System Practices

CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM PRACTICES FOR

AMMONIA REFRIGERANT
System Selection ........................................................................ 3.1 Condenser and Receiver Piping .............................................. 3.15
Equipment ................................................................................. 3.2 Evaporative Condensers ......................................................... 3.17
Controls .................................................................................... 3.6 Evaporator Piping ................................................................... 3.19
Piping ........................................................................................ 3.7
Reciprocating Compressors .................................................... 3.10 Multistage Systems .................................................................. 3.21
Rotary Vane, Low-Stage Compressors ................................... 3.12 Liquid Recirculation Systems .................................................. 3.22
Screw Compressors ................................................................. 3.13 Safety Considerations ............................................................. 3.27
C USTOM-ENGINEERED ammonia (R-717) refrigeration sys-

tems often have design conditions that span a wide range of
evaporating and condensing temperatures. Examples are (1) a food
freezing plant operating at temperatures from 10 to -45C; (2) a
candy storage requiring 15C dry bulb with precise humidity con-
trol; (3) a beef chill room at -2 to -1C with high humidity; (4) a
distribution warehouse requiring multiple temperatures for storage
of ice cream, frozen food, meat, and produce and for docks; or (5)
a chemical process requiring multiple temperatures ranging from 15
to -50C. Ammonia is the refrigerant of choice for many industrial
refrigeration systems.
For safety and minimum design criteria for ammonia systems,
refer to ASHRAE Standard 15, Safety Code for Mechanical
Refrigeration; IIAR Bulletin 109, Minimum Safety Criteria for a
Safe Ammonia Refrigeration System; IIAR Standard 2, Equip-
ment, Design and Installation of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigera- Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement
tion Systems; and applicable state and local codes.
See Chapter 12 for information on refrigeration load calculations.
Economized Systems
Ammonia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems Economized systems are frequently used with rotary screw com-
pressors. Figure 1 shows an arrangement of the basic components.
The use of ammonia for HVAC systems has received renewed Subcooling the liquid refrigerant before it reaches the evaporator
interest, due in part to the scheduled phaseout and increasing costs of reduces its enthalpy, resulting in a higher net refrigerating effect.
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) Economizing is beneficial since the vapor generated during the sub-
refrigerants. Ammonia secondary systems that circulate chilled cooling is injected into the compressor part way through its com-
water or other secondary refrigerant are a viable alternative to halo- pression cycle and must be compressed only from the economizer
carbon systems, although ammonia is inappropriate for direct refrig- port pressure (which is higher than suction pressure) to the dis-
eration systems (ammonia in the air unit coils) for HVAC charge pressure. This produces additional refrigerating capacity
applications. Ammonia packaged chilling units are available for with less increase in unit energy input. Economizing is most bene-
HVAC applications. As with the installation of any air-conditioning ficial at high pressure ratios. Under most conditions, economizing
unit, all applicable codes, standards, and insurance requirements can provide operating efficiencies that approach that of two-stage
must be followed. systems, but with much less complexity and simpler maintenance.
Economized systems for variable loads should be selected care-
SYSTEM SELECTION fully. At approximately 75% capacity, most screw compressors
In selecting an engineered ammonia refrigeration system, several revert to single-stage performance as the slide valve moves such
design decisions must be considered, including whether to use (1) that the economizer port is open to the compressor suction area.
single-stage compression, (2) economized compression, (3) multi- A flash-type economizer, which is somewhat more efficient,
stage compression, (4) direct-expansion feed, (5) flooded feed, (6) may often be used instead of the shell-and-coil economizer (Fig-
liquid recirculation feed, and (7) secondary coolants. ure 1). However, ammonia liquid delivery pressure is reduced to
economizer pressure.
Single-Stage Systems
Multistage Systems
The basic single-stage system consists of evaporator(s), a com-
Multistage systems compress the gas from the evaporator to the
pressor, a condenser, a refrigerant receiver (if used), and a refriger- condenser in several stages. They are used to produce temperatures
ant control device (expansion valve, float, etc.). Chapter 1 of the of -25C and below. This is not economical with single-stage
1997 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals discusses the compres-
compression.
sion refrigeration cycle. Single-stage reciprocating compression systems are generally
limited to between 35 and 70 kPa (gage) suction pressure. With
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 10.3, Refrigerant Piping, lubricant-injected economized rotary screw compressors, where the
Controls,and Accessories discharge temperatures are lower because of the lubricant cooling,
3.2 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)
Compressor Drives. The correct electric motor size(s) for a

multistage system is determined by the pulldown load. When the
final low-stage operating level is -75C, the pulldown load can be
three times the operating load. Positive displacement reciprocating
compressor motors are usually selected for about 150% of operating
power requirements for 100% load. The compressors unloading
mechanism can be used to prevent motor overload. Electric motors
should not be overloaded, even when a service factor is indicated.
For screw compressor applications, motors should be sized by add-
ing 10% to the operating power. Screw compressors have built-in
unloading mechanisms to prevent motor overload. The motor
should not be oversized because an oversized motor has a lower
power factor and lower efficiency at design and reduced loads.
Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and Steam turbines or gasoline, natural gas, propane, or diesel inter-
Low-Temperature Loads nal combustion engines are used when electricity is unavailable, or
if the selected energy source is cheaper. Sometimes they are used in
the low-suction temperature limit is about 40C, but efficiency is combination with electricity to reduce peak demands. The power
very low. Two-stage systems are used down to about -60C evap- output of a given engine size can vary as much as 15% depending on
orator temperatures. Below this temperature, three-stage systems the fuel selected.
should be considered. Steam turbine drives for refrigerant compressors are usually lim-
Two-stage systems consist of one or more compressors that oper- ited to very large installations where steam is already available at
ate at low suction pressure and discharge at intermediate pressure moderate to high pressure. In all cases, torsional analysis is required
and have one or more compressors that operate at intermediate pres- to determine what coupling must be used to dampen out any pulsa-
sure and discharge to the condenser (Figure 2). tions transmitted from the compressor. For optimum efficiency, a
Where either single- or two-stage compression systems can be turbine should operate at a high speed that must be geared down for
used, two-stage systems require less power and have lower operat- reciprocating and possibly screw compressors. Neither the gear
ing costs, but they can have a higher initial equipment cost. reducer nor the turbine can tolerate a pulsating backlash from the
driven end, so torsional analysis and special couplings are essential.
EQUIPMENT Advantages of turbines include variable speed for capacity con-
trol and low operating and maintenance costs. Disadvantages
Compressors include higher initial costs and possible high noise levels. The tur-
Compressors available for single- and multistage applications bine must be started manually to bring the turbine housing up to
include the following: temperature slowly and to prevent excess condensate from entering
the turbine.
Reciprocating The standard power rating of an engine is the absolute maximum,
Single-stage (low-stage or high-stage) not the recommended power available for continuous use. Also,
Internally compounded torque characteristics of internal combustion engines and electric
Rotary vane motors differ greatly. The proper engine selection is at 75% of its
Rotary screw (low-stage or high-stage, with or without maximum power rating. For longer life, the full-load speed should
economizing) be at least 10% below maximum engine speed.
The reciprocating compressor is the most common compressor Internal combustion engines, in some cases, can reduce operat-
used in small, 75 kW or less, single-stage or multistage systems. ing cost below that for electric motors. Disadvantages include (1)
The screw compressor is the predominant compressor above 75 kW, higher initial cost of the engine, (2) additional safety and starting
both in single- and multistage systems. Various combinations of controls, (3) higher noise levels, (4) larger space requirements, (5)
compressors may be used in multistage systems. Rotary vane and air pollution, (6) requirement for heat dissipation, (7) higher main-
screw compressors are frequently used for the low-pressure stage, tenance costs, and (8) higher levels of vibration than with electric
where large volumes of gas must be moved. The high-pressure stage motors. A torsional analysis must be made to determine the proper
may be a reciprocating or screw compressor. coupling if engine drives are chosen.
Factors to be considered in selecting a compressor include the
following: Condensers
Condensers should be selected on the basis of total heat rejection
System size and capacity requirements.
at maximum load. Often the heat rejected at the start of pulldown is
Location, such as indoor or outdoor installation at ground level or several times the amount rejected at normal, low-temperature oper-
on the roof. ating conditions. Some means, such as compressor unloading, can
Equipment noise. be used to limit the maximum amount of heat rejected during pull-
Part- or full-load operation. down. If the condenser is not sized for pulldown conditions, and
Winter and summer operation. compressor capacity cannot be limited during this period, condens-
Pulldown time required to reduce the temperature to desired con- ing pressure might increase enough to shut down the system.
ditions for either initial or normal operation. The temperature
must be pulled down frequently for some applications for a pro- Evaporators
cess load, while a large cold storage warehouse may require pull-
down only once in its lifetime. Several types of evaporators are used in ammonia refrigeration
systems. Fan-coil, direct-expansion evaporators can be used, but
Lubricant Cooling. When a reciprocating compressor requires they are not generally recommended unless the suction temperature
lubricant cooling, an external heat exchanger using a refrigerant or is -18C or higher. This is due in part to the relative inefficiency of
secondary cooling is usually added. Screw compressor lubricant the direct-expansion coil, but more importantly, the low mass flow
cooling is covered in detail in the section on Screw Compressors. rate of ammonia is difficult to feed uniformly as a liquid to the coil.
System Practices for Ammonia Refrigerant 3.3
Instead, ammonia fan-coil units designed for recirculation (over-

feed) systems are preferred. Typically in this type of system, high-
pressure ammonia from the system high stage flashes into a large
vessel at the evaporator pressure from which it is pumped to the
evaporators at an overfeed rate of 2.5 to 1 to 4 to 1. This type of sys-
tem is standard and very efficient. See Chapter 1 for more details.
Flooded shell-and-tube evaporators are often used in ammonia
systems in which indirect or secondary cooling fluids such as water,
brine, or glycol must be cooled.
Some problems that can become more acute at low temperatures
include changes in lubricant transport properties, loss of capacity
caused by static pressure from the depth of the pool of liquid refrig-
erant in the evaporator, deterioration of refrigerant boiling heat
transfer coefficients due to lubricant logging, and higher specific
volumes for the vapor.
The effect of pressure losses in the evaporator and suction piping
is more acute in low-temperature systems because of the large
change in saturation temperatures and specific volume in relation to
pressure changes at these conditions. Systems that operate near zero
absolute pressure are particularly affected by pressure loss.
The depth of the pool of boiling refrigerant in a flooded evapo-
rator causes a liquid pressure that is exerted on the lower part of the
heat transfer surface. Therefore, the saturation temperature at this
surface is higher than the saturated temperature in the suction line,
which is not affected by the liquid pressure. This temperature gra- Fig. 3 Intercooler
dient must be considered when designing the evaporator.
Spray-type shell-and-tube evaporators, while not commonly bubbling the discharge gas from the low-stage compressor through
used, offer certain advantages. In this design, the liquid depth pen- a bath of liquid refrigerant or by mixing liquid normally entering the
alty for the evaporator can be eliminated since the pool of liquid is intermediate vessel with the discharge gas as it enters above the liq-
below the heat transfer surface. A refrigerant pump sprays the liquid uid level. The heat removed from the discharge gas is absorbed by
over the surface. The pump energy is an additional heat load to the the evaporation of part of the liquid and eventually passes through
system, and more refrigerant must be used to provide the net posi- the high-stage compressor to the condenser. Disbursing the dis-
tive suction pressure required by the pump. The pump is also an charge gas below a level of liquid refrigerant separates out any
additional item that must be maintained. This evaporator design lubricant carryover from the low-stage compressor. If the volume of
also reduces the refrigerant charge requirement compared to a liquid in the intercooler is to be used for other purposes, such as liq-
flooded design (see Chapter 1). uid makeup or feed to the low stage, periodic lubricant removal is
important.
Vessels Another purpose of the intercooler is to lower the temperature of
the liquid being used in the system low stage. Lowering the refrig-
High-Pressure Receivers. Industrial systems generally incorpo-
erant temperature increases the refrigeration effect and reduces the
rate a central high-pressure refrigerant receiver, which serves as the
low-stage compressors required displacement, thus reducing its
primary refrigerant storage location in the system. It handles the
operating cost.
refrigerant volume variations between the condenser and the sys-
tems low side during operation and pumpdowns for repairs or Two types of intercoolers for two-stage compression systems are
defrost. Ideally, the receiver should be large enough to hold the shell-and-coil and flash-type intercoolers. Figure 3 depicts a shell-
entire system charge, but this is not generally economical. An anal- and-coil intercooler incorporating an internal pipe coil for subcool-
ysis of the system should be made to determine the optimum ing the high-pressure liquid before it is fed to the low stage of the
receiver size. Receivers are commonly equalized to the condenser system. Typically, the coil subcools the liquid to within 6 K of the
inlet and operate at the same pressure as the condenser. In some sys- intermediate temperature.
tems, the receiver is operated at a pressure between the condensing Vertical shell-and-coil intercoolers with float valve feed per-
pressure and the highest suction pressure to allow for variations in form well in many applications using ammonia refrigerant systems.
condensing pressure without affecting the systems feed pressure. The vessel must be sized properly to separate the liquid from the
If additional receiver capacity is needed for normal operation, vapor that is returning to the high-stage compressor. The super-
extreme caution should be exercised in the design. Designers usu- heated gas inlet pipe should extend below the liquid level and have
ally remove the inadequate receiver and replace it with a larger one perforations or slots to distribute the gas evenly in small bubbles.
rather than install an additional receiver in parallel. This procedure The addition of a perforated baffle across the area of the vessel
is best because even slight differences in piping pressure or temper- slightly below the liquid level protects against violent surging. A
ature can cause the refrigerant to migrate to one receiver and not to float switch that shuts down the high-stage compressor when the
the other. liquid level gets too high should always be used with this type of
Smaller auxiliary receivers can be incorporated to serve as intercooler in case the feed valve fails to control properly.
sources of high-pressure liquid for compressor injection or thermo- The flash-type intercooler is similar in design to the shell-and-
siphon, lubricant cooling, high-temperature evaporators, and so coil intercooler with the exception of the coil. The high-pressure liq-
forth. uid is flash cooled to the intermediate temperature. Caution should
Intercoolers (Gas and Liquid). An intercooler (subcooler/ be exercised in selecting a flash-type intercooler because all the
desuperheater) is the intermediate vessel between the high stage and high-pressure liquid is flashed to intermediate pressure. While
low stage in a multistage system. One purpose of the intercooler is colder than that of the shell-and-coil intercooler, the liquid in the
to cool the discharge gas of the low-stage compressor to prevent flash-type intercooler is not subcooled and is susceptible to flashing
overheating the high-stage compressor. This can be done by due to system pressure drop. Two-phase liquid feed to control
Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap
valves may cause premature failure due to the wire drawing effect of
the liquid/vapor mixture.
Figure 4 shows a vertical shell-and-coil intercooler as piped into
the system. The liquid level is maintained in the intercooler by a
float that controls the solenoid valve feeding liquid into the shell
side of the intercooler. Gas from the first-stage compressor enters
the lower section of the intercooler, is distributed by a perforated
plate, and is then cooled to the saturation temperature correspond-
ing to intermediate pressure.
When sizing any intercooler, the designer must consider (1) the
low-stage compressor capacity; (2) the vapor desuperheating, liquid
makeup requirements for the subcooling coil load, or vapor cooling
load associated with the flash-type intercooler; and (3) any high-
stage side loading. The volume required for normal liquid levels,
liquid surging from high-stage evaporators, feed valve malfunc-
tions, and liquid/vapor must also be analyzed.
Accessories necessary are the liquid level control device and the
high-level float switch. While not absolutely necessary, an auxiliary
oil pot should also be considered.
Suction Accumulator. A suction accumulator (also known as a
knockout drum, suction trap, pump receiver, recirculator, etc.) pre-
vents liquid from entering the suction of the compressor, whether on
the high stage or low stage of the system. Both vertical and horizon- Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil
tal vessels can be incorporated. Baffling and mist eliminator pads
can enhance liquid separation.
Vertical Suction Trap and Pump. Figure 8 shows the piping of
Suction accumulators, especially those not intentionally main- a vertical suction trap that uses a high-pressure ammonia pump to
taining a level of liquid, should have a means of removing any transfer liquid from the systems low-pressure side to the high-pres-
buildup of ammonia liquid. Gas boil-out coils or electric heating sure receiver. Float switches piped on a float column on the side of
elements are costly and inefficient. the trap can start and stop the liquid ammonia pump, sound an alarm
Although it is one of the more common and simplest means of in case of excess liquid, and sometimes stop the compressors.
liquid removal, a liquid boil-out coil (Figure 5) has some draw- When the liquid level in the suction trap reaches the setting of the
backs. Generally, the warm liquid flowing through the coil is the middle float switch, the liquid ammonia pump starts and reduces the
source of liquid being boiled off. Liquid transfer pumps, gas-pow- liquid level to the setting of the lower float switch, which stops the
ered transfer systems, or basic pressure differentials are a more pos- liquid ammonia pump. A check valve in the discharge line of the
itive means of removing the liquid (Figures 6 and 7). ammonia pump prevents gas and liquid from flowing backward
Accessories should include a high-level float switch for com- through the pump when it is not in operation. Depending on the type
pressor protection along with additional pump or transfer system of check valve used, some installations have two valves in a series
controls. as an extra precaution against pump backspin.
Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System

Fig. 8 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and
High-Pressure Pump
Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System
Compressor controls adequately designed for starting, stopping,

and capacity reduction result in minimal agitation, which aids in sep-
arating the vapor and liquid in the suction trap. Increasing the com-
pressor capacity slowly and in small increments reduces the boiling
of liquid in the trap, which is caused by the refrigeration load of cool-
ing the refrigerant and metal mass of the trap. If another compressor Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia
is started when plant suction pressure increases, it should be brought
on line slowly to prevent a sudden pressure change in the suction trap. point, transparent plastic frost shields covering the reflex surfaces
A high level of liquid in a suction trap should activate an alarm are necessary. Also, the pipe column must be insulated, especially
or stop the compressors. Although eliminating the cause is the most when control devices are attached.
effective way to reduce a high level of excess surging liquid, a more Electronic level sensors can continuously monitor the liquid
immediate solution is to stop part of the compression system and level. Digital or graphic displays of the liquid level can be locally or
raise the plant suction pressure slightly. Continuing high levels indi- remotely monitored (Figure 10).
cate insufficient pump capacity or suction trap volume. Adequate isolation valves for the level indicators should be
Liquid Level Indicators. Liquid level can be indicated by visual employed. High-temperature glass tube indicators should incorpo-
indicators, electronic sensors, or a combination of the two. Visual rate stop check or excess flow valves for isolation and safety.
indicators include individual circular reflex level indicators (bulls- Purge Units. A noncondensable gas separator (purge unit) is
eyes) mounted on a pipe column or stand-alone linear reflex glass useful in most plants, especially when suction pressure is below
assemblies (Figure 9). For operation at temperatures below the frost atmospheric pressure. Purge units on ammonia systems are piped to
that is in droplet or aerosol form. Lubricant that reaches its satura-

tion vapor pressure and becomes a vapor cannot be removed by a
separator. Separators equipped with some means of cooling the dis-
charge gas will condense much of the vapor for consequent separa-
tion. Selection of lubricants that have very low vapor pressures
below 80C can minimize carryover to 2 or 3 mg/kg. Care must be
exercised, however, to ensure that refrigerant is not condensed and
fed back into the compressor or separator, where it can lower lubric-
ity and cause compressor damage.
In general, direct-expansion and liquid overfeed system evapo-
rators have fewer lubricant return problems than do flooded system
evaporators because refrigerant flows continuously at good veloci-
ties to sweep lubricant from the evaporator. Low-temperature sys-
tems using hot-gas defrost can also be designed to sweep lubricant
out of the circuit each time the system defrosts. This reduces the
possibility of coating the evaporator surface and hindering heat
transfer.
Flooded evaporators can promote lubricant buildup in the evap-
Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control orator charge because they may only return refrigerant vapor back
to the system. In ammonia systems, the lubricant is simply drained
from the surge drum. At low temperatures, this procedure is difficult
if the lubricant selected has a pour point above the evaporator tem-
perature.
Lubricant Removal from Ammonia Systems. Most lubricants
are miscible with liquid ammonia only in very small proportions.
The proportion decreases with the temperature, causing lubricant to
separate. The evaporation of ammonia increases the lubricant ratio,
causing more lubricant to separate. Increased density causes the
lubricant (saturated with ammonia at the existing pressure) to form
a separate layer below the ammonia liquid.
Unless lubricant is removed periodically or continuously from
the point where it collects, it can cover the heat transfer surface in
the evaporator, reducing performance. If gage lines or branches to
level controls are taken from low points (or lubricant is allowed to
accumulate), these lines will contain lubricant. The higher lubricant
density will be at a lower level than the ammonia liquid. Draining
lubricant from a properly located collection point is not difficult
unless the temperature is so low that the lubricant does not flow
readily. In this case, maintaining the lubricant receiver at a higher
temperature may be beneficial. Alternatively, a lubricant with a
lower pour point can be selected.
Fig. 11 Purge Unit and Piping for Noncondensable Gas Lubricant in the system is saturated with ammonia at the existing
pressure. When the pressure is reduced, the ammonia vapor sepa-
carry noncondensables (air) from the receiver and condenser to the rates, causing foaming.
purger, as shown in Figure 11. High-pressure liquid expands Draining lubricant from ammonia systems requires special care.
through a coil in the purge unit, providing a cold spot in the purge Ammonia in the lubricant foam normally starts to evaporate and
drum. The suction from the coil should be taken to one of the low- produces a smell. Operators should be made aware of this. On sys-
temperature suction mains. Ammonia vapor and noncondensable tems where lubricant is drained from a still, a spring-loaded drain
gas are drawn into the purge drum, and the ammonia condenses on valve should be installed. This type of valve will close if the valve
the cold surface. When the drum fills with air and other noncon- handle is released.
densables, a float valve within the purger opens and permits them to
leave the drum and pass into the open water bottle. Purge units are CONTROLS
available for automatic operation.
Refrigerant flow controls are discussed in Chapter 45. The fol-
lowing precautions are necessary in the application of certain con-
Lubricant Management
trols in low-temperature systems.
Most lubricants are immiscible in ammonia and separate out of
the liquid easily when flow velocity is low or when temperatures are Liquid Feed Control
lowered. Normally, lubricants can be easily drained from the sys- Many controls available for single-stage, high-temperature sys-
tem. However, if the temperature is very low and the lubricant is not tems may be used with some discretion on low-temperature systems.
properly selected, it becomes a gummy mass that prevents refriger- If the liquid level is controlled by a low-side float valve (with the
ant controls from functioning, blocks flow passages, and fouls the float in the chamber where the level is controlled), low pressure and
heat transfer surfaces. Proper lubricant selection and management is temperature have no appreciable effect on operation. External float
often the key to a properly functioning system. chambers, however, must be thoroughly insulated to prevent heat
In two-stage systems, proper design usually calls for lubricant influx that might cause boiling and an unstable level, affecting the
separators on both the high- and low-stage compressors. A properly float response. Equalizing lines to external float chambers, particu-
designed coalescing separator can remove almost all the lubricant larly the upper line, must be sized generously so that liquid can reach
the float chamber, and gas resulting from any evaporation may be
returned to the vessel without appreciable pressure loss.
The superheat-controlled (thermostatic) expansion valve is gen-
erally used in direct-expansion evaporators. This valve operates on
the difference between the bulb pressure, which is responsive to the
suction temperature, and the pressure below the diaphragm, which
is the actual suction pressure.
The thermostatic expansion valve is designed to maintain a pre-
set superheat in the suction gas. Although the pressure-sensing part
of the system responds almost immediately to a change in condi-
tions, the temperature-sensing bulb must overcome thermal inertia
before its effect is felt on the power element of the valve. Thus when
compressor capacity decreases suddenly, the expansion valve may
overfeed before the bulb senses the presence of liquid in the suction
line and reduces the feed. Therefore, a suction accumulator should Fig. 12 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations
be installed on direct-expansion low-temperature systems with mul- at Low Load
tiple expansion valves.
microprocessor control systems to monitor all safety functions and
Controlling Load During Pulldown operating conditions. These machines are frequently linked together
System transients during pulldown can be managed by control- with a programmable controller or computer for sequencing multi-
ling compressor capacity. Proper load control reduces the compres- ple compressors so that they load and unload in response to system
sor capacity so that the energy requirements stay within the fluctuations in the most economical manner. Programmable con-
capacities of the motor and the condenser. On larger systems using trollers are also used to replace multiple defrost time clocks on
screw compressors, a current-sensing device reads motor amperage larger systems for more accurate and economical defrosting. Com-
and adjusts the capacity control device appropriately. Cylinders on munications and data logging permit systems to operate at optimum
reciprocating compressors can be unloaded for similar control. conditions under transient load conditions even when operators are
Alternatively, a downstream, outlet, or crankcase pressure regu- not in attendance.
lator can be installed in the suction line to throttle the suction flow
should the pressure exceed a preset limit. This regulator limits the PIPING
compressors suction pressure during pulldown. The disadvantage The following recommendations are given for ammonia piping.
of this device is the extra pressure drop it causes when the system is Local codes or ordinances governing ammonia mains should also be
at the desired operating conditions. To overcome some of this pres- complied with.
sure drop, the designer can use external forces to drive the valve,
causing it to be held fully open when the pressure is below the max- Recommended Material
imum allowable. Systems incorporating downstream pressure reg-
ulators and compressor unloading must be carefully designed so Because copper and copper-bearing materials are attacked by
that the two controls complement each other. ammonia, they are not used in ammonia piping systems. Steel pip-
ing, fittings, and valves of the proper pressure rating are suitable for
Operation at Varying Loads and Temperatures ammonia gas and liquid.
Compressor and evaporator capacity controls are similar for Ammonia piping should conform to ASME Standard B31.5,
multi- and single-stage systems. Control methods include compres- Refrigeration Piping, and IIAR Standard 2, which states the follow-
sor capacity control, hot-gas bypass, or evaporator pressure regula- ing:
tors. Low pressure can affect control systems by significantly 1. Liquid lines 40 mm and smaller shall be not less than Schedule
increasing the specific volume of the refrigerant gas and the pres- 80 carbon steel pipe.
sure drop. A small pressure reduction can cause a large percentage 2. Liquid lines 50 through 150 mm shall be not less than Schedule
capacity reduction. 40 carbon steel pipe.
System load usually cannot be reduced to near zero, since this 3. Liquid lines 200 through 300 mm shall be not less than Schedule
would result in little or no flow of gas through the compressor and 20 carbon steel pipe.
consequent overheating. Additionally, high pressure ratios would
4. Vapor lines 150 mm and smaller shall be not less than Schedule
be detrimental to the compressor if it were required to run at very
40 carbon steel pipe.
low loads. If the compressor cannot be allowed to cycle off during
low load, an acceptable alternative is a hot-gas bypass. The high- 5. Vapor lines 200 through 300 mm shall be not less than Schedule
pressure gas is fed into the low-pressure side of the system through 20 carbon steel pipe.
a downstream pressure regulator. The gas should be desuperheated 6. Vapor lines 350 mm and larger shall be not less than Schedule 10
by injecting it at a point in the system where it will be in contact with carbon steel pipe.
expanding liquid, such as immediately downstream of the liquid 7. All threaded pipe shall be Schedule 80.
feed to the evaporator. Otherwise, extremely high compressor dis- 8. Carbon steel pipe shall be ASTM Standard A 53 Grade A or B,
charge temperatures can result. The artificial load supplied by the Type E (electric resistance welded) or Type S (seamless); or
high-pressure gas can fill the gap between the actual load and the ASTM Standard A 106 (seamless), except where temperature-
lowest stable compressor operating capacity. Figure 12 shows such pressure criteria mandate a higher specification material. Stan-
an arrangement. dard A 53 Type F is not permitted for ammonia piping.
Electronic Control Fittings

Microprocessor and computer-based control systems are becom- Couplings, elbows, and tees for threaded pipe are for a minimum
ing the norm for control systems on individual compressors as well of 21 MPa design pressure and constructed of forged steel. Fittings
as for entire system control. Almost all screw compressors use for welded pipe should match the type of pipe used (i.e., standard
Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.005 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent
Saturated Suction Temperature, C
50 40 30
Steel Nominal Line Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m
Size, mm Dp = 12.1 Pa/m Dp = 24.2 Pa/m Dp = 19.2 Pa/m Dp = 38.4 Pa/m Dp = 29.1 Pa/m Dp = 58.2 Pa/m
10 0.19 0.29 0.35 0.51 0.58 0.85
15 0.37 0.55 0.65 0.97 1.09 1.60
20 0.80 1.18 1.41 2.08 2.34 3.41
25 1.55 2.28 2.72 3.97 4.48 6.51
32 3.27 4.80 5.71 8.32 9.36 13.58
40 4.97 7.27 8.64 12.57 14.15 20.49
50 9.74 14.22 16.89 24.50 27.57 39.82
65 15.67 22.83 27.13 39.27 44.17 63.77
80 28.08 40.81 48.36 69.99 78.68 113.30
100 57.95 84.10 99.50 143.84 161.77 232.26
125 105.71 153.05 181.16 261.22 293.12 420.83
150 172.28 248.91 294.74 424.51 476.47 683.18
200 356.67 514.55 609.20 874.62 981.85 1 402.03
250 649.99 937.58 1 107.64 1 589.51 1 782.31 2 545.46
300 1 045.27 1 504.96 1 777.96 2 550.49 2 859.98 4 081.54
Saturated Suction Temperature, C
-20 -5 +5
Steel Nominal Line Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m Dt = 0.005 K/m Dt = 0.01 K/m
Size, mm Dp = 42.2 Pa/m Dp = 84.4 Pa/m Dp = 69.2 Pa/m Dp = 138.3 Pa/m Dp = 92.6 Pa/m Dp = 185.3 Pa/m
10 0.91 1.33 1.66 2.41 2.37 3.42
15 1.72 2.50 3.11 4.50 4.42 6.37
20 3.66 5.31 6.61 9.53 9.38 13.46
25 6.98 10.10 12.58 18.09 17.79 25.48
32 14.58 21.04 26.17 37.56 36.94 52.86
40 21.99 31.73 39.40 56.39 55.53 79.38
50 42.72 61.51 76.29 109.28 107.61 153.66
65 68.42 98.23 122.06 174.30 171.62 245.00
80 121.52 174.28 216.15 308.91 304.12 433.79
100 249.45 356.87 442.76 631.24 621.94 885.81
125 452.08 646.25 800.19 1 139.74 1 124.47 1 598.31
150 733.59 1 046.77 1 296.07 1 846.63 1 819.59 2 590.21
200 1 506.11 2 149.60 2 662.02 3 784.58 3 735.65 5 303.12
250 2 731.90 3 895.57 4 818.22 6 851.91 6 759.98 9 589.56
300 4 378.87 6 237.23 7 714.93 10 973.55 10 810.65 15 360.20
D
Note: Capacities are in kilowatts of refrigeration resulting in a line friction loss per unit equivalent pipe length ( p in Pa/m), with corresponding change in saturation temperature
D
per unit length ( t in K/m).
fittings for standard pipe and extra heavy fittings for extra heavy Gasketed Joints. A compatible fiber gasket should be used with
pipe). flanges. Before tightening flange bolts to valves, controls, or flange
Tongue and groove or ANSI flanges should be used in ammonia unions, properly align the pipe and bolt holes. When flanges are
piping. Welded flanges for low-side piping can have a minimum 1 used to straighten pipe, they put stress on adjacent valves, compres-
MPa design pressure rating. On systems located in high ambients, sors, and controls, causing the operating mechanism to bind. To pre-
low-side piping and vessels should be designed for 1.4 to 1.6 MPa. vent leaks, flange bolts are drawn up evenly when connecting the
The high side should be 1.7 MPa if the system uses water-cooled or flanges. Flanges at compressors and other system components must
evaporative cooled condensing. Use 2.1 MPa minimum for air- not move or indicate stress when all bolts are loosened.
cooled designs. Union Joints. Steel (21 MPa) ground joint unions are used for
gage and pressure control lines with screwed valves and for joints
Pipe Joints up to 20 mm. When tightening this type of joint, the two pipes
must be axially aligned. To be effective, the two parts of the union
Joints between lengths of pipe or between pipe and fittings can must match perfectly. Ground joint unions should be avoided if at
be threaded if the pipe size is 32 mm or smaller. Pipe 40 mm or all possible.
larger should be welded. An all-welded piping system is superior.
Threaded Joints. Many sealants and compounds are available Pipe Location
for sealing threaded joints. The manufacturers instructions cover Piping should be at least 2.3 m above the floor. Locate pipes care-
compatibility and application method. Do not use excessive fully in relation to other piping and structural members, especially
amounts or apply on female threads because any excess can contam- when the lines are to be insulated. The distance between insulated
inate the system. lines should be at least three times the thickness of the insulation for
Welded Joints. Pipe should be cut and beveled before welding. screwed fittings, and four times for flange fittings. The space
Use pipe alignment guides to align the pipe and provide a proper between the pipe and adjacent surfaces should be three-fourths of
gap between pipe ends so that a full penetration weld is obtained. these amounts.
The weld should be made by a qualified welder, using proper pro- Hangers located close to the vertical risers to and from compres-
cedures such as the Welding Procedure Specifications, prepared by sors keep the piping weight off the compressor. Pipe hangers should
the National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau (NCPWB). be placed no more than 2.5 to 3 m apart and within 0.6 m of a change
Table 2 Suction, Discharge Line, and Liquid Capacities in Kilowatts for Ammonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications)
Discharge Lines
Suction Lines ( t = 0.02 K/m) D Dt = 0.02 K/m, Dp = 684.0 Pa/m Liquid Lines
Steel Steel
Saturated Suction Temperature, C Saturated Suction Temp., C
Nominal Nominal
Line Size, 40 30 20 5 +5 Line Size, Velocity =
mm D p = 76.9 D p = 116.3 D p = 168.8 D p = 276.6 D p = 370.5 40 20 +5 mm 0.5 m/s Dp = 450.0
10 0.8 1.2 1.9 3.5 4.9 8.0 8.3 8.5 10 3.9 63.8
15 1.4 2.3 3.6 6.5 9.1 14.9 15.3 15.7 15 63.2 118.4
20 3.0 4.9 7.7 13.7 19.3 31.4 32.3 33.2 20 110.9 250.2
25 5.8 9.4 14.6 25.9 36.4 59.4 61.0 62.6 25 179.4 473.4
32 12.1 19.6 30.2 53.7 75.4 122.7 126.0 129.4 32 311.0 978.0
40 18.2 29.5 45.5 80.6 113.3 184.4 189.4 194.5 40 423.4 1 469.4
50 35.4 57.2 88.1 155.7 218.6 355.2 364.9 374.7 50 697.8 2 840.5
65 56.7 91.6 140.6 248.6 348.9 565.9 581.4 597.0 65 994.8 4 524.8
80 101.0 162.4 249.0 439.8 616.9 1 001.9 1 029.3 1 056.9 80 1 536.3 8 008.8
100 206.9 332.6 509.2 897.8 1 258.6 2 042.2 2 098.2 2 154.3
125 375.2 601.8 902.6 1 622.0 2 271.4 3 682.1 3 783.0 3 884.2
150 608.7 975.6 1 491.4 2 625.4 3 672.5 5 954.2 6 117.4 6 281.0
200 1 252.3 2 003.3 3 056.0 5 382.5 7 530.4 12 195.3 12 529.7 12 864.8
250 2 271.0 3 625.9 5 539.9 9 733.7 13 619.6 22 028.2 22 632.2 23 237.5
300 3 640.5 5 813.5 8 873.4 15 568.9 21 787.1 35 239.7 36 206.0 37 174.3
Notes: 4. Values in the table are based on 30C condensing temperature. Multiply table capaci-
1. Table capacities are in kilowatts of refrigeration. ties by the following factors for other condensing temperatures:
Dp = pressure drop due to line friction, Pa/m
Dt = corresponding change in saturation temperature, K/m Condensing Suction Discharge
2. Line capacity for other saturation temperatures Dt and equivalent lengths Le Temperature, C Lines Lines
Table L e Actual t 0.55 20 1.04 0.86
Line capacity = Table capacity ----------------------- ----------------------- 30 1.00 1.00
Actual L e Table t
D
3. Saturation temperature t for other capacities and equivalent lengths Le
40
50
0.96
0.91
1.24
1.43
Dt = Table Dt ----------------------
Actual L e 1.8
Actual
-------------------------------------
capacity
Table L e
-
Table capacity 5. Liquid line capacities are based on -5C suction.
Table 3 Liquid Ammonia Line Capacities in Kilowatts
High-Pressure Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling

Nominal
Pumped Liquid Overfeed Ratio Liquid Hot-Gas Equalizer Lines Gravity Flowc
Size, mm 3:1 4:1 5:1 at 21 kPaa Defrosta High Sideb Supply Return Vent
40 513 387 308 1 544 106 791 59 35 60
50 1 175 879 703 3 573 176 1 055 138 88 106
65 1 875 1 407 1 125 5 683 324 1 759 249 155 187
80 2 700 2 026 1 620 10 150 570 3 517 385 255 323
100 4 800 3 600 2 880 1 154 7 034 663 413 586
125 2 089 1 041 649 1 062
150 3 411 1 504 938 1 869
200 2 600 1 622 3 400
Source: Wile (1977). b Linesizes are based on experience using total system evaporator kilowatts.
aHot-gas line sizes are based on 0.34 kPa pressure drop per equivalent metre of pipe at c From Frick Co. (1995). Values for line sizes above 100 mm are extrapolated.
690 kPa (gage) discharge pressure and 3 times the evaporator refrigeration capacity.
in direction of the piping. Hangers should be designed to bear on the Pipe Sizing
outside of insulated lines. Sheet metal sleeves on the lower half of
the insulation are usually sufficient. Where piping penetrates a wall, Table 1 presents practical suction line sizing data based on
a sleeve should be installed; and where the pipe penetrating the wall 0.005 K and 0.01 K differential pressure drop equivalent per metre
is insulated, it must be adequately sealed. total equivalent length of pipe. For data on equivalent lengths of
Piping to and from compressors and to other components must valves and fittings, refer to Tables 10, 11, and 12 in Chapter 2. Table
provide for expansion and contraction. Sufficient flange or union 2 lists data for sizing suction and discharge lines at 0.02 K differen-
joints should be located in the piping that components can be tial pressure drop equivalent per metre equivalent length of pipe,
assembled easily during initial installation and also disassembled and for sizing liquid lines at 0.5 m/s. Charts prepared by Wile (1977)
for servicing. present pressure drops in saturation temperature equivalents. For a
complete discussion of the basis of these line sizing charts, see

Timm (1991). Table 3 presents line sizing information for pumped
liquid lines, high-pressure liquid lines, hot-gas defrost lines, equal-
izing lines, and thermosiphon lubricant cooling ammonia lines.
Valves
Stop Valves. These valves should be placed in the inlet and out-
let lines to all condensers, vessels, evaporators, and long lengths of
pipe so that they can be isolated in case of leaks and to facilitate
pumping out by evacuation. Sections of liquid piping that can be
valved off and isolated must be protected with a relief device.
Installing globe-type stop valves with the valve stems horizontal
lessens the chance (1) for dirt or scale to lodge on the valve seat or
disk and cause it to leak or (2) for liquid or lubricant to pocket in the
area below the seat. Wet suction return lines (recirculation system)
should employ angle valves to reduce the possibility of liquid pock-
ets and to reduce pressure drop.
Welded flanged or weld-in-line valves are desirable for all line
sizes; however, screwed valves may be used for 32 mm and smaller
lines. Ammonia globe and angle valves should have the following
features:
Soft seating surfaces for positive shutoff (no copper or copper
alloy)
Back seating to permit repacking the valve stem while in service
Arrangement that allows packing to be tightened easily
All-steel construction (preferable)
Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia
Bolted bonnets above 25 mm, threaded bonnets for 25 mm and
smaller
Consider seal cap valves in refrigerated areas and for all ammo-
Insulation and Vapor Retarders
nia piping. To keep pressure drop to a minimum, consider angle Chapter 32 covers insulation and vapor retarders. Insulation and
valves (as opposed to globe valves). effective vapor retarders on low-temperature systems are very
Control Valves. Pressure regulators, solenoid valves, and ther- important. At low temperatures, the smallest leak in the vapor
mostatic expansion valves should be flanged for easy assembly and retarder can allow ice to form inside the insulation, which can
removal. Valves 40 mm and larger should have welded companion totally destroy the integrity of the entire insulation system. The
flanges. Smaller valves can have threaded companion flanges. result can cause a significant increase in load and power usage.
A strainer should be used in front of self-contained control
valves to protect them from pipe construction material and dirt. A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
ceramic filter installed in the pilot line to the power piston protects
the close tolerances from foreign material when pilot-operated con- Piping
trol valves are used.
Solenoid Valves. Solenoid valve stems should be upright with Figure 14 shows a typical piping arrangement for two compres-
their coils protected from moisture. They should have flexible con- sors operating in parallel off the same suction main. Suction mains
duit connections, where allowed by codes, and an electric pilot light should be laid out with the objective of returning only clean, dry gas
wired in parallel to indicate when the coil is energized. A manual to the compressor. This usually requires a suction trap sized ade-
opening stem is useful for emergencies. quately for gravity gas and liquid separation based on permissible
Solenoid valves for high-pressure liquid feed to evaporators gas velocities for specific temperatures. A dead-end trap can usually
should have soft seats for positive shutoff. Solenoid valves for other trap only scale and lubricant. As an alternative to the dead-end trap,
applications, such as in suction lines, hot-gas lines, or gravity feed a shell-and-coil accumulator with a warm liquid coil may be con-
lines, should be selected for the pressure and temperature of the sidered. Suction mains running to and from the suction trap or accu-
fluid flowing and for the pressure drop available. mulator should be pitched toward the trap at 10 mm per metre for
Relief Valves. Safety valves must be provided in conformance liquid drainage.
with ASHRAE Standard 15 and Section VIII, Division 1, of the In sizing the suction mains and the takeoffs from the mains to the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. For ammonia systems, compressors, consider how the pressure drop in the selected piping
IIAR Bulletin 109 also addresses the subject of safety valves. affects the compressor size required. First costs and operating costs
Dual relief valve arrangements enable testing of the relief valves for compressor and piping selections should be optimized.
(Figure 13). The three-way stop valve is constructed so that it is Good suction line systems have a total friction drop of 0.5 to
always open to one of the relief valves if the other is removed to be 1.5 K pressure drop equivalent. Practical suction line friction losses
checked or repaired. should not exceed 0.01 K equivalent per metre equivalent length.
A well-designed discharge main has a total friction loss of 7 to
Isolated Line Sections 15 kPa. Generally, a slightly oversized discharge line is desirable to
Sections of piping that can be isolated between hand valves or hold down discharge pressure and, consequently, discharge temper-
check valves can be subjected to extreme hydraulic pressures if cold ature and energy costs. Where possible, discharge mains should be
liquid refrigerant is trapped in them and subsequently warmed. pitched (10 mm/m) toward the condenser, without creating a liquid
Additional safety valves for such piping must be provided. trap; otherwise, pitch should be toward the discharge line separator.
Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel
High- and low-pressure cutouts and gages and lubricant pressure should be equipped with crankcase floats to regulate the lubricant
failure cutout are installed on the compressor side of the stop valves flow to the crankcase.
to protect the compressor. Discharge Check Valves and Discharge Lines. Discharge
Lubricant Separators. Lubricant separators are located in the check valves on the downstream side of each lubricant separator
discharge line of each compressor (Figure 14A). A high-pressure prevent high-pressure gas from flowing into an inactive compressor
float valve drains the lubricant back into the compressor crankcase and causing condensation (Figure 14A).
or lubricant receiver. The separator should be placed as far from the The discharge line from each compressor should enter the dis-
compressor as possible, so that the extra pipe length can be used to charge main at a 45 maximum angle in the horizontal plane so that
cool the discharge gas before it enters the separator. This reduces the the gas flows smoothly.
temperature of the ammonia vapor and makes the separator more Unloaded Starting. Unloaded starting is frequently needed to
effective. stay within the torque or current limitations of the motor. Most com-
Liquid ammonia must not reach the crankcase. Often, a valve pressors are unloaded either by holding the suction valve open or by
(preferably automatic) is installed in the drain from the lubricant external bypassing. Control can be manual or automatic.
separator, open only when the temperature at the bottom of the sep- Suction Gas Conditioning. Suction main piping should be insu-
arator is higher than the condensing temperature. Some manufactur- lated, complete with vapor retarder to minimize thermal losses, to
ers install a small electric heater at the bottom of a vertical lubricant prevent sweating and/or ice buildup on the piping, and to limit
trap instead. The heater is actuated when the compressor is not oper- superheat at the compressor. Additional superheat results in
ating. Separators installed in cold conditions must be insulated to increased discharge temperatures and reduces compressor capacity.
prevent ammonia condensation. Low discharge temperatures in ammonia plants are important to
A filter is recommended in the drain line on the downstream side reduce lubricant carryover and because the compressor lubricant
of the high-pressure float valve. can carbonize at higher temperatures, which can cause cylinder wall
Lubricant Receivers. Figure 14B illustrates two compressors scoring and lubricant sludge throughout the system. Discharge tem-
on the same suction line with one discharge line lubricant separator. peratures above 120C should be avoided at all times. Lubricants
The separator float drains into a lubricant receiver, which maintains should have flash point temperatures above the maximum expected
a reserve supply of lubricant for the compressors. Compressors compressor discharge temperature.
Cooling For compressors installed where ambient temperatures below

0C may exist, a means for draining the jacket on shutdown to pre-
Generally, ammonia compressors are constructed with internally
vent freeze-up must be provided. One method is shown in Figure 16.
cast cooling passages along the cylinders and/or in the top heads.
Water flow is through the normally closed solenoid valve, which is
These passages provide space for circulating a heat transfer
energized when the compressor starts. The water then circulates
medium, which minimizes heat conduction from the hot discharge
through the lubricant cooler and the jacket, and out through the
gas to the incoming suction gas and lubricant in the compressors
water return line. When the compressor stops, the solenoid valve in
crankcase. An external lubricant cooler is supplied on most recipro-
the water inlet line is deenergized and stops the water flow to the
cating ammonia compressors. Water is usually the medium circu-
compressor. At the same time, the solenoid valve opens to drain the
lated through these passages (water jackets), and the lubricant
water out of the low point to wastewater treatment. The check
cooler at a rate of about 2 mL/s per kilowatt of refrigeration. The
valves in the air vent lines open when pressure is relieved and allow
lubricant in the crankcase (depending on type of construction) is
the jacket and cooler to be drained. Each flapper check valve is
about 50C. Temperatures above this level reduce the lubricants
installed so that water pressure closes it, but absence of water pres-
lubricating properties.
sure allows it to swing open.
For compressors operating in ambients above 0C, water flow is
When compressors are installed in spaces below 0C or where
sometimes controlled entirely by hand valves, although a solenoid
water quality is very poor, cooling is best handled by using an inhib-
valve in the inlet line is desirable to make the system automatic.
ited glycol solution or other suitable fluid in the jackets and lubri-
When the compressor stops, water flow must be stopped to keep the
cant cooler and cooling with a secondary heat exchanger. This
residual gas from condensing and to conserve water. A water-regu-
method for cooling reciprocating ammonia compressors eliminates
lating valve, installed in the water supply line with the sensing bulb
the fouling of the lubricant cooler and jacket normally associated
in the water return line, is also recommended. This type of cooling
with city water or cooling tower water.
is shown in Figure 15.
The thermostat in the water line leaving the jacket serves as a
safety cutout to stop the compressor if the temperature becomes too
ROTARY VANE, LOW-STAGE
high.
COMPRESSORS
Piping
Rotary vane compressors have been used extensively as low-
stage compressors in ammonia refrigeration systems. Now, how-
ever, the screw compressor has largely replaced the rotary vane
compressor for ammonia low-stage compressor applications. Pip-
ing requirements for rotary vane compressors are the same as for
reciprocating compressors. Most rotary vane compressors are
lubricated by injectors since they have no crankcase. In some
designs, a lubricant separator, lubricant receiver, and cooler are
required on the discharge of these compressors; a pump recircu-
lates the lubricant to the compressor for both cooling and lubrica-
tion. In other rotary vane compressor designs, a discharge
lubricant separator is not used, and the lubricant collects in the
high-stage suction accumulator or intercooler, from which it may
be drained. Lubricant for the injectors must periodically be added
to a reservoir.
Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient

Temperatures above Freezing
Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling
Temperatures below Freezing with Lubricant
Cooling A variable Vi compressor makes compressor selection simpler

because it can vary its volume index from 2.0 to 5.0; thus, it can
The compressor jacket is cooled by circulating a cooling fluid, automatically match the internal pressure ratio within the compres-
such as water or lubricant. Lubricant is recommended because it sor with the external pressure ratio.
will not freeze and can be the same lubricant used for lubrication Typical flow diagrams for screw compressor packages are shown
(Figure 17). in Figures 18 and 19. Figure 18 is for indirect cooling, and Figure 19
is for direct cooling with refrigerant liquid injection. Figure 20 illus-
SCREW COMPRESSORS trates a variable Vi compressor that does not require a full-time lube
pump but rather a pump to prelube the bearings. Full-time lube
Piping pumps are required when fixed or variable Vi compressors are used
Helical screw compressors are the choice for most industrial as low-stage compressors. Lubrication systems require at least a
refrigeration systems. All helical screw compressors have a con- 500 kPa pressure differential for proper operation.
stant volume (displacement) design. The volume index (Vi) refers to
the internal volume ratio of the compressor. There are three types of Lubricant Cooling
screw compressors: The lubricant in screw compressors may be cooled three ways:
1. Fixed Vi with slide valve 1. Liquid refrigerant injection
2. Variable Vi with slide valve and slide stop 2. Indirect cooling with glycol or water in a heat exchanger
3. Indirect cooling with boiling high-pressure refrigerant used as
3. Fixed Vi with bypass ports in lieu of slide valve
the coolant in a thermosiphon process
When Vi is fixed, the compressor functions most efficiently at a Refrigerant injection cooling is shown schematically in Figures
certain absolute compression ratio (CR). In selecting a fixed Vi com- 19 and 21. Depending on the application, this cooling method usually
pressor, the average CR rather than the maximum CR should be decreases compressor efficiency and capacity but lowers equipment
considered. A guide to proper compressor selection is based on the cost. Most screw compressor manufacturers publish a derating curve
equation Vik = CR, where k = 1.4 for ammonia. for this type of cooling. Injection cooling for low-stage compression
For example, for a screw compressor at -12C (268 kPa) and has little or no penalty on compressor efficiency or capacity. How-
36C (1390 kPa) with CR = 5.19, Vi 1.4 = 5.19 and Vi = 3.24. Thus, ever, the system efficiency can be increased by using an indirectly
a compressor with Vi = 3.6 might be the best choice. If the ambient cooled lubricant cooler. With this configuration, the heat from the
conditions are such that the average condensing temperature is 24C lubricant cooler is removed by the evaporative condenser or cooling
(973 kPa), then the CR is 3.63 and the ideal Vi is 2.51. Thus, a com- tower and is not transmitted to the high-stage compressors.
pressor with Vi = 2.4 is the proper selection to optimize efficiency. The refrigerant liquid for liquid injection oil cooling must come
Fixed Vi compressors with bypass ports in lieu of a slide valve are from a dedicated supply source. The source may be the system
often applied as booster compressors, which normally have a Vi receiver or a separate receiver; a 5 min uninterrupted supply of
requirement of less than 2.9. refrigerant liquid is usually adequate.
Fig. 18 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Indirect Lubricant Cooling
Fig. 19 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling
Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only
Indirect or thermosiphon lubricant cooling for low-stage screw Thermosiphon lubricant cooling is the industry standard. In this
compressors rejects the lubricant cooling load to the condenser or system, high-pressure refrigerant liquid from the condenser, which
auxiliary cooling systemthis load is not transferred to the high- boils at condensing temperature/pressure (usually 32 to 35C de-
stage compressor, which improves the system efficiency. Indirect sign), cools the lubricant in a tubular heat exchanger. Typical ther-
lubricant cooling systems using glycol or water reject the lubricant mosiphon lubricant cooling arrangements are shown in Figures 18,
cooling load to a section of an evaporative condenser, a separate 20, 22, 23, and 24. Note on all figures that the refrigerant liquid
evaporative cooler, or a cooling tower. A three-way lubricant con- supply to the lubricant cooler receives priority over the feed to the
trol valve should be used to control lubricant temperature. system low side. It is important that the gas equalizing line (vent) off
Fig. 21 Flow Diagram for Screw Compressors with Refrigerant Injection Cooling
Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System

with Thermosiphon Accumulator
Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with
Receiver Mounted above Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooler
the top of the thermosiphon receiver be adequately sized to match the
lubricant cooler load to prevent the thermosiphon receiver from be-
coming gas bound. is varied by adjusting the slide stop on the discharge end of the com-
Figure 25 shows a typical capacity control system for a fixed Vi pressor.
screw compressor. The four-way valve controls the slide valve posi- Screw compressor piping should generally be installed in the
tion and thus the compressor capacity from typically 100 to 10% same manner as for reciprocating compressors. Although screw
with a signal from an electric, electronic, or microprocessor control- compressors can ingest some liquid refrigerant, they should be pro-
ler. The slide valve unloads the compressor by bypassing vapor tected against liquid carryover. Screw compressors are furnished
back to the suction of the compressor. with both suction and discharge check valves.
Figure 26 shows a typical capacity and volume index control sys-
tem in which two four-way control valves take their signals from a
CONDENSER AND RECEIVER PIPING
computer controller. One four-way valve controls the capacity by
positioning the slide valve in accordance with the load, and the other Properly designed piping around the condensers and receivers
positions the slide stop to adjust the compressor internal pressure keeps the condensing surface at its highest efficiency by draining
ratio to match the system suction and discharge pressure. The slide liquid ammonia out of the condenser as soon as it condenses and
valve works the same as that on fixed Vi compressors. Volume index keeping air and other noncondensables purged.
Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers
Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity

Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed Vi
Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condenser and Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and
Through-Type Receiver Slide Stop for Variable Vi Screw Compressor
Figure 27 shows a horizontal water-cooled condenser draining
into a through-type (top inlet) receiver. Ammonia plants do not
always require controlled water flow to maintain pressure. Usually, Receivers must be below the condenser so that the condensing
pressure is adequate to force the ammonia to the various evaporators surface is not flooded with ammonia. The piping should provide (1)
without water regulation. Each situation should be evaluated by free drainage from the condenser and (2) static height of ammonia
comparing water costs with input power cost savings at lower con- above the first valve out of the condenser greater than the pressure
denser pressures. drop through the valve.
Water piping should be arranged so that condenser tubes are The drain line from condenser to receiver is designed on the basis
always filled with water. Air vents should be provided on condenser of maximum velocity to allow gas equalization between condenser
heads and should have hand valves for manual purging. and receiver. Refer to Table 2 for sizing criteria.
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS
Evaporative condensers are selected based on the wet-bulb tem-
perature in which they operate. The 1% design wet bulb is that wet-
bulb temperature that will be equalled or exceeded 1% of the months
of June through September, or 29.3 h. Thus, for the majority of indus-
trial plants that operate at least at part load all year, the wet-bulb tem-
perature will be below design 99.6% of the operating time. The
resultant condensing pressure will only equal or exceed the design
condition during 0.4% of the time if the design wet-bulb temperature
and peak design refrigeration load occur coincidentally. This peak
condition is more a function of how the load is calculated, what load
diversity factor exists or is used in the calculation, and what safety
factor is used in the calculations, than of the size of the condenser.
Location
If an evaporative condenser is located with insufficient space for
air movement, the effect is the same as that imposed by an inlet
damper, and the fan may not deliver enough air. In addition, evap-
orative condenser discharge air may recirculate, which adds to the
problem. The high inlet velocity causes a low-pressure region to
develop around the fan inlet, inducing flow of discharge air into that
region. If the obstruction is from a second condenser, the problem
Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping can be even more severe because discharge air from the second con-
denser flows into the air intake of the first.
Prevailing winds can also contribute to recirculation. In many
areas, the winds shift with the seasons; wind direction during the
peak high-humidity season is the most important consideration.
The tops of the condensers should always be higher than any
adjacent structure to eliminate downdrafts that might induce recir-
culation. Where this is impractical, discharge hoods can be used to
discharge air far enough away from the fan intakes to avoid recircu-
lation. However, the additional static pressure imposed by a dis-
charge hood must be added to the fan system. The fan speed can be
increased slightly to obtain proper air volume.
Installation
A single evaporative condenser used with a through-type (top
inlet) receiver can be connected as shown in Figure 29. The
receiver must always be at a lower pressure than the condensing
pressure. Design ensures that the receiver is cooler than the con-
densing temperature.
Installation in Freezing Areas. In areas having ambient temper-
atures below 0C, the water in the evaporative condenser drain pan
and water circuit must be kept from freezing at light plant loads.
When the temperature is at freezing, the evaporative condenser can
operate as a dry-coil unit, and the water pump(s) and piping can be
drained and secured for the season.
Another method of preventing the water from freezing is to place
the water tank inside and install it as illustrated in Figure 30. When
the outdoor temperature drops, the condensing pressure drops, and
a pressure switch with its sensing element in the discharge pressure
line stops the water pump; the water is then drained into the tank. An
alternative is to use a thermostat that senses the water temperature or
outdoor ambient temperature and stops the pump at low tempera-
tures. The exposed piping and any trapped water headers in the evap-
Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver orative condenser should be drained into the indoor water tank.
Air volume capacity control methods include inlet, outlet, or
bypass dampers; two-speed fan motors; or fan cycling in response to
pressure controls.
Parallel Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condensers Liquid Traps. Because all evaporative condensers have a sub-
Figure 28 shows two condensers operating in parallel with one stantial pressure drop in the ammonia circuit, liquid traps are needed
through-type (top inlet) receiver. The length of horizontal liquid at the outlets when two or more condensers or condenser coils are
drain lines to the receiver should be minimized, with no traps per- installed (Figure 31). Also, an equalizer line is necessary to main-
mitted. Equalization between the shells is achieved by keeping the tain a stable pressure in the receiver to ensure free drainage from the
liquid velocity in the drain line less than 0.5 m/s. The drain line can condensers. For example, assume a 10 kPa pressure drop in the
be sized from Table 2. operating condenser in Figure 31, which is producing a lower
pressure (1290 kPa) at its outlet compared to the idle condenser

(1300 kPa) and the receiver (1300 kPa). The trap creates a liquid
seal so that a liquid height h of 1700 mm (equivalent to 10 kPa)
builds up in the vertical drop leg and not in the condenser coil.
The trap must have enough height above the vertical liquid leg to
accommodate a liquid height equal to the maximum pressure drop
that will be encountered in the condenser. The example illustrates
the extreme case of one unit on and one off; however, the same phe-
nomenon occurs to a lesser degree with two condensers of differing
pressure drops when both are in full operation. Substantial differ-
ences in pressure drop can also occur between two different brands
of the same size condenser or even different models produced by the
same manufacturer.
The minimum recommended height of the vertical leg is 1500 mm
for ammonia. This vertical dimension h is shown in all evaporative
condenser piping diagrams. This height is satisfactory for operation
within reasonable ranges around normal design conditions and is
based on the maximum condensing pressure drop of the coil. If ser-
vice valves are installed at the coil inlets and/or outlets, the pressure
drops imposed by these valves must be accounted for by increasing
the minimum 1500 mm drop-leg height by an amount equal to the
valve pressure drop in height of liquid refrigerant (Figure 32).
Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with

Top Inlet Receiver
Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped

Piping to Receiver
1. Evaporative condenser 10. Tank drain

2. Spray header connection 11. Pump
3. Pan overflow 12. Strainer with blowoff
4. Pan drain valve
5. Roof 13. To drain
6. Tank 14. Floor
7. Makeup water inlet 15. Bleed off & drain line
8. Float 16. Return from evaporative
9. Tank overflow condenser
Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes
Fig. 33 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Fig. 34 Piping for Parallel Condensers with
Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Surge-Type Receiver
Figures 33, 34, and 35 illustrate various piping arrangements for hydraulic shock loads. If the header must be in a cold space, the
evaporative condensers. insulated hot-gas main must be drained to the suction line by a high-
pressure float.
EVAPORATOR PIPING The liquid line and suction line solenoid valves are open during
normal operation only and are closed during the defrost cycle.
Proper evaporator piping and control are necessary to keep the
When the defrost cycle starts, the hot-gas solenoid valve is opened.
cooled space at the desired temperature and also to adequately pro-
Refer to IIAR Bulletin 116 for information on possible hydraulic
tect the compressor from surges of liquid ammonia out of the evap-
shock when the hot-gas defrost valve is opened after a defrost.
orator. The evaporators illustrated in this section show some
methods used to accomplish these objectives. In some cases, com- A defrost pressure regulator maintains a gage pressure of about
binations of details shown on several illustrations have been used. 480 to 550 kPa in the coil.
When using hot gas or electric heat for defrosting, the drain pan
Unit CoolerFlooded Operation
and drain line must be heated to prevent the condensate from
refreezing. With hot gas, a heating coil is embedded in the drain pan. Figure 37 illustrates a flooded evaporator with a close coupled
The hot gas flows first through this coil and then into the evaporator low-pressure vessel for feeding ammonia into the coil and auto-
coil. With electric heat, an electric heating coil is used under the matic water defrost.
drain pan. Wraparound or internal electric heating cables are used The lower float switch on the float column at the vessel controls
on the condensate drain line when the room temperature is below the opening and closing of the liquid line solenoid valve, regulating
0C. ammonia feed into the unit to maintain a liquid level. The hand
Figure 36 illustrates a thermostatic expansion valve on a unit expansion valve downstream of the solenoid valve should be
cooler using hot gas for automatic defrosting. Because this is an adjusted so that it will not feed ammonia into the vessel at a rate
automatic defrosting arrangement, hot gas must always be available higher than the vessel can accommodate while raising the suction
at the hot-gas solenoid valve near the unit. The system must contain pressure of gas from the vessel no more than 6 to 14 kPa.
multiple evaporators so that the compressor will be running when The static height of liquid in the vessel should be sufficient to
the evaporator to be defrosted is shut down. The hot-gas header flood the coil with liquid under normal loads. The higher float switch
must be kept in a space where ammonia will not condense in the should be wired into an alarm circuit and possibly a compressor shut-
pipe. Otherwise, the coil receives liquid ammonia at the start of down circuit for when the liquid level in the vessel is too high. With
defrosting and is unable to take full advantage of the latent heat of flooded coils having horizontal headers, distribution between the
hot-gas condensation entering the coil. This can also lead to severe multiple circuits is accomplished without distributing orifices.
Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of

Air Blower with Flooded Coil
One of the best means of controlling room temperature is a room

thermostat that controls the effective setting of the evaporator pres-
sure regulator.
A spring-loaded relief valve is used around the suction pressure
regulator and is set so that the vessel is kept below 860 kPa (gage).
A solenoid valve unaffected by downstream pressure is used in
the water line to the defrost header. The defrost header is con-
structed so that it drains at the end of the defrost cycle and the down-
stream side of the solenoid valve drains through a fixed orifice.
Unless the room is maintained above 0C, the drain line from the
unit should be wrapped with a heater cable or provided with another
heat source and then insulated to prevent the defrost water from
Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with refreezing in the line.
Top Inlet Receiver The length of the water line within the space leading up to the
header and the length of the drain line in the cooled space should be
kept to a minimum. A flapper or pipe trap on the end of the drain line
prevents warm air from flowing up the drain pipe and into the unit.
An air outlet damper may be closed during defrosting to prevent
thermal circulation of air through the unit, which would affect the
temperature of the cooled space. The fan is stopped during defrost.
This type of defrosting requires a drain pan float switch for safety
control. If the drain pan fills with water, the switch overrides the
time clock to stop the flow into the unit by closing the water sole-
noid valve.
There should be a 5 min delay at the end of the water spray part
of the defrosting cycle so that the water can drain from the coil and
pan. This limits the ice buildup in the drain pan and on the coils after
the cycle is completed.
On completion of the cycle, the pressure in the low-pressure ves-
sel may be about 500 kPa (gage). When the unit is opened to the
much lower pressure suction main, some liquid surges out into the
main; therefore, it may be necessary to gradually bleed off this pres-
sure before fully opening the suction valve in order to prevent ther-
mal shock. Generally, a suction trap in the engine room removes this
liquid before the gas stream enters the compressors.
The type of refrigerant control shown in Figure 37 can be used on
Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve brine spray-type units where brine is sprayed over the coil at all
Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler times to pick up the condensed water vapor from the airstream. The
brine is reconcentrated continually to remove the water absorbed
A combination evaporator pressure regulator and stop valve is from the airstream.
used in the suction line from the vessel. During operation, the reg-
ulator maintains a nearly constant back pressure in the vessel. A High-Side Float Control
solenoid coil in the regulator mechanism closes it during the defrost When a system has only one evaporator, a high-pressure float
cycle. The liquid solenoid valve should also be closed at this time. control can be used to keep the condenser drained and to provide a
Low-Side Float Control

For multiple evaporator systems, low-side float valves are used
to control the refrigerant level in flooded evaporators. The low-
pressure float shown in Figure 39 has an equalizer line from the top
of the float chamber to the space above the tube bundle and an
equalizer line out of the lower side of the float chamber to the lower
side of the tube bundle.
For positive shutoff of liquid feed when the system stops, a sole-
noid valve in the liquid line is wired so that it is only energized when
the brine or water pump motor is operating and the compressor is
running.
A reflex glass lens with large liquid chamber and vapor connec-
tions for boiling liquids should be used with a plastic frost shield to
determine the actual level and with front extensions as required.
Usually a high-level float switch is installed above the operating
level of the float to shut the liquid solenoid valve if the float should
overfeed.
MULTISTAGE SYSTEMS
As pressure ratios increase, single-stage ammonia systems
Fig. 38 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler encounter problems including (1) high discharge temperatures on
and High-Side Float reciprocating compressors causing the lubricant to deteriorate, (2)
loss of volumetric efficiency as high pressure leaks back to the low-
pressure side through compressor clearances, and (3) excessive
stresses on compressor moving parts. Thus, manufacturers usually
limit the maximum pressure ratios for multicylinder reciprocating
machines to approximately 7 to 9. For screw compressors, which
incorporate cooling, compression ratio is not a limitation, but effi-
ciency deteriorates at high ratios.
When the overall system pressure ratio (absolute discharge
pressure divided by absolute suction pressure) begins to exceed
these limits, the pressure ratio across the compressor must be
reduced. This is usually accomplished by employing a multistage
system. A properly designed two-stage system exposes each of the
two compressors to a pressure ratio approximately equal to the
square root of the overall pressure ratio. In a three-stage system,
each compressor is exposed to a pressure ratio approximately
equal to the cube root of the overall ratio. When screw compres-
sors are used, this calculation does not always guarantee the most
efficient system.
Another advantage to multistaging is that successively subcool-
ing the liquid at each stage of compression increases the overall sys-
Fig. 39 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with tem operating efficiency. Additionally, multistaging can be used to
Horizontal Liquid Cooler accommodate multiple loads at different suction pressures and tem-
peratures in the same refrigeration system. In some cases, two
stages of compression can be contained in a single compressor, such
liquid seal between the high side and the low side. Figure 38 illus-
as an internally compounded reciprocating compressor. In these
trates a brine or water cooler with this type of control. The high-side
units, one or more cylinders are isolated from the others so that they
float should be located near the evaporator to avoid insulating the
can act as independent stages of compression. Internally com-
liquid line.
pounded compressors are economical for small systems that require
The amount of ammonia in this type of system is critical because
low temperature.
the charge must be limited so that liquid will not surge into the suc-
tion line under the highest loading in the evaporator. Some type of
Two-Stage Screw Compressor System
suction trap should be used. One method is to place a horizontal
shell above the cooler, with the suction gas piped into the bottom A typical two-stage, two-temperature system using screw com-
and out of the top. The reduction of gas velocity in this shell causes pressors provides refrigeration for high- and low-temperature loads
the liquid to separate from the gas and draw back into the chiller. (Figure 40). For example, the high-temperature stage will supply
Coolers should include a liquid indicator. A reflex glass lens with refrigerant to all process areas operating between -2 and 10C. A
a large liquid chamber and vapor connections for boiling liquids and -8C intermediate suction temperature is selected. The low-tem-
with a plastic frost shield to determine the actual level should be perature stage requires a 37C suction temperature for blast freez-
used. A refrigeration thermostat measuring the temperature of the ers and continuous or spiral freezers.
chilled fluid as it exits the cooler should be wired into the compres- The system employs a flash-type intercooler that doubles as a
sor starting circuit to prevent freezing. recirculator for the -8C load. It is the most efficient system avail-
A flow switch or differential pressure switch should prove flow able if the screw compressor uses indirect lubricant cooling. If
before the compressor starts. The fluid to be cooled should be piped refrigerant injection cooling is used, system efficiency is decreased.
into the lower portion of the tube bundle and out of the top portion. This system is efficient for several reasons:
Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled
1. Approximately 50% of the booster (low-stage) motor heat is The motor on the existing single-stage compressor may have to be
removed from the high-stage compressor load by the thermosi- increased in size when used at a higher suction pressure.
phon lubricant cooler. The suction trap should be checked for sizing at the increased gas
Note: In any system, thermosiphon lubricant cooling for booster flow rate.
and high-stage compressors is about 10% more efficient than An intercooler should be added to cool the low-stage compressor
injection cooling. Also, plants with a piggyback, two-stage discharge gas and to cool high-pressure liquid.
screw compressor system without intercooling or injection cool- A condenser may have to be added to handle the increased con-
ing can be converted to a multistage system with indirect cooling densing load.
to increase system efficiency approximately 15%. A means of purging air should be added if plant suction gage pres-
sure is below zero.
2. Flash-type intercoolers are more efficient than shell-and-coil A means of automatically reducing compressor capacity should
intercoolers by several percent. be added so that the system will operate satisfactorily at reduced
3. Thermosiphon lubricant cooling of the high-stage screw com- system capacity points.
pressor provides the highest efficiency available. Installing indi-
rect cooling in plants with liquid injection cooling of screw
LIQUID RECIRCULATION SYSTEMS
compressors can increase the compressor efficiency by 3 to 4%.
4. Thermosiphon cooling saves 20 to 30% in electric energy during The following discussion gives an overview of liquid recircula-
the low-temperature months. When outside air temperature is tion (liquid overfeed) systems. See Chapter 1 for more complete
low, the condensing pressure can be decreased to 600 to 700 kPa information. For additional engineering details on liquid overfeed
(gage) in most ammonia systems. With liquid injection cooling, systems, refer to Stoecker (1988).
the condensing pressure can only be reduced to approximately In a liquid ammonia recirculation system, a pump circulates the
850 to 900 kPa (gage). ammonia from a low-pressure receiver to the evaporators. The low-
5. Variable Vi compressors with microprocessor control require less pressure receiver is a shell for storing refrigerant at low pressure and
total energy when employed as high-stage compressors. The is used to supply evaporators with refrigerant, either by gravity or
controller tracks the compressor operating conditions to take by a low-pressure pump. It also takes the suction from the evapora-
advantage of ambient conditions as well as variations in load. tors and separates the gas from the liquid. Because the amount of
liquid fed into the evaporator is usually several times the amount
Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems that actually evaporates there, liquid is always present in the suction
When plant refrigeration capacity must be increased and the sys- return to the low-pressure receiver. Frequently, three times the evap-
tem is operating below about 70 kPa (gage) suction pressure, it is orated amount is circulated through the evaporator (see Chapter 1).
usually more economical to increase capacity by adding a compres- Generally, the liquid ammonia pump is sized by the flow rate
sor to operate as the low-stage compressor of a two-stage system required and a pressure differential of about 170 kPa. This is satis-
than to implement a general capacity increase. The existing single- factory for most single-story installations. If there is a static lift on
stage compressor then becomes the high-stage compressor of the the pump discharge, the differential is increased accordingly.
two-stage system. The following are some items to consider when The low-pressure receiver should be sized by the cross-sectional
converting: area required to separate liquid and gas and by the volume between
Another reason to maintain the lowest possible defrost tempera-

ture/pressure, particularly in freezers, is to keep the coil from steam-
ing. Steam increases the refrigeration load, and the resulting icicle
or frost formation must be dealt with. Icicles increase maintenance
during cleanup; ice formed during defrost tends to collect at the fan
rings, which sometimes restricts fan operation.
Defrosting takes slightly longer at lower defrost pressures. The
shorter the time heat is added to the space, the more efficient is the
defrost. However, with slightly extended defrost times at lower tem-
perature, the overall defrosting efficiency is much greater than at
higher temperature/pressure because refrigeration requirements are
reduced.
Another loss during defrost can occur when hot, or uncondensed,
gas blows through the coil and the relief regulator and vents back to
Fig. 41 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure the compressor. Some of this gas load cannot be contained and must
Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation be vented to the compressor through the wet return line. It is most
energy-efficient to vent this hot gas to the highest suction possible;
the normal and alarm liquid levels in the low-pressure receiver. This an evaporator defrost relief should be vented to the intermediate or
volume should be sufficient to contain the maximum fluctuation in high-stage compressor if the system is two-stage. See Figure 42 for
liquid from the various load conditions (see Chapter 1). a conventional hot-gas defrost system for evaporator coils of 50 kW
The liquid at the pump discharge is in the subcooled region. A of refrigeration and below. Note that the wet return is above the
total pressure drop of about 35 kPa in the piping can be tolerated. evaporator and that a single riser is employed.
Defrost Control. Because the efficiency of defrosting is low,
The remaining pressure is expended through the control valve
frequency and duration of defrosting should be kept to the minimum
and coil. The pressure drop and heat pickup in the liquid supply line
necessary to keep the coils clean. Less defrosting is required during
should be low enough to prevent flashing in the liquid supply line.
the winter than during hotter, more humid periods. An effective
Provisions for liquid relief from the liquid main back to the low- energy-saving measure is to reset defrost schedules in the winter.
pressure receiver are required, so that when the liquid line solenoid Several methods are used to initiate the defrost cycle. Demand
valves at the various evaporators are closed, either for defrosting or defrost, actuated by a pressure device that measures the air pressure
for temperature control, the excess liquid can be relieved back to the drop across the coil, is a good way of minimizing total daily defrost
receiver. Generally, relief valves used for this purpose are set at time. The coil is defrosted automatically only when necessary.
about 275 kPa differential when positive displacement pumps are Demand initiation, together with a float drainer to dump the liquid
used. When centrifugal pumps are used, a hand expansion valve or formed during defrost to an intermediate vessel, is the most efficient
a minimum flow orifice is acceptable to ensure that the pump is not defrost system available. See Figure 43 for details.
dead-headed.
The most common defrost control method, however, is time-
The suction header between the evaporators and the low-pres- initiated, time-terminated; it includes adjustable defrost duration
sure receiver should be pitched 1% to permit excess liquid flow and an adjustable number of defrost cycles per 24 h period. This
back to the low-pressure receiver. The header should be designed to control is commonly provided by a defrost timer.
avoid traps. Estimates indicate that the load placed on a refrigeration system
Liquid Recirculation in Single-Stage System. Figure 41 shows by a coil during defrost is up to three times the operating design load.
the piping of a typical single-stage system with a low-pressure Thus, it is important to properly engineer hot-gas defrost systems.
receiver and liquid ammonia recirculation feed. Designing Hot-Gas Defrost Systems. Several approaches are
followed in designing hot-gas defrost systems. Figure 43 shows a
Hot-Gas Defrost typical demand defrost system for both upfeed and downfeed coils.
This section was taken from a technical paper by Briley and This design returns the defrost liquid to the systems intermediate
Lyons (1992). Several methods are used for defrosting coils in areas pressure. An alternative is to direct the defrost liquid into the wet
below 2C room temperature. These include suction. A float drainer or thermostatic trap with a hot-gas regulator
installed at the hot-gas inlet to the coil is much better than the relief
Hot refrigerant gas (the predominant method) regulator (see Figure 43).
Water Most defrost systems installed today (Figure 42) use a time clock
Air to initiate defrost; the demand defrost system shown in Figure 43
Combinations of hot gas, water, and air uses a low differential pressure switch to sense the air pressure drop
across the coil and actuate the defrost. A thermostat terminates the
The evaporator (air unit) in a liquid recirculation system is cir- defrost cycle. A timer is used as a backup to make sure the defrost
cuited so that the refrigerant flow provides maximum cooling effi- terminates.
ciency. The evaporator can also work as a condenser if the necessary Sizing and Designing Hot-Gas Piping. Hot gas is supplied to
piping and flow modifications are made. When the evaporator is the evaporators in two ways:
operated as a condenser and the fans are shut down, the hot refrig-
erant vapor raises the surface temperature of the coil enough to melt 1. The preferred method is to install a pressure regulator set at
any ice and/or frost on the surface so that it drains off. Although this approximately 700 kPa (gage) in the equipment room at the hot-
method is effective, it can be troublesome and inefficient if the pip- gas takeoff and size the piping accordingly.
ing system is not properly designed. 2. The alternative is to install a pressure regulator at each evaporator
or group of evaporators and size the piping for minimum design
Even when the fans are not operating, up to 50% or more of the
condensing pressure, which should be 500 to 600 kPa (gage).
heat given up by the refrigerant vapor is lost to the space. Because
the rate of heat transfer varies with the temperature difference A maximum of one-third of the coils in a system should be
between the coil surface and the room air, the temperature/pressure defrosted at one time. If a system has 900 kW of refrigeration capac-
of the refrigerant during defrost should be minimized. ity, the main hot-gas supply pipe could be sized for 300 kW of
Fig. 42 Conventional Hot Gas Defrost Cycle

(For coils with 50 kW refrigeration capacity or below)
Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle

(For coils with 50 kW refrigeration capacity or below)
refrigeration. The outlet pressure-regulating valve should be sized

in accordance with the manufacturers data.
Reducing the defrost hot-gas pressure in the equipment room has
advantages, notably that less liquid will condense in the hot-gas line
as the condensing temperature is reduced to 11 to 18C. A typical
equipment room hot-gas pressure control system is shown in Figure
44. If hot-gas lines in the system are trapped, a condensate drainer
must be installed at each trap and at the low point in the hot-gas line
(Figure 45). Defrost condensate liquid return piping from coils
where a float or thermostatic valve is used should be one size larger
than the liquid feed piping to the coil.
Demand Defrost. The following are advantages and features of Fig. 44 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System
demand defrost:
1. It uses the least energy for defrost.
2. It increases total system efficiency because coils are off-line for
a minimum amount of time.
3. It imposes less stress on the piping system because there are
fewer defrost cycles.
4. Regulating the hot gas to approximately 700 kPa (gage) in the
equipment room gives the gas less chance of condensing in the
supply piping. Liquid in hot-gas systems may cause problems
due to the hydraulic shock created when the liquid is forced into
an evaporator (coil). Coils in hot-gas pans may rupture as a result.
5. Draining the liquid formed during defrost with a float or thermo-
static drainer eliminates hot-gas blowby normally associated
with pressure-regulating valves installed around the wet suction
return line pilot check valve.
6. Returning the ammonia liquid to the intercooler or high-stage
recirculator saves considerable energy in a system. A 70 kW
refrigeration coil defrosting for 12 min can condense up to 11
kg/min of ammonia, or 132 kg total. The enthalpy difference
between returning to the low-stage recirculator (40C) and the
intermediate recirculator (-7C) is 148 kJ/kg or 19.5 MJ total or
27 kW of refrigeration removed from the 40C booster for 12
min. This assumes that only liquid is drained and is the saving
when liquid is drained to the intermediate point, not the total cost
to defrost. If a pressure-reducing valve is used around the pilot
check valve, this rate could double or triple because hot gas
flows through these valves in unmeasurable quantities.
Soft Hot-Gas Defrost System. The soft hot-gas defrost system
is particularly well suited to large evaporators and should be used on
Fig. 45 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer
all coils of 50 kW of refrigeration or over. The system eliminates the
valve clatter, pipe movements, and noise associated with large coils
during hot-gas defrost. Soft hot-gas defrost can be used for upfeed If the velocity in the riser is high enough, it will carry over a certain
or downfeed coils; however, the piping systems differ (Figure 46). amount of liquid, thus reducing the penalty. For example, at 40C
Coils operated in the horizontal plane must be orificed. Vertical ammonia has a density of 689.9 kg/m3, which is equivalent to a
coils that usually are cross-fed are also orificed. pressure of 689.9(9.807 m/s2)/1000 = 6.77 kPa per metre of depth.
The soft hot-gas defrost system is designed to increase coil pres- Thus, a 5 m riser has a column of liquid that exerts 5 6.77 = 33.8
sure gradually as defrost is initiated. This is accomplished by a kPa. At 40C, ammonia has a saturation pressure of 71.7 kPa. At
small hot-gas feed having a capacity of about 25 to 30% of the esti- the bottom of the riser then, the pressure is 33.8 + 71.7 = 105.5 kPa,
mated duty with a solenoid and a hand expansion valve adjusted to which is the saturation pressure of ammonia at 33C. This 7 K dif-
bring the pressure up to about 275 kPa (gage) in 3 to 5 min. (Refer ference amounts to a 1.4 K penalty per metre of riser. If a riser were
to Sequence of Operation in Figure 46.) After defrost, a small suc- oversized to the point that the vapor did not carry the liquid to the
tion line solenoid is opened so that the coil can be brought down to wet return, the evaporator would be at 33C instead of 40C. This
operation pressure gradually before liquid is introduced and the fans problem can be solved in several ways:
started. The system can be initiated by a pressure switch; however,
for large coils in spiral or individual quick freezing systems, manual 1. Install the low-temperature recirculated suction (LTRS) line
initiation is preferred. below the evaporator. This method is very effective for down-
The soft hot-gas defrost system eliminates check valve chatter and feed evaporators. The suction from the coil should not be
most, if not all, liquid hammer (i.e., hydraulic problems in the piping). trapped. This piping arrangement also ensures lubricant return to
In addition, features 4, 5, and 6 listed in the section on Demand the recirculator.
Defrost apply to the soft hot-gas defrost system. 2. Where the LTRS is above the evaporator, install a liquid return
system below the evaporator (Figure 47). This arrangement
Double Riser Designs for Large Evaporator Coils eliminates static penalty, which is particularly advantageous for
Static pressure penalty is the pressure/temperature loss associ- plate, individual quick freeze, and spiral freezers.
ated with a refrigerant vapor stream bubbling through a liquid bath. 3. Use double risers from the evaporator to the LTRS (Figure 48).
Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle

(For coils with 50 kW refrigeration capacity or above)
Fig. 47 Recirculated Liquid Return System Fig. 48 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers
If a single riser is sized for minimum pressure drop at full load, disposable strainer liners for the large quantity of debris that can be
the static pressure penalty is excessive at part load, and lubricant present at initial start-up.
return could be a problem. If the single riser is sized for minimum Moving parts are often scored when a compressor is run for the
load, then the pressure drop in the riser is excessive and counter- first time. Damage starts with minor scratches, which increase pro-
productive. gressively until they seriously affect the operation of the compres-
Double risers solve these problems (Miller 1979). Figure 48 sor or render it inoperative.
shows that when maximum load occurs, both risers return vapor and A system that has been carefully and properly installed with no
liquid to the wet suction. At minimum load, the large riser is sealed foreign matter or liquid entering the compressor will operate satis-
by the liquid ammonia in the large trap, and the refrigerant vapor factorily for a long time. As piping is installed, it should be power
flows through the small riser. A small trap on the small riser ensures rotary wire brushed and blown out with compressed air. The piping
that some lubricant and liquid return to the wet suction. system should be blown out again with compressed air or nitrogen
The risers should be sized so that the pressure drop, calculated on before evacuation and charging. See ASHRAE Standard 15 for sys-
a dry gas basis, is at least 70 Pa/m. The larger riser is designed for tem piping test pressure.
approximately 65 to 75% of the flow and the small one for the
remainder. This design results in a velocity of approximately 25 m/s REFERENCES
or higher. Some coils may require three risers (large, medium, and
ASHRAE. 1994. Safety code for mechanical refrigeration. ANSI/ASHRAE
small).
Standard 15-1994.
Over the years, freezers have continued to grow in capacity. As ASME. 1992. Refrigeration piping. ANSI/ASME Standard B31.5-92.
they became larger, so did the evaporators (coils). Where these American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.
freezers are in line and the product to be frozen is wet, the defrost ASME. 1995. Rules for construction of power boilers. Boiler and pressure
cycle can be every 4 or 8 h. Many production lines limit defrost vessel code, Section VIII, Division 1-95.
duration to 30 min. If the coils are large (some coils have a refrig- ASTM. 1995. Specification for seamless carbon steel pipe for high-temper-
eration capacity of 700 to 1000 kW), it is difficult to design a hot- ature service. ANSI/ASTM Standard A 106-95. American Society for
gas defrost system that can complete a safe defrost in 30 min. Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
Sequential defrost systems, where the coils are defrosted alternately ASTM. 1996. Specification for pipe, steel, black and hot-dipped, zinc-
coated, welded and seamless. ANSI/ASTM Standard A 53-96.
during production, are feasible but require special treatment.
Briley, G.C. and T.A. Lyons. 1992. Hot gas defrost systems for large evap-
orators in ammonia liquid overfeed systems. IIAR Technical Paper 163.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Frick Co. 1995. Thermosyphon oil cooling. Bulletin E70-900Z (August).
Ammonia is an economical choice for industrial systems. While Frick Company, Waynesboro, PA.
IIAR. 1988. Minimum safety criteria for a safe ammonia refrigeration sys-
ammonia has superior thermodynamic properties, it is considered tem. Bulletin 109. International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration,
toxic at low concentration levels of 35 to 50 mg/kg. Large quantities Washington, DC.
of ammonia should not be vented to enclosed areas near open flames IIAR. 1992. Equipment, design, and installation of ammonia mechanical
or heavy sparks. Ammonia at 16 to 25% by volume burns and can refrigeration systems. ANSI/IIAR Standard 2-1992.
explode in air in the presence of an open flame. IIAR. 1992. Guidelines for avoiding component failure in industrial refrig-
The importance of ammonia piping is sometimes minimized eration systems caused by abnormal pressure or shock. Bulletin 116.
when the main emphasis is on selecting major equipment pieces. Miller, D.K. 1979. Sizing dual-suction risers in liquid overfeed refrigeration
Mains should be sized carefully to provide low pressure drop and systems. Chemical Engineering (September 24).
avoid capacity or power penalties caused by inadequate piping. NCPWB. Welding procedure specifications. National Certified Pipe Weld-
ing Bureau, Rockville, MD.
Rusting pipes and vessels in older systems containing ammonia Stoecker, W.F. 1988. Chapters 8 and 9 in Industrial refrigeration. Business
can create a safety hazard. Oblique X-ray photographs of welded News Publishing Company, Troy, MI.
pipe joints and ultrasonic inspection of vessels may be used to dis- Timm, M.L. 1991. An improved method for calculating refrigerant line pres-
close defects. Only vendor-certified parts for pipe, valving, and sure drops. ASHRAE Transactions 97(1):194-203.
pressure-containing components according to designated assembly Wile, D.D. 1977. Refrigerant line sizing. ASHRAE RP 185.
drawings should be used to reduce hazards. Cold liquid refrigerant
should not be confined between closed valves in a pipe where the BIBLIOGRAPHY
liquid can warm and expand to burst piping components. Rapid
BAC. 1983. Evaporative condenser engineering manual. Baltimore Aircoil
multiple pulsations of ammonia liquid in piping components (e.g., Company, Baltimore, MD.
those developed by cavitation forces or hydraulic hammering from Bradley, W.E. 1984. Piping evaporative condensers. In Proceedings of IIAR
compressor pulsations with massive slugs of liquid carryover to the meeting. International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Chicago.
compressor) must be avoided to prevent equipment and piping dam- Cole, R.A. 1986. Avoiding refrigeration condenser problems. Heating/Pip-
age and injury to personnel. ing/and Air-Conditioning, Parts I and II, 58(7, 8).
Most service problems are caused by inadequate precautions Loyko, L. 1989. Hydraulic shock in ammonia systems. IIAR Technical
during design, construction, and installation (IIAR Standard 2, Paper T-125. International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Wash-
ASHRAE Standard 15). Ammonia is a powerful solvent that ington, DC.
Nuckolls, A.H. The comparative life, fire, and explosion hazards of common
removes dirt, scale, sand, or moisture remaining in the pipes, valves,
refrigerants. Miscellaneous Hazard No. 2375. Underwriters Laboratory,
and fittings during installation. These substances are swept along Northbrook, IL.
with the suction gas to the compressor, where they are a menace to Strong, A.P. 1984. Hot gas defrostA-one-a-more-a-time. IIAR Technical
the bearings, pistons, cylinder walls, valves, and lubricant. Most Paper T-53. International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Washing-
compressors are equipped with suction strainers and/or additional ton, DC.

System Practices

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What are some of the design considerations when selecting an ammonia refrigeration system?

What are some of the design considerations when selecting an ammonia refrigeration system?

What are some common issues that can occur during start-up of an ammonia refrigeration system?

What are some common issues that can occur during start-up of an ammonia refrigeration system?

CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM PRACTICES FOR

C USTOM-ENGINEERED ammonia (R-717) refrigeