulfate solution. The thiosulfate is standardized
ordinate in this figure is mg 02/1., where the oxygen against an iodine solution which is prepared by adding
solubility expressed in this unit goes from 14.63 a t 20.00 ml of 0.0025 N potassium iodate solution to a
0" to 6.47 a t 40". They critically discuss earlier work, few milliliters of water containing a quantity of alkaline
and in particular showed that the values of Truesdale, iodide reagent equivalent to that present in sample
et al. (610), were low due to losses of iodine vapor. titrations. Iodine is liberated by addition of the ap-
They found that the effect of initial concentration on propriate quantity of 40% sulfuric acid, which must be
the rate of loss of iodine outweighs that of initial tem- mixed thoroughly with alkaline solution before titra-
perature, so that the loss of iodine is greater for water tion is begun, or too high a factor will be obtained. The
samples saturated with oxygen a t a low temperature calculated concentration of dissolved oxygen is multi-
than for those saturated at a high temperature. This plied by 1.012 to allow for dilution by the manganous
conclusion was verified experimentally, although others sulfate and alkaline iodide reagents. The end point of
(166, 231) and Truesdale, et al. (610), have speculated the titration is determined amperometrically. Ap-
on the reasons for the "low" values. parently, one of the important factors in these chemical
A description of the Montgomery, et al., procedure methods is technique, and some practice is required.
follows. The sample is collected by standard techniques Tables IV and V in Montgomery, et al., provide some
in a 65-cc bottle with a well-fitting ground-glass interesting comparisons. The first table compares the
stopper. Without delay, 0.4 ml of manganous sulfate results of their procedure with five others (showing
solution (480 g MnS01.4Hz0/1.) is added below the excellent agreement with Elmore and Hayes (166)).
surface, followed by 0.4 cc of alkaline iodine solution The second table shows the effect of speed of manipula-
added a t the surface. (The alkaline iodide solution is tion and titration in standard modifications of the
prepared according to the method of Pomeroy and Winkler method. The work of Montgomery, et al.,
Kirschman.) The bottle is stoppered so sts to exclude deserves careful study.
air bubbles and shaken by rapidly inverting 12-15 Elmore and Hayes (166) undertook an independent
times. After the precipitate has settled to the lower check of the solubility of oxygen in water. They carried
third of the bottle, it is shaken again (essential) and out some 260 determinations in 52 replicate groups of
allowed to settle completely. Sulfuric acid (1 cc of a experiments in the range 1.8-29.3'. The standard
solution containing 400 cc of the concentrated acid deviation in the measurements is of the order of 0.2%,
per liter) is added down the neck of the bottle, which and the results are presented in a table from 0-30' in
406 RUBINBATTIFOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

0.1" intervals. They followed a modification of the pressures up to 1000 atm and in the range -40 to 32".
Winkler method using an amperometric end point. At the low-temperature end Denton, Lucero, and
This paper critically evaluates earlier work and they Roellig (143) describe an apparatus for the solubility
conclude that their values are "the most satisfactory of of He in liquid hydrogen. The apparatus of Hu and
those presently available for application to natural MacWoocl (265) was designed for determining the
stream conditions." solubility of gases in liquids at 113-181K and 0-40
Morris, Stumm, and Gala1 (425) determined the atm.
solubility of oxygen in water by both manometric An apparatus for the solubility of He, Ne, Ar, and
(11-30" and a precision of about 0.5%) and chemical Xe in molten fluorides at 0.5-2 atm and 600-800" is
(5-29" and a precision of about 0.3%) methods. Their described by Grimes, Smith, and Watson (232). The
work is in good agreement with the best recent measure- molten fluoride is first saturated with a gas. Then the
ments. They suggest that a possible reason for the dissolved gas (in a known volume of the molten fluo-
results of Elmore and Hayes being slightly low a t 30" ride) is stripped with a second inert gas and the sample
is that they may have omitted making the temperature collected and analyzed on a mass spectrometer.
correction for a mercury barometer. This amounts to Ryabukhin (511) gives details for an apparatus for
a negative correction of about 0.4% at 25". determining the solubility of Clz in fused chlorides at
The most recent determination of oxygen solubilities 700-1050".
in pure water and sea water has been that of Green (231) The most commonly used method for gas solubilities
in the range 0-35". This independent work is in excel- in molten materials is Sievert's method. This is
lent agreement with Klots and Benson (318) and with basically a gas-handling method where the total
Rlontgomery, et al. (424). The error in this work is number of moles of gas introduced into the system is
estimated a t 3~0.27%. Green's thesis contains an determined by measuring P , V , and T ; and then by
excellent analysis of earlier work and sources of error measuring the equilibrium pressures in the calibrated
in the Winkler method, a modification of which he used. system the quantity of absorbed gas may be calculated.
It is gratifying to note the excellent agreement among This approach is also used for gas-solid absorption
recent workers, and it appears that with this agreement determinations. Gas extraction methods are also eni-
and the attendant explanations of earlier discrepancies ployed. Some recent papers describing apparatus for
that a truly definitive set of values for the solubility gas solubilities in molten metals are ref 537 and 472.
of oxygen in water has been attained. Mulfinger and Scholze (435) describe an apparatus for
Wheatland and Smith (642) used both a gasometric solubility in molten glasses.
method and the Winkler method and found that their Bar-Eli and Klein (28) describe a method for de-
results from the two approaches agreed within experi- termining gas solubility by measuring the rate of re-
mental error (about 0.2%). Czerski and Czaplinski action between a gas and its solvent. This method
(123) determined the solubility of oxygen in air- should prove useful in those systems where the gas
saturated liquids by stripping the liquids with a carrier reacts with the solvent. Alexander (10) describes a
gas and then passing this through an electrochemical microcalorimeter which he used to directly determine
detector. The probable error is estimated a t 0.9 mg heats of solution of Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe in water.
Ozb. Other papers which give details on gas solubility ap-
paratus are: ref 480-XO in aqueous solutions;
E. iWSCELLAKEOUS METHODS ref 38-S02 in aqueous ammonia solutions; ref
Enns, Scholander, and Bradstreet (169) give details 470-CHzCHC1 in methanol and trichloroethylene ;
of a method they used for the determination of the ref 239, 512, 616-CzHz solubility in various solvents;
solubility of Ozl nT2, Ar, He, and COz in water and sea ref 234-solubility in waxes in the range 200-400".
water at hydrostatic pressures up to 102 atm. For all In gcneral, most of the papers on the solubility of
gases examined the equilibrium pressure increased about gases in liquids give detailed descriptions of the pro-
14% per increase in hydrostatic pressure of about 100 cedure. The gas solubility tables can serve as a
atm. The method also permits the calculation of par- general guide for references to apparatus applicable to
tial molal volumes of the dissolved gases. Buell and particular problems.
Eldridge (79) describe an apparatus for gas solubility
a t high pressures where glass systems cannot be used. IV. XETHODS OF EXPREBSIKG GASSOLUBILITY
Khiteev (309) describes a mercury-free, high-pressure Gas solubilities have been expressed in a great many
solubility apparatus for gases in petroleum. Safronova ways. The more popular of these along with inter-
and Zhuze (518) also describe an apparatus for high- conversion formulas are presented. Since there are so
pressure, high-temperature solubilities in crude oils. many methods of expressing solubility, it is extremely
Miner's apparatus (421) was constructed for measure- important that each paper present a careful exposition
ment of the solubility of O2 and Nz in liquid C02 at of the manner in which their solubilities were calculated
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 407

and to also include a sample calculation to be doubly where Cl is the concentration of the gas in the liquid
certain. This was emphasized by Markham and Kobe phase and C, is the concentration of the gas in the gas
(393) but bears repetition along with repeating much of phase. The Ostwald coefficient is in reality an equilib-
what they said about definitions. rium constant, and as such is independent of the partial
pressure of the gas as long as ideality may be assumed.
A. T H E B U N S E N C O E F F I C I E N T , CY
However, to fix the value of the Ostwald coefficient, the
The Bunsen coefficient, CY, is defined as the volume of temperature and the total pressure must be designated.
gas, reduced to 0" and 760 mm pressure of mercury, If the total pressure is kept at 760 mm, then the
which is absorbed by the unit volume of solvent (at the volume of gas absorbed, reduced to 0" and 760 mm by
temperature of the measurement) under a gas pressure the ideal gas laws, per unit volume of liquid is fre-
of 760 mm. When the partial pressure of the gas above quently designated as p, an absorption coefficient. It
the solvent differs from 760 mm, it is corrected to this is important to clearly specify the method of calculating
pressure by Henry's law. By way of example an equa- the solubility since p sometimes gets confused with a.
tion which can be used to calculate the Bunsen co-
efficient is C. THE HENRY'S L . ~ WCONSTANT

a = [I( V , zT3 $)(i)]( T) (Eq 1)

The equation for a gas in equilibrium with a liquid
may be written as Gas (in liquid phase; X I or Cl) =
Gas (in gas phase; P, or C,).
where P, is the partial pressure (in mm Hg) of the gas Henry's law can then be presented as
above the solution, T is the absolute temperature, V ,
is the volume of gas absorbed (at T and the total pres- P, = KlXl (Eq 5 )
sure of the measurement), and V , is the volume of the or in the case of a dilute solution of the gas as
absorbing solvent. If the solvent has a nonnegligible
vapor pressure, then P, = PT - P , where PT is the P, = K2CI (Eq 6)
total pressure in the system and P, is the solvent vapor c, = K,Cl (Eq 7)
pressure. Equation 1 obviously reduces to
From the last equation it is noted that L = l/Kc, I n
V , 273.15
a=-- the above equations X is the mole fraction and, of
17, T course, solubility may be expressed in terms of mole
The corrections to standard conditions assume ideal fractions. The volume fraction, molarity, and molality
gas behavior. Since real gases do not follow the ideal can also be used to express solubility.
The Henry's law constants, particularly K z , can be
gas law, it is extremely important to specify the gas
equation of state used for the correction to standard satisfactorily used to express solubility, but it must be
conditions. For most gases and conditions the dif- remembered from thermodynamics that Henry's law
is applicable only over a restricted range for dilute
ference is negligible, being less than 1%, but the method
solutions and that Henry's law in practice is frequently
of correction should still be specified. The Bunsen
coefficient is sometimes just referred to as the absorption just a limiting law. The method of calculating the
coefficient or the coefficient of absorption. Henry's law constant must be specified. The practice
The Kuenen coefficient, X, is the volume of gas (in of converting solubility data from the experimental
cubic centimeters) at a partial pressure of 760 mni re- pressure to a partial gas pressure of 760 inm by applying
duced to 0" and 760 mm, dissolved by the quantity of Henry's law usually introduces no errors if the pressure
solution containing 1 g of solvent. Thus the Kuenen range is reasonably small.
coefficient is proportional to gas molality. D. T H E W E I G H T SOLUBILITY, c,
B. T H E OSTWALD C O E F F I C I E N T , L The weight solubility, C,, is recommended by Cook
The Ostn-ald coefficient, L, is defined as the ratio of (103) as a more logical unit than either the Bunsen or
the volume of gas absorbed to the volume of the ab- Ostwald coefficients. C, is defined as the number of
sorbing liquid, all measured a t the same teniperature. moles of gas, with the partial pressure of the gas being
The Ostwald coefficient is then 760 mm, per gram of solvent. This unit has the ad-
vantage of essentially being a ratio of weights, thus
L = V,/V, (Eq 3) permitting easy conversions and making certain calcula-
For the reaction Gas (in liquid phase; C1) = Gas (in tions simpler.
gas phase; Cg),the Ostwald coefficient may be written
E. I N T E R C O N V E R S I O S O F T H E SOLUBILITY E X P R E S S I O N S
as
(a) From the Bunsen coefficient
B = (~(760- Ps)/760 (Eq 8 )
408 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

The 760 mm in the denominator may be neglected

unless it is appreciable with respect to K1.
(d) From the weight solubility, C ,
x = CWMd(1 + CWM,) (Eq 19)

THEORY
V. SOLUBILITY AND RELATIONSHIPS

A. GAS SOLUBILITY A N D THEORIES O F SOLUTION

1. Regular Solution Theory

Regular solution theory has been most consistently
applied to gas solubilities by Hildebrand and co-
workers. The two books by Hildebrand and Scott
(243, 244) contain excellent individual chapters on gas
- I f
7

8

9

IO

II
I
12

13 14

15
I
16 I?

18
solubilities, namely, Chapter XV in ref 243 and Chapter
-R I n x2 IV in ref 244. Hildebrand and Scott (243, p 4) define
regular solutions with the following sentence: A
Figure 8.-Entropy of solution of gases. I, He; 2, H2;
3, Ne; 4, Nf; 5, CO; 6, 02; 7, Ar; 8, CH,; 9, COZ; 10, Kr; 11, regular solution is one involving no entropy change
Xe; 12, G H t ; 13, C2H4; 14, C2Ha; 15, SFa. Reprinted from when a small amount of one of its components is
Regular Solutions (244) by permission of the authors and the transferred to it from an ideal solution of the same
copyright owners, Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
composition, the total volume remaining unchanged.
L = a(T/273.15) = ,3(T/273.15)(760)/(760 - Ps) There are two equations based on regular solution
theory frequently used to calculate gas solubilities.
(Eq 9) The first is
72
-log x
2 = -log xz+ 0.4343
__---
RT
(61 - 62) (Eq 20)
cw = a/vop (Eq 11) In this equation X2 is the mole fraction gas solubility,
P. is the partial pressure of the solvent, pa is the density X2 is the ideal gas solubility (calculable from Raoults
of the solution, u is the decimal fraction of solute in law), V2 is the partial molal volume of the gas in the
solution, Vois the molal volume of the gas in cc/mole a t solution, and the 6s are solubility parameters where
O, and p is the density of the solvent a t the tempera- the subscript 1 refers to the solvent. The solubility
ture of the measurement. parameter, 6, sometimes referred to as the cohesive
energy density, is the square root of the energy of
K1 =
17.033 X 106p,
QM,
+ 760 (Eq 12) vaporization per cc or 6 = (hEv/v), where hEv is
the molar energy of vaporization and P is the molar
22,414 X 760 volume. For solutions where the molecules differ in
Ke = 17,033/~= (Eq 13)
lOOOQ size (Flory-Huggins model) the following equation is
M,is the molecular weight of the solvent. The units used
of Kl are those of pressure (mm Hg), and only for the
very soluble gases does the constant term of 760 mm -log $2 = -log Xz + 0.4343 (1 - - ;)$l+

alter significantly the value of K 1 calculated from the

first term in Eq 12. The units of K2 are (mm Hg) (liters
of solvent)/mole of gas.
(b) From the Ostwald coefficient where $I is the volume fraction and P1 is the molar
Q = L(273.15/T) (Eq 14) volume of the solvent. Upon introducing some sim-
/3 = L(273.15/T)(760 - PB)/760 (Eq 15) plifying approximations the previous equation becomes
K, = 1/L
(Eq 16) -log 2 =
x -log xz+ log + P2
T

c w = L/Vtp
temperature of the measurement.
(Eq 17)
V t is the molal volume of the gas in cc/mole a t the (
0.4343 1 -
2) +
T __-
Vl
0.434372
RT
(61 - 62) (Eq 22)
(c) From the Henrys law constant, K 1
For gases above their critical temperature the terms
CY=
17.033 X lO6p X;, 6 2 , and P2 are evaluated by various extrapolations
(KI - 760)M. and approximations. Gjaldbaek and Hildebrand (219)
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 409

in a paper on the solubility of chlorine in n-perfluoro- -0.51 I I I I I I I

heptane and other liquids justified the substitution of
the partial molal volume of the gas in the solution for
for molal volume of the pure gas. Despite the many
assumptions made in the derivation of Eq 20, 21, and
22 they have proved to be remarkably satisfactory for
solutions where both solvent and solute are nonpolar,
and have been shown to give a fair approximation for
slightly polar solvents. I n some cases experimentally
determined gas solubilities have been used in conjunc-
tion with the above equations to arrive a t empirical
values for the gas solubility parameters. Among others
Clever, et al. (97), have done this and also applied
regular solution theory to rare gas solubilities (95-98).
Three recent papers by Thomsen and Gjaldbaek
(599-601) have compared calculated with experimental
solubilities for a variety of gases in a variety of
solvents. I n ref 600 they show an interesting correla- -45
abc
. 1
, d
,
,
, ,
ef
,
,9
I
h
,
, i
,
j
,
h
I
, 1

tion (a straight line) between liZ calculated empirically

from solubility measurements and JZ calculated from
Figure 9.-Gas solubilities a t 25 and 1 atm in log X2 us. the
[(AHv - RT)/a]/where AHv is the heat of vaporiza- square of the solubility parameters of the solvents, 81: (a) C,F,,,
tion. Gjaldbaek and co-workers in a series of papers (b) (C4F9)3?J, (c) c - C B F ~ ~ C(Fd~) , ~-C&S, (e) CC12F.CCLF2,
(216-223, 358), which are most useful and interesting (f) n-C-iH16, (g) CaHnCH3, (h) C-c61I12, (i) CCh, (i) Ce,CH,, (k)
for the range of systems investigated and the reliability C,,HB,(1) CS2. Unpublished results reprinted by special permis-
sion of the author, Professor Joel H. Hildebrand.
of the measurements, have supplied the most extensive
testing of Eq 20, 21, and 22. Gjaldbaek and Anderson
(221) included an additional term in Eq 20 to account
for the dipole contribution to the energy of vaporization
for polar solvents.
Jolley and Hildebrand (282) critically reviewed the
literature for reliable gas solubilities which suited their
purpose and drew a number of conclusions which are
quoted below and illustrated in Figures 8, 9, and 10
taken from ref 244: (a) For a given series of gases at
1 atm and 25 dissolving in a series of solvents, log
X 2 decreases with increasing solubility parameter, 61,
of the solvent. (b) For different gases in the same
solvent, log X z increases linearly with increasing Len-
nard-Jones force constant, E/&, of the gas. (c) The
entropies of solution of different gases in the same sol-
vent vary linearly with R In X z , and extrapolate a t
X2 = 1 to the entropy of condensing to pure liquid the
vapor of the solvent from a hypothetical pressure of
1 atni. The temperature coefficient of solubility may
thus be obtained from its isothermal value. Solubility
increases with temperature from common solvents
tlk
when Xyzis less than about and vice versa. (d)
The partial molal entropy of solution of any one gas Figure 10.-Solubility us. force constant of gases. Reprinted
from Regular Solutions (244) by permission of the authors and
from 1 atni to the same mole fraction (here is the copyright owners, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
nearly bhe same in all solvents except fluorocarbons, N. J.
where it, is a little greater. In any one solvent, it
increasea in going to gases with smaller force constant. data for many more systems, and Archer and Hilde-
This is attributed mainly to increase in freedom of brand (15) added data on the solubility of CF, and
motion of the adjacent molecules of the solvent rather SFa in nonpolar solvents to the regular solutions.
than to change in the behavior of the gas molecule in Prausnits (483) applied regular solution theory to
a cage. Kobatake and Hildebrand (322) added gas-liquid solutions. He considered a three-step
410 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

process: (a) isothermal compression of the pure gas permit an experimental test of the theoretical expres-
from its partial pressure and the pure liquid from its sion, since Henry's law constants may be obtained froin
vapor pressure to the isometric mixing pressure; (b) the expression. I n addition, the surface tension and the
isothermal, isometric, and isopiestic mixing at the normal heats of vaporization of fluids may be evaluated,
isonietric mixing pressure ; and (c) isothermal expansion and the authors found satisfactory agreement between
of the solution from the isometric mixing pressure to the calculated and experimental properties.
equilibrium pressure. The resulting equations gave Pierotti (474) developed a method, using equations
reasonable estimates of the solubilities of gases and also derived by Reiss, et al. (496), for calculating the reversi-
of the temperature coefficient of solubility. Prausnitz ble work required to introduce a hard sphere into a
and Shair (485) presented a thermodynamic correlation fluid and for predicting the solubility, the heat of solution,
for gas solubilities based on the two-step process of and the partial molar volume of simple gases in non-
condensing the gas isothermally to a hypothetical polar solvents. The equations are derived for the
liquid a t 1 atm and then dissolving this hypothetical two-step process of creating a cavity in the solvent of
liquid in the solvent. This paper contains much useful suitable size to accommodate the solute molecule (the
information including a semiempirical method for reversible work or partial molar Gibbs free energy re-
correlating the solubilities of gases in polar solvents. quired to do this being identical with that for introduc-
Sherwood and Prausnitz (566) derived a relationship ing a hard sphere of the same radius as the cavity into
for the accurate determination of heats of solution of the solution), and then introducing into the cavity a
gases at high pressure. Yen and McKetta (670) derived solute molecule which interacts with the solvent ac-
equations based on regular solution theory for the cording to some potential law, for instance, a Lennard-
thermodynamic correlation of nonpolar gas solubilities Jones (6-12) paimise potential (the reversible work in
in polar, nonassociated liquids. They were able to the second step being identical with that of charging
semienipirically correlate solubilities of nonpolar the hard sphere or cavity introduced in the first step
gases in both polar and nonpolar solvents. Lachowicz to the required potential). By plotting the Henry's law
and Weale (353) also derived equations based on regular constant against the polarizability of the solute gases
solution theory to predict gas solubility in nonpolar for experimental data and extrapolating to zero polariza-
liquids, and their application of their equations to bility a hard-sphere solubility is obtained which can be
existing data resulted in useful correlations. Smith compared with solubilities calculated from the theory.
and Walkley (577) found that it was in general impossi- This was done for He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Kz, Hz, and CH4 in
ble to obtain solubility parameters for gases that lead benzene and carbon tetrachloride a t 29S"K, and He,
to acceptable values for both the partial molal volumes Ne, Hf, and Dr in argon at 87K; in all but one case
and the solubility. the predicted solubility is well within a factor of 2 of
the observed solubility, which is very good agreement
2. Cell Potential and Cavity Models considering the crude method used to obtain the inter-
Uhlig (620) proposed a cavity model in which he action energy. By plotting the collision diameters of
considered the solubility process to take place in two the rare gases against their polarizabilities and extrapo-
steps: first, doing work on the solvent against the lating to zero polarizability a hard-sphere diameter
solvent surface tension to create a cavity, and, second, (2.33 A) corresponding to the extrapolated hard-sphere
placing the gas molecule in this cavity and calculating Henry's law constant may be evaluated. The theory
the energy of interaction between the gas and solvent also yields heats of solutions and partial molal volumes
molecules. This is a simple theory but its prediction of the gases in solution. The predicted heats were
of a linear relationship between log L and the solvent usually within experimental error for all solutes except
surface tension has been borne out by many examples. methane. The agreement between the predicted and
Eley (161, 162) considered a two-step process similar calculated partial molal volumes is good, being better
to that of Uhlig's, but was able to more carefully than those calculated by Smith and Walkley (577).
evaluate the separate contributions of each step to the In a second paper (475) Pierotti developed a theory
energy and the entropy changes involved. His ap- of gas solubility in water along lines similar to the earlier
proach showed reasonable success with both water and paper except for the introduction of a term involving
organic solvents, although he shom that the case of the solvent dipole moment. Good agreement mas
water is more complicated due to the possibility of found between the experimental and Balculated heats,
structural modifications. entropies, and molar heat capacities of solution, and
Reiss, et al. (496), extending ideas previously applied for the partial molar volumes of tk solutes. The
to the statistical mechanical theory of hard-sphere calculated and experimental Henry's ldw constants for
fluids determined an expression for the work of creating 16 solutes in water a t 25" show good agreement, in
a spherical cavity in a real fluid. Systems such as only one case being off by a factor of 2. The "ab-
helium in benzene are sufficiently close to the model to normal" thermodynamic properties of aqueous solu-
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 41 1

tions were discussed with respect to the enthalpy and calculated and experimental Henrys law constants is
entropy of cavity formation. The theory is promising about 3%. The partial molal heats and entropies of
as a method for the investigation of gas solubilities in solution are presented from the freezing point to near
molten salts and molten metals. The thermodynamic the critical point of water. These partial molal heats
properties of gas solubility in mater and organic sol- of solution appeared to correlate linearly best a t 25
vents were explained by one theory which involved with the force constants of the gases, and a t 4 with the
no assumptions concerning the structure of the solvent. polarizability of the gases. Himmelblau and Arends
Kobatake and Alder (323) discuss cell potentials and (250) used the same five-parameter equation to correlate
gas solubility theory. They develop a two-parameter the solubility of 0 2 , I V 2 , Hz, He, Xe, CH4, C2H4, C2Hs,
cell potentid in a free-volume-type theory which is C3H8, n-C4Hlo, and l-butene in water a t high tempera-
determined from two experimentally obtained thernio- tures and pressures. ATaniiot (437) discusses the
dynamic quantities. The cell potential for a gas dis- solubility under pressure of gases in water. I n a paper
solved in a liquid yields values of the free volume of the on the solubility of nonpolar gases (He, Hz, Ar, Kr, Xe,
gas molecule that are about ten times larger than in a CH4, C2Hs, C3Hs) in water Namiot (439) derives an
typical liquid. These large free volumes make the equation for calculating the number of water molecules
calculations less sensitive to the assumptions of the bonded to one gas molecule, and also the number of
geometric arrangements of the neighboring particles displaced water molecules. These values were calcu-
and less dependent on the uncertainties in the linowl- lated for the above-mentioned gases. Amirkhanov (12)
edge of the intermolecular cell potentials. The large derived an equation for the theoretical calculation of
free volume indicates, as a number of authors have the solubility in water of gases obeying Henrys lam.
pointed out, that the gas molecule almost digs a The derivation assumes Maxwells law of the distribu-
(hole in the liquid. Kobatake and Alder use this tion of molecular velocities and considers the thermal
idea to calculate a reasonable value for the interfacial energy of the gaseous molecule, under equilibrium con-
tension of carbon tetrachloride. For CH4, nT2, Ar, Oz, ditions. Using this equation the calculated solubility
and C2H6in CC1, it was found that the gas molecule is of Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe was found to agree within ex-
surrounded by about seven neighbors and that the perimental error with the experimental solubility.
solvent molecules surrounding the gas contribute Salvetti and Trevissoi (522) examined on the basis
importantly to the thermodynamic functions. Fur- of irreversible thermodynamics the absorption of gases
ther, it was found that the gas molecules perturb the by liquids. Trevissoi and Ferraiolo (605) on a similar
solvent significantly over several molecular layers, while basis studied the absorption of gases by liquids con-
this is not the case in dilute liquid mixtures. sidering the effect of surface tension.

3. Other Contributions to Theory 4. Special Studies

Ridenour, et al. (501), derived an equation from a The reasonably well-defined gaseous standard state
thermodynamic consideration of gas solubility as a and the low solubility of gases in liquids has attracted
special case of vapor-liquid equilibrium in which the many workers to make studies in which the solubility
system temperature may be higher than the critical of a gas is used as a probe to the understanding of a
temperature of the more volatile component of the solvent property or to a gas-solvent molecular inter-
mixture. The equation was applied with reasonable action. The extensive studies of the effect of an elec-
success to the solubility of C02, Ar, Oz, and N2 in trolyte solution on a nonelectrolyte activity is discussed
paraffin wax and the solubility of air in kerosene. in the section on salt effects. Several other studies are
Klots and Benson (320) discuss the thermodynamic worth special mention.
properties of the atmospheric gases in aqueous solu- Marvel, Copley, Zellhoefer, and co-workers (106-111,
tions. Mastrangelo (398) derived an equation by statis- 677, 678) carried out an extensive study of hydrogen
tical methods using a quasi-chemical type of equation bonding. They determined the solubility of vapors of
for a two-component system that possesses one or CHC13, CHZC12, CH3C1, CHzClF, CHCLF, CHClF2,
more similar interactions per molecule. The agreement CC&F, CClzF2,C2Cl3F3,and CzClzF4in several hundred
between the equation and data on the solubility of oxygen-containing compounds including alcohols, alde-
chlorofluoromethanes and ethanes in tetraethylene hydes, ketones, acids, ethers, and oximes as well as
glycol dimethyl ether and chloroform in acetone was compounds containing nitrogen and sulfur functional
good. The equation should prove especially useful for groups. They concluded that the C-H group in the
solubility in polymeric solvents. halocarbons can hydrogen bond and that ethers, alde-
Himmelblau (247) uses a five-parameter equation for hydes, ketones, and trialkylamines being the best
expressing the solubility of 0 2 , Kz, He, Ha, Xe, and CH, solvents form the strongest hydrogen bonds.
in water from the freezing point of water to near its The solubility of an acidic or basic gas can be cor-
critical point. The average deviation between the related with the basicity of the solvent. Brown,
412 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

et al. (75-77), used the solubility of HC1 as a measure of gases with greater than about lo-* mole fraction
the basic properties of aromatic nuclei. generally have negative temperature coefficients.
Gerrard, Macklen, and co-workers have used hydro- Hildebrand (244) has calculated the entropy of
halide gas solubilities (202-205, 207-212) as a measure transferring gas a t 1 atm to solution a t mole
of the basic function of oxygen and more recently sulfur fraction for solvents varying from 5.8 to 10.0 in solu-
(196) in certain organic functional groups. There is a bility parameter and gases varying from 10 to 300 in
detailed review of most of their work (206). force constants. The entropy increases moderately
with decrease in solubility parameter and increases
B. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT O F GAS SOLUBILITY largely with decrease in force constant. Plots of the
Only one direct calorimetric study of the heats of logarithm of mole fraction solubility against solvent
solution of gases has been made (10). All other values solubility parameter squared show a smooth near-
of the heat of solution of a gas in a liquid were derived linear relation for each gas. Plots of the logarithm of
from phase-equilibrium data via the important tem- mole fraction solubility against the gas force con-
perature coefficient of gas solubility. Progress is stants are linear for each solvent tested (Figures 9 and
continuing to be made on understanding the basis of the 10). Hildebrand shows that, excepting cases of specific
temperature coefficient of solubility; however, useful interaction, the entropy of solution is the sum of two
predictions of the sign and magnitude of the tempera- factors: dilution and expansion. These faetors are
ture coefficient of solubility in all systems awaits a both determined by the interrelations of intermolecular
better understanding of intermolecular forces. forces as measured by solvent solubility parameter,. and
The.rare gases are good examples of the types of gas gas force constants.
solubility temperature dependence one observes. All The temperature dependence of solubility has been
the noble gases have a negative temperature coefficient used more often to get the heat of solution rather than
of solubility in water around room temperature and the entropy of solution. Plots of log XZ against 1/T
atmospheric pressure which goes through a minimum are usually linear to the accuracy with which gas solu-
and becomes positive at high temperatures and pres- bility is commonly measured. A temperature inde-
sures. In hydrocarbon solvents at room temperature pendent AH is assumed and calculated from the slope
and atmospheric pressure helium and neon solubility which is equal - AH/2.303R.
increases with temperature, argon solubility is almost The choice of solubility unit is of some importance
independent of temperature, and krypton and xenon for it determines the reference standard state change;
solubilities decrease with temperature. I n the molten mole fraction, X z , Henrys constant, K1, molarity, C,
salts studied to date all the rare gases have a positive and Ostwald coefficient, L, are commonly used. Plots of
temperature coefficient of solubility at temperatures log X, and log K1 against 1 / T have slopes of equal
between 600 and 900 and pressures ranging from 0.5 magnitude but opposite sign. The same is true of log
to 2 atm. CZand log KZplots. Enthalpies from the concentration
For gases dissolved in nonpolar solvents Hildebrand plots, X2 or C2, represent the standard state change of
and co-workers have done much to bring order and gas to solution; the K plots give enthalpies of the re-
understanding to the problem of the temperature de- verse reactions. Plots of log L against 1/T are coni-
pendence of solubility. Their work is well summarized monly linear. To put the AH from such a plot on a
in Chapter 4 of Hildebrand and Scott (244) where it is mole fraction basis one must add RT.
pointed out that for a sparingly soluble gas that obeys
Henrys law the entropy of solution is
Where exceptionally accurate solubiIity data from
over an extended temperature range are available, an
equation of the type
where X 2 is the mole fraction solubility. Experi-
mentally it is observed that plots of log Xz against log 10gX2 -
- T-
U
+ blogT - c 0% 24)
T are essentially linear for gases dissolved in nonpolar
liquids. Thus, there is a regular system of relationships can be fitted to the data where a, b, and c are the con-
which exists between entropy and solubility with the stants. Standard thermodynamic manipulations of
dividing line between positive and negative tempera- this equation give the temperature-dependent heat of
ture coefficient of solubility coming at $2 - Szg = 0. solution as
Plots of Sz - Szgagainst -R In Xzare linear for a series AH = -2.303Ra 4- bRT
of gases in a given solvent (Figure 8 ) . Gases with
solubility less than about mole fraction generalIy and the heat capacity change on solution as
have positive temperature coefficient of solubility ; AC, = bR
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 413

The accuracy of the data is seldom good enough to between their predicted and the experimental partial
attach any more than qualitative significance to the molal volumes for Hzand Dz in liquid argon.
AC, value. Hildebrand and Scott (244) discuss the contribution
Sherwood and Prausnitz (566) have carefully of volume expansion on mixing to the entropy of solu-
analyzed the factors important in getting the enthalpy tion. Although volume expansion has little effect on
of solution from phase-equilibrium data at high pres- the free energy of mixing, it can have a marked effert
sure. Their general expression for the partial molal on the entropy of mixing. The correction to the partial
heat of solution is molal entropy of solution of a dilute solute needs values
of solvent internal pressure, (bP/bT)B, and solute par-
tial molal volume, V2.
Table VI11 catalogs references to gas-liquid systems
for which partial molal volumes are reported. Included
is the extensive 1931 work of Horiuti (261); references
to other pre-1940 data can be found in Kritchevsky and
where & is the vapor phase activity coefficient, y the Ilinskaya (336). Two techniques have been used at
liquid phase activity coefficient,and Y the vapor phase atmospheric pressure. Most workers have used some
mole fraction. They used the equation to calculate the modification of Horiuti's apparatus (261) to directly
heat of solution of methane in decane at lo00 psia by determine solution dilation on dissolving the gas to near
approximating the vapor phase equation of state of saturation. Some have determined solution density
moderate vapor densities by a virial expression through (396). Details of the technique and apparatus are
the second virial coefficient. Liquid phase corrections discussed in references listed in Table VIII.
for (b In y2/b In X z ) , , p were obtained which required Gamburg (198A) and Connolly and Kandalic (101)
knowledge of the solution compressibility, partial describe apparatus for the determination of partial molal
molal volume of the gas in solution, and phase-equilb volumes a t high pressure. Some of the partial molal
rium data. The calculated hRzhad an uncertainty of volumes a t high pressure listed in Table VI11 were not
10% which mostly reflected the 1% uncertainty in the determined directly but got by fitting the experimental
experimental liquid phase compositions. At higher gas solubility to some form of the Krichevsky and
vapor densities the third virial coefficient becomes im- Kasarnovskey quation (335, 336) for gas solubility a t
portant. The approach, which includes the effect of a t high pressure.
vapor and liquid nonideality, permits a relatively
accurate calculation of the heats of solution for systems D. GAS SOLUBILITIES IN MIXED
for which the experimental data are sufficiently ac- NONELECTROLYTE SOLVENTS
curate to warrant its use. A solution of a gas in a binary nonelectrolyte mixed
Namiot (438) gives a thermodynamic interpretation solvent is a three-component system, with two gas-
of the observed minimum in the solubility of hydro- solvent interactions and a solvent-solvent interaction
carbons in water at about 70". of importance.
The effect of temperature on salt effects and on the Ben-Naim and Baer (39) have determined the solu-
solubility of gases in molten salts is discussed in the bility of argon in water-ethanol mixtures a t six tem-
appropriate sections. peratures and nine concentrations between 0.015 and
0.25 mole fraction ethanol (Figure 11). At low tem-
C. PARTIAL MOLAL VOLUMES OF peratures there is a maximum in the solubility a t low
GASES DISSOLVED I N LIQUIDS
ethanol concentrations. Both viscosity and water
An understanding of the partial molal volume of gases partial molal volumes show a similar concentration
in solution is of importance in the study of solution dependence in the ethanol-water system. These
thermodynamic properties. Smith and Walkley (577) results are explainable in terms of the influence of
have tested the predictions of various thermodynamic ethanol on the structure of water. Small amounts of
theories of solution for the gas partial molal volume. ethanol increase the concentration of the icelike form
They used available partial molal volumes of gases in of water at low temperatures; a t about 30" the icelike
nonpolar liquids and showed that a simple free volume structure of water is breaking down anyway and the
theory predicted the correct magnitude and order of argon solubility tends to increase monotonically from
partial molal volumes in the various nonpolar liquids. its value in pure warer to its value in pure ethanol.
In general, regular solution theory did not predict Dissolved argon itself influences the amount of icelike
acceptable values of both solubility and partial molal water present. Plots of As" and ABo for the argon
volumes of a gas from a single value of gas solubility solutions show similar trends when plotted against the
parameter. Hillier and Walkley (2448) have used a mole fraction of ethanol. The entropies of solution of
quantum equation of state and found good agreement argon in pure water are negative as compared to pure
414 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

methanol, ethanol, l-propanol, 2-propanol, l-butanol,

ethylene glycol, and glycerine. The oxygen solubility
decreases almost linearly with increasing weight per
cent ethylene glycol or glycerine. I n the monohydric
alcohols the solubility behavior is somewhat similar to
55 the argon solubility in ethanol-water a t 32" with the
solubility going through a minimum then increasing to
the solubility in pure alcohol.
Some limited studies of gas solubility in aqueous
alcohol mixtures include X2 (168), Nz and 0 2 (342), and
5c CO2 (503) in ethanol-water, 0 2 in methanol-water
(478), and various gases in beers and wines (2, 168, 172,
313, 407).
Studies in other aqueous mixed solvents include:
oxygen (248, 285) and COz (379) in aqueous sugar
P 45
solutions; He and Ar in mater-saturated nitromethane
X (197); C02, acetylene, and ethylene in water-??-
4 methylpyrrolidone (565) ; COZ in various aqueous
mono-, di-, and triethanolamine solutions (381, 568,
596) ; acetylene in aqueous diniethylformamide, di-
oxane, and acetone (387), acetylene, methylacetylene,
C
I vinylacetylene, and diacetylene in aqueous dimethyl-
formamide and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (72, 72A) ;
hydrogen sulfide in aqueous phenol (226) and in aqueous
monoethanolamine (283) ; C102 in aqueous acetic acid
(305); and O2 in aqueous (236). Solubilities in
3? aqueous strong acid solutions are discussed under salt
effects.
For less polar mixed solvents O'Connell and Prausnitz
(459) have considered the thermodynamics of a solu-
I I I I 1 J tion consisting of one supercritical component, a gas,
0 9% 010 Od 0.20 0.25 and two or more subcritical components, the liquid
XCZHIOH
solvent components. They treat the case of a gas dis-
Figure 11.-The solubility of argon in aqueous ethanol. Ost- solved in two miscible solvents and generalize the result
wald coefficients as a function of mole fraction ethanol (39). to a gas dissolved in a mixture of any number of miscible
Reprinted from The Transactions of the Faraday Society by per-
mission of the Faraday Society. solvents. I n their notation subscript 1 is the solvent of
lower vapor pressure, 2 is the gas, and 3 the solvent of
higher vapor pressure. The solvent activity coefficients
alcohol. The value for pure ethanol has already been are both referred to the saturation vapor pressure of
attained a t 0.2 mole fraction ethanol, and this sug- solvent 1. The activity coefficient of the gaseous solute
gested to Ben-Naim and Baer that the abnormally low is also related to the saturation pressure of solvent 1
entropy of solution of argon in pure water cannot be with the gas reference fugacity related to the Henry's
attributed to an active formation of icelike water but constant in solvent 1 in the absence of solvent 3. Thus,
that the argon shifts the already existing equilibrium they use an unsymmetrical convention for normaliza-
toward the icelike form. A similar study of argon tion of the activity coefficients y1 --t 1 as X I + 1,
solubility in water-p-dioxane system is reported by y2+ 1 as X2 + 0 a t Xa = 0 , and y3 + 1 as Xa 1.
Ben-Kaim and Moran (40). The maximum in the O'Connell and Prausnitz use the approach of Wold
argon solubility a t low concentrations and low tem- and write one-paramenter Jlargules expansions for the
peratures seen in the water-ethanol system was not excess free energy which in the symmetric convention
found in the water-dioxane system. This is interpreted E E
to mean p-dioxane has a destabilizing influence on the 912 - a12X1X2
g13E
= ff13x1x3
923
-= a23x2x3
RT RT RT
~

large compact clusters of water molecules a t all p-

dioxane concentrations and temperatures studied. (Eq 26)
Schlapfer, Audykowski, and Bukowiecki (539) de-
termined the solubility of oxygen from air a t 30" over Then the molar excess free energy of the ternary solu-
the full concentration range of aqueous solutions with tion is assumed to be
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 415

+
E
QlZZ
__ = a12X1X2
RT
They differentiate and transform from the symmetric to
the nonsymmetric convention to obtain expressions
for Ti as a function of the CY'S and mole fractions. The
parameters ~ ~ 1 2CYZ3,
, and CY13 are evaluated from the
solubility data for the gas in pure solvent 1, the solu- I n4mANE
ISOOCTANE
bility data for the gas in pure solvent 3, and the vapor-
liquid equilibrium data for the binary solution of 1 and
3, respectively. Finally Henry's law constant for the
mixed solvent is
In Hz, mixed solvent (Pl") = X1 In H21(P19) + X3
In HdP1S) - CYl
zlx3 (Eq 28) p-xrms
BENZENE
The equation shows that even if the two solvents form CHLOHOBENZWE
CARBON DISUVIDE

an ideal mixture (a13 = 0), Henry's constant for the - YITROMZ?"AM

BROYIRMZWE
IOMBENZWIB
solute in the mixed solvent is an exponential rather than NITROBENZEIIE
WATEZ
a linear function of the solvent composition. O'Connell
and Prausnitz have calculated Henry's constant for Hz
in toluene-heptane and for O2 in isooctane-perfluoro-
heptane, but no direct experimental confirmation is
available.
Koudelka (333, 334) has determined the solubility of
COz in the six possible binary systems formed from
methanol, acetone, chloroform, and benzene. He
finds deviations for the activity coefficient of the gas surface tension, u, for a gas in a series of solvents,
Schlapfer, et al. (539),show that such a plot for oxygen
in the binary solvent from the linear relation of activity
solubility in about 20 solvents including alcohols,
coefficients in the pure liquids
hydrocarbons, ketones, esters, and halocarbons holds
log ~ 2 , m i x t u r e= XI log Y?in 1 + X3 log YZ in 3 (Eq 29) well except for the solvents ethylene glycol, glycerine,
and water. Baldwin and Daniel (23) correlate Nz, Oz,
The deviations may be expressed in terms of an excess
and air solubilities with the surface tension of lubricating
function which requires only one constant, a, in a term
oils and fuels. The solubility of the five gases He, Ne,
aX1X3for simple nonpolar solutions added to E q 29.
Clever (95) determined the solubility of argon and Ar, Kr, and Xe fit the linear log L against u plot almost
within experimental error for 13 hydrocarbon solvents
krypton in binary p-xylene-p-dihalobenzene systems
a t 30". The results fit regular solution theory with (96, 97) and for various substituted benzene solvents
mixed-solvent solubility parameters obtained from (530). Figure 12 shows such a plot for argon in 25
solvents.
mixed-solvent surface tensions.
Kruyer and Nobel (347) report that hydrogen solu- Uhlig (620) assumed the energy of forming a solvent
bility is a linear function of composition in benzene- cavity for the gas molecule is equal to the cavity sur-
cyclohexane mixtures. Hydrogen solubilities are also face area times the liquid surface tension to derive
reported (9) for the aliphatic olefin mixtures hexane-
hexene, hep tane-hep tene, and octane-oc tene. log L =
-4rr2u +E (Eq 30)
2.303kT
Other studies in mixed solvents are CO, and N2 in
50:50 decanol-dodecanol (378)) Xz and O2 in 50:50 which predicts the linear log L against a plots at con-
acetone-ethanol and isooctane-ethanol (342), acetylene stant temperature. The criticism that the bulk surface
in dioxane-dimethylformaniide (387) and in various tension is not appropriate to calculate the energy of
binary systems of water, methanol, CH3C1, and formation of a molecular-sized cavity seems justified.
(CH30CHzCHz)zO with the donor-type solvents di- Rather the surface tension is probably proportional to
niethylformanzide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and ethylene some solvent property that determines the gas dissolv-
glycol (517). ing power of the solvent. Hildebrand and Scott (243,
Chapter XXI) show that a plot of U / V ~ ' 'agaiiiit
~
E. SOLVENT SURFACE TENSION AND GAS SOLUBILITY
AEv,,/V for 19 liquids is linear with slope 0.86. T1 is
A particularly successful gas solubility correlation is suggests the Hildebrand solubility parameter, 6, is
the linear relationship between log L and solvent proportional to ( u / ~ , ~ ' ~ ) 0 . 4 3 .
416 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

In mixed solvents the surface tension may not repre- The last term can be ignored if ki, which results from
sent such a property of the bulk solvent because of the interaction of the nonelectrolyte with itself, is
Gibbs enrichment of the surface by the component of small, or if Ci is very small. In gas solubility studies
lower surface tension. Gjaldbaek (217) showed that Ci is often small enough to justify ignoring the ki term.
decreasing water surface tension 57y0 by adding a Most theories are concerned with the calculation of k,.
trace of aeresol decreased carbon dioxide solubility by Experimental measurements of the solubility of a gas
only o.4yOat 25" and 1 atm. Similar results were ob- in pure solvent and in a salt solution give the activity
tained for NZ solubility in water (169). Although a coefficient of the dissolved gas directly. The gas solute
trace of surface-active material does not change the activity is the same in pure solvent and salt solution so
equilibrium solubility of a gas in water, it may affect
fiSi = fiOSiO
the rate of attaining equilibrium. The report of Yeh
and Peterson (667) that COz, Kr, and Xe solubilities and
in lipids do not obey the Uhlig plot may be due to the
presence of variable amounts of surface-active compo-
f - f . S."2
0

nets in the lipids. The Uhlig relationship is approxi-

1 - 1
si
mately obeyed for the solubility of Ar and Kr in the where Sio and Si are gas solubility in pure solvent and
binary pxylene-p-dihalobenzene systems (95). In salt solution, respectively. Thus
these binary systems the solvent molecules are of
+ kiSi
0 0
similar size, shape, and surface tension. The surface
(Eq 34)
enrichment of one component is minimal so the solution
surface tension still represents a bulk property.
Since log f i " = kioSio
Burrows and Preece (85) base a derivation on the
ideas of Eley (161, 162), and Uhlig, and the empirical
relationship between surface tension and temperature,
- Si") (Eq 35)
u = K/T" that predicts a linear relationship between
log L (T/U)''(~+') and a/T, where n = or 1. The and if Si and Si" are low the last term can be ignored
solubility of helium in petroleum and silicone oils and of
Ht, He, Nt, and methane in terphenyls (234) obeys the
relationship. Plots of log L against 1/T were not linear
for these systems. which is the same form as the well-know empirical
Plots of the solubility of Oz,Nz,and air in six kerosene Setschenow equation, log Sio/Si = KC.. However, in
jet fuels against l/a0.75are linear (144). Justification systems where the ki(Si - Si")term cannot be ignored
of the plot is the postulation that gas solubility is K and k, are not the same. The distinction becomes
proportional to the solvent compressibility (p) and the important when comparing salting out of a non-
relationship ab'" equals a constant. electrolyte of low solubility with one of high solubility.
The relationship of solvent surface tension and gas A salt that increases the activity coefficient of the dis-
solublity in molten salts and in molten metals is dis- solved gas salts out and a salt that decreases the activ-
cussed in the appropriate sections. ity coefficient of the dissolved gas salts in.
Long and McDevit (373) point out that the theories
F. SALT EFFECTS of the salt effect all have common underlying aspects
The activity coefficients of nonelectrolytes solutes in but emphasize different approaches to the problem.
aqueous salt solution were well reviewed by Long and They classify the theoretical approaches as emphasizing
McDevit in 1952 (373). (1) hydration, (2) electrostatic, (3) van der Waals, and
The activity coefficient is a function of the concentra- (4) internal pressure effects.
tion of a,ll solute species and at a given temperature log The hydration theories propose that salting out
f i can be represented by a power series in C., the elec- results from the effective removal of water molecules
trolyte concentration, and Ci the nonelectrolyte solute from their solvent role owing to the hydration of the
gas concentration. ions. The theories provide no explanation of salting in.
The electrostatic theories relate salt effects to the
influence of nonelectrolyte on the dielectric constant of
the solvent. A nonelectrolyte that increases the di-
It is usually assumed that for low C, and Ci where there electric constant of the solvent will be salted in, one
is no chemical interaction between solute species only that decreases the dielectric constant will be salted out.
the linear terms are important and The van der Waals theories extend the electrostatic
theories by taking into account short-range forces,
log f i = k,C, + kiCi (Eq 32) primarily dispersion forces, that may play an appreci-
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 417

able role in the specific effects of ions. The most de- of solvent. Morrison points out that the weight basis is
tailed attempt to include dispersion forces is that of more closely related to the theoretically significant mole
Bockris, Bowler-Reed, and Kitchener (53). fraction and reports his results on a solvent weight
The interal pressure of a salt solution can be related (molality) basis. On this basis nitric acid and tetra-
to changes in both volume and compressibility of a alkylammonium halides salt in He, We, n-CrHlo, and
solverit due to dissolved salts. Both changes have been benzene vapor but salt out SF6.
correlated with salt effects. RIcDevit and Long (408) The salting out of 02,Ar, Xe, CHr, and C2He by LiC1,
have calculated the free energy of transfer of a nonpolar NaC1, KC1, and MgClz (173), CzH6 by NaCl and CaCl2
electrolyte from pure water to salt solution assuming (123), and C2Hzby numerous halide, nitrate, and sulfate
the neutral molecules modify the ion-water interaction salts (188) has been explained by hydration theories.
in a simple manner and get a limiting law for k, which is Eucken and Hertzberg (173) have derived an expression
for the hydration number of an ion based on an equilib-
Pi"(VS- VBO) rium association of water molecule clusters of one to
k, = (Eq 37)
2.3PoRT eight molecules, the displacement of the equilibrium
by the ions, and the competition of the ions and dis-
where Via and V,' are, respectively, partial molal solved gas molecules for water of hydration. They get
volumes at infinite dilution of nonelectrolyte solute and ion hydration numbers around 10. Flid and Golynets
salt, V , is the molar volume of pure (liquid) electrolyte, (188) point out that salting out increases in the order
and Po is the compressibility of pure water. Both the the cations increase in ease of hydration between 0 and
van der Waals and internal pressure approaches ex- 25", but that the order differs in the 50-70" range. In
plain both salting-in and salting-out effects. general, as pointed out by McDevit and Long, the
KO new basic theories of salt effects have appeared hydration numbers got ten by gas solubility measure-
since 1952, but several experimental tests based on gas ments do not correspond with degrees of hydration ob-
solubility have been carried out. tained from other experiments.
Morrison and co-workers (426,428,430) have studied Namiot (439) discusses aqueous gas solubilities in
the salting out of H2,He, Ne, K2, 02,Kr, Xe, SFB,CHI, terms of a two-structure model of water. The dis-
C2H4,C2H6,C3HB,n-C4Hlo,and benzene vapor in some solved gas molecules transform some "liquid" water
or all of the aqueous solutions of HC1, XH4CI, several molecules to "icelike" molecules. An equation is
alkali halides, BaC12, Lac&, and several tetralkyl- given for calculating the number of water molecules
ammonium chlorides. Electrostatic effects were tested bonded to one gas molecule and the number of dis-
by assuming IC, proportional to a coulombic term, placed water molecules. The Setschenow constant, k',
Zce2/r. Using crystallographic radii and using IiaC1 is related to the number of bonded water molecules.
as a reference salt it was found that HC1, LiC1, BaC12, Clever and Reddy (99) have obtained salting-out
and LaCla cause a salting out less than expected from constants for helium and argon by NaI in both methanol
ionic size. IiCl behaves normally. K I is normal for and water. The ratio is less than expected
low molecular weight gases, but causes a specific from the dielectric constant difference of the solvents.
decrease in salting out which is proportional to the The van der Waals approach of Bockris, Bowler-Reed,
molecular size for the hydrocarbons and heavier and Kitchener (53) was not sufficiently sensitive to
organic gams. explain the k s ~ e O & , ~ n O ratio for either gas.
Morrison and Johnstone (430) have calculated theo- Many studies have been made on the effect of
reticd ratios of k,/kKaCl from electrostatic and internal aqueous electrolyte solutions on the activity coefficients
pressure theories, where k, represents the salting-out of dissolved hydrocarbon gases. With one exception
constant of HC1, LiC1, KC1, KHIC1, 1/2BaC12,KMe4C1, the studies of Table 111 were carried out in aqueous
NEt4C1, NaBr, KaI, NaK03, or 1/2Na2S04.The in- solution.
ternal preasure results accord better with the observed Salting out is the general rule. Exceptions include
order of ratios than the electrostatic approach but does Na dodecyl sulfate and K oleate, where micelle
not fit the NMe4Cl and NEt4C1salt ratios for the more formation and increased interaction energy between the
"inert" gases. hydrocarbon gas and the hydrocarbon-like micelle
The kz/kNaC1 ratio is linear for a series of solute interior may explain the enhanced solubility over that
gases in a given salt solution except the salts KaI, in pure water. Guanidine hydrochloride, nitric acid,
NMe4C1, and NEt4C1. With these salts a specific and tetralkylammonium halides salt in hydrocarbons.
effect is observed. When a correction for the van der The increased solubility of ethylene in silver nitrate
Waals forces between ions and neutral molecules is solutions is certainly due to formation of the Agf.C2H4
applied the k,/kNaC1 ratios become linear for these salts. complex ion. It is suggested (387) that the increased
The salt effect constant, k,, can be referred to either solubility of acetylene in acetone in the presence of NaI
unit volume of electrolyte solution or the unit weight is because acetylene is more soluble in an acetone.Na1
418 RUBIKBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

TABLEI11 CIOz solubilities in aqueous HzS04 and aqueous acetic

SALT EFFECTS GASES
O N HYDROCARBON acid obey Henry's law (305).
Salts Ref The neutral nature of PH3has been deduced from its
NaC1, CaC12, MgCl? 422 similar solubility in aqueous NaOH, NaC1, and HzS04
NaCl 153
BaC1, LiC1, KI 428
(639). The solubility of KZ in buffered solutions of
Alkali halides 173 various transition metal acetates indicated no unusual
Guanidine hydrochloride 640 association of Nzand transition ion (70).
NaC1, CaC12 123 Chlorine is salted out by BaCL (51), L E I , SrClz and
Xa dodecyl sulfate 660 BaClz (292), and LiClOk and NaC104 (291) in aqueous
NaCl 621
"Neutral salts" 268 solution between 10 and 50".
NaCl 364 The temperature dependence of the salting-out
KC1, AgN03 260 constant, k,, is small and negative at least in aqueous
"Neutral salts" 403 solutions a t atmospheric pressure and temperatures
K oleate 402 below 70". This is true of NzO and COZin several chlo-
NaC1 303
"Keutral Salts" 188 rides, nitrates, and sulfates between 0 and 40" (391),
XaI (in acetone and di- 387 Clz between 10 and 50" (51, 291, 292), and COz in
methylformamide) sulfuric acid between 20 and 60" (555). The salting
Ethyl acetylene NaC1, NaOH 571 out of acetylene is more pronounced between 0 and
Benzene vapor, C4H10 HN03, tetralkyl am- 430 25" than at higher temperatures up to 70" for 23 salts.
monium halides
The acetylene solubility goes through a minimum
complex than in pure acetone. NaI has little effect on between 25 and 70" with the minimum becoming
acetylene solubility in dimethylforniamide. weaker a t higher concentrations of the salt; no mini-
The Setschenow equation does not apply to iso- mum is observed for NaC1, ZnClz, ZnSO4, MgS04,
butylene solubilities in aqueous NaCl at temperatures S S 0 4 , CaS04, and Alz(S04)3 (188). Sulfur dioxide
near 0" (303). is salted out a t low temperatures but salts in with
The interest in oceanography has resulted in studies NaHS03 a t 90" (348).
of nitrogen, oxygen, and noble gas solubilities in sea Long and McDevit (373) differentiate with respect
water and saline solutions (41, 42, 153, 327, 611). to temperature their internal pressure expression for
These systems salt out. Green (231) has made a k,Eq 37, to get
careful study of oxygen solubility and Douglas (152)
has determined nitrogen and argon solubility as a
function of chlorinity (halide as g of chlorine/kg of sea
water) and temperature. Green shows the oxygen where Vi" and P," are, respectively, the partial molar
solubility obeys a Setschenow-like equation with chlo- volumes of nonelectrolyte and of electrolyte a t infinite
rinity used in place of salt molality. dilution. The relation predicts dk,/dT to be small and
The solubility of a gas over the range of 0 to 100% negative, to be smaller in the 25-50" range than the
aqueous strong acid has been studied. The solubility 0-25" range, and that dk,/dT will be small for LiCl and
of COz initially decreases (salts out), goes through relatively large for KNO3 with salts such as NaC1, KCI,
a minimum, increases to a maximum at a composition KBr, KI, WaOH, and 1/zNazS04being intermediate
corresponding to HzS04.4Hz0, goes through a second in value. The predictions agreed well with the salt
minimum at a composition of HzS04.Hz0, then in- effect data of Alarkhani and Kobe (391) on NzO and
creases until pure HzS04 is reached (392, 555, 556). COz when reasonable partial molal volumes of the
The minimums become less pronounced as the tem- gases were used.
perature increases (5X5). NazS04 in aqueous HzS04 Morrison (426) gets approximate values for the
solutions of various composition salts out (556). difference in the heat capacity of solution between water
COZis salted in as the concentration of HC104 increases and salt solution from the temperature dependence of
from 0 to 50 wt. yo; it is salted out from 50 to 70 gas solubility in water and in salt solution. He shows
wt. % (392). The solubility of chlorine in aqueous that ions that are thought to have a structure-building
0 to 50 wt. %; HC104decreases sharply up to 5 M and effect in water, such as Li+, decrease the heat capacity
then stays constant to higher HClO4 concentrations of solution much more than salts thought to have a
(551). Oxygen solubility decreases to a minimum a t "structure-breaking" effect on water, such as I-, which
about 80% HzS04 and then increases sharply as 100% suggests that modification of the solvent structure in
H2S04 is approached. Oxygen solubility decreases the vicinity of the nonelectrolyte molecules cannot be
steadily as H3P04concentration increases (235). neglected in theories of salting out.
Solubilities of oxygen in various nitric acid (502) and Salt effect studies a t elevated temperatures and pres-
in white and red fuming nitric acid (579) are reported. sures are technically difficult. There is a problem in
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 419

TABLEI V
VALUESof K = (l/m ) LOGK,'/K'
Temp, O C __
50 75 100 150 200 250 300 350
0.5 m NaCl 0.096 0.084 0.076 0.070 0.090 0.128 0.172 0.376
1 m NaCl 0.095 0.088 0.078 0.076 0.089 0.128 0.176 0.318
2 m NaCl 0.091 0.084 0.080 0.073 0.084 0,111 0.151 0.244

determining the partial pressure of the gas; a common 10 000 I i I

practice is to simply subtract the steam table value from
total gauge pressure to get the gas partial pressure.
KO correction is made for the effect of salt or dissolved 8000

gas on the steam table pressure.

Pray and co-workers (583) have determined the
solubility of Hz and Oz in water and in about 0.17, 0.42,
and 1.02 M solutions of both uranyl sulfate and uranyl
.
X
c
6000

fluoride between 100 and 280" and at pressures up to X

4000
3000 psi. He and Xe solubilities mere determined in
uranyl sulfate solutions up to 500 psi. With the excep- A 0 5m
NaCl

tion of O2in uranyl fluoride solution, for which salting 2000

A 0 3 r n LIHCO)
D 1 rn NoCi
(Marshc,i !I 01)

out is alniost independent of temperature, salting out x 2 m NaCl

appears to increase with increasing temperature.
Henry's law is applicable over only part of the pressure 1 1 I I 1 1 J
100 200 300
range; it fails a t lower pressures as the uranyl salt T *c
concentration and temperature increase.
Figure 13.--T'alues of the Henry's law constant for the ~olution
Anderson, Keeler, and Klach (14) have determined of carbon dioxide in water and in sodium chloride solutions be-
Br and O2 solubilities in aqueous uranyl sulfate solu- tween 10 and 335' (165). Reprinted from The dmerican Journal
tions between 100 and 300". Krypton obeyed Henry's of Science by permission of the editor.
law over the 10-4 to 10-1 psi partial pressure studied. minimum is similar to that for the minimum solubility
Kr solubility was the same for water and in a solution of COZin water.
which is 0.02 M in uranyl sulfate, 0.005 M in CuSO4, and Smith, Nagy, and co-workers (153, 578) have studied
0.005 M in H2S04; when these concentrations were the effect of gas pressure on gas-aqueous salt systems
doubled Kr solubility increased. Oxygen solubility over near room temperature. They have determined the
the partial pressure range of 50-1500 psi was independ- solubility of methane in aqueous NaCl, CaCI2, and
ent of the solvent.
Studies of COz solubility in CaCL solution to 700
+
mixtures of CaClz NaCl and the solubility of nitrogen
in ISaC1, CaC12, NazS04, and MgSOr solutions as a
atm (487) and air solubility in brine to 3500 psig (157) function of pressure up to 1000 psia. Salting out occurs
are reported. at all pressures, but there are negative departures from
Ellis and Golding (164, 165) have carefully studied Henry's law for any given salt concentration as the SZ
the solubility of COz in 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 ;zi7 NaCl up to pressure increases. Methane obeys Henry's law up to
330". They determined the density of KaCl solutions 200 psia. They estimate from their data that 1 ft'
for temperatures to 350" and salt concentrations to of sedimentary rock of 20% porosity, saturated with
3 M to be able to interpret gas solubilities as volume 50,000 ppm NaCl brine with the gas a t the pressure
distributions (Ostwald). They corrected water vapor at 1000-ft depth, can accommodate either 0.15 mole of
pressures for dissolved COz and NaCl assuming Nz or 0.30 mole of methane.
Raoult's law. They estimate maximuin solubility
errors may be as high as 5-1070 in the 2 M NaCl a t G. SOLUBILITY O F GASES I N BIOLOGICAL FLUIDS

300" because of uncertainties in the water vapor pres- The solubility of gases in biological fluids has been
sure. Their plot of Henry's law constant against studied as an aid in understanding respiration in plants
temperature is Figure 13. The Setschenow salting-out and animals, the anesthetic properties of various gases,
K is calculated as (llnz) log K,"/K" and results are in the action of poisonous gases, and the unusual "salting-
Table IV. in" properties of detergent, denaturing, and protein
Salting out decreases with rising temperature but solutions.
passes through a minimum of about 150" and then The solubility in various vegetable and animal fats
increases as the critical temperature of the solution is and oils of the gases H, (619), R a (452), Nz and S e
raised by the dissolved salt. The temperature of the (266, 267), cyclopropane (52, 364), HS, 02,and n ' 2
 i
420 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

4.0i I I I be due primarily to the high solubility of the gas in

lipids (fats), but considerable evidence has accumulated
to suggest that proteins have a special affinity for
hydrocarbon and other gases (179, 268, 364, 567, 667).
30 Wishnia (659) determined the solubility of ethane,
propane, and butane in water and in aqueous solutions
L o . of bovine serum albumin, human hemoglobin, lysozyme,
and sodium lauryl sulfate a t several temperatures be-
20 tween 10 and 35. The increased solubility due to the
protein in the solution was almost independent of
temperature, and demonstrated that the transfer of
dissolved gas from water to protein has a small enthalpy
10 change and a large positive entropy change. Imai
(268) has observed small enthalpies of transfer for
cyclopropane in similar systems.
Wetlaufer, et al. (640, M l ), studied the solubility of
7 0 the hydrocarbon gases ethane, propane, butane, iso-
*5 7 9 ti
butane, pentane, isopentane, and neopentane in aqueous
PH bovine serum albumin (BSA) and the denaturating
Figure 14.-Butane binding by bovine serum albnmiri as a
function of pH. The ordinate is the average number of butane solutions 7 N urea and 5 N guanidinum chloride.
molecules bound per bovine serum albumin molecule, obtained They point out that these eight gases represent six of
from the excess solubility of butane in the protein solutions com- the common amino acid side chains. The binding of
pared with the solubility in the protein-free solvent (641). Ite-
printed from The J o u m l of Biological Chemistry by permission butane by BSA is a function of pH (Figure 14) and
of the copyright owners, The American Society of Biological falls off rapidly in pH regions where the protein goes
Chemists, Inc. to a random-coiled structure. Wetlaufer and Lovrien
(127), Xe (360), CHCla and CHaNO2 (383), Hz, 02,Xn, (641) suggest four possible mechanisms for the protein
and COz (532) have been measured. The solubility of hydrocarbon interaction : (a) a dissolved nonpolar
the gases NH3 (275), CS, (409), acetylene (486), cyclo- molecule could attach itself to one accessible surface
propane (179, 268, 479), N2O (17, 122, 567), COz of a nonpolar cluster, perhaps with partial penetration;
(18, 567, 570), Xe-OZ mixtures (178), and Nz (176, (b) one nonpolar molecule might penetrate into one
567) has been reported for blood, various serums, and relatively nonpolar interior of the protein and lodge
homogenized tissues. Leonard (363) analyzed the there; (c) a nonpolar molecule could be bound to a
interstitial gases in fruits and, assuming these gases to protein in the immediate neighborhood of an ion pair
be in equilibrium with dissolved gases, estimated the so as to strengthen this ion-pair interaction; and (d)
C02and O2solubility in the fruit tissues. Gas solubility hydrogen bonds and other polar interactions may be
studies in biological systems are frequently small parts facilitated by placing a nonpolar group close to the
of larger studies and as a consequence overlooked in interacting groups.
abstracting and indexing. Thus the listings above and Wishnias (660) study of ethane, propane, butane,
in Table V may not be as complete as for some other and pentane in water and in aqueous sodium ddecyl
fields. sulfate as a model protein system appears tu fit best
The recent valuable studies of the solubility of simple with mechanism a or b, with (possibly) b being favored.
hydrocarbons in protein, detergent, and denaturating Using the solubility and the temperature dependence of
solutions by Wishnia (659, 661) and Wetlaufer, et al. the hydrocarbon gas solubility in water, in aqueous
(640, 641), deserve special mention for the insight they detergent, and in hydrocarbons to obtain the free
give to hydrophobic bonding. Some aqueous solutions energy, enthalpy, and entropy changes in solution, he
of proteins and detergents show an increase in the shows that the transfer of dissolved gas from water to
solubility of a gas over its solubility in water alone. detergent solution and from water to hydrocarbon are
Findlay noted such increases in C02 solubility in gelatin, similar in thermodynamic behavior. The transfers have
hemoglobin, and methyl orange solutions before small, usually positive, enthalpy changes and a large
1914 (see Markham and Kobe (393)). McBain (402- positive entropy change. This suggests partial pene-
404) reported propylene solubilities in various tration, if not complete solution, of the low molecular
detergents, and suggested that the enhanced solubility weight hydrocarbon in the detergent micelle. Wetlaufer
was due to the hydrocarbon gas entering inside of the and Lovrien (64) calculate similar values of enthalpy
hydrocarbon-like detergent micelle. Butadiene (507) is and entropy change in the transfer of dissolved hydro-
also salted-in by a detergent. The increased solubil- carbon gases from water to denaturing solutions of urea
ity of hydrocarbons in biological fluids was suggested to and guanidinium chloride.
 OF GASESIN
SOLUBILITY LIQUIDS 42 1

+
u
a
%
2

MOL PERCENT CARBON DIOXIDE

Figure 15.-lowv-temperature phase equilibria. Premire-com-

position diagrams for methane-propane system (left) and carbon
dioxidepropane system (right) (5). Reprinted from Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry by permission of the copyright owners,
The Bmerican Chemical Society.

Featherstone, De Bon, el al. (179, 434), determined

the solubility of the anesthetic gases NzO, Xe, and cyclo-
propane in aqueous bovine serum albumin, hemoglobin,
and y-globulin. Only the hydrocarbon solubility
increases as the albumin and hemoglobin concentration
increases. Although the X e solubility is not increased
by the presence of hemoglobin, dielectric studies of the
aqueous hemoglobin solutions (547) show that the non-
rotating bound water is increased 17% by the presence
of dissolved Xe. This evidence supports Paulings
hypothesis (471) that protein side chains, water, and $
inert gas interact to cause the formation of microcrys- H 3.0
talline hydrates in vivo, and that these hydrates in- 5
terfere with the normal electrical oscillations of the 2

nervous system and thus lead to anesthesia.

H. E F F E C T S O F P R E S S U R E ON GAS SOLUBILITY

Since 1940 so much good gas solubility n-ork a t high

pressure has appeared and the understanding of gas
solubility of both low and high pressures has so im- 0 200 300 400 500 600 650
proved that references to both low- and high-pressure TEMPERATURE OF

solubilities are included. However, the special tech- Figure 16.-I,sohars of the water solubility of oxygen gas as a
niques and apparatus needed for high-pressure solubil- function of temperature. Total gauge pressure (upper) and
ity measurements will not be discussed. Krichevskii hypothetical oxygen part,ial pressure (lower) (686). Reprinted
from The Transactions of the Society of Mechanical Engineers
(3388) in a book (Russian) and Lachowicz (351) in a by permisaion of the copyright owners, The American Society of
review have discussed solubility of gases at high Mechanical Engineers.
pressure.
In this review gas solublity is taken as a special case more methane in the gas phase and is classed as gas
of a vapor-liquid phase equilibrium where the gas solubility, but the carbon dioxidepropane system
phase is principally one component and the liquid phase (critical temperatures differ by 66) is not classed as gas
principally the second component. Two component solubility. For systems where the information left
vapor-liquid systems in which both components have some doubt the data were usually included as gas
an appreciable concentration in both phases are not solubility.
classed as gas solubility. In general, systems classed The reporting of high-pressure gas solubility presents
as gas solubility have components with a greater dif- difficulties when only the total pressure is directly
ference in critical temperature than those not classed as measured. The effect of the high-pressure gas and
gas solubility. Examples of the two cases are shown in dissolved gas on the true vapor pressure of the solvent
Figure 15. The methane-propane system (components is not known nor is it easily measured. Figure 16 shows
critical temperatures differ by 179) is 80 mole % or isobars of oxygen solubility in water at total gauge
422 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

pressure and at a fictitious oxygen partial pressure the slope of a plot of Infz/xz against P seldom agree with
obtained by subtracting the saturation vapor pressure the experimentally determined partial molal volumes.
of water from the total pressure. The usual negative The difference is due to the concentration dependence
temperature coefficient of gas solubility in water is of partial molal volumes and partial molal heats of
noted to about 100, but at higher temperatures the solvent and solute in the dilute binary mixture. De-
solubility increases with temperature. Henrys law is parture of the Vz in Eq 41 and 42 from the experimental
apparently obeyed to only moderate pressures (686). Vz is taken as a sensitive test for discovery of deviations
Krichevsky and Kasarnovsky (335) have developed from Henrys law. An equation for a slightly soluble
a thermodynamic equation for calculating the solubility gas in a liquid under pressure is derived that takes into
of slightly soluble gases at high pressure in solvents of account the concentration dependence of partial molal
low vapor pressure. Michels, Gerver, and Bijl (417) volume. It adds a term -(A/RT)(l - xlZ) to the
deduce a similar equation directly from the general right-hand side of Eq 41. The equation is generalized
equations for the equilibrium of a binary mixture. to fit the solubility of mixtures of gases. Goniltberg
Sattler (526) gives a thermodynamic derivation for (226A) showed that his modification of regular solution
cases with both a negligible and a finite solvent vapor theory could be used to calculate the constant A . The
pressure. Needed for the calculation is low-pressure Kritchevsky-Ilinskaya equation has been applied to
gas solubility data of the pure gas a t low pressure and ethylene solubilities in methanol, acetone, methyl ethyl
thermodynamic data of the pure gas at high pressure. ketone, and toluene (563, 564), to COZ solubilities in C1
Kobayashi and Kats (324) use the rigorous thermo- to Cq hydrocarbons (606A), and to the Hz solubility in
dynamic relation cyclohexane (337) where the Hz partial molal volume is
strongly affected by pressure. Efremova (156) dis-
[dG]T,X, = RTd In32 = V2dP (Eq 39)
cusses the pressure dependence of partial molal volumes.
and Henrys law Orentlicher and Prausnitz (463) have extended the
treatment of hydrogen solubilities in cryogenic liquids
fz = KX2 (Eq 40) at high pressure by taking into account the effect of
where G2 is the partial molal free energy of the dis- composition on the activity coefficients. For the small
solved gas, and P, T, and R are pressure, temperature, concentration range common to gas solubility they
and gas constant, respectively. Vz and Xz are partial assume the activity coefficient of the solvent is given by
molal volume and mole fraction of the dissolved gas, the oneparameter expression
andfZ and fzo are partial molal fugacities of the solute
A
gas a t the total pressure and a t the solvent saturation In y1 = -Xz2 (Eq 43)
pressure, respectively. Integration of Eq 39 between RT
the limits of the solvent vapor pressure Po and the and they use the modified Henrys lavi equation
total pressure, P, assuming Cz to be independent of
pressure and changes in solution concentration, followed 32 = YZ*KXZ (Eq 44)
by eliminating fzo by Henrys law gives the Krichevsky- This leads to an equation
Kasarnovsky type equation 3z A V2(P - PO)
ln-=lnK+-(X12-l)+ RT
In-
fZ
xz
= In K + Vz(P -
RT
P O )
(Eq 41)
22 RT
(Eq 45)
The equation is sometimes used in the form below, which is siniilar in form to the Kritchevsky-Ilinskaya
where a modified Henrys constant K is defined In equation. Orentlicher and Prausnitz show that for
K - VzPo/RT. small solubilities the equation can be put in the form

The equation has been successfully used to fit high- where d20is the vapor phase fugacity coefficient. Thus
pressure gas solubility in water, methanol, and hydro- at small values of x2 it predicts a linear In 32/x2 against
carbons (324, 335, 339, 420, 441, 443). Themodified P relationship.
Henrys constant, K, shows a family relationship for Henrys law constant, K , the constant, -4,and 7 2are
hydrogen dissolved in paraffin and in olefin solvents as all temperature dependent. Orentlicher and Prausnitz
a complicated function of temperature. It can be used estimate Vz assuming hydrogen to behave as a hard-
to calculate hydrogen solubility in binary and ternary sphere gas. They get K and A from the fit of the equa-
mixed hydrocarbon solvents with fair success (37). tion to the solubility of hydrogen in the solvents Ar,
Kritchevsky and Ilinskaya (336) point out the em- Go, N2,CH4, C2H4, C Z H ~C3Hsl , C3H6,and n-hexane.
pirical nature of Eq 41. The partial molal volumes from No significant variation of A with temperature was
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 423

found. They developed a simplified solution theory

that suggests a plot of a reduced Henry's constant,
K , ( K divided by the solvent solubility parameter
squared, evaluated at 0.7 T o ) ,against reduced tempera-
ture, T , (TI= T/T,), should give a universal curve for
all solvents. Their plot of K , against TIfalls on a t
least two lines, one for the solvents ethane, ethylene,
propane, and propylene and another for the inorganic
liquids Ar, X2,and CO. The difference in the lines is
taken to indicate a qualitative difference between hy-
drogen-hydrocarbon and hydrogen-inorganic molecule
intermolecular forces. ..
MOLE FRACTION 110'
Himmelblau and -4rends (250) have developed a
Figure 17.-Comparison of the solubility of various hydrocar-
five-constant equation to correlate the literature high- bons in liquid water at 100F (37.8') as a function of pressure
pressure solubility data of gases that do not react with (493 \. Reprinted from the Journal of Chemical Engineering and
water. Prausnitz, Edminster, and Chao (484) develop Data by permission of the copyright owners, The American
a solubility parameter expression for the vaporization Chemical Society.
equilibrium ratio that has application to high-pressure pares the pressure dependence of hydrocarbon solubility
solubilities. in water at 38". Hydrocarbon solubility in water in-
Some other equations that have been used to correlate creases with unsaturation. 1,3-Butadiene is four times
high-pressure gas solubility include for COz in methyl more soluble than n-butane, and acetylene is more
ethyl ketone, ethyl acetate, and toluene (559) soluble than the other hydrocarbon gases.
A 'XZ The solubility of ethylene up to 120 atm is in the order
lnf2jxz = In Ii - __ hexane > cyclohexane > benzene (683). Hydrogen
RT containing freons are much more soluble in water than
for C 0 2 in methanol (558) other freons (469). The solubility of acetylene in
acetone goes through a pronounced minimum at 3" and
x = 0.425(P/P0) (Eq 48) 15 atni. At higher temperatures the minimum tends
Iiiyama and Hiraoka (314) fit the solubility of to disappear (259).
acetylene in benzene with regular solution theory in- A test for the thermodynamic consistency of the
cluding Flory-Huggins mixing (Eq 21) when the com- solubility data for the hydrogen-helium system has been
pressibility factor, 2, is included in the solubility pa- made (69A). The surface tension lowering due to
rameter calculation dissoved Szand argon up to 120 atm in water, hexane,
octane, and methanol has been examined (3978).
Hiraoka and Kiyama (251-253, 313-315) have
studied the pressure dependence of acetylene and
Lachowicz (351A) analyzed regular solution theory ethylene solubility. Acetylene shows positive devia-
(Eq 20) and predicted deuterium should be more soluble tions from Raoult's lam in water, methanol, and benzene,
than hydrogen. However, high-pressure solubility negative deviations in tetrahydrofuran. Heats of
studies of Hz and D, in heptane and octane showed no solution are exothermic in water and methanol, endo-
significant difference (352). thermic in benzene. Ryntani (512-517) finds that
Namiot and Bondareva (440) compared simple hydro- acetylene solubilities at high pressure show negative
carbon solubilities in water. At 200 atm and 40" the deviations from Raoult's law in electron-donating
ratio of solubility for CH4/CzHS/C3Hj/C4H10 is 1:0.44: solvents. The acetylene solubilities are proportional
0.20 :0.073. JIcKetta and eo-workers have studied to the 0 atoms/mole in polyethylene glycols unless
the solubility of methane (120, l2l), ethane (119, l20), steric factors n-ere present. The acetylene solubility
propane (20), ethylene (140), propylene (21), cyclo- was less than expected from the pure solvent solubili-
propane (260), 1-butene (74), 1,3-butadiene (493), and lies in binary mixtures of donor-type molecules with
propyne (270) in water. The "normal" behavior of a either chloroform, water, or methanol.
solubility minimum at some temperatures is observed Some studies of the solubility of gas mixtures in-
for methane, ethane, propane, propylene, ethylene, and clude observations that the presence of COZ decreases
1-butene, but in the regions of temperature and pres- the solubility of iYz more than Nz decreases GO2 solu-
sure studied cyclopropane, propyne, and 1,3-butadiene bility (679). Methane decreases COZ but ethane in-
show no minimum. Above the condensation pressure creases COz solubility (3948). The solubility of COZ
of the gas there is a three-phase system of gas-water- from a Nz-H2 mixture is proportional to its fugacity
rich liquid-hydrocarbon-rich liquid. Figure 17 corn- calculated from the Beattie-Bridgman equation (673).
424 RUBINBATTINOAND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

The solubility of CH4-N2-C02 mixed gas in water can I. SOLUBILITY O F GASES I N

be calculated from the solubility of the single gas and MOLTEN SALTS AND GLASSES
the activity coefficient of the components of the gas The determinations of gas solubility in molten salts
phase (437). and glasses has been done primarily by workers in-
The Krichevsky-Kasarnovsky equation holds ap- terested in molten salt reactors, industrial processes
proximately for Ar-CH4 (443) and for He-CH4 (441) using molten salt solvents as the aluminum industry, or
mixed gas solutes. Trivus (607) has tested the glass technology.
Kritchevsky-Ilinskaya equation for mixed gases and The most extensive work on gas solubilities in
finds it good to no better than 12% a t low gas con- molten salts was carried out by Grimes and co-workers
centrations. a t Oak Ridge. They have determined the solubility
The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the solubility of helium, neon, argon, and xenon in molten fluoride
of a gas is of interest to oceanographers. Klots (317) salt mixtures LiF-NaF-KF (50),NaF-ZrF4 (232), and
has used a simple thermodynamic approach to calculate LiF-BeFz (635). They have also determined solubili-
the change in Henrys law constant with depth. ties of H F in NaF-ZrF4 mixed melts (553) and BF3 in a
log-
K ( P ) - -P-Vz LiF-BeF2-ZrF4-ThF4-UF4 melt (554).
(Eq 50) The noble gas solubilities are of the order of to
K(0) 2.303RT
lo- mole of gas per cc of melt with the solubility
K ( P ) and K(0) are Henrys law constant at 0 and P decreasing in the order H e > Ne > Ar > Xe. The
hydrostatic pressure; V2is the gas partial molal volume, enthalpies of solution for all four gases are positive and
assumed independent of pressure. His calculation become more positive as the gas atomic weight in-
shows that with surface water in equilbrium with gas creases. Solubility increases with temperature.
at 1 atm, equilibrium solubility decreases (Henrys Henrys law is obeyed over the 0.5-2-atm range
constant increases) with water depth for both nitrogen studied.
and oxygen. Grimes and co-workers have picked a standard state
Klotz (321) also assumed gas equilibrium exists change for calculation of the thermodynamic properties
between surface and ocean depths. He takes into ac- of the solution so that the entropy of solution is purely
count the dependence of Gibbs free energy on depth a function of solvent-gas interactions. The standard
(the position of the solute in the gravitational field), on state change is
pressure, and on the amount of solute dissolved in a
specified amount of solvent a t a particular depth. X(B,Cd) * x(d.c,d)
His thermodynamic derivation gives where X represents 1 mole of gas. The subscripts g and
d denote the gas and liquid phases and c d is the con-
mdepth
In -= *(I - V2p)d (Eq 51) centration of the gas dissolved in the liquid which is in
maurtaoe RT equilibrium with the gas a t concentration C,. They
are molalities; PI2 is the gas
where m d e p t h and msurfaea assume the change from C, to c d in the gas phase is
molecular weight, g acceleration due to gravity, 7 2 the ideal. Thus, in the desired standard state
gas partial molal volume in cma/g, p the solvent density, AB0
and d the solvent depth in cm. Both Vz and p are AS = - R In c d / c g (Eq 52)
assumed independent of pressure. The sign of the term
T
(1 - 7 2 p ) determines whether the gas will increase where hRo is the heat of solution gotten from a plot of
or decrease in solubility with depth. The equation log Henrys law constant against 1/T (50). The en-
predicts H2, CO, and Nz solubilities to decrease with tropies of solution at 1000K in NaF-KF-LiF and
depth, CO2 solubility to increase with depth, and 0 2 NaF-ZrF4 melts vary from -0.1 to - 1.5 cal/deg/mole
solubility to be almost independent of depth. with no regular pattern for the four gases. In the
An experimental study of the effect of hydrostatic LiF-BeF2 melts the entropiesare more negative, varying
pressure on gases dissolved in water by Enns, Schol- over the range -3.1 to -4.2 for the four gases.
ander, and Bradstreet (169) indicated He, Nz, 0 2 , Ar, Grimes and co-workers (50, 635), using a model simi-
and C02 all decrease in equilibrium solubility with lar to that of Uhlig (620), correlate the noble gas
depth. Actually, they determined the gas equilibrium solubilities by equating the free energy of solution of the
pressure necessary to maintain the atmospheric gas gas to the free energy of formation of holes which were
pressure saturation value as the hydrostatic pressure assumed to be of the same size as the gas molecule in a
increased from 0 to 1500 psig. The required equilib- continuous fluid having the same surface tension as the
rium gas pressure increased 13% for He, 14% for Nz, solvent. The approach gives an expression for the
02,and Ar, and 16% for C02. This would presumably Henrys law constant as a function of the liquid surface
imply the same percentage decrease in solubility in order tension, u, the radius of a spherical gas atom, T , and the
to maintain a gas equilibrium pressure of 1 atm. temperature, T.
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 425

The solubility of hydrogen in molten alkali metal

hydroxides is stated to be less than 60 mg of hydrogen/
100 g of alkali hydroxide unless corrosion products are
Although admittedly a naive model, it does remarkably present. Corrosion products increase the solubility of
well a t correlating the noble gas solubility in molten hydrogen (589). In Pyrex glass a t 1170" hydrogen at
salts. Taking the noble gas atomic radii as the same as 10 mm pressure has a solubility of 0.060 ml (STP)/g,
in the solid and assuming the values to be the lower but there was no measureable solubility of helium,
limit of the hole radius, the correct magnitude and order oxygen, or argon (444). An observed increase in hy-
of solubility are predicted for the He, Ne, Ar, and Xe drogen solubility in Ca0-AlzO8--SiOz slags as the CaO
series. This is not the same order observed in non- content increased was explained on the basis that the
electrolyte solvents at room temperatures where the Ca-O-H grouping was more stable than the Si+-H
normal surface tension range is 15-40 ergs/cm2. The grouping (451).
molten salts studied have surface tensions between 112 Ryabukhin (511) finds the solubility of chlorine in
and 180 ergs/cm2 and the free energy of forming holes melts of NaC1, KC1, and MgCl2 and their 1 :1 mixtures
is presumably a predominant term. The calculated show little salt dependence. Plots of log S T against
Henry's law constant for helium and neon is high. A 1/T are linear and the solubility, S, can be represented
larger radius for helium and neon can be justified on bs
the basis of thermal motion of these less polarizable
atoms in the melt, and this would give better agreement
between the calculated and experimental constants. where A = (Q + Q I T ) / R T and Q and QI are work
The HI? (553) and BF3 (554), solubilities in molten functions.
fluorides obey Henry's law. The heats of solution are Oxygen and nitrogen have a solubility of less than
exothermic and the solubilities of both gases decrease 10-4 mole/mole of salt a t the freezing point in sodium,
with temperature. The entropies of solution at 1000K potassium, and cesium nitrates (195). Oxygen has a
are about -6 for H F and about -22 for BF3, both "negligible" solubility in glass (444).
values being more negative than values for the noble Mahieux (385) determined the solubility of carbon
gases in similar mixed melts. BF3is much more soluble dioxide in molten glass by a I4CO2tracer technique.
than the noble gases. The solubility of H F increases He found the solubility decreased with temperature
tenfold aa the NaF concentration increases from 45 to over the 1100-1300" range. Krohn, Grjotheim, and
80.5 mole % in the NaF-ZrF4 system. The increase co-workers (233, 364) observe that the solubility of
is thought to be related to the high stability of HF-NaF carbon dioxide a t 1 atm in molten NaCl and molten
compounds. KC1 increases with increasing temperature with the
Woelk (662) reports argon solubilities and discusses heat of solution being twice as great in KC1 as in NaCI.
the relation of molten salt free volume to gas solubility. The solubility is greater in NaCl a t 800" but greater in
Scholze and Mulfinger (545) report the solubility of KC1 at 950". They correlate the crossover in solubility
helium decreases when the concentration of lithium in with temperature to a similar crossover in free volume
a mixed silicate melt increases from 20 to 25 mole as with temperature for the two salts.
Li20. However, the glass molar volume per two oxide The solubility of water vapor in molten salts and
ions shows negligible change from that of pure Si02. glasses has received considerable attention. Scholze
Assuming that lithium also enters cavities where the and Rlulhger (546) determined the solubility of water
helium atom fits, the decrease in helium solubility was vapor in various binary and ternary silicate melts
used to calculate the lithium ion radius, and a reason- between 1250 and 1750". They found the water vapor
able value of 0.76 A was obtained. solubility increases with increasing alkali content of
Scholze and Mulfinger (435, 546) describe an appara- the glass, with increasing radius of the alkali ions, and
tus sensitive to lo-* cc of helium and report the solu- with increasing temperature. The solubility depends
bility of helium in various binary and ternary silicate on the square root of the water vapor pressure and can
melts between 1200 and 1480". The helium solubility be used as a measure of melt basicity.
increases with temperature and there is a relation Tomlinson (602) reports the solubility of water in
between the temperature dependence of helium solu- sodium silicate decreases 10% on going from 900 to
bility and the thermad coefficient of expansion of the 1100". The solubility is not proportional to the square
glasses investigated. I n lithium silicate melts the root of water vapor pressure especially a t the lower
amount of dissolved helium depends on the volume of vapor pressures possibly because some sodium vapor
interstices in the atomic constitution of the melt. is formed which reacts and removes water vapor in
Conditions for a purely physical solubility are fulfilled. cool parts of the solubility apparatus.
The solubility of helium in Pyrex (506) is reported to Duke and Doan (154) find water vapor solubility is
be independent of temperature between 25 and 515". negligible in either NaNOa or KNOa until LiN03 is
426 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

added. In the mixtures containing L B O 8 the solu- equilibrium for the atomic solution of the gas is taken
bility is measurable and linear with temperature. The into account
solubility varies with [Li+l2which suggest two L i t ions Hdg) F? 2H (soh)
are involved for each water molecule. It is pointed
out that lithium has a greater ion-dipole interaction A detailed discussion of He, Xz, and 0 2 gas solubilities in
with water than the other alkali metal ions. liquid metals is beyond the scope of this review. For
The solubility of water vapor at 20 mm in NaKOa, details see references listed in Table VII.
KNOs, and CsN03 at their freezing point is found to be The solubility of the rare gases in liquid metals is
near mole/mole of salt by Frame, Rhodes, and quite low. No absorption of helium by mercury was
Ubbelohde (195). The solubility is proportional to the detected at 25 atm and room temperature (431).
free volume in the melt. When divalent cations are &lcRlilIan (410A) calculated the solubility of xenon in
added, e.g., Ba+2, there is a slight increase in water liquid bismuth to be 3 X atomic fraction at 300"
solubility. There is probably only a slight increase in and 1 atm pressure by a free volume model for liquid
vacancies because of the considerable electrostriction bismuth. Experimental solubility determinations give
of the melt that takes place when a divalent ion is added. 3 X lo-* atomic fraction a t 540" and 1 atm (171),
The solubility of water vapor in LiCl-KC1 melts was 4X (422A) and 2 X 10-lo (2428) atomic fraction
determined between 3 and 26 mm at 390 and 480". a t 500" and 1 atm pressure. The lowest value seems
Henry' law is obeyed up to 10 mm at 390 and up to 18 most reliable at this time. Surface adsorption and
mm a t 480" according to Burkhard and Corbett (82, occlusion may be responsible for the higher results.
83). At the higher pressures HC1 is detected and it is McMillan also predicted high surface adsorption which
thought that lithium hydrolyzes. The solubility of has been confirmed (242A). Xenon solubilities in
HC1 has been determined in the same melts. Henry's mercury and in sodium are aIso reported (4228).
law is obeyed up to 90 mm for HC1 but the straight line Johnson and Shuttleworth (281) and Johnson (280)
does not go through the origin at zero pressure indicat- review briefly earlier work on rare gas solubility in
ing a residue of hydroxide was initially present in the liquid metals and report measurements of krypton
melts. The hydroxide residue was not thought to have solubility in liquid cadmium, indium, lead, tin, and
affected the water solubility. silver by a technique using radioactive *%r. Their
Sulfur trioxide in glass is in the form of a SO2-02 lower limit of measurement was an Ostwald coefficient
mixture (45). of 10-7 atomic fraction). No solubility was
detected in silver, but Ostwald coefficients in the other
J. THE SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN metal melts varied from lo-' to The temperature
MOLTEN METALS AND ALLOYS dependence of the Ostwald coefficient was used to get
the energy, H , needed to transfer an atom at rest from
Table VI1 lists references to the solubility of gases in the gas into the solution of the metal and the vibrational
molten metals and alloys. The solubility of a gas in a entropy, S, of the krypton atom dissolved in the liquid
molten metal may represent a physical equilibrium be- metal from
tween the gas and metal alone, or it may represent an
equilibrium between metal and an intermediate oxide, h3
L=
nitride, or hydride phase for which at constant tem- (2 .rrmK T )
perature there is a fixed pressure of the corresponding
gas. Especially helpful introductions to the subject of where m is the mass of the krypton atom and l / a 3 is
gases in liquid metals are two papers from a 1954 the number of metal atoms in unit volume of the liquid
Australian symposium on gases in metals by Willis metal.
(655) and by Jenkins (278A). These papers, which also The experimental H was compared with a calculated
discuss adsorption on metals and gases in solid metals, H which considered the energy of transfer to be made
summarize the theoretical approaches and list references up of three terms: (1) the energy to make a hole in the
to earlier review papers. The books of Turovtseva and liquid the size of the krypton atom estimated from the
Kunin (618A) and of Smithells (5788) contain infonna- hole area of krypton atom radius and the surface energy
tion on the solubility of gases in liquid metals. per unit area (surface tension) of the liquid metal
The diatomic gases usually are in the liquid metal in extrapolated to 0K; (2) the vibrational energy of
the atomic state. Their solubility obeys Sieved's square a krypton atom in the liquid approximated as being
root of pressure law the same as the vibrational energy of a metal atom as
obtained from heat capacity data; and (3) the negative
S = Kdg van der Waals interaction energy between the krypton
atom and the surrounding metal atoms estimated from
It can be shown (2788) that Sievert's experimental law adsorption potentials of inert gases on metals. The
is an expression for Henry's law when the solution estimated values of H agreed within a few kilocalories
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 427

TABLEV
fbLUBlLITYDi~lI.1
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section V I ) Ref
Inert Gases
Helium Water 1 5-73 2 429
1 25 1 195
7-34 163-3 16 1 481
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 1-102 25 1 169
D20 3.4-78 50-2S0 1 585
Sea water 1 1-20 1 327
Methanol 1 30 2 99
n-Hexane. n-heptane, n-octane, n-nonane, n-decane, n-dode- 1 15-42 1 97
cane, n-tetradecane, 2,3-dimethylhexane, 2,4-dimethyl-
hexane, 3-methylheptane, isooctane, cyclohexane, benzene
hfethylcyclohexane, perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 16-43 2 98
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 18-30 2 322
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobenzene, 1 15-45 1 530
toluene, nitrobenzene
Nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Polyethylene terephthalate-amorphous, glassy crystalline, 1 25-130 1 415
rubbery crystalline
Poly(viny1 acetate) T o 200 mm 8-40 2 411
Polyethylene, hydropol 1 25 1 414
Diester, phosphate ester, dimethyl silicone, methyl phenyl 34-68 24-177 1 61
silicone, paraffin base oil, aromatic base oil
Apiezon GW oil, silicone D C 702 oil, silicone D C 200 oil 1 20-83 1 85
Esso synthetic oil, castor oil, DC 200/200 silicone fluid, High pressures 20-140 1 431
blown rapeseed oil, shell rotary vacuum-pump oil
Santovax R 1 233-406 1 234
Lung tissue (blood-free hornogenates) 1 37 1 89
Pentaborane 34-100 30-150 1 67
Liquid CH, 25-157 90-106'K 1 229
Liquid Nz 1-295 78-109'K 0 228
Liquid argon T o 160 mm 84-87.5' K 2 294
hlercury High pressures 20-140 1 431
Liquid Hz 2-7 16-29"K 1 505
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
1 N NaC1. LiC1, HC1, KC1, NHaC1, BaClz, NanSOa, KI, 25 1 430
NaBr, HNOa, NMeaI, NEtrBr
Water satd with nitromethane 25 1 197
Nitromethane satd with water 25 1 197
Uranyl sulfate (40-243 g/L) 162-300 0 583
Methanol, 0-4 M in I i a I 30 2 99

Neon Kate1 9-74 2 4 29

1-16 1 327
38 2 267
Sea water I 0-25 1 327
n-Hexane, n-heptane, n-octane, n-nonane, n-decsne, n-dode- 1 14-39 1 97
cane, n-tetradecane, 3-methylheptane, 2,3-dimethylhex-
ane, 2,4-dimethylhexane, isooctane, cyclohexane, benzene
Methylcyclohexane, perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 16-43 2 98
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobenzene, 1 15-55 1 530
toluene, nitrobenzene
Nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Poly(viny1 acetate) T o 200 mm 8-40 2 411
Olive oil, human fat (pooled) 1 38 2 267
Liquid argon T o 140 mm 83.9-87.5'K 2 293, 294
1 N NaC1, LiCl, K I 1 25 1 430

Argon Water 1 0-20 2 173

1 15-25 1 197
1 11-74 2 429
1 25-40 2 260
To 700 10-50 0 443
1 3-28 2 38
1 30 2 99
1 2-27 2 318
1 10-20 1 327
1 30 1 260
1 3-30 2 152
1 5-25 1 40
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 1-102 25 1 169
Sea water 1 1-20 1 327
Methanol 1 30 1 260
1 30 2 99
1-Propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, ethylene glycol 1 25-35 2 223
428 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Presaure , Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol 1-pentanol, l-hex- 1 25-35 1 66
anol, 1-heptanol, 1-octanol
p-Dioxane 1 5-25 1 40
Nonpolar solvents To 300 0 230
n-Hexane, n-heptane, n-octane, n-nonane, n-decane, n-dode- 1 1541 2 97
cane, n-tetradecane, 3-methylheptane, 2,3-dimethylhex-
ane, Z,&dirnethylhexane, isoootane, cyclohexane, bensene
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobencene, 1 15-55 2 530
toluene, nitrobenzene
Methylc yclohexane 1 - 10 to 25 2 494
1 16-43 2 98
Toluene 1 15-30 2 494
pXylene 1 30 2 95
CCl4 1 -20 t o 10 2 494
Perfluorometh yloyclohexane 1 5-35 2 494
1 16-43 2 98
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 222
(C4Fo)aN 1 4-32 2 322
Nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Carbon disulfide 1 -20 t o 25 2 494
1 25 2 222
Olive oil 1 22-37 0 360
Paraffin wax 292-767 mm 72 1 501
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Polyethylene terephthalate-amorphous, glassy crystalline, 1 25-130 1 415
rubbery crystalline
Eel blood 1 7 1 580
Hydrated Fe and Al oxides; s o h of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum, and serum albumin
Liquid NHI 25-100 0-60 2 116
To 800 25-100 2 413
25100 0-25 2 117, 118
Ammonia 0-7800 70-150 1 614
Krypton-bulk and absorbed in layers h t n point 77OK 0 573
Xenon-absorbed in layers O-eatn point 78' K 0 5i2
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaCl up to 3.46 M 1 0-20 2 173
NaI, NaCl, NaBr, KCl, LiCl 1 20-40 2 260
NaCl, CaClz, MgCla 1 5-90 1 422
1 N NaC1, LiCI, K I 1 25 1 4s0
Water-NaI s o h 1 30 1 260
Water, 0-7 M in NaI 1 30 2 99
Water-ethanol mixture ( X E ~ O H
= 0.015-0.25) 1 4-30 2 39
Water satd with nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Nitromethane satd with water 1 25 1 197
Water-pdioxane (all compositions) 1 5-2 5 1 40
Nonaqueous solutions:
Methanol, 0-4 M in NaI 1 30 2 99
Methanol s o h of tetramethylammonium iodide, tetra- 1 30 1 260
methylammonium bromide, CaClx, NaI
p-Xylene-pdichlorobenzene (3 mixtures) 1 30 2 95
pXylene-pdibromobenzene (2 mixtures) 1 30 2 95
p-Xylene-p-diiodobenzene (1 mixture) 1 30 2 95

Krypton Water 1 7-75 2 429

1 1-24 1 327
1 30 1 582
1 25-45 2 668
To 41,000 100-300 1 14
Sea water 1 0-24 1 327
n-Hexane 1 -90 to 25 1 582
n-Heptane, n-dodecane 1 25 1 682
n-Hexane, n-heptane, n-octane, n-nonane, n-decane, n-dode- 1 16-41 2 97
cane, n-tetradecane, 3-methyllreptane, 2,3-dimethylhex-
ane. 2,4-dimethylhexane, isooctane, cyclohexane, benzene
pXylene 1 30 2 95
pXylene 1 30 1 582
Mesitylene 1 26 1 582
Methylcyclohexane, perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 6-43 2 98
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobenzene, 1 15-55 2 530
toluene, nitrobenzene
Nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Olive oil 1 22-37 0 360
1 25-45 2 667
Amsco 123-15 1 -55 to 150 1 582
Ultrasene 1 23 1 582
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 429
V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Ganes Solvent atm *C section VI) Ref
Terphenyl 1 25 1 582
Dog fat, human fat, rat-pooled fat 1 2545 2 667
Aq 0-20% bovine serum albumin, 0-20% bovine hemoglo- 1 37 1 434
bin, 0 4 % bovine y-globulin
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
1 N NaCl, LiCl, HCl, KCl, "&I, BaClr, NazS04, KI, 1 25 1 430
KBr, KNOI, HNOa, N M a I , NEtrBr
0.066 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 1 25-45 2 668
0.9% NaCl 1 25-45 2 668
Aq s o h uranyl aulfate To 50,OOO 100-300 1 14
Methanol-water (83% methanol) 1 -120 to - 1 582
pXylene-pdichlorobenzene (3 mixtures) 1 30 2 95
p-Xylen4-pdibromobensene (2 mixtures) 1 30 2 95
pXylene-pdiiodobensene (1 mixture) 1 30 2 95
Xenon Water 1 0-20 2 173
1 13-72 2 429
1 5-25 1 327
1 30 1 682
1 25-45 2 668
7-2 1 100-300 0 583
DsO 8-14 162-300 0 683
9ea water 1 0-25 1 321
n-Hexane, n-dodecane, isooctane, benzene, cyclohexane 1 16-43 a 96
n-Heptane 1 22 1 582
Acetic acid 1 28 1 582
Xylene (tech) 1 32 1 582
pXylene 1 0-29 1 582
Meaitylene 1 20 1 582
Methylcyclohexane, perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 16-43 2 98
Toluene 1 24 1 582
Celt 0 302
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenrene, iodobenrene, 1 15-55 2 530
toluene, nitrobenzene
Nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Aniline 1 30 1 582
Dow Corning silicone oils 1 24-95 1 582
Ultrasene, halocarbon 437, olive oil, pine oil, Dowtherm A, 1 19-32 1 582
Dow Corning Anti-Foam A, Koppers Emulsion K-900
Amsco 123-15 1 24-150 1 582
Olive oil 1 22-37 0 360
Dog fat, human fat, rat-pooled fat, olive oil 1 25-45 2 667
Aq s o h human hemoglobin 1 20 1 547
Aq 0-20% bovine serum albumin, 0 4 0 % bovine hemoglo- 1 37 1 434
bin, 0-8% bovine ?-globulin
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
1 N NaCl, K I 1 25 1 430
0-2.68 M NaCl 1 0-20 2 173
0.066 M phosphate bu5er, pH 7.0 1 25-45 2 668
0.9% NaCl 1 25-45 2 668
Olive oil in water emulsion 1 27 1 582
Uranyl sulfate (40 g/l.) 12-19 1OC-260 0 583
Toluene (40%)-pine oil mixture 1 25 1 582
Radon Formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, hex- 1 25-50 2 452
anoic acid, heptanoic acid, octanoic acid, nonanoic acid,
valeric acid, oleic acid
Decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, acrylic acid 1 37 2 452
Lauric acid, tridecanoic acid 1 50 2 452
Tributyrin, triacetin, trihexanoin, linoleic acid 1 25-37 2 452
Olive oil, olive oil (Italian) 1 25-37 2 452
Rat fatty acids (extracted), human fat (extracted), butterfat 1 37 2 452
Petroleum oils Very low Room 1 200
Elementary Gases
Hydrogen Water 1 25 0 174
1 12-71 2 428
0-72 217 2 29
6&204 2-335 1 588
7-24 52-343 1 481
To 50 0 24
To 100 100-162 0 683
Met hanol 85-800 24-99 2 416
10-80 0-45 2 560
Alcohol 1 20 2 378
2-Butanol 80-150 0 9
430 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER
TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section V I ) Ref
Cyclohexanol 1 25-140 1 347
Phenol 1 40-140 1 347
Liquid methane 34-272 -157 to -101 0 36
180-230 90-127'K 2 177
Ethane 17-545 - 184 to 24 2 653
n-Propane 7-540 4-88 0 84
n-Butane 20-103 24-116 1 44.4
20-545 - 130 to 24 0 167
Isobutane 34-200 38-121 2 141
n-Hexane 48-145 35 1 527
120-680 4-204 C 447
n-Heptane 50-300 25-50 2 352
1 - 35 t o 35 2 105
1 35 1 3i4
1 -30 t o 50 2 103
1 35 2 104
n-Octane 1 -25 t o 35 2 105
50-300 25-50 2 352
Octane (tech) 80-150 0 9
n-Nonane 1 25-30 2 599
n-Decane 20-40 40-80 1 445
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 1 -25 t o 35 2 105
12-342 38-150 2 141
Ethylene 17-545 -157 t o -18 2 653
Propylene 17-545 - 157 t o 24 2 653
Cyclohexane 48-145 35 1 527
To 700 20-60 2 337
1 25-60 1 347
Benzene 48-145 35-73 1 527
240-2900 25-150 2 272
50-487 25 2 340
1 10-45 2 103
1 10-35 2 105
1 25-60 1 347
Toluene 1 - 15 t o 35 2 103,105
80-150 0 9
m-Xylene 48-145 35 1 527
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 -25 t o 50 2 103
1 -25 to 35 2 105
1 25-50 2 216
CClr 1 0-3 5 2 103,105
Carbon disulfide 1 -25 t o 25 2 103,105
1 25 2 216
Cottonseed oil, lard 1 40 1 532
Butter oil 1 40-60 1 532
Tetralin, olive oil 25 I 127
2 oils (mol wt 400 and 610) 1 0-100 1 23
Hydrocarbon mixture (av mol wt 250) 10-968 106-200 2 473
Hydrocarbon (slack wax mol rvt 345) 2-968 106-300 2 473
Para511 oil 1 20 2 3;s
Various fats 50-220 0 619
Poly(viny1 acetate) To 200 mm 8-40 2 411
Santoaax R 1 241-404 1 234
Decalin (t7an.s) 1 20-140 1 347
Hydrated Fe and A1 oxides: soln of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum, and serum albumin
Liquid argon 10-100 8i-140K 2 630
Liquid nitrogen 3.5-46 90-9BK 0 388
1-900 79-109"K 2 227
5-45 63-75'K c 460
Liquid diborane 0-40 113-1 81OK 2 265
Liquid ammonia (nomograph) 131
Pentaborane 34-100 30-50 1 67
Octamethylcyclotetrrsiloxane 8-2 1 30 1 90
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaC1, LiC1, LaCls 1 13-72 2 428
1% gelatin in water 1 25 0 174
Vranyl sulfate, uranyl fluoride (40-243 g/L) T o 100 100-162 0 583
Ammoniacal cuprous carbonate and cuprous formate solu- To 4 0 24
tions
Xaphtha mixture 30-85 100-200 0 299
Isomeric dodecane mixture 34-342 93-149 2 141
Hexene-hexane, heptene-heptane, octene-octane 80-150 0 9
Cyclohexane-benzene mixtures 1 40 1 347
Methane-propane mixtures 34-68 -129 t o -18 0 36
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 431

TABLEv (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
G8BW Solvent atm O C section VI) Ref
Deuterium DrO 4-28 162-300 0 583
Heptane, octane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, benzene, toluene, 1 -35 t o 35 2 105
CCh, n-perfluoroheptane, CSz
n-Heptane, n-octane 50-300 25-50 2 352
Liquid argon 10-100 87-12OoK 2 630
Liquid nitrogen 3-69 90-95'K 0 388
KNHz in liquid NHI 1 -64 t o -42 1 28
Nitrogen Kater 34-204 0-260 1 588
97 0-240 0 369
1 25 2 427
10-27 260-316 2 481
1 12-73 2 428
08-204 18 0 157
1 25 2 70
T o 50 0 24
1 Room 1 593
11-58 30 1 578
150-200 0 442
1 2-27 2 318
1 3-37 2 176
1 30 1 200
1 3-30 2 152
1 38 2 260
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 100-500 0-25 1 317
1-102 25 1 169
U-ater, Nz isotopes in 1 2-27 2 319
-4naerobic seawater, Nz isotopes in 1 5-29 2 499
1-Propanol, 1-pentanol, cyclohexanol, ethylene glycol 1 25 2 223
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, 1- 1 25-3 5 1 66
hexanol, 1-heptanol, 1-octanol
Methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, ethanol (95%) 1 -25 t o 50 2 342
Methanol 48-280 0-75 1 339
10-80 0 t o -45 2 560
1 25-35 1 260
Alcohol 1 20 2 378
Liquid methane 100-750 mm 90K 1 626
Liquid propane 100-750 mm 90K 1 626
Butane 34-286 38 0 4
n-Hexane 1 25 2 218
n-Heptane 68-680 32-182 0 3
n-Heptane, n-octane, n-nonane 1 25-35 2 599
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 1 20 2 23
1 -25 t o 50 2 342
Cyclohexane 1 25 2 218
Benzene 60-300 30-150 2 420
27-775 25 2 340
1 25 2 218
Toluene 15-400 200-275 1 617
Nonpolar solvents To 300 0 230
Freon-114 1-9 20-60 1 654
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 0-50 2 218
Perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 25 2 218
Perfluorodimethylcyclohexane 1 25-50 2 218
Acetone 1 -25 t o 50 2 342
Ximomethane 1 25 1 197
Dimethylformamide 400-900 mm 5-40 1 237
n-Propyl nitrate 1 Room 1 13
(C4Fs)aN 1 11-30 2 322
Carbon disulfide 1 25 2 218
1 6-31 2 322
Human fat (pooled), human fat (individual), dog fat, olive oil 1 37 2 266
Olive oil, tetralin, oleic acid, ethyl palmitate 25 1 127
Cottonseed oil, lard 1 40 1 532
Butter oil 1 40-60 1 532
Paraffin oil 400-760 mm 20-82 2 378
200-770 mm 20 1 377
Santowax R 1 238-409 1 234
6 oils (av mol wt 400-670) 1 0-100 2 23
Electrical insulating oil 1 26-66 2 181
4 crude oils 0-300 20 0 519
4 Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
Baku crude oils 50-300 20-100 0 682
Crude oils, kerosine, and gasoline 1 20-60 0 604
Petrowax A 246-790 mm 82 1 501
Paraffin wax 265-774 mm 76 1 501
Polyethylene terephthalate-amorphous, glassy crystalline, 1 25-130 1 415
rubbery crystalline
432 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER
TABLEV (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm "C section VI) Ref
Polyethylene, hydrogenated polybutadiene, and natural rub- 1 25 1 414
ber
4 aircraft fuels 0 183
100 octane fuel (av mol wt 100) 1 20 2 23
Kerosene (av mol wt 165) 1 0-20 2 23
Kerosene (jet fuel) 1 16 2 144
Human blood and plasma, human urine 1 37 2 176
Blood 1 37.5 0 122
Eel blood 1 7-20 1 580
Hydrated Fe and Al oxides, s o h of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum, and serum albumin
Liquid 601 25 0 613
Liquid SOr 11-35 -32 to 28 1 142
Liquid NHa 50-101 0-50 2 116
Liquid NH: (nomograph) 131
Liquid Cor 50-100 15-30 0 338
Pentaborane 34-100 30-150 1 67
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaI 1 30 1 260
1 N NaC1, LiCl, KI 1 13-72 2 428
0.5-4.0 N NaOH 97 0-240 0 369
1.38 N in NaCl and 5.41 N in CaClr, 2.5-5.0 N MgS04, 12-75 30 1 578
1-5.5 N NaCI, 1-4.2 N NarSO4, 1-11 N CaClr
0.15 M Zn(OAc)r, 0 . 0 5 4 1 5 M Ni(OAc)n, 0.05-0.15 M 1 25 2 70
Hg(OAc):, 0 . 0 3 4 1 5 M Co(OAc)r, 0.06-0.15 M
Mn(OAc)t, and0.05 MCu(0Ac)zin 1MHOAc + 0.5
M NaOAc soln
Detergent solution (hydrostatic pressure) 1-102 25 1 169
Ammoniacal cuprous carbonate and cuprous formate To 4 0 24
soh
NaCl, CaClr, MgCla 0 422
Nonaqueous solutions:
NaI-methanol solutions 1 25-35 1 260
+
Acetone ethanol (50 vol. %), ethanol+ 2,2,4-trimethyl- 1 - 25 to 50 2 342
pentane (50 vol. %)
50% Decanol-dodecanol 400 mm 20-82 1 378

Oxygen Water 97 0-240 0 369

1 25 2 427
1 20 1 539
1 0-20 2 173
7-2 I 218-343 1 481
1 13-75 2 428
To 100 100-163 2 482
1 3-39 2 609
68-136 0-330 1 686
1 0-36 2 610
1 25 2 11
1 6-24 2 581
1 2-29 2 166
1 20 2 478
14-23 125-200 1 14
1 Room 1 593
1 2-27 2 318
1 0-35 2 231
1 9-30 2 152
1 5-30 2 425
1 0.4-37 0 424
To 200 100-290 0 583
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 100-500 25 1 317
1-102 0.5-25 1 169
Water (02isotopes in) 1 2-27 2 319
Water (nomograph) 690-780 mrn 0-35 0 136
Sea water 1 2-27 2 424
1 0-35 2 231
Sea water (hydrostatic pressure) 1-102 25 1 169
Saline water 1 0-40 2 611
Ethanol 1 0-70 1 539
Ethanol, ethanol (95%), methanol, %propanol, 1-butanol 1 -25 t o 50 2 342
Methanol, 1-propanol, %propanol, 1-butanol, ethylene gly- 1 20 1 539
col, glycerine, risinusal
Methanol 1 20 2 478
Alcohol 1 20 2 378
Methyl acetate, ethyl acetate 1 20 1 539
n-Heptane, n-octane 1 25-35 2 599
n-Nonane 1 25 2 ,509
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 433
V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 1 20 1 539
1 -25 t o 50 2 342
1 10-30 2 322
1 20 2 22,23
Benzene 1 0-70 1 539
Toluene 1 20 1 497
p-Xylene 1 20 1 539
1 30-80 2 187
Xylene (tech) 1 23-100 1 497
Carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene 1 20 1 539
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 216
Acetone 1 -25 to 50 2 342
Acetone, diethyl ether, paraldehyde 1 20 1 539
Aniline 1 20 1 539
n-Propyl nitrate 1 Room 1 13
(C4Hg)sN 1 6-32 2 322
Carbon disulfide 1 25 2 216
hlethylal 1 20 1 539
Dioxane 1 20 1 539
Liquid paraffin, olive oil, silicone fluid (1 and 5 cs.) 1 38 1 504
Polydimethylsiloxane oil 4-2 1 30 1 90
Polyethylene, hydropol. and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Polyethylene terephthalate-amorphous, glassy crystalline, 1 25-130 1 415
rubbery crystalline
Petroleum ether, paraffin oil, benzol, cracked gasoline 1 20 1 539
Paraffin wax 238-808 mm 72 1 501
Petrowax A 290-787 mm 82 1 501
Olive oil, tetralin 25 1 127
100 octane (av mol wt 100) 1 20 2 23
Kerosene (jet fuel) 1 16 2 144
Kerosene (av mol wt 165) 1 0-20 2 23
Ligroin, white spirit fraction, cracking gasoline 1 19 1 497
6 oils, kerosene, 100 octane aviation fuel 1 20 2 22
Cottonseed oil, lard 1 40 1 532
Butter oil 1 40-60 1 532
6 oils (av mol wt 400-670) 1 0-100 2 23
Paraffin oil 200-770 mm 20 1 377
1 20 2 378
Electrical insulating oil 1 22-66 2 181
Hydrated Fe and A1 oxides; soln of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum, and serum albumin
Whole blood 1 Room 1 656
Blood 1 37.5 0 122
Eel blood 1 8-20 1 580
Liquid Clz 5-12 25 2 345
Nitric acid (100%) 25 0 579
8-22 38-88 0 502
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaC1, LiC1. KCI, MgCh 1 0-20 2 173
NaCl (15, 30 g/kg) 1 0-36 2 610
NaC1, CaCIz, MgCh 1 5-90 1 422
0.5-4.0 N NaOH 97 0-240 0 369
Uranyl sulfate, uranyl fluoride (40-240 g of U/L) 170 100-290 0 583
KOH-water solutions 1 20 2 478
Pure NHa solutions, pure NHs + (NH4)zSO4 solutions 10-30 110-130 1 446
0-100 a t % HzSO4, 0-100 wt % HsPOa, 0-40 wt % KOH 1 -30 to 25 1 235
(25" only)
94% "01 + 6% HzO 8-2 2 38-88 0 502
Nitric acid solutions (6-31'% H20) 25 0 579
Uranyl sulfate solutions (40-243 g of U/L) 100 100-163 2 482
Uranyl sulfate 4-102 100-300 1 14
Cane sugar, corn sugar, levulose, dextrose, corn syrup, 1 22 1 284
invert syrup
Dextrose, sucrose, levulose, cane sugar, cerelose, bakers 1 19-24 1 285
glucose, sweetose, puritose, invert
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, 1 30 1 539
ethylene glycol, glycerine (12-100 wt yo alcohol)
1 N NEhBr 1 25 1 430
Nonaqueous solutions:
Acetone + ethanol (50 vol. %) 1 -25 t o 50 2 342
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane + ethanol (50 vol. %) 1 -25 t o 50 2 342
KOH-methanol solutions 1 20 2 478
85% "0s + 15% NiOc 8-22 3S-88 0 502
KOH in methanol-water solutions 1 20 2 478
Nitric acid solutions (7.5-20% NtO4) 25 0 579
Nitrose and HB04 solution 19 1 612
434 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER
TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (=e
Gases Solvent atm O C section VI) Ref
Ozone Water 20 0 297
15 1 255
10-39 1 490
Chloroform -25 t o -39 1 60
Freon 11-CClrF 20 1 386
-110 to -23 1 93
Freon 12-CClzFz -110 t o -94 1 93
Freon 13-CClFa - 110 1 93
Freon 22-CHClFz -110 1 93
Freon 113-CClzFCClFz - 23 1 93
Freon 114-CCIFL!ClFz - 63 1 93
HzSOa (5-70%) 20 0 297
Chlorine Water 0.06-1 .O 10-25 2 645-647
Water (nomograph) 128
Cyclohexane 100-800 mm 10-40 1 615
Benzene 1 10-50 2 341
1 25-68 2 92
Chlorobenzene 1 25-65 2 92
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 0-2 5 2 219
Hexachlorobutadiene 1 - 20 t o 92 1 329
Carbon tetrachloride 2.0-2.7 40-90 2 576
Liquid TiClr 1.5-6 20-30 2 345
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
0.1-4 M LiClOa, 0.1-8 M NaClO4 1 10-50 0 29 1
NaCl (210-300 g/l.) 0.1-1 30-70 1 672
0.1-3.0 N BaClz 1 10-50 0 51
LiCl, BaClz, SrCla 10-50 0 292
HC104 (up t o 50 wt %) 0-50 0 551
Air Water 97 0-240 0 369
21 1 549 ,
1 20 2 22
1 20 2 23
68-238 25-65 2 157
0 168
1 0-30 1 42
Ice 1 0 0 543
Sea water (several salinities) 1 0-30 1 42
2,2 ,4-Trimethylpentane 1 20 2 22,23
Freon 12, Freon 22 To 7 -40 to 24 1 468
n-Propyl nitrate 1 Room 1 13
Butter oil 1 40-60 1 532
Cottonseed oil, lard 1 40 1 532
6 oils (petroleum), kerosene. 100-octane aviation fuel 1 20 2 22
2 100-octane fuels (av mol wt 100) 1 20 2 23
Kerosene (av mol wt 165) 1 0-20 2 23
6 Oils (av mol wt 400-670) 1 0-100 2 23
8 jet fuels (kerosene) 1 16 2 144
2 kerosenes 1 - 18 to 49 2 144
9 heavy lube Oils, 4 light lube oils, diesel fuel, 3 aviation fuels 21 1 549
4 aircraft fuels 0 183
Electrical insulating oil 1 22-66 2 181
Beer 0 168
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaCl (30-309 gjl.) 68-238 25-65 2 157
0.5-4.0 N NsOH 97 0-240 0 369
Ethanol (4%) 0 168
Acetone (satd with CzHz) 1 040 0 69

Compound Gases
Methane Water 1 25 2 427
1 0-20 2 173
20-660 25 1 120
20-680 25-171 2 121
1 2-40 2 94
1 12-75 2 428
1 18-37 2 358
11-51 25-30 1 153
1 25 1 400
1 5-45 1 640
1 Room 1 401
Water (nomograph) 7-815 10-38 0 139
Methanol, ethanol, cyclohexanol 1 18-37 2 358
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, 1- 1 25-35 1 66
hexanol. 1-heptanol, 1-octanol
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 435

TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm "C section VI) Ref
Methanol -50 t o 20 0 46
40 -25 t o -60 2 560
Propane 7-98 -115 to 0 2 5
n-Hexane 1 18-37 2 358
41-198 38-104 2 542
n-Heptane 1 0-2 1 2 461
n-Octane 1 8-35 2 461
n-Dodecane 1 0-32 2 46 1
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 1 3-33 2 461
Cyclohexane 41-198 38-104 2 541
1 18-37 2 358
n-Decane 14-68 -29 t o 4 2 330
0-238 21-121 0 520
Benzene 103-350 100 2 540
30-150 100-250 1 273
7-326 66 0 160
1 7-21 2 461
1 18-37 2 358
Toluene 7-360 66 0 160
1 5-28 2 461
Xylene 1 3-30 2 461
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 18-30 2 322
Acetone 1 18-37 2 358
Dichloroethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether 30-70 0 1T5
Furfural 30-70 0 175
Dimethylformamide 200-900 mm 5-40 1 237
Nitrobenzene 30-70 0 175
0.1-35 mm 5-50 1 145
Carbon disulfide 1 15-35 2 322
Ethyl Cellosolve, chlorex, PFhlC-4F, paraffin oil 0.1-35 mm 5-50 1 145
Crude oils, kerosene, and gasoline I 20-60 0 604
Rurakhany crude oil Up to 300 20-70 0 308
Petroleum 1-40 66-84 0 310
Baku crude oils 50-300 20-100 0 682
4 Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
Baku and American crude oils 40-80 0 606
4 crude oils 0-300 20 0 519
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Polyethylene terephthalate-amorphous, glassy crystalline, 1 25-130 1 415
rubbery crystalline
Paraffinic, naphthenic, and aromatic lean oil 9-210 450 1 312
Santow-ax R 1 237-407 1 234
Paraffin wax 218-776 mm 72 1 501
Liquid 602 12-34 -32 to 28 1 142
con 7-68 -40 to -54 0 149
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaCl (0-2.8 .lf) 1 0-20 2 173
NaC1, LiC1, K I (1 m) 1 13-72 2 428
NaC1, CaClz Up to 93 4-45 0 3i6
1 . 5 3 N NaCl + 6.0 N CaClz 25-51 30 1 153
NaCl 14-61 30 1 153
CaClz 11-74 25-30 1 153
NaCl, CaClz, hfgC1z 1 5-90 1 422
4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 5-45 1 640
7 hf urea 1 5-45 1 640

Ethane Water 2.5 2 427

4-680 38-171 1 119
1 0-20 2 li3
4-82 38-lil 1 120
1 2-40 2 94
1 12-72 2 428
1-16 0 1 123
1 10-35 2 659
1 15-3R 2 6 ti0
1 25 1 400
1 5-45 1 640
1 Room 1 401
Methanol, ethanol, 1-butanol 1 25 2 223
1-Propanol, 1-pentanol. oyclohexanol, ethylene glycol 1 25-35 2 223
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, 1- 1 25-35 1 66
hexanol, 1-heptanol, 1-octanol
n-Heptane, n-nonane, n-octane I 25 2 599
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 1 14-32 2 322
Cyclohexane 7-68 10-ti6 0 301
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 222.599
436 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

TABLEV (Continued)
Measure-
t ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Benzene 14-97 0-290 1 300
Dichloroethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether 30-70 0 175
Furfural 30-70 0 175
(OFdrN 1 14-31 2 322
Nitrobenzene 30-70 0 175
Carbon disulfide 1 25 2 222
Polyethylene, hydropo 1 25 1 414
Polyethylene terephthalate 1 25 1 415
4 aircraft fuels 0 183
Para5nic, naphthenic, and aromatic lean oil 9-210 29 1 312
4 Surakhany crude oils 0-100 56-86 0 307
Petroleum 1-40 66-84 0 310
4 Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
Baku and American crude oils 40-80 0 606
Lysozyme (lo%), hemoglobin (5%), serum albumin solu- 1 10-35 2 659
tion (5%)
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
0-3 M NaCl 1 0-20 2 173
1 m NaCl, LiCl, KI 1 12-72 2 428
0.5-1.5 M CaC11, 0.5-2.0 M NaCl 1-16 0 1 123
Sodium lauryl sulfate (1.8%) 1 10-35 2 659
Sodium dodecyl sulfate 1 15-35 2 660
7 M urea, 4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 5-45 1 640

Propane Water 1 12-74 2 428

1 20-30 2 94
0-26 12-149 0 324
1-35 16-138 2 20
1 10-35 2 659
1 15-35 2 660
1 25 1 400
1 5-45 1 640
1 Room 1 401
Water (nomograph) 1-7 16-54 0 138
Methanol 30-760 mm 0-50 2 344
Ethanol 12-760 mm 0-50 2 343
2-Prop ano1 8-760 mm 0-50 2 344
n-Hexane, n-octane 1 25 2 600
Benzene 10-50 150-210 2 273
1 25 2 600
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 600
Dichloroethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether 30-70 0 175
Furfural 30-70 0 175
1,4-Dioxane 1 25 2 600
Nitrobenzene 30-70 0 1i5
Paraffinic, naphthenic, and aromatic lean oil 8-204 29 1 312
3 Surakhany crude oils 0-2 5 40-85 0 307
Petroleum 1-40 66-84 0 310
Paraffin oil 0 377
4 Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
Baku crude oils 50-300 20-100 0 682
Baku and American crude oils 40-80 0 606
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Bovine serum albumin solution (5%), hemoglobin (5761, 1 10-35 2 659
lysozyme (10%)
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaC1, LiC1, KI ( 1 m) 1 12-72 2 428
XaC1 (0-24 wt %) 0.1-1 0-20 2 621
Sodium lauryl sulfate (1.8%) 1 10-35 2 659
Sodium dodecyl sulfate 1 15-3 5 2 660
7 M urea 1 5-45 1 640
4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 5-45 1 640

Cyclopropane Water 1 35 2 364

1 25-38 2 268
1-41 21-104 2 269
1 25-34 2 60 1
n-Hexane 1 25 2 601
Benzene 1 25 2 601
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 601
Dioxane 1 25 2 60 1
Dog hemoglobin (9.5%), homogenized rabbit muscle, homog 1 35 2 364
enized rabbit liver
Olive oil, pooled rat fat 1 25-38 2 52
Blood 1 27-37 2 479
Bovine whole blood, plasma, olive oil 1 25-38 2 268
 OF GASES
SOLUBILITY IN LIQUIDS 437

TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaCl (0.9 wt %), Na phosphate buffer 1 35 2 364
Bovine serum albumin (10%) 1 35 2 364
Bovine serum albumin (0-25%) 1 37 2 179
Bovine serum albumin, hemoglobin, y-globulin, &globulin 1 37 1 434

n-Butane Water 1 20-30 1 94

1 11-76 2 428
T o 200 40-100 0 440
1 10-35 2 659
1 15-35 2 660
1 25 1 400
1 5-45 1 640
1 Room 1 401
Methanol 200-760 mm 25-50 2 344
Ethanol 60-740 mm 25-50 2 343
2-Propanol 80-760 mm 25-50 2 344
Para5nic, naphthenic, and aromatic lean oil 9-210 29 1 312
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
NaC1, KCl, LiCl, HCl, KI, BaClz, LaClr ( 1 m) 1 11-76 2 428
NaCl (0-24 w t %) 0.1-1 0-20 2 02 1
4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 5-45 1 640
7 M urea 1 5-45 1 640
1 N KBr, N E b B r 1 25 1 430
Hemoglobin (5%), bovine serum albumin solution, Na 1 10-35 2 659
lauryl sulfate (1.8%). lysozyme (10%)
Bovine serum albumin solutions with 0.15 M NaCl 0.2-1 25 0 661
Bovine serum albumin (5%) 1 25 1 641
Sodium dodecyl sulfate 1 15-35 2 660

Isobutane Water 1 25 1 400

1 5-45 1 640
1 Room 1 401
Methanol 364-760 mm 25-50 2 344
Ethanol 23-760 mm 10-50 2 343
2-Propanol 355-760 mm 25-50 2 344
Dichloroethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether 30-70 0 175
Furfural 30-70 0 175
Nitrobenzene 30-70 0 175
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
7 M urea 1 5-45 1 640
4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 5-45 1 640
1% potassium oleate 100-650 mm 25 1 402

n-Pentane Water 1 15-35 2 660

P a r a 5 i c , naphthenic, and aromatic lean oil 9-210 29 1 312
Bovine serum albumin in 0.15 M NaCl 1 25 1 661
Sodium dodecyl sulfate 1 15-35 2 600

Neopentane Water 1 15-45 1 640

1 Room 1 401
4.9 M guanidinium chloride 1 15-45 1 640
7 M urea 1 15-45 1 640

Ethene Water 1 25 2 42 7
4.5-520 35-100 2 68
1 14-73 2 428
1 30 2 260
To 193 25-150 0 253
1-34 35-121 2 140
1 Room 1 401
Methanol - 50 to 20 0 46
To 193 25-150 0 564
1-18 -56 to -10 2 563
1 -70 to 20 1 624
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, 1- 1 25-35 1 66
hexanol, 1-heptanol, 1-octanol
n-Decane 20-40 40-80 2 445
n-Hexane, cyclohexane T o 120 30-150 0 683
n-Hexane 1 - 30 1 362
n-Heptane 1 -60 t o -20 1 362
Meth ylc yolohexane 1 -60 t o -50 1 362
Benzene 40-190 25-150 0 252
To 193 25-150 0 564
To 120 30-150 0 683
438 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

V (Continued)
TABLE
bleasure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Toluene 1-18 -45 t o -25 2 253
1 -60 t o -30 1 362
n-Xylene 1 -70 t o 20 1 624
Chloroform 1 - 30 1 362
Carbon tetrachloride 1 - 20 1 362
Dichloroethane 1 - 70 t o 20 1 624
Acetone 1-18 -45 to -25 2 253
1 - 30 1 362
1 - 70 to 20 1 624
Methyl ethyl ketone 3-18 -25 t o -45 2 564
Diethyl ether 1 -70 to 20 1 624
Methyl acetate 1 -70 t o 20 1 624
Tetrahydrofuran To 193 25-150 0 253
Dimethylformamide 1 0 t o -45 2 562
1 - 70 t o 20 1 624
Xleth ylpyrrolidone 1 - 70 t o 20 1 624
Baku crude oils 50-300 20-100 0 682
4 Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
4 crude oils 0-300 20 0 519
Diethyl sulfate 50-1300 mm 0-80 2 608
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
KCl. AgNOs 1 30 2 260
1 N NaCI. LiC1,KI, LaCla 1 13-72 2 428
N-Methylpyrrolidone with 0-60 mole H20 0-800 mm 0-45 1 565
0.5 mole fraction of toluene-heptane, toluene-chloroform, 1 -60 to -20 1 3432
toluene-methyloyclohexane, n-heptane-carbon tetrachlo-
ride, acetone-chloroform, acetone-n-hexane
Propene Water 400 mm 25 0 402
500-700 mm 25 0 403
1-34 21-104 2 21
1 Room 1 401
Methanol -47 to 20 1 622
Dimethylf ormamide 1 0 to -45 2 562
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
0-15% potassium oleate 400 mm 25 0 402
2 1 detergent solutions 500-700 mm 25 0 403
0.5-5% KzCOs 500-700 mm 25 0 403
Emulsifiers 1 674
N-hlethylpyrrolidone with 0-60 mole % H20 0-800 mm 0-45 1 565
Propadiene Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
2-Methylpropene Water 1 0-70 1 303
1 Room 1 401
Dichloroethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, fur- 30-70 0 175
fural, nitrobenzene
Dinonyl phthalate 73-740 mm 0-100 1 262
Triisobutylaluminum 1 10-50 1 477
5% aq NaCl 1 -5 to 0 1 303
Emulsifiers, a q soln 1 674
1-Butene Water 2-68 38-143 1 74
1 Room 1 401
1,3-Butadiene Water 100-500 mm 25 2 402
1 25 1 507
To 19 38-104 1 493
1 Room 1 401
1% potassium oleate, aq 100-500 mm 25 2 402
1-4% Hyamine 1622, aq 1 25 1 507
Pentene Paraffin oil 0 3i7
Acetylene Water 1 20 0 387
5-39 1-30 1 251
T o 29 0-30 0 315
1 0-70 0 168
To 39 20-45 0 253
Methanol 1-29 0-30 2 313
1 1-30 1 59 1
To 29 0-30 0 315
25-60 0 533
1 -76 t o -25 2 423
3-14 -20 t o 20 1 513
To 39 20-45 0 253
1 "Low temp" 0 623
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESI N LIQUIDS 439

TABLE 1 (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gaaes Solvent atm O C section VI) Ref
Ethanol 1 -75 t o -25 2 423
1 18 0 109
Methanol, 1-butanol, allyl alcohol, ethylene glycol 1 25 0 259A
Diacetone alcohol T o 11 25 0 259A
Acetic acid 1 18 0 109
Methyl acetate 1 Low temp 0 623
Ethyl acetate T o 11 25 0 2598
1 - 75 t o 45 1 55
25-60 0 533
Ethyl acetoacetate T o 25 25 0 259A
Trimethyl orthoacetate 1 0 2 632
Vinyl acetate 1 0-40 2 239
Trimethyl orthoformate 1 0 2 632
Diethyl oxalate 602 mm 25 0 2598
Triethyl phosphate 25-60 0 533
Ethyl acetate, ethyl formate, methyl acetate, methyl for- 1 - 10 0 109
mate, isoamyl acetate, isoamyl formate
Tetramethyldiamidophosphonyl fluoride, methyl phosphite, 1 25 1 410
methyl orthoacetate, trimethyl meroaptophosphate,
methyl borate, methylene diacetate, ethyl perfluorobu-
tyrate, ethyl orthoformate
n-Hexane 1 - 25 1 362
n-Hexane, n-octane 3-14 -20 t o 20 1 513
Cyclohexane 1 3 0 109
Dicyclopentadiene 721 mm 25 0 259A
Benzene 5-29 10-40 2 314
T o 29 0-30 0 315
To 39 20-45 0 253
1 20-60 2 628
1 4 0 109
Toluene 3-14 -20 t o 20 1 513
1 20-90 2 628
1 -30 t o 25 1 362
m-Xylene 3-14 -20 t o 20 1 513
1 Low temp 0 623
g-Xylene 1 20-120 2 628
Chloroform 3-14 -20 t o 20 1 513
1 - 30 1 362
Dichloroethane 770 mm 25 0 259A
1 Low temp 0 623
Ethyl bromide, ethyl iodide 256-648 mm 19-25 2 l98B
Acetone 1 -70 t o 40 0 69
1 20-39 0 387
1.4-30 3-40 2 259
1 -75 t o 45 1 55
25-60 0 533
1 -80 t o -40 1 616
1 Low temp 0 623
1 - 25 1 362
1-12 0-15 0 109
Butyrolactone To 25 25 0 2598
25-60 0 533
Tetrahydrofurfuryl methyl ether, ethylene glycol dimethyl 3.5-14 - 20 t o 20 1 515
ether, diethylene glycol dimethyl ether, triethylene glycol
dimethyl ether, tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether,
diethylene glycol dibutyl ether, diethylene glycol di-t-
butyl ether, di-n-hexyl ether
Diethyl ether 1 -75 to -25 2 423
1 Low temp 0 623
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether 1 -75 t o 45 1 55
Glyoxol tetramethyl acetal, diethyl oxalate diethyl acetal 1 25 1 410
Acetaldehyde 1 -75 t o 0 2 57
Acetal, methylal., acetaldehyde 1 - 10 0 109
Dimethylacetamide To 16 25 0 259A
25-60 0 533
Dimethylformamide 1 Low temp 0 623
1 20-39 0 387
T o 25 15-40 0 259A
200-900 mm 5-40 1 237
3.5-14 -20 t o 30 1 514
0.13-1 -50 to 25 2 562
1 25 1 362
1-Methylpyrrolidone 750 mm 20 1 375
N-Meth yl-2-pyrrolidinone 1 -35 t o 20 1 155
N-Methylpyrrolidone T o 11 15-40 0 2598
1.5-Dimethylpyrrolidone 3,5-14 -20 t o 30 1 514
Methylpyrrolidone 1 Low temp 0 623
440 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE CLEVER

V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Tetramethylurea 530-720 mm 15-40 0 259A
25-60 0 533
2-Methyl-8-ethylpyridine 3.5-14 -20 t o 30 1 514
Hexamethylphosphoric triamide 1 30-37 2 603
Hexamethylphosphorous triamide 25-60 0 533
Aniline, dimethylaniline, nitrobenzene 1 4 0 109
Acetylpyrrolidine, formylpyrrolidine, N-nitrosopyrrolidine, 1 25 1 410
hexamethylphosphoramide, tritetramethylenephosphor-
amide
Dimethyl sulfoxide 1 15 1 575
0 574
3.5-14 -20 t o 30 1 514
Dimethyl sulfoxide, tetramethylene sulfoxide 1 25 1 410
"Solvenon" 550 mm 25 0 2598
Dioxane 1 20 0 387
609 mm 25 0 259A
Methylnaphthodioxane, ethylene oxide, 2-methyl-2-me- 1 25 1 410
thoxy-1,3-dioxane, dioxane (satd with trioxane)
Tetrahydrofuran 583 mm 25 0 259A
T o 29 0-30 0 315
1-25 0-30 1 313
1 - 75 to 45 1 55
To 39 20-45 0 253
Mesityl oxide To 11 25 0 2598
1,1,3,3-Tetramethoxypropane 3.5-14 -20 t o 20 1 515
Morpholine, N-formylmorpholine 3,5-14 -20 to 30 1 514
21 solvents 3.5-14 -20 to 20 1 516
Blood, human and animal 1 37 2 486
Lung tissue (blood-free homogenates) 1 37 1 89
Hydrated Fe and AI oxides, soln of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum, and serum albumin
Liquid NHa 1 -50 to -74 1 56
Aqueous solutions:
Solute:
HzSOd, LizS01, LiCl. NaNOs, NaC1, KzSO4, KNOa, KCI, 1 0-70 0 188
KBr, NH4C1, ZnClz, CdClz, CdBrz, CdIz, MgSO4,
ZnSO4, CdSOd, MnSO4, FeSO4 -I- HnSok, NiSO4,
Aln(SOd)s, Crz(SO4)s, and Fez(S03a -t H2SO4
Dimethylformamide-water (0-100%), acetonewater (0- 1 20 0 387
loo%), dioxane-water (&loo%)
Dimethylformamide (with 0-23% HzO) 100-400 mm 25-140 1 72
Methanol (with 0.05% Hz0) To 1 10-78 1 71
N-Methylpyrrolidone with 0-60 mole yo Hz0 0-800 mm 0-45 1 565
Nonaqueous solutions:
Potassium methylate (25%) in methanol 1 23-50 1 59 1
Dimethylformsmide with 5.4 g NaI/100 g 1 20-39 0 387
Acetone with 13-30 g of NaI/100 g 1 20-39 0 387
Dimethylformamide-dioxane (0-100%) 1 20 0 387
Acetone-n-hexane (0.5 mole fraction) 1 - 25 1 362
Acetone-chloroform, toluene-chloroform (0.5 mole fraction 1 - 30 1 362
mixtures)
Toluene-dimethylformmide (0.5 mole fraction) 1 25 1 362
Mixtures of CHCL, Hz0, MeOH, or diethylene glycol di- 3-13 0-10 1 517
methyl ether with dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide,
or ethylene glycol dimethyl ether

Propyne Water To 14 21-104 2 270

1 0-60 1 571
1 Room 1 401
Methanol 1 0-60 1 57 1
Aqueous solutions:
Solute :
3 w t 70"&OH 1 0-60 1 57 1
Methanol (with 0.05% HnO) 1 -70 to 20 1 71
Dimethylformamide (with 0-23'% Hz0) 100-400 mm 25-140 1 72

1-Butyne Water 1 0-60 1 571

1 Room 1 40 1
Methanol 1 0-60 1 57 1
' NaOH, 0.3-10 wt % NHdOH, 20-25 wt '?& NaCl
3 wt % 1 0-60 1 571

3-Buten-1-yne Water 1 0-60 1 57 1

Methanol 1 0-60 1 571
Benzene 1 2040 2 629
Toluene 1 20-90 2 629
p X ylene 1 20-120 2 629
2-Chloro-l,3-butadiene 1 10-50 1 277
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 441
TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Aqueous solutions:
Dimethylformamide (0-23% in HzO) 100-400 mm 25-140 1 72
Methanol (with 0.05% Ha0) To 1 20 to -70 1 71
3 wt 70NHiOH 1 0-60 1 57 1

Diacetylene Methanol (with 0.05% Hz0) To 1 20 to -70 1 71

Dimethylformamide (with 0-23% HzO) 100-400 mm 25-140 1 72

Carbon tetrafluoride Water To 8 25-75 1 469

(Freon-14) 1 7-39 2 429
Isooctane, n-heptane, cyclohexane, benzene 1 5-36 2 15
Perfluoromethylcyclohexane 1 - 11 to 40 2 495
CCLFCCIFa 1 5-35 2 15

Chlorotrifluoromethane Water 10-59 2 62

(Freon-13) To 25 25-75 1 469

Dichlorodifluoromethane Water To 8 25-75 1 469

(Freon-12) Carbitol acetate, carbitol methoxyacetate, 4-methyl-2-pen- 3.5 32 0 677
tanol acetate
Trichlorobenzene 3.5 32 0 677
Carbitol ethyl ether, dichloroisopropyl ether, y,y-dichloro- 3.5 32 0 677
n-propyl ether, diethyl ether of ethylene glycol
2,3-Di-~-ethoxy-~-ethoxydioxane 3.5 32 0 677
a-Fluoronaphthalene 3.5 32 0 677
30 solvents (alcohols, esters, acids, ethers, aldehydes, ke- 3.5 32 2 108
tones, nitrogen compounds, 2 hydrocarbons, and 2 bro-
mides)
Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 3.5 32 2 678
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate

Trichlorofluoromethane Diethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol 364 mm 32 0 677

(Freon-11) Carbitol acetate 364 mm 32 0 677
Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 0.48 32 2 078
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
29 solvents (alcohols, ethers, esters, aldehydes, ketones, ni- 0.48 32 2 108
trogen compounds, 2 hydrocarbons, and 2 bromides)

Chloroform Ethanol 1 . 0 - 1 . 6 mm 25-35 1 27

Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 0.11 32 2 078
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
Acetone 0.7-1.2 mm 25-35 1 27
Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether 1 3 2 395
Olive oil 20-70 mm 20 1 383
Dichlorofluoromethane Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 0.85 32 2 678
(Freon-21) ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
Diethyl adipate, ethyl laurate, diethyl oxalate To 1 . 5 38-107 2 7
Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether 0.84 3 2 395
1 27-90 2 399
To 1 38-107 2 7
Triethylene glycol dimethyl ether To 7 20-101 2 7
N,N-Dimethylformamide To 1 38-107 2 7
N,N-Dimethylacetamide To 19 20-101 2 7
Caprylonitrile, succinonitrile, glutaronitrile, adiponitrile, 0.85 32 2 110
sebaconitrile
44 solvents (alcohols, ethers, acids, esters, amines, amides, 0.6-1 32 0 106
aldehydes, ketones, and oximes)
78 solvents (esters, ethers. glycols, and others) 638 mm 32 0 677
82 solvents (esters, glycols, ethers, amines, amides, and 0.85 32 0 678
others)
Chlorodifluoromethane Water To 12 25-75 1 469
(Freon-22) 10-79 2 62
Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 5.0 32 2 078
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether 5.5 3 2 396
To 21 28-177 2 399
To 2 38-107 2 7
N,N-Dimethylformamide To 2 38-107 2 7
Trifluoromethane (Freon-23) Water To 24 25-75 0 409
Dichloromethsne Diethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol 181 mm 32 0 077.
Tetraethylene glycol of dimethyl ether 0.23 32 2 395
Carbitol acetate, cellosolve acetate 181 mm 32 0 077
Ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate, diethyl ether of di- 0.23 32 2 078
ethylene glycol, dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol
Caprylonitrile, benzonitrile, succinonitrile. glutaronitrile, 0.23 32 2 110
adiponitrile, sebaconitrile
442 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gaaes Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
35 solvents (alcohols, ethers, acids, esters, amines, amides, 0.23 32 0 107
oximes. aldehydes, and ketones)

Chlorofluoromethane Water 10-79 2 62

Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether 1.7 3 2 395
1.5-9 35-177 2 399
Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 1.7 32 2 678
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
Bromomethane Water To 950 mm 0-77 0 224
To 1 29-40 2 592
1 10-32 2 198
DnO To 1 29-40 2 592
Pineapple, mango, and papaya juice 1 18-32 1 198
Chloromethane Water 500 mm 20 2 390
To 950 mm 0-7 7 0 224
10-59 2 62
To 1 29-40 2 592
De0 To 1 29-40 2 592
Ethanol 500 mm 20 2 390
Benzene 500 mm 20 2 390
Carbon tetrachloride 100-760 mm -10 to 20 0 288
500 mm 20 2 390
Dichloroethane 100-760 mm - 10 to 20 0 288
Ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate, dimethyl ether of 2.9 32 2 678
tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of diethylene glycol
Acetic acid (glacial) 500 mm 20 2 390
Polyethylene 1 25 1 414
63 solvents (esters, glycols. ethers, substituted benzenes and 3 32 0 677
naphthalenes, and others)

Fluoromethane Water To 950 mm 0-77 2 224

To 1 29-40 2 592
D PO To 1 29-40 2 692

Iodomethane Water To 950 mm 0-7 7 2 224

To 1 29-40 2 592
DIO To 1 29-40 2 592

Chloroethane Carbon tetrachloride, dichloromethane 100-760 mm - 10 to 20 0 288

Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 0.74 32 2 678
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane,dimethyl ether and diethyl ether 557 mm 32 0 677
of tetraethylene glycol, dimethyl ether of triethylene gly-
col, carbitol ethyl ether, carbitol acetate, butyl carbitol
acetate diethylene glycol diacetate

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-tri- Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 0.18 32 2 678
fluoroethane (Freon-1 13) ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate

1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetra- Carbitol acetate 786 mm 32 0 677

tluoroethane (Freon-114) Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol, diethyl ether of di- 1 32 2 678
ethylene glycol, ethyl ether of diethylene glycol acetate

l-Chloro-1,1,2,2-tetra- Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether To 8 35-177 2 399

fluoroethane

l-Chloro-1,1,2,2,2-penta- Water To 8 25-75 1 469

fluorethane (Freon-115)

1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether To 5 27-86 2 399

Vinyl chloride Methanol 1 -10 to 20 1 470

Methylcyclohexane 1 20-50 2 382
Tetrachloroethylene 1 -7 t o 20 1 470
1,l-Dichloroethane 1 20-50 2 382
Tetrahydrofuran 1 20-50 2 382
Dimeth ylformamide 1 20-50 2 382
Emulsifiers, aq solutions of 0 674
26 different solvents 0 531

Diohlorodifluoroethylene Dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol 786 mm 32 0 677

Chlorotrifluoroeth ylene Emulsifiers, aq solutions of 0 674

l,2-Epoxyethane (ethylene Water 1 5-20 0 289

oxide) 20-700 mm 5-20 1 406
1 12-50 2 100
0-16.4 100-150 0 436
Dichloroethane 1 5-20 0 289
 OF GASESIK LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 443
TABLE
T' (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm "C section VI) Ref
Ketene Acetone 0 146
Diethyl ether Lung tissue (blood-free homogenates) 1 37 1 89

Carbon monoxide Methyl, ethyl, ti-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, and isobutyl al- 1 25-50 2 215
cohols
.Ilcohol 1 20 2 378
n-Propyl acetate 1 25 2 221
n-Heptane 1 25 2 216
Hydrocarbon (slack wax, a v mol wt 345) 1-10 (Kp/om*) 106-300 2 473
Paraffin oil 1 20 2 378
Various hydrocarbons 0 9
Benzene 1 25 2 216
Toluene 1 25 2 221
1,2-Dibromoethane 1 25 2 221
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 216
Aniline, propionitrile, benzyl cyanide, pyridine, nitrobenzene 1 25 2 221
Dimethylformamide 600-900 mm 5-40 1 237
Polyethylene, hydropol, natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Carbon disulfide 1 25 2 216
.Smmoniacal cuprous carbonate and cuprous formate solu- To 4 0 24
tions
Hydrated Fe and A1 oxides; soln of egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 667
serum, and serum albumin
Carbon dioxide IYater 25-500 12-40 1 649
16-49 20-50 1 673
25-700 0-100 2 648
25-700 75-120 2 487
1 13-75 2 428
1 25 2 217
0 168
1-700 0-120 0 147
1-20 10-30 2 31
1 20-75 1 555
0 214
0 191
T o 350 0 164
100-700 mm 11.5-77 2 450
1 37.5 1 570
1 20-30 2 114
16-59 177-334 2 165
1 20-38 2 18
5-162 114-348 1 164
25-45 2 668
\Vater (nomograph) 597
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 1-102 25 1 169
Ice -20 to - 5 0 172
Methanol 7-io 0-75 1 339
3-19 -29 t o -50 0 46
25-60 0 633
100-760 mm 1 587
High pressure - 6 0 to -26 1 658
1 - 70 t o 20 1 625
Ethanol 100-760 mm Low temp 0 557
Ethanol, 95% 1 2-62 0 503
Alcohol 1 20 2 378
Propanol, 2-propanol, butanol, 2-butanol, 2-methyl-l- 100-760 mm Low temp 0 557
propanol
50: 80 decanol-dodecanol 100 mm 20-82 1 378
Cyclotiexanol 1 20-48 2 35
Oleic acid 100-450 mm 23-62 1 466
Ethyl acetate 25-60 0 533
3-15 -45 t o - 2 5 2 559
1 - 75 t o 45 1 55
n-Propyl acetate 1 25 2 221
Methyl acetate 1 25 2 221
Ethyl stearate 100-600 mm 34-54 1 466
n-Pentane 1.7-75 38 1 476
n-Heptane, cyclohexane 1 25 2 217
Oils and kerosenes 760 mm 0-20 2 23
Paraffin oil 100-760 mm 20-82 2 378
200-750 mm 20 1 377
Paraffin \\-ax 258-753 mm 72 1 601
Baku crude oils 50-300 20-100 0 682
Crude oils, kerosene, gasoline 1 20-60 0 604
Russian crude oils 1-300 20-100 0 518
444 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. IAWRENCE
CLEVER
V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Diesel fuels and cracked gas oils 3-40 25-50 1 368
Baku and American crude oils 40-80 0 606
Slack waxes 1-10 (Kp/cm') 106-300 2 473
Mineral oil 1 20-48 2 35
Benzene 10-95 30-60 1 634
1 20-35 2 217
Toluene 1 25 2 221
1 -80 to 0 1 651
3-15 -45 to -25 2 559
n-Perfluoroheptane 1 25 2 217
1 19-30 2 322
(C4Fp)iN 1 4-3 1 2 322
Hexachlorobutadiene 1 - 11 t o 55 1 329
Carbon disulfide 1 a33 2 322
Methylene chloride 1-20 21 2 79
3-20 38-54 1 831
Chloroform 1 25 2 221
Carbon tetrachloride 1 25 2 217
1,2-Dibromoethane 1 25 2 221
Ethylene bromide, propylene chlorobromide 1 20-48 1 35
Chlorobenzene 1 25 2 22 1
Acetone 1 25 2 221
1 -75 to 45 1 55
25-60 0 533
Methyl ethyl ketone 3-15 -45 t o -25 2 559
Butyrokctone 25-60 0 533
Diethyl ether 740 mm 24 2 412
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether 1 -75 t o 45 1 55
Acetaldehyde 1 -75 to -25 2 57
Benzylcyanide, propionitrile 1 25 2 221
Aniline 1 25 2 221
Pyridine 1 25 2 221
Dimethylformamide 1 -45 to 0 2 662
1 -70 t o 20 1 625
200-900 mm 5 to 40 1 237
Dimethylacetamide 25-60 0 533
Hexamethylphosphorous triamide 25-60 0 533
Hexamethylphosphoric triamide 37 1 603
Methylpyrrolidone -70 to 20 1 625
Nitrobenzene 25 2 221
Tetrahydrofuran -75 to 45 1 55
Triethyl phosphate 25-60 0 533
Tetramethylurea 25-60 0 533
Polyethylene tetraphthalate 1-12 25-130 1 415
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 25 1 414
Carbon disulfide 1 25 2 217
Butteroil, cottonseed oil, lard 1 40-60 1 532
Dog fat, human fat, rat-pooled fat 1 25-45 2 667
Olive oil 1 25-45 2 667
Whole blood 1 Room 2 656
Cerebrospinal fluid 1 37.5 1 570
Homogenized brain tissue (of cats) 1 37.5 1 570
Human serum 1 15-38 2 18
Blood 1 37.5 0 122
.4mmonia, liquid 1 -74 to -50 1 56
Chlorine, liquid 0.8-6.5 0-2 5 1 345
H C N , liquid -5 to 10 0 488
Aqueous solutions:
10, 50, 95% alcohol 1 2-62 0 503
Wine 0 2
4 % ethanol, beer 0 168
Aqueous sucrose and citric acid s o h 0 379
Papaw juice 25 0 363
Hydrated Fe and A1 oxides, aqueous egg albumin, gelatin, 1 10-40 0 567
serum
Aerosol solution (15%) 1 25 2 217
Dimethylformamide (0-23% water) 100-400 mm 25-140 1 72
N-Methylpyrrolidone (0-60 mole % water) 0-800 mm 0-45 1 565
Monoethanolamine (15%) 0.5-6980 mm 40-140 2 283
Mono- and triethanolamine (0.5-5 N ) To 40 25-75 0 381
Mono-, di-, and triethanolamine (3.6-3.9 N) 7-445 mm 50 0 569
Mono-, di-, and triethanolamine 10-760 mm 50 0 568
2.5, 5.0 M H F 1 20-30 2 114
0.01 N HC1 1 37.5 1 570
AstO-As20s-HBr s o h 20-25 0 49
9-84 wt 7 0 HzSOd 1 19-76 1 555
0.1 N lactic acid 1 37.5 1 570
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 445

TABLE v (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
0.066 M phosphate buffer 1 25-45 2 668
0.5-2.0 M NaCl 45-88 172-330 2 165
0.9% NaCl soln 1 25-45 2 668
0.16 M NaCl soln 1 37.5 1 570
NazSO4-HzSO4 s o h 1 25-65 0 556
KzSO4, KzCOa, KzCOrKHCOa, KOH 0 214
10, 20, 30% CaClz s o h 25-700 75-120 2 487
KC1, NaC1, KNOs, Mg(NOa)r, NaNOz, MgSO4, NazS04 1 0-40 2 391
NaOH-NazCOa 0.05-1 , 0 18 2 618
Glycerol in water, glycerol and sulfuric acid, ethylene gly- 1 25 2 325
col, B,B-dihydroxyethyl ether, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcc-
hol, dioxane
Binary mixtures: MeOH-acetone, MeOH-CHCls, MeOH- 760 mm 20 2 333
CsHs, acetone-CHCla, acetone-CsHs, CHClrCsHs
Carbon oxysulfide, COS Methanol Satn point - 7 8 . 5 to 0 1 681
Ethanol 1 20 2 378
Paraffin oil 1 20 2 378
Green, spindle, and solar oil 30-100 0 19
Titanium tetrachloride 1 0-100 1 675
Carbon disulfide, CSZ Water, saline, urine, whole blood, blood plasma, red cells, 5-90 ppm in air 37 1 409
bile
Methanol Satn point -78.5 to 0 1 681
Ethanol, acetone 4.2-8.7 mm 25-35 2 27
Green, spindle, and solar oil 30 to 100 0 19
Chlorine monoxide, ClzO Water 1-88 mm 3 . 5 to 20 2 550
Water (nomograph) 132
Aqueous HOC1 1-11 3.5 1 508
Chlorine dioxide, ClOz Water 0-40 1 274
10-150 mm 10-45 2 305
Carbon tetrachloride 30-125 mm 20 2 305
10-76.5% acetic acid s o h 58-158 mm 20 2 305
9.7-79.170 H2SO4 40-170 mm 20 2 305
Boron tri5uoride, BFa n-Pentane 3-7 49-93 1 88
Benzene, toluene 1 23-47 2 643
Anisole, phenetole, 2,2-dichlorodiethyl ether 1 5-170 1 389
Nitrobenzene 5-25 0 78
Sulfuric acid 1 5-170 1 389
H F , liquid 0-68 24-98 2 418
Dihorane, BzHa n-Pentane 0.5-5 0-55 1 405
Diethyl ether 1.5-7.7 0-60 1 163
Tetrahydrofuran 0-4 7-50 1 163
Dimethyl ether of diethylene glycol, di-t-butyl sulfide 5-315 mm 0-30 1 671
2-5.4% NaBH4 in dimethyl ether of diethylene glycol 4-300 mm 30 1 671
Ethyl Cellosolve, 2,2-dichlorodiethyl ether, nitrobenzene, 0.1-35 mm 5-50 1 145
PFM-4F, paraffin oil
Hydrides: SiH4, GeHd, Ethyl Cellosolve, 2,2-dichlorodiethyl ether, nitrobenzene, 0.1-35 mm 5-50 1 146
SnHd, SbHa, H2Se PFM-4F, p a r a 5 n oil
Water vapor Hydrocarbon slack wax (av mol wt 345) 1-10 (Kp/cm*) 140-300 2 473
Triethylenetetramine, tetraethylenepentamine, methylated H20 equil point 32.2 0 111
triethylenetetramine. triacetyltrimethyltriethylenetetram- a t 4.5O
ine, hexamethylenediamine, N,N-dimethylacetamide,
ethylene glycol, glycerol, carbitol, dimethyl ether of tetra-
ethylene glycol, triethyl phosphate
Hydrogentsulfide Water 0-200 mm 0-60 1 58
20 0 226
Methanol To 0.085 -30 to 30 0 46
Low pressure -78.5 to 0 1 681
15-480 mm -78.5 to 0 1 680
n-Pentane 6.8-88 5-170 1 491
n-Decane 6.8-81 5-170 1 492
Cyclohexane 100-800 mm 10-40 1 615
Spindle, green, and solar oil 30-100 0 19
Benzene To 48 25-175 0 367
Ethyl Cellosolve, chlorex, nitrobenzene, PFMC-4F, paraffin 0.1-35 mm 5-50 1 145
oil
Sulfur 1 126-444 1 180
3.0-5.0 177-260 1 510
15.3% Monoethanolamine in HnO 1-840 mm 40-140 2 283
Aq ammonia 20 0 226
Aq phenol 20 0 226
A q HC1, ZnClz, and FeClx soln 0 290
446 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

TABLE v (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Hydrogen chloride 24 alcohols 1 0-18 0 202
43 solvents (15 alcohols, 8 acids, 20 esters) 1 2-67 2 203
25 solvents (19 ethers, 6 glycols) 1 0-60 2 212
17 solvents (12 esters, 4 ethers, 1 alcohol) 1 0-5 1 2 213
Tetramethox ysilane 1 0 2 204
Tetraethoxysilane 1 1 2 204
Tetrapropoxysilane, ethanol, 2-chloroethanol, ethyl carbon- 1 0 2 204
ate, ethyl chloroformate
19 solvents (14 alcohols, phenol, 4 esters) 1 0-63 2 207
35 solvents (15 esters, 8 halides, 7 alcohols, 4 silanes, n- 1 -78 t o 51 2 208
decane)
Tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydropyran. diethyl ether, PrrO, 1 -70 t o 0 1 587
BuzO, diethyl sulfide, ethyl nitrate, n-heptane, CClr
Dioxane 1 -43 t o 0 1 587
Dibenzyl ether, &@'-dichlorodiethylether, o-nitrotoluene, di- 1 -15 to 0 1 587
phenyl ether
Nitrobenzene 1 0 1 587
Anisole 1 -61 to 0 1 587
n-Butyl, n-pentyl, n-hexyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, n-nonyl, n- 1 25 2 251
decyl alcohols
Ethylene glycol T o 0.424 25 I 453
1 10 2 210
HO(CHz)aOH, HO(CHZ)IOH,HO(CHZ)KOH 1 10 2 210
n-Butane 4.4-36 20-82 1 465
2,4,4-triethyl-Z-pentene
2,4,4-Trimethyl-l-pentene, 4-10 mm -78.5 1 77
n-Heptane 29-71 mm -78.5 1 77
n-Hexane 16-82 25 1 454
n-Decane 1 0 2 196
Cyclohexane 20-650 mm 20-40 2 650
100-800 mm 10-40 1 615
Benzene 1.5-570 mm 30 1 529
0.2-0.6 25 1 453
6-463 mm 30-40 1 456
Toluene l o 174 mm -84 t o - 46 1 76
3.8-6.3 mm -78.5 2 75-77
25-215 mm 25 1 455
About 0.05 mole fraction solutions in n-heptane of benzene, 15-70 mm -78.5 1 77
toluene, m-xylene, mesitylene, fluorobenzene, ohloroben-
zene, hromohemene, iodobenzene, t-butylbenzene, iso-
propylbenzene, ethylbenzene, trifluoromethylbenzene
About 0.1 mole fraction solutions in toluene of benzene, m- 2-6 mm -78.5 1 7.577
xylene, p-xylene, mesitylene, hemimellitene, pseudocum-
ene, chlorobenzene
About 0.1 mole fraction solutions in toluene of n-heptane. 1- 2-6 mm -78.5 1 77
octene, 2,4.4-trimethyl-l-pentene,2,4,4-trimethyl-Z-pen-
tene, cyclohexene, o-xylene, 1,3,3,4-tetramethylbenzene,
1,2,3,5-tetramethylbenzene, tetrachloroethylene, thiophene
Fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobenzene 30-290 mm 25 1 456
Chlorobenzene 23-250 mm 30-40 1 456
1-60 20-250 1 586
CHCls, CClr 120-700 mm Ck25 2 263
CHCls, CClr, CzH4C1zr CzHzC14 1 20-40 0 684
&,%Dichloroethyl ether, anisole 10-500 mm 20-40 2 457
Phenetole, n-butyl phenyl ether, diphenyl ether To 500 mm 10-30 1 458
Diamyl ether, diisopropyl ether, dibutyl ether, CzHsOCHz- 1 10 2 209
CsHs, CHaOCHiCsHs, CIHQOCHZCEHK, (ClCHz)zO,
(ClCH?CH?hO. (CaHs)%O,diisoamyl ether, CHaOCsHs,
(CsHsCH320, (ClCHzCHzCH?)zO, CzHsOCeH,
Nitrobenzene 4-400 mm 20-40 1 456
0.4-0.7 25 1 453
m-Nitrotoluene 14-167 rnm 25 1 454
To 500 mm 25-35 1 458
a-Nitrotoluene 32-340 mm 25 1 454
Thiophene, tetrahydrothiophene, phenyl sulfide, diphenyl 1 0 2 196
sulfide, n-butyl sulfide, di-n-butyl sulfide, isopropyl sul-
fide, diisopropyl sulfide
AlCla in toluene 0.5-230 mm -84 to - 4 5 2 76

Hydrogen bromide 2-Chloroethanol 1 4-39 2 113

2,2,2-Trichloroethanol 1 0-26 2 213
n-Pentyl borate 1 0-34 2 213
Ethanoi 25 1 151
n-Butane. n-hexane, AlBra solutions in n-butane and n-hex- 0-2 5-25 1 192
ane
n-Decane 1 0 2 196
n-Hexane, n-octane, n-decane 50-700 mm 25-45 1 59
Benzene. toluene 80-430 mm 25 1 485
 OF GASESIN LIQUIDS
SOLUBILITY 447

TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
CHCla. CCI4 155-665 mm 0-2 5 2 263
0- and m-nitrotoluene 20-500 mm 25 1 455
Thiophene, tetrahydrothiophene, phenyl sulfide, n-butyl sul- 1 0 2 196
fide, di-n-butyl sulfide, isopropyl sulfide, diisopropyl sul-
fide, diphenyl sulfide

Hydrogen iodide Thiophene, tetrahydrothiophene, isopropyl sulfide, diiso- 1 0 2 196

propyl sulfide, n-butyl sulfide, di-n-butyl sulfide, phenyl
sulfide, diphenyl sulfide, n-decane
Ammonia Water (nomograph) 133,137
Methanol, ethanol 0-30 0 240
Ethanol 7.5-10.4 mm 25-35 1 27
n-Propyl and isopropyl alcohols 0-3 5 0 241
Human blood plasma 1 mm 1-42 1 275
Phosphine Water 118-650 mm 27-50 1 639
Water solutions of NaCI, NaOH, and HiSol 325 mm 24.5 1 639
Xylene isomers 1 - 15 t o 20 0 311
Phenyl chloride 1 0 0 311
Benzene, toluene, CdCla. CzHiClr, kerosene 1 20 0 311
Arsine Water 200 0-26 1 286
1 7-21 1 113
Blood, blood serums 200 mm 21 1 286
Aqueous solutions of NaC1, NazS04, NaOH, HzSO4, glycol 200 mm 20 1 286
Monoethanolamine, triethanolamine 1 12 1 113
H C N , methyl nitrile, ethyl nitrile, n-propyl nitrile 1 14 1 113
Tetralin, acetone, CHiCli, CHCla, CCI4, CeHCla, CzH&lz, 1 25 1 113
C*H?Clr
Hydrasoic acid, HN: Water 2-229 mm 0-50 2 150
Nitric oxide, NO Methyl alcohol 1 0-30 2 498
Cyclohexane 100-800 mm 10-40 1 615
Aqueous solutions of CuSO4, CuCln, MnSO4, Hap&, cOs04, 1 20 0 480
NiSO4, Cun(NHd,Clz, NazSO4 +
NaOH, FeSO4, FeCli
Aqueous solutions of FeSO4, FeClr 1 10-90 0 480
Aqueous solutions of FeSO4 0 199
Nitrose liquid 40-95 0 612
Nitrous oxide, NIO Mater 36 2 278
%-Heptane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, benzene, CCh, CSe 0-40 2 669
Blood 36-37 2 278
37 2 241A
37.5 0 122
Aqueous solutions of bovine serum albumin, bovine hemo- 37 1 434
globin, bovine -,-globulin, bovine j3-globulin
Aqueous solutions of egg albumin, gelatin, serum, serum al- 10-40 0 567
bumin, hydrated Fe and A1 oxides
Various homogenized tissues 37 2 17
37 1 89
Aqueous solutions of KCl, KNOa, NaCl, NazSO4, Mg(NOs)r, 0-40 2 39 1
MgS04
Xitrogen dioxide, N o t Water 17-20 0 64
Nitroglycerin 100-900 mm 20-80 0 590
Nitrosyl chloride, NOCl Cyclohexane 100-800 mm 10-40 1 615
Sulfur hexafluoride, SFs Water 1 11-30 1 430
1 0-25 1 197
Isooctane 1 10-30 2 322
n-Heptane, cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, benzene, tolu- 1 8-33 2 15
ene, CCIiFCClFz, SiClr, CClr
+Heptane, isooctane, benzene, CClnFCClzF, CaH&zFs, I 25 2 254
CCh, cse
n-Ferfluoroheptane 1 4-30 2 322
Carbon disulfide 1 15-3 1 2 322
Nitromethane 1 0-2 5 1 197
Polyethylene, hydropol, and natural rubber 1 26 1 414
Homogenized lung tissue 1 si 1 89
Water saturated w i t h nitromethane 1 25 1 197
Aqueous solutions of NaCl, LiCl. HC1, KCl, NHICl, BaCla, 1 25 1 430
NazSOi. K I , KBr, KNOa, NMerI, NEtcBr
Sulfur dioxide, SO, Water 50-1445 mm 25-115 2 44
To 0.0038 10-32 1 467
Water (nomograph) 129, 130,
134,
135
448 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

TABLE
V (Continued)
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Ethanol 4.7-6.8 mm 2545 1 27
1-Heptanol 2-20 25-93 1 8
Methyl acetate 25 1 238
Ethyl laurate 1.4-19 25-93 1 8
Benzene 1.2-2.7 26 2 273
Solar, spindle, and green oil 30-100 0 19
Acetone 25 1 238
Tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether, N,N-dimethylaceta- 1.4-19 25-93 1 8
mide, N,N-dimethylformamide, 2-octanone, nitrobenzene
Dimethyl sulfoxide 0 574
Titanium tetrachloride 1 0-100 1 676
Aqueous solutions:
ZnSOi 1 20-100 1 276
NaHSOa 1 20-90 2 348
NaHSOs 0 193
NHa 0-800 mm 15-30 2 148
NHs 100-750 mm 4.5-25 1 394
Ca(HS0a)r 70-760 mm 10-25 0 644
Mg(HSOa), 729 mm 35 1 102
HIS04 To 0.0038 10-32 1 467
Oleum 1 20-60 1 419

Osmium tetroxide, Os04 Nitromethane 1 25 1 197

Uranium hexafluoride, UFs Heavy oils 0-0.16 93 1 357

Methylsilane Methyl trichlorosilane 1-25 -20 to 50 1 552

Organic Vapors
Methanol 12 solvents, iccluding amines, amides, nitriles, and glycols Vap press a t 4,5' 32 2 111

Ethanol Triethylenetetramine, methylated triethylenetetramine, Vap press a t 4. K o 32 2 111

hexamethylenediamine, N,N-dimethylacetamide, ethylene
glycol, triethyl phosphate

n-Propyl alcohol Triethylenetetramine, hexamethylenediamine Vap press a t 4.5O 32 2 111

Isopropyl alcohol Triethylenetetramine, hexamethylenediamine Vap press a t 4.5O 32 2 111

n-Butyl alcohol Triethylenetetramine, hexamethylenediamine Vap press a t 4.5" 32 2 111

see-Butyl alcohol Triethylenetetramine, hexamethylenediamine Vap press a t 4.5O 32 2 111

&Butyl alcohol Triethylenetetramine, hexamethylenediamine Vap press a t 4.5O 32 2 111

Benzene Ethanol, acetone <2 mm 25-35 2 27

Aq 1 N KCI, KI, N M e J , NEtrRr 25 1 430

Phenyl chloride Ethanol, acetone <1 mm 25-35 2 27

Carbon tetrachloride Ethanol 1.0-1.7 mm 25-35 1 27

Acetone Water 2-240 mm 15-45 1 464

Ink and lube oils 10-140 mm 15-35 1 464

Nitromethane Olive oil 3-12 mm 20 0 383

Methylamine Water, ethylene glycol, glycerol, diethylene glycol Vap press at 4.5O 32 2 111

Diethylamine Ethylene glycol, glycerol Vap press at 4.5O 32 2 111

n-Propylamine n-Octyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, glyc- 106 mm 32 2 111
erol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol

Isopropylamine Ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol 223 mm 32 2 111

n-Butylamine Ethylene glycol, di-, tri-, and tetraethylene glycol, hexa- 24 mm 32 2 111
methylenediamine, triethylenetetramine

Isobutylamine Ethylene glycol 45 mm 32 2 111

sec-Butylamine Ethylene glycol 57 mm 32 2 111

Mixtures of Gases
He + CH4 Water 200-600 25 0 441
Ar + Nt Sea water 1 0-27 2 41
Ar + Nt Liq NHa 25-100 0-2 5 0 118
Ar + Ns Liq NHa 50-75 1 116
Ar + CH4 Water 291-485 25 0 443
Ar + CHI Liq NHs 0 112
Ht + On Water 36-82 149 0 683
HI + Nt Liq NH8 150-800 - 10 to 50 0 63
 OF GASES
SOLUBILITY IN LIQUIDS 449

V (Continued)
TABLE
Measure-
ment
value
Pressure, Temp, (see
Gases Solvent atm OC section VI) Ref
Ha + Nt Liq NHs 100-500 -50 to 50 0 361
Ha + CO Hydrocarbons 0 9
Hz + COz Water 25-300 25 0 679
Hz + COz Methanol To 60 - 45 0 561
Hz + Kz + CO Diesel fuels 3-40 25-50 1 368
Hz + 02 + CO Diesel fuels 3-40 25-51) 1 368
Nz, 02,COz, CaHs, CaHia Paraffin oil 0 377
Nz + COP Kater 25-300 25 0 679
Nz + GO2 Water and a q KzSO4, KzCOa, KOH, KzCOa-KHCOs 0 214
Nz + COP Crude oils 0-300 50 0 519
Nz + CHI Diesel fuels 3-40 25-50 1 368
Nz + CH4 .4q NaCl and CaClz 50 4-45 0 376
Nz + CH4 + CzHs + CSHs Aq CaCh and NaCl 1-3 4-45 0 376
+ C4Hio
Nz + COz + CnH8 Crude oils 0-300 100 0 519
COi + HzS Water 20 0 226
COz + HzS Monethanolamine in water 1-3000 mm 40-140 2 283
COZ + CSZ, coz + cos Over piperidine or morpholene-satd kerosene 1 236
COZ + CHd, COZ + CZH4, Crude oil 0-300 50 0 519
COz + CH4 + CaHs, C o t
+ CzHd + CnHa
NzO + Nz0 + ether Blood 1 37 1 241.4
. + CzHa
02,
CHI + C ~ H I O
CHI Crude oil High press 0 607
CsHs + CdHa Paraffin oil 180-700 mm 20 1 377
Natural gas Crude oil 200 0 627
Natural gas Water 1 0-70 0 438

TABLEVI
SOLUBILITY DATAFOR GASES IN MOLTEN
SALTS .4ND GLASSES
Measure-
ment
value
Temp, (see
Geeem Solvent Pressure OC section V I ) Ref
Helium 3 Na-Ca glasses and 7 alkali glasses 1 atm 1200-1480 1 435
Binary and ternary glass melts 1200-1480 0 546
2 lithium silicate glasses 1 atm 1400 1 545
Pyrex glass 25-515 0 506
Sodium disilicate 10 mm 800 1 444
Pyrex 774 10 mm 1170 1 444
KC1 646-698 mm 900,1300 0 201
Gabbrodiabase 513, 716 mm 1300 0 301
LiF-BeFs (64:36 mole %) 1-2 a t m 500-800 1 635
NaF-ZrFc (53:47 mole %) 0.4-2 a t m 600-800 1 232
NaF-ZrFa-UFb (50:46:4 mole %) 0.2-2 atrn 600-800 1 232
LiF-NaF-KF (46.5:11.5:42.0 mole yo) 1-2 atrn 600-800 1 50

Neon LiF-BeFz (64:36 mole %) 1-2 a t m 500-800 1 635

NaF-ZrF, (53:47 mole %) 1-2 atm 600-800 1 232
LiF-NaF-KF (46.5:11.5:42.0 mole %) 1-2 atm 600-800 1 50

Argon Sodium dirilicate 10 mm 800 1 444

Pyrex 774 10 mm 1170 1 444
LiF-BeFz (64:36 mole %) 1-2 atrn 500-800 1 635
NaF-ZrF, (53:47 mole %) 0.5-2 a t m 600-800 1 232
LiF-NaF-KF (46.5:11.5:42.0mole %) 1-2 atrn 600-800 1 50

Xenon LiF-BeF, (64:36 mole %) 1-2 a t m 600-800 1 635

NaF-ZrF, (53:47 mole %), NaF-ZrFrUF4 (50:46:4 mole %) 1-2 atm 600-800 1 232

Hydrogen Molten slag 1400- 1800 451

Sodium disilicate 10 mm 800 444
Pyrex 774 10 mm 1170 444
NaOH, KOH 100-800 psia 410-500 589

Nitrogen NaNOa, KNOa, CsNO: 1 atrn 3OC-400 195

Oxygen Sodium disilicate 10 mm 800 1 444

Pyrex 774 10 mm 1170 1 444
NaNO8. KNOs. CsNOa 1 atm 300-400 195
Chlorine NaCl, KC1, MgClz 1 atm 800-1050 511
1 :1 KCl-NaCI, NaCl-MgCln,~KC1-MgCIz 1 atm 565-1050 511
Carbon dioxide Glass 1 atm 1100-1315 385
NaCl. KCl I atm 810-950 233,346
450 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

T ~ B LVI
E (Continued)
Meaaure-
ment
value
(see
Gaser Solvent Pressure Temp, OC section VI) Ref
Hydrogen fluoride NaF-ZrFI (53:47,45:55,80.5:19.5 mole %) 0,5-3 atm 550-800 1 553
Water vapor Binary and ternary glasses 1250-1750 0 546
Sodium silicate 0.08-1atm 900-1100 1 602
LiC1-KC1 /50:50,53:47, 60:40,69:31 mole yo) 3-26 mm 390-480 1 82.83
Alkali nitrates and perchlorates To 60 mm 145-290 1 154
NaNOa, KNOa, CsNOa 16-21 mm 300-400 1 195
CSNO~-B~(NOJ)Z (95.7:4.3 mole %) 16-21 mm 391 1 195
KNOs-Ba(NOa)t (99:1,96:4 mole %) 332 1 195
KNOrKzCrzO7 (98:2 mole %) 329 1 195
NaNOsCa(N0a)z (96:4mole %) 299 1 195

Sulfur trioxide Glass 900 0 45

Boron trifluoride LiF-BeFrZrFcThFrUFd (65:28:5:1: 1 mole %) 1.2-1.9 atm 500-700 1 554

TABLEVI1
SOLUBILITY
DATAFOR GASESIN MOLTEN
METALSA N D ALLOYS
BY IKCREASING
(ARRANGED ATOMICNUMBER
OF THE METAL)
Metal Gas Pressure Temp, "C Ref
Lithium Nitrogen 250-300 257
250-400 256
Oxygen 121-204 257
250-400 256
Sodium Oxygen 130-540 448
Magnesium Hydrogen 550-775 326
760 528
Aluminum Hydrogen 1 atm 660-1050 158
1 atm 700-1000 33
1 atm 670-850 489
50-800 mm 700-1000 462
200-600 mm 700-900 258
Silicon Oxygen 1410 1
Chromium Hydrogen 1 atm 1903 636
Nitrogen 1 atm 1600,1700 638
1 atm 1600-1750 432
... 433
Manganese Nitrogen 1 atrn 1300-1450 26
1 atm 1273-1500 225
1 atm 1600,1700 638
Iron Hydrogen 1 atm 1680-2460 354
1 atm 1536-1820 636
664
1 atrn 1580-1670 537
1560,1655 665
1 atm 1600 86
Mp to hp 355
1 atm 1592 637
1 atm 1556-1744 370
10-40 mm 1560,1685 296
20-40 mm 1275-1420 356
Nitrogen 1 atm 1550-1700 535
1 atm 1600 86
1 atm 1600 298
To 4 atm 1560 538
10-30 mm 1550-1750 295
1 atrn 1550-1700 159
M p and up 242
1 atm 1600 598
1530-1750 521
Oxygen Satd FeO slag 1510-1760 536
1530-1700 186
1 atm 1560-1700 595
Satd FeO 1535-1670 598
Satd FeO 1550-1650 245
Satd Si02 or MnO 1550-1650 246
Satd FsO 1530-1700 184
H r H z 0 equil 372
H r H z 0 equil 1600,1650 380
Satd Si02 1525-1725 534
Cobalt Hydrogen 1 atm 1592-1758 636
Oxygen 1 atm 1490-1700 595
Nickel Hydrogen 1 atm 1523-1709 636
1 atm 1500-1600 537
1 atm 1600 86
Nitrogen 1 atm 1600,1700 638
 OF GASESIN
SOLUBILITY LIQUIDS

TABLEVI1 (Continued)
Metal Gas Pressure Temp, OC Ref
Oxygen 1 atm 1450-1690 65
1470-1720 182
1 atm 1465-1700 595
Satd NiO 1450-1691 663
C 0 4 0 equil 1726-1970K 65
524
Copper Hydrogen 1 atm 945-1100 636
Mp-1400 306
5-760 mm 11OC-1300 43
Sulfur dioxide 100-760 mm 1150,1240 279
1-760 m m 1100-1300 190
189
Zinc Hydrogen 306
258
Kitrogen 448 258
Silver Krypton 281
Cadmium Krypton 1 atm 1100-1 150 280
Hydrogen 306
Indium Krypton 1 atm 1000-1300 280
Tin Krypton 1 100-1 300 281
Hydrogen 1 atm 1000-1300 43
Mercury Helium High press 20-140 431
Hydrogen M p and u p 306
Lead Krypton 800-1300 281
Hydrogen 516 258
Oxygen Satd PbO-Si02 1000 126
Air a t m 400-900 525
Satd PbO-SiOp 1000-1194 500
Air atm 350-800 30
Bismuth Xenon 540 171
Alloys
Fe + V, Fe + B n2 1560,1655 665
Fe + Ni Hz 1 atm 1400,1600 304
Be + Cr n? 1 atm 1400,1600 304
Fe + Xi H2 1 atm 1600 86
Ni + Co H2 1 atm 1600 86
Fe + Co Hz 1 atm 1600 86
Steel Hz 1600 658
Fe alloys with Al, B, C, Co, Cu, Ge, P H? 1 atm 1592 637
Cu-Zn Ha 306
A1-Cr, A1-Fe, A1-Th, A1-Ti, AI-Sn Hz 1 atm 33
Cu-Sn Ht 5-760 mm 1100-1300 43
Fe-Si H2 1 atm 370
Fe-Ti, Fe-Nb. Fe-Ta H2 10-40 mm 1560,1685 296
Mg--41, Mg-Zn H2 760 528
AI-Cu, Al-Si H2 700-1000 462
Fe with C, Mn and Si H? 20-40 mm 1275-1420 356
Fe-V N2 1 atm 1.580 33 1
Mn-Fe, Mn-Si Na 1 atm 1410-1 660 25
Fe alloys with Cr, Co, Nb, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, h-2 1 atm 1600 472
Si, T a , Sn, W, and V
Fe-Mn N2 1 atm 1245-1050 34
Fe alloys with Co, Cu, Ni, C , Rlo, Si, S, and Se Na 1 atm 1550-1650 535
Fe-Ni, Fe-Co NZ 1 atm 1600 86
Fe-Mo-V Na 1 atm 1600-1900 298
Fe-Ni, Fe-Mo, Fe-V N2 1 atm 1600-1800 298
Fe-V ?;a 1580-1650 332
Fe containing P and 0 N2 75-570 mrn 1600 185
Fe-Mn, Fe-Si, Fe-Mo N2 T o 4 atm 1560 538
Steel N2 Variable 1600 658
Fe-Si N? 10-30 mm 1550-1750 295
Fe-C, Fe-41 N2 1atm 1550 159
Fe-Cr, Fe-V N? 1 atm 73
Welding alloys NZ 1550-1600 48
hln-Fe, Mn-Cr, Ni-Cr N Z 1 atm 1600,1700 638
Fe with small amounts of C, Si, Mn, Cr, Ni NZ 1530-1750 521
Fe-Mn, Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni (entire range of compn) Nz 153O-1750 521
Fe-Cr, Fe-Mn, Fe-Ni NZ 1600 521
Cr-Si NZ 1 atm 1600-1750 432
Cr-Si N2 433
Fe-Cr N? 512, 735 mm 15.50.1670 350
Fe containing S 0 2 1550,1600 523
NE-K 0 2 20-176 448
Fe-S O? 1550-1600 87
Fe-Ni 0 2 1470-1720 182
Fe-Si 0 2 1 atm 1600 264
Fe-Cr 0 2 A t m press 1650-1760 125
Steel 02 Variable press 1600 658
Fe-A1 02 Satd FeO 1550-1650 245
Fe-Si, Fe-Mn, Fe-Si-Mn 0 2 Satd Si02 or MnO 1550-16RO 246
Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni 0 2 H r H 2 0 equil 1625 371
452 RUBINBATTINO CLEVER
AND H. LAWRENCE

TABLE
VI1 (Continued)
.4iloy GrtB Pressure Temp, OC Ref
Fe-Cr, Fe-Ni 02 H r H z O equil 372
Fe-Cr, Fe-&Ni 0 2 H r H z O equil 47
Ni-Fe O Air atm or satd NiO 1450-1691 663
Fe-CrP. Fe-Ni-P 01 H r H z O equil 1500-1650 365
Fe-Ti 02 HpHzO equil 1600,1650 380
Fe-P 02 HI-HzO equil 1500-1650 366
Fe-Ni 02 524
Cu-Xi 0 1 H r H z O equil 1380-1620 596

TABLEVI11
PARTIAL OF GASES
MOLALVOLUMES IN LIQUIDS
Pressure,
Gasen Solvent Temp, OC atm Ref
Helium Water (hydrostatic pressure) 25 1-102 169
Liquid methane -183, -167 To 160 229
Argon Water (hydrostatic pressure) 1-25 1-102 169
Isooctane, methylcyclohexane, toluene, perfluoromethylcyclo- 25 1 282
hexane, carbon tetrachloride, bromoform, carbon disulfide
n-Hexane, n-octane, methanol 30 100 397
Hydrogen Water 25-100 324
Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, ethyl ether, chlorobenzene, 25 1 261
CCL
Liquid methane -183 to -146 180-220 177
Methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, butane -183 to -4 Highpress 37
n-Hep tane, n-o ct ane 25-50 50-300 352
n-Octane, benzene 130-260 To 150 101
Cyclohexane 20-60 700 337
Benzene, toluene, n-perfluoroheptane 25 1 282,633
Benzene 25 27-775 340
Liquid argon -186 to -133 630
Deuterium +Heptane, n-octane 25 to 50 50-300 352
Benzene, toluene, n-perfluoroheptane 25 1 282,633
Liquid argon -186 to -153 630
Nitrogen Water 0 1 359
'Water (hydrostatic pressure) 25 1-102 169
Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, ethyl ether, chlorobenzene, 0, 25 1 261
CCL
n-Hexane 30 100 397
Benzene 25 27-775 340
n-Peitluoroheptane 25 1 220
Oxygen Water 0 1 359
Water 25 1-102 169
Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, ethyl ether, chlorobenzene, 0, 25 1 261
CCL
Air Water, methanol 25 1 336
Chlorine +Heptane 0, 25 1 219
Methane Water 38-170 324
Water 17-36 1 396
Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, ethyl ether, chlorobenzene, 0, 25 1 261
CCL
n-Hexane, n-heptane, isooctane 27 1 548
n-Hexane, n-perfluoroheptane, carbon disulfide 25 1 220
Ethane Water 38-170 324
Water 17-30 1 396
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, CC14 10-40 1 261
n-Hexane, n-perfhoroheptane, carbon disulfide 0-25 1 220
Propane Water 38-170 324
Water 17-30 1 396
Ethylene Water, benzene, methanol, tetrahydrofuran 25-150 To 193 253
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, CCL 10-40 1 261
 SOLUBILITY
OF GASESIN LIQUIDS 453

VIII (Continued)
TABLE
Pressure,
Gases Solvent Temp, OC stm Ref
Acetylene Water, benzene, methanol, acetone 10-40 29 316
Water, benzene, methanol, tetrahydrofuran 20-45 To 39 253
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, CCl4 10-40 1 261
21 solvents -20 to +20 3.5-14 516
Dimethyl ether Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, CC4 25 1 261
Methyl chloride Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, CC4, chloro- 25 1 261
form
Carbon monoxide Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, ethyl ether, chlorobenzene, 0, 25 1 261
cc4
Carbon dioxide Water 0 1 359
Water (hydrostatic pressure) 25 1-102 169
Water, methanol 0-50 1 336
Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, C c 4 25 1 261
Nitrous oxide Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, cc14 25 1 261
Sulfur dioxide Methyl acetate, benzene, acetone, chlorobenzene, cc14 10-40 1 261
Sulfur hexafluoride n-Heptane, isooctane, benzene, CCL, CC12FCCl?F, CeH11C2Fb, 25 1 254
cs2
Carbon t,etrafluoride n-Heptane, isooctane, benzene, CClr 27 1 548

of the experimental values for all the metals except lead formation is arranged by gas and is included since it is
for which H was 12 kcal/mole too large. The calculated not only interesting in its own right but is valuable for
vibrational entropies agreed within experimental error. the use and evaluation of theories of gas solubility.
DATA
VI. SOLUBILITY ACKNOWLEDGMENT.-ThiS investigation Was SUP-
ported in part by a PHS Grant No. GM12071 from
This section concerns four tables. Table V is ar-
the National Institutes of Health, Public Health
ranged according to gas, giving the solvent employed,
Service. The authors take pleasure in acknowledging
the temperature and pressure range of the measure-
the early interest, encouragement, and advice of
ments, and a reference. I n addition, a critical value
Professors P. M. Gross and J. H. Saylor.
was assigned to each measurement: 2-the data are
quantitative and the precision is probably better
VII. REFERENCES
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454 RUBINBATTINO
AND H. LAWRENCE
CLEVER

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L., J . Am. Chem. SOC.,86, 508 (1964). (677) Zellhoefer, G. F., Ind. Eng. Chem., 29, 548 (1937).
(641) Wetlaufer, D. B., and Lovrien, R., J . Biol. Chem., 239,596 (678) Zellhoefer, G. F., Copley, M. J., and Marvel, C.S., J. Am.
(1964). Chem. SOC.,60, 1337 (1938).
(642) Wheatland, A. B., and Smith, L. J., J . Appl. Chem., 5, 144 (679) Zelvenskii, Ya. D., Russ. J . Phys. Chem., 13, 514
(1955). (1939).
(643) Wheeler, C. M., Jr., and Keating, H. P., J. Phys. Chem., (680) Zelvenskii, Ya. D., and Strunina, A. V., Gaz. Prom., 5 , 42
58, 1171 (1954). (1960).
(644) White, C. K., Jr., Vivian, J. E., and Whitney, R. P., Paper (681) Zelvenskii, Ya. D., and Strunina, A. V., Gaz. Prom., 5 , 47
Trade J., 126, 46 (1948). (1960).
(645) Whitney, R. P., and Vivian, J. E., Ind. Eng. Chem., 33,741 (682) Zhuze, T. P., and Safronova, T. P., Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
(1941). Otd. Tekhn. Nauk, 104 (1953).
(646) Whitney, R. P., and Vivian, J. E., Tech. Assoc. Papers, 24, (683) Zhuze, T. P., and Zhurba, A. S., Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
435 (1941). Otd. Khim. Nauk, 364 (1960).
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31 (1941). (685) Zorin, A. D., Ezheleva, A. E., and Devyatykh, G. G.,
(648) Wiebe, R., Chem. Rev., 29,475 (1941). Zovodsk. Lab., 29 (6), 659 (1963); Chem. Abstr., 59,
(649) Wiebe, R., and Gaddy, V. L., J . Am. Chem. SOC.,62, 815 8181 (1963).
(1940). (686) Zoss, L. M., Suciu, S. N., and Sibbitt, W. L., Trans. Am.
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 of chrof?zatugruphy, 158 (1978) 277-293
Journal
8 Ekevier ScientificPublishing Company, Aiimerdain

CHROM. ll.148

THE ROLE OF DISSOLVED GASES IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE. LIQUID

CHROMATOGRABHY

S. R BAKALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY and R HONGANEN

+ctra-Physics,~ 2905 Stender Way, Santa Ciara, Calif. 95051 (U.S.A.)

SUMMARY

Dissolved gases are usually present as components of the mobile phase in high-
performance liquid chromatography. Each gas has its unique properties and af&ts
the chromatographic system in different ways_
The solubility in pure and mixed solvents is explored experimentally and
compared with data already in the literature. It is found that the non-linear solubility
characteristics in binary solvent systems account for the observed evolution of large
quantities of gas when air-saturated solvents are mixed in chromatographs. The de-
gassing requirements in one-pump, low-pressure-mixing gradient ar&itectures are
compared with those of conventional two-pump, high-pressure-mixing systems.
Dissolved oxygen affects detector performance in several ways. It forms a UV
light-absorbing complex with many solvents. Changes in oxygen concentration there-
fore cause W detector drift. The magnitude of this effect varies markedly with dif-
ferent solvents, and is particularly pronounced at wavelengths below 260 nm. Dis-
solved oxygen quenches fluorescence of both solvents and solutes. As a consequence,
fluorescence detector drift and responsivity depend on oxygen concentrations. Max-
imum fluorescence sensitivity can only be achieved with deoxygenated mobile phases.
Because of these facts,? analytical precision requires that gas concentrations
be carefully controlled. The various control techniques are discussed : heating, boiling,
vacuum, ultrasonics and gas sparging. A new method of helium degassing is described
which eliminates bubble formation and maintains the level of all other gases at zero
concentration.
._

INTRODU~ ON

Because air is ubiquitous, the gases which comprise it tend to be found in

high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) mobile phases. Their presence ac-
counts for a variety of effects, many of which interfere with sensitive, precise, trouble-
free chromatographic analysis. Although some of these problems have. been under-
stood for some time, others have received scant attention. There is little overall
awareness of the important role of gases, and that which dues exist is often based
on misunderstanding.
.-
* Resent address: Rheodyne Inc., 2809 Tenth Street, BerkeIey, Calif. 94710,U.S.A.
278 S. R. BAKALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY, R. HONGANEN

The importance of excluding dissolved oxygen from the mobile phase m order
to protect labile stationary phases has been mentioned in most standard texts on
HpLC1L3. Leitch documented the improved column lifetime and analytical precision
resulting from deoxygenated solvents . Exposure of the liquid-liquid partition column
(3,3-oxydipropionitrile) to dissolved oxygen during constant or heavy use severely
reduced column life.
_ The potential for harm to the mobile phase has also been pointed out*. ~utyl
ether mobile phase was oxidized during handling and storage in the reservoir, forming
peroxides which reacted with the stationary phase and changed its polarity. The
susceptibility of other ethers, such as tetrahydrofuran, may also be a probiem.
SnydcP has counciled about the benefits of excluding oxygen in liquid-solid
(adsorption) chromatography, since sampk oxidation is often increased by the pres-
ence of the adsorbent. A recent example in reversed-phase chromatography de-
scribed the ease with which aniline and its metabolites were oxidized during chro-
mato,orphy, and the improved results with deoxygenated mobile phases compared
to mobile phases to which antioxickts had been added.
The improvement of detector performance resulting from deoxygenating the
mobile phase has also been reported. FOX and Stale9 showed that deoxygenated
mob& phases in polycychc aromatic hydrocarbon analysis produced a limit of de-
tection for benzo[a]pyrene which was nearly four times as sensitive than when air-
saturated mobile phase was used. Different but linear calibration curves were obtained
in the presence and absen.ce of dissolved oxygen. Compared to.pyrene, oxygen quench-
ing of fluorescence is less important in chrysene but more important in benzo- and
dibenzopyrenes. They did not determine how effective or reproducible their deoxy-
genation process was- Chamberlain and Marlow demonstrated that oxygen dissolved
in the mobile phase caused increased noise levels and decreased standing current in
the LC electron capture detector they used.
Perhaps a more generally encountered problem than any of the above is the
occurrence of gas bubbles in the detector1-3. Air dissoked in the carrier at high pres-
sure can subsequently form bubbles in the mobile phase as it passes through the
detector, causing noise and drift. Gas bubbles also aifect pump performance, but
this has not been a serious concern prior to the advent of one-pump, low-pressure-
mixing chromatograph architectures10-13.
Some of the above reports contain misunderstandings about the solubiiity
behavior of air gases. For example, it has been said that the more polar the mobile
phase, the greater the tendency to dissolve air s9. Actually the opposite is true. Water
is the Ieast hospitable solvent for gases. And the bubble problems are attributed to
oxygenx*J*lJ, whereas nitrogen is as much asource of difficulty.
The purpose of this paper is to report new fkiings on gas hehavior of chro-
matographic signifkance, and to describe ways of improving the reliability, sensitivity
and analytical precision of HPLC by careful control of dissolved gases. We will pro-
ceed by (1) reviewing gas solubillty behavior in pure solvents and binary mixtures,
(2) comparing the one-pump, low-pressure-mixing gradient architecture with the two-
pump, high-pressure mixing gradient architecture, as to gas solubility probiems, (3)
describing methods of controlling dissolved gas concentrations, (4) discussing the
opt-cal properties of dissolved ,w so as to explain observed UV and fluorescence
detector artifacts, including UV detector behavior which has not been reported before
DISSOLVED GASES IN HFLC 279

in the chromatographic literature and (5) commenting on other aspects of dissolved

gases, including the effect of carbon dioxide on mobile phase pH and therefore on
the reproducibility of retention times and peak areas.

EXPERIMENTAL

CoZunm, soZwnts and samples

Staidess-steel columns (250 x 3.1 mm I.D.) packed with IO-pm Spherisorb
ODS and 250 x 4.6 mm I.D. stainless-steel columns packed with lo-pm LiChrosorb
RP-8 were used. Both are totally porous, bonded reversed-phase packings which are
respectively octadecyl (C,,) functionality on spherical silica and octyl (C,) functionality
on irregular silica. (Spectra-Physics, Santa Clara, Calif., U.S.A.)
Mobile phases were prepared from distilled-in-glass solvents (Burdick & Jack-
son, Muskegon, Mich., U.S.A.). Water was prepared by a Mini-Q system, fed by
a Milli-RO system, in turn fed by Santa Clara (Calif., U.S.A.) tap water; the Milli-
Q had four cartridges, two mixed-bed ion exchangers followed by two activated carbon
units (Millipore, Bedford, Mass., U.S.A.). Solvents were degassed as indicated in the
,
text.
Sparging gases were high purity grades, exceeding 99.99 mole% purity_ Air
was breathing quality. Samples were from Chem Service (West Chester, Pa., U.S.A.)
and Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wise., U.S.A.). They were dissoIved in water-methanol and
water-acetonitrile mixtures.

Control of flow, composition and temperature

A Spectra-Physics Model SP 8000 research liquid chromatograph and a
Spectra-Physics Model 3500B gradient liquid chromatograph were used. The former
employs a single pump, attached to a low-pressure composition forming module
(ternary proportioning valve). It has &O. 1 C column temperature control via a forced
air oven. The 3500B system employes a dual reciprocating piston pump for solvent
A and an identical but independent one for solvent B. The composition is formed
at high pressure in a dynamically stirred chamber. Temperature control was via a
water bath.
The detectors were Spectra-Physics Model SP 83 10 operated at .254 nm, Model
SP 770 variable-wavelength detector and Model SP 970 fluorescence detector.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Gas solubiZity in pure solvents

The solubilities of gases in liquids have long been an area of active interest
to chemists. Practical concern has been related to such diverse fields as industrial
processes and the composition of artilicial atmospheres. Theoretical concern has been
related to the small solubility and the variety of gases available to use as probes for
the investigation of liquid and solution structure and properties. A number of ex-
cellent review articles exists 15-1*.There are several major sources 19-z1for gas solubility
data in pure solvents in addition to these reviews. Solubility data in mixed solvents
is of course of the greatest interest to the chromatographer since the use of a pure
solvent mobile phase is rare except in exclusion chromatography. Unfortunately, the
280 S. R. BAKALYAR_ M. P. T. B RA DL EY ; R- HONGANEN

data for such realistic mobile phases is scanty, although a few papers exist=-z which
describe the solubility of some air gases-in aqueous alcohol.soluti6n.s.
Before proceeding further it may be instructive to review briefly a few of the
salient facts about gases. Air comprises 78.08 % N,, 20.95% O,, 0.93 % Ar,
0.03% CO, and less than 0.01% other gases. Gases in a mixture behave essentially
independently, the solubility of the individual gases in a mixture of gases being di-
rectly proportional to their partial pressures (Daltons law). Different gases have dif-
ferent solubilities in a given solvent. Different solvents have different solubility prop-
erties towards a given gas. The soIubiIity of gases in liquids usually decrease with
increasing temperature, but there are numerous exceptions and the correlation. of
sohxbility data as a function of temperature is not simple. Gas solubilities in most
solvent mixtures, like so many physical phenomena in non-ideal solutions, are not a
line+r function of the composition expressed in mole fraction_
Fig. 1 shows the solubiiity of several gases in many solvents using data taken
fro& refs. 17 and 18. The solubility is expressed as the moie fraction. A feel for the
magnitude of these values can be gained by realking that the carbon dioxide solubility

Fig. 1. Gas solubilityVS.solventpolarityindex.The solubilityis expressed as molefractionx l (r for

puregasesin equilibriumwith the solventat 1 atm and 25 C. The polarityindexis thesnyderparrsm-
eter. V, COr; 0, Ar; 6,0=; ~3, Nz; 8, He.

of mole fraction 0.01 in benzene is equivalent to about 2.4 ml of carbon dioxide at

1 atm and 25C per ml of benzene: and the nitrogen soiubility of mole fraction
0.00OO14 in water is equivalent to about 16 ~1 of nitrogen at 1 atm and 25C per
m! of water. The solubility of the various gases in the various solvents thus ranges
over _afactor of 1000. The solubility is plotted against solvent polarity, expressed as
Snyders polarity index, Pz6. This solvent characterization parameter is but one of
several which have been proposed recently. It can be compared with the Hildebrand
solubility parameter @So in that values of P roughly parallel values of S, and have
similar sign&ance. However, whereas 6 is measured for the.pure solvent; and only
reflects interactions that exist in the pure solvent, P'. is measured against a variety
 DLss0LvED GASES IN HPLC 281

of solutes that encompass all possibIe types of interaction: The Snyder parameter
therefore may not be the most reasonable one to use if a smooth curve is desired,
but it is employed here since it is currently popular in chromatographic literature12.
The important point to note is that gases, being non-polar, behave .F one would
expect, having increasing solubility as the solvent polarity decreases.
It should be point& out that these solubility values represent the amount of
gas which willjbe found dissolved in the solvent at equilibrium with one atmosphere
of the pure gas over the solvent. So the previously mentioned 2.4 ml.of carbon dioxide
in benzene only exists in a pure carbon dioxide atmosphere. Much less is in the solvent
exposed to air. Hydrogen is not plotted. It falls midway between the helium and
nitrogen curves, except in water, where it is slightly more soluble than nitrogen. The
solubility of the rare gases increases with increasing atomic weight- In water the mole
fractions for He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are 0.07, 0.08, 0.25, 0.45, 0.78 and 1.68,
respectively.
It is clear that water dissoIves the ieast amount of air gases. The common
misconception that it is the best solvent may derive from the fact that gas is often
seen to come out of solution in water. But this may be because, once degassed, it
does not take much gas to redissolve before saturation is reached. The real problem
with regard to gas solubility in HPLC, however, comes with mixed solvents, either
in isocratic mode where two solvents are mixed by the instrument, or in gradient mode.

Gas sohbility in mixed solvents

As previously mentioned, there is not much data in the literature on gas sol-
ubility in mixed solvents. Most data which exists is for water-alcohol &tures, and we
can infer from it what may happen in other binary mixtures of solvents, especially
those binary mixtures where the two solvents interact strongly_
Ben-NaimU studied the solubility of argon in water-methanol systems. A plot
of soIubiIity vs. mole fraction of methanol shows the solubiIity generally increasing
with increasing methanol content as one would expect. However, it goes through a
maximum and then a minimum, especially at low temperature. Cargill and Morrison23
extended the argon study over a wider temperature range, and included water-tert.-
butanol systems. The latter exaggerated the peculiar behavior of alcohol binary mix-_
tures. CargilPJ also studied oxygen and found it to behave like argon. Fig. 2 shows
a few of the solubility curves from the Cargill papep. In the paper the solubility was
expressed by S,,, defined as the volume of gas in ml, corrected to 273 K and 1 atm,
dissolved by 1 kg of solvent, under a gas pressure of 1 atm. In Fig; 2 it is expressed as
mole fraction.
Fig. 2 can be contrasted with Fig. 3, which shows the amotint of gas actually
present in the solution at various mole fractions, starting with the A and B solvents
air saturated. The significant observation is that: when two soIvents, such as water
and ethanol, are at equilibrium with the atmosphere (Le., air saturated) and when
they are blended to form a mixture (such as in gradient elution), supersaturated con-
ditions exist during much of the run, which cause gas to come out of solution until
the concentration is at the allowed saturation level.
Fig. 4 illustrates what happens in a real chromatographic situation. It is a
record of the column inlet pressure during a gradient run of 0 to 100% methanol
in water in 5 min. The pumping system is the Spectra-Physics SP 8000 liquid chro-
 S. R. BAKALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY, R HONGANEN

Fig. 2. Oxygen solubility in aqueous alcohol mixtures: moIe fraction oxygen vs. mole fraction
alcohol. The solubility is expressed as in Fig. 1. The original data of CargiP was plotted in terms of
%,, defmed as the volume of gas in ml, corrected to 0 C and 1 atm, dissolved by 1 kg of solvent, under
a gas pressure of 1 atm, on a logarithmic scaIe. Data reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Fig. 3. Oxygen solubiity vs. oxygen concentration. The actual level represents the amount of oxygen
in the admixtures, starting with air saturated pure water and air saturated pure ethanol. The saturation
level is the-allowed solubility level, the 29.9 C curve from Fig. 2. Note the non-linear behavior,
particularly at the low mole fractions of ethanol.

. -OEGA SSED-

N OT OEGASSEO
IAk !isturated
I

Fig. 4. Bubble formation in pump chambers with undegassed solvents. Cohn%, 250 x 3.1 mm
I.D.; packing, IO-pm Spherisorb ODS; solver& O-100% methanol in 5 min; fiow-I&, 5.0 mi/min;
pressure, as indic&ed; temperature, 25 C. Recorded on the SP 8000 printer/plotterusing the signal
from the pre-coIumn pressure transducer.
DISSOLVEDGASES IN EIPLC .- 283

matograph, which has a single pump with two pump chambers each of 4UO-~l displace-
ment_ The flow feedback control has been turned offso that the pulsation (pressuredip)
at the be ginning of each pump stroke is evident. This pulsation is a measureof the
compliance in the chamber, which in turn is the sum of mechanical elasticity, fluid
compressibility and the compr&sibility of any undissolved gas present.The upper curve
exhibits the expected rise and fall of pressure-during the gradient, which reflects the
viscosity pro& of the gradient mobile phase. The pressurepulses tire uniform, dem-
onstrating that there are no undissolved gas bubbles in the chamber. This curve was
made using solvents which had been helium degassed (see below). The lower curve is
similar, but the pressurepulsesare irregular. The solvents were not degassed,but were
simply equilibrated with air. These irregular pulsesresult from bubbles of gas entering
the pump during the tirst part of the gradient. Later in the gradient, the pressureand
solvent composition are such as to redissolve them. In some cases, especially at low
operating pressures, the pulses persist because the gas never redissolves. Such be-
havior not only causes flow-rate errors, but is deleterious to composition precision.
The bubbles in the above example are formed in the low-pressure ternary
proportioning valve, which mixesthe two pure solventsin the proper proportion during
the run. Fig. 5 diagrams such a system, and compares it with the conventional two-
pump, high-pressure-mixingarchitecture. It is clear that the environment where the
pure solvents are mixed is radically different in the two types. In the conventional
architecture, the solvents are mixed at high pressure, where the solubility is much
higher. Thus gases do not come out of solution at that point. However, if there is
air in the solvents, it will come out of solution when the pressure again reaches one
atmosphere, and sometimes sooner if some gas has been picked up at high pressure
via a small leak in the system. For this reason, a flow restrictor is often put at the
detector outlet, so that only after the detector does the pressure reach a level where
gas bubbles form (see the pressure prosle in Fig. 5).

GQScontrol methods
There .aretwo approaches to g& control. One &rives to eliminate ai1 dissolved
gases, the other to eliminate or control the concentrations of only certain gases. The
former has been the most common approach directed at remedying the various prob-
lems described above, ie., gas bubbles, oxidative degradation of samples and phases,
and detector artifacts. The approach used most often is vacuum d&gassingsz,the
application of a vacuum to the mobile phasejust prior to chromatography. HeatingLs3
and uhrasonic treatment*2ghave also been employed, One of .the gas solubility
review9 has a good discussion of degassing methods. It reports that the most com-
mon method to degas a solvent in non-chromatographic work is to boil away a por-
tion of it under vacuum, a batch binary distillation. The Ramsey-Rayleigh equation
for this type of distillation predicts that the evaporation of as little as 0.1% of the
solvent should reduce the gas content by several l@lO-fold. But the asstimption of
equilibrium is incorrect. In practice W-20 oAof the solvent is evaporated. Other meth-
ods include pumping on the frozen solvent or boiling follqwed by sprasng into an
evacuated.ffask.
Sparging with a pure gas (bubbling it through the solvent) has most frequently
been empIoyed for the elimination of only certain gasesn. Tbis techiliquk, also re-
ferred to as purging or stripping, has been used in gas chromatographic studiesQ_
284 S. R B_A?CALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY, E?AHONGANEN

I
I
I I

Fig_5. Comparisonof one-pumpand two-pumparchitectun~The uppersystemrepresents a two-

pump, high-pressure-mixing
systemsuchas the SP 35OOF.L
The lowersystemrepresentsa one-pump,
low-pressure-mixing
systemsuchas theSP 8000. The pressuredropsappearnon-linearalongthecol-
umn lengthonly becauseit is a semi-logarithmic
plot.

Williams and Milled compared several techniques for purging water: dynamic and
static vacuum, with and without manual and ultrasouic agitation; ultrasonic treat-
ment alone; and purging with an inert gas. The most effective system tested was inert
gas-purging at flow-rates of about 1000ml/min of 100-ml water samples. This tech-
nique removed 95-98 % of the dissolved oxygen in 15-30 set, where the next best
te&nique of dynamic vacuum with agitation took l-2 min to remove the same quan-
tity of gas.
The degassing technique we used was that employed by the SP 8ooOchromato-
graph. This has been briefiy described only O~CX~and is the subject of a patent
application. The method uses helium to sparge all pure solvents (up to three in the
ternary-type mobile phasecontrol system of the chromatograph). It was found that
this is the only gas, with the possible exception of neon, which is capabIe of efimi-
nating all the previously mentioned problems. That is, it not only prevents bubble
formatiori but eliminates all gases except helium from the tiobile phase. (There is
no literature on the helium solubiliq-in binary mixtures.) Our experimental evidence
suggeststwo possible explanationsfor this. The solubilitycurve for helium may be
non&near, like the. oxygen shown in- Fig. 3. Rut the.amount of gas involved may
he so- low, i.e., the absolute-value of the gas volume which is supersaturatedmay
be so smali, that the microbubblesformed do not manifestthemselves.Alternatively,
the solubilitjrcurvemay he nearly -liuear, Ieadingto only ssnallamollntsof gas which
are above the saturationlevel. Both of these may be operating.
.The effectiveness-ofthis techniquefor eliminatingbubble generationduring
low-pressuremixing is illustratedin Fig. 6. This plots the volume of air evolved per
ml of mobile phase formed by mixing two pure, air-saturatedsolvents. A Model
74OB pump (dual reciprocatingpiston, f~dback-controiled type) was used for each
solvent. The outputs of the pumps were teed togetherand the tee exit line directed
to a l.O-ml mixing chamber.The position of the inlet and outlet lines, and the shape
of the -roof of the chamberweredesignedto trap any bubblesformed. After passage
of a measuredamount of total mobile phasethroughthe chamberat a pre-detertuined
solvent composition, the gas bubbles formed were sucked into a precisionsyringe
which was connected to the top of the chamber. Replicateruns were not made, so
the detailedshape of the curvesis not to be taken as significant.Considerablescatter
was suspected.The generalshape, however,is no doubt accurate.These curvescor-
respond well to the area of supersaturationin Fig. 3. Note that the more similar
the two solvents, the less gas was evolved.The hexane-isooctane run produced no
bubbles. IQ all cases, no bubbles were observedwhen the two solventswere helium

Fig. 6. Gas evolve& VS.solvent composition. Apparatus and piocedure described in text_
 286 S. R BAKALYAR, M. P. T; BRADLEY,.R.HONGANEN

UV absorbance of dissolved gases - -. -.

During the above studiesof gas solubility and degassing techniques,we noticed
that UV detector. baselines sometimes drifted .corrsiderablywhen degassing was ini-
tiated. We have experimentally conkmed that &is is due to the presence of oxygen,
_as illustrated in Fig. 7. It is a-record of W detector signal at 254 nm and 0.08 AUFS
for a l.O-cm cell with methanol flowing. The trace starts with the baseline after the
methanol has been sparged with pure oxygen for some time. A stable signal was
obtained. Then the sparging gas is changed to air, and-the signal drifts down to a
new equilibrated value. Then the gas is switched to helium. Yet another level is found.
The ratios of these three signals are: (helium-air-oxygen) 0:0.223:1.00. The ratio of
partial pressures, i.e., the theoretical signal levels if due to oxygen concentration,
are 0:0.209:1.00. This represents a 6.7 % error from theory.

Fig. 7. W detector standii signal vs.oxygen concentration in mobile phase. Solvent, methanol; fiow-
rate, 2.0 ml/min; pressure, nominally 1 atm; temperature ambient (approximately 25 C); detector,
Model SP 8200 at 254 nm with a l-cm path cell.

The gas is further changed from helium to nitrogen and back to helium. The
stable baseline is consistent with the hypothesis that it is the oxygen only which is
rewonsible for the signal. Finally, the sparge rate was reduced, allowing air to back
dBuse through the yent tube into the solvent bottIe. The upscale drift due to oxygen
absorbance is evident. Re-establishment of an adequate sparge rate rapidly brings
back baseline stability.
The amount of absorbance varies considerably among the common chromato-
graphic solvents, as shown in Fig. 8. The. W absorbance at 254 nm was monitored
DISSOLVED GASES IN HPLC 287

at a sensitivity of 0.02 AUFS. Note that water exhibits only a very small effect at
this wavelength, whereas the tetrahydrofuran baseline changed more than 0.16 AU.
The baseline shifts are completely reversible: resumption of air sparging elevates the
signal back to the original level. Evaus3@ and Munck and Scott= demonstrated
that dissolved. oxygen gives rise .to such absorption in the far UV in a number of
organic solvents. This was-observed for n-hexane, n-heptane, methanol, ethanol, di-
&thy1ether and cycloh&xane. The absorbance was found to be directly proportional
to the partial pressure of oxygen above the solution. The absorbance increases at
shorter wavelengths. Comparing the absorbance of the amount of oxygen dissolved
in the solvent with the absorbance of an equivalent concentration of gaseous oxygen
(negligible at the wavelengths examined) leads to a conclusion that- the absorption
of the solution must be due to interaction between oxygen and the solvent.
I(eS_E
H20
_J_ - /

CU,CN c
-
CH 2 OH
t

Fig. 8. W detector standing signal with and without degas&g for various solvents. Solvent, as in-
dicated; flow-rate, 15 ml/& (splitterin front of detectorproviding 5 ml/min detectorflow); pressure,
1 atm in solvent reservoir,2 atm at pump outlet; temperature23 f 0.5 C; detector, Model SP 8310
at 254 mn with a O&-cm path cell.

Heidt and Ekstrom3s,36have examined this phenomenon in water. The ab-

sorption coefficient, E, was independent of oxygen concentration, increased with de-
creasing wavelength, and increased with increases in temperature. They explained
the results in terms of the existence of two different hydrates of moleculdt oxygen
in water. Pure (deoxygenated) water also was found to absorb UV light and behave
in a similar manner, but the magnitude of the effect was very much lessthan the light
absorption due to molecular oxygen in ,water.
Thus dissolved oxygen a&cts HPLC mobile phases in two ways, one of which
is reversible, the other non-reversible. The reversible e&cts have been described above
 288 s. R. BAKALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY, R. HONGANEN

and are due to the absorbance of molecular oxygen itself (small) and to the ab-
sorbance of the molecular complex between oxygen and the solvent (large). Removal
of oxygen gives rise to a decrease in UV detector baseline signal with this effect.
The non-reversible effects are caused by the interaction of oxygen with the solvent
t.o form reIativeIy stable chemical species- The cyclic ether tetrahydrofuran (THF)
appears to be pamticularly bad in this respect, as it is thought to form a hydroperoxide
and a series of unstable peroxides. Fig. 8 has shown that the reversible effect with
THF is also large.

Fluorescence effects of dissoIved gases

The role of oxygen in fluorescence systems is quite complex and has been
the subject of debate and experiment for many years. An early publication on the
role of oxygen in fluorescence quenching was published by Bowen and Wiiliams3
who discussed in particular the quenchin, = of aromatic hydrocarbon fluorescence.
Later workers38T3gfound that the quenching effect of oxygen usually followed the
Stem Volmer relationship F,,/F = 1 t K[O,]. Results reported by Parker and Bar-
nes3 for the quenching of the borate-benzoin complex show that at 0.1% (v/v)
oxygen in nitrogen in equilibrium with the solvent, ethanol, an 8% error occurs. At
0.8 % oxygen the fluorescence is reduced 43 %, and with air the fluorescence intensity
is reduced 94%. The same authors showed that the majority of the effect was re-
versible, but that there was a second, slower reaction which was irreversible.
Bar and Weinreb= showed that in considering the mechanism of oxygen
quenching, the mechanism of excitation is important. If the system is such that the
solvent is absorbing the exciting radiation, and the ener.gg is transferred to the solute,
quenching occurs by competition between the oxygen and the solute. They report
that as the concentration of solute decreases, the quenching effect of oxygen increases.
With systems where the solute absorbs the exciting wavelength directly and the sol-
vent does not absorb, oxygen quenching is again more efficient at lower concentra-
tions but the magnitude of the effect with concentration is not so great. This is
postulated to be owing to competition between oxygen quenching and self quenching,
which increases considerably with increasing solute concentration.
That the effect of quenching is specific to oxygen was confirmed by Furst et
aLbo, who examined the fluorescence of a large number of compounds in solutions
saturated with oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and nitrous oxide.
All gases except oxygen gave the same fluorescence intensity. Thus, the effect of the
other gases is to remove oxygen from the solution without otherwise affecting the
fluorescence.
The quenching effect varies with compound type, as was briefly mentioned
in the introduction. Aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic aldehydes and ketones are
particularly susceptible to oxygen quenching, whereas substituted aromatics and some
heterocyclics are much less susceptible.
Clearly, the analyst using HPLC with fluorescence detection must be con-
cerned with the variation of the magnitude of the quenching effect among different
compounds, and in the non-linear character of this elect. This is particularly true
when working at the trace level, where the limits of the detector are being stretched,
and the oxygen quenching is at its most efficient.
DISSOLVEDGASES IN HPLC 289

UV andjfuorescence eflects in chromatography

Fig. 9 shows the effect of dissoIved oxygen on both the detector.baseline and
the eluted peak response (height and area) for both UV and fluoresceuCedetectors.
The data, made on a dual channel recorder, was co&cted by repetitively injecting
the one-peak sampIe every I.8 min using the SP 8CKlOautoinjector. Initially, the
mobile phase was helium degassed. At time 0, the helium was replaced by an air
sparge. After 16 min, the helium degassing was resumed. The conditions are listed
in the figure caption.

lze sedges L SrAeTIIBsPmE

A
-~ETBesPAEGE

Fig. 9. UV absorbancedetectorand fluorescencedetector response to mobile phase oxygen. Column

250 x.4.6 mm I.D.; paSng, l&urn LiChrosorb RP-8; solvent, water-acetonitrZe(25:75); flow-rate,
5.0 ml/min; temperature,25 C; detector, Model SP 8310 UV detectorat 254 nm with a l&cm path
ceU. aad Model SP 770 fluorescencedetectorat 250 MI excitingwavelengthand with 340 ma emission
wavelength filter, 1_0,~A full scaIe; sample size, 10~1; sample, naphtbalerte.

The UV detector trace exhibits the baseline elevation previously described in

association with Figs. 7 and 8. However, the response to the compounds does not
change.
The fluorescence detector trace .also exhibits a baseline shift. This has not yet
been mentioned. The change is in the opposite direction to the W drift. This is
because the increased concentration of oxygen quenches the background fluorescence
of the mobile phase, whereas in the W detector the oxygen is responsible for in-
creased absorbance. The magnitude of this drift is noteworthy. It is about 0.004PA,
or about 40% of the fuIl-scale sensitivity of the detector (0.01 PA full scale). How-
ever, the most marked effect of the oxygen is in the sample response, which is only
about 20 o/0of that when the solvent is degassed. _
Fig. 10 also shows these effects, as well as a number of general cha&teristics
of the two detectors. Four separate chromatographic runs were made, using both a
W and a fluorescence detector on each nm. Thus there are eight chromatograms.
290 S. R BAKAL.YAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY. R. HONGAN!ZN

Fig. 10. Characteristics of UV and fluorescence detectors. Cokmn, 250 x 4.6 mm I.D.; packing,
lO-+n LiChrosckb RP-8; solvent, water-acetonitrile (40:60) and water-methanol (40:@); flow-rate,
3.0 mI/min; temperature, 25 C; detector, sameas Fig. 9, except UV at 0.01 AUFS aadfk~osescence
at 0.5 pA full scale; sample size, 10 ~1; sample, as shown.

The upper four chromatograms are run with a mobile phase of 60% acetonitrile in
water: The bottom four chromatograms are run under identical conditions, except
the mobiIe phase is 60% methanol in water. The four chromatograms on the left
were made using helium-degassed mobile phases. The four chromatogmms on the
right were made using air sparged (air saturated) mobile phases. A vertical line in-
dicates the poik at which the gases were changed. The many aspects of the tiompfex
behavior of these two detectors are described below.

UV and fluorescent detector response digerences

The upper left chromatograms illustrate the well known fact that the two de-
tectors respond quite differently to different compounds. Solute 2, nitrobenzene, is
not even detected by the fiuorescence detector under thek conditions. These two
chromatograms will kerve as a reference against which the other three sets will be
.
compared.

Response d_@erences caused by the solvent

The lower left chromatograms are quite different. First, quite obviously be-
cause the peaks are more retained. But a close inspection shows that, for some com-
pounds, the de&to? response has changed. This is true for both .detectok. The
solknt composition of the mobile phase thus has a profomid effect-on response:
DISSOLVED GASES IN HPLC 291

BQseiine- and- response changes causeciby dissolved oxygen

The upper right.chromatograms,compared to the upper left ones, snow the
effectsof oxygen. UV detector: baselinechange but no peak height or area change.
(For a descriptionof the dependenceof peak height and area on mobile phase com-
position, see ref. 41) Fluorescence:baselinechange and peak heightand area change.
Note that peak 3 has been affectedmuch more than peak 1. Thus an internalstandard
does not solve the problem. The sensitivityof the fluorescencedetector has been
reduced-forall peaks, although only slightlyin the case of peak 1.
The lower right chromatograms,comparedto the lower left ones, show sim-
ilar but not identicaleffectsof oxygen on the fluorescencedetector.Note for example
that there is much less change in the relativesizes of peaks 1 and 3, compared to
the upper (acetonitrile)chromatograrns.

Other eflects of dissolved gases

Two major effectsof dissolvedgaseshave not yet b&n mentioned: t h e changes
in refractiveindex caused by changes in concentrationsof various gases, and the
changesin pH causedby changesin the concentrationof carbondioxidein unbuffered
mobile phases. These effectswill be discussedin subsequentpapers, but a few com-
ments will be made here.
The refractiveindex of the mobile phase is a function of the types and con-
centrationsof dissolved substances,includinggases. The effects of gases are small,
but it is likely that, under some circumstances,careful attention.to controlling dis-
solved gases will produce more stable refractiveindex detector baselines, in effect
improvingsensitivity.
The pH of the mobile phaseis an importantretentionvariable.Sincedissolved
carbon dioxide bringsthe pH 7.0 of pure water down to about 5.5, changingcarbon
dioxide levels are expectedto effect retentiontimes of basic compounds. UV and
fluorescencedetector responseis also a function of pH, since the molar extinction
coefficientis often pH dependent.Experimentsof the type shovm in Fig. 10 are ex-
pected to reveal such effectsreadily,when appropriatesampletypes are chosen.

C6NCLUSIONS

We have demonstratedthat gasesdissolvedin the mobile phaseplay a complex

role in HPLC. Their non-linearsolubilitybehaviorin binarymixturestends to cause
the-formation of gas bubbles when solvents are mixed, a process which degrades
pump and detectorperformance.
Whereas the gas bubble problem has its solution in the reductionof the con-
centrationlevel of all gases, most of the other problems can be dealt with by con---
trolling just the oxygen concentration.Oxygen afkcts the standing signal levels of
both UV and fluorescencedetectors. It also alfAts the response characteristicsof
the latter. This is.a complexphenomenoninvolvingsolute type, mobile phase solvent
composition and oxygen concentration.Much work remainsto be-done before we
will understandwhat is happening. In spite of limited understandingof the mech--
anisms, one can at least attemptto hold the oxygen level.constant so as to provide
reproduciblechromatographicresults. The most effectiveconstancy is to take .the
oxygen concentrationto zero.
 292 S. R. BAKALYAR, M. P. T. BRADLEY, R HONGANEN

The effect of dissolved gases on the performance of refractive index detectors

is yet to be explored, as are the consequences of varying carbon dioxi&.umcentrations
on solute retention and on detector response characteristics. The techniques discussed
here can be readily applied to such studies.
Much remains to be learned about gas solubility, and no doubt the main source
of such knowledge wiii be the continued use of gases as probes to study the structure
of Iiquids. The increasing use of ternary mixtums in both isocratic and gradient sep-
arations provides an even more difiicult theoretical problem In any event, there are
a variety of techniques available for controlling gas concentrations and thereby elimi-
nating problems which would otherwise exist. The new helium degassing method
described appears to be a particularly simple and effective method.. ..

NOTE ADDED IN PROOF

Subsequent to the submission of this paper, R. W. Cargill sent us a pertinent

private communication. His data will be published in J. Chem. GC., FaradayTram.
I (1978) It indicates that the solubility behavior of helium in aqueous alcohol
mixtures is very similar (non-Linear) to that shown in Fig. 2 for oxygen, although
the magnitude of the solubility is lower. We had postulated two explanations. of
why. helium degassing eliminates bubble problems (see the gas control methods
section). The Cargill data suggests that the low-solubility postulate is correct, and
not the linear-behavior postulate. The Cargih paper also makes a significant con-
tribution to the understanding of water structure, and will be of interest to those
who are working to elucidate retention mechanisms in reversed-phase liquid chro-
matography.

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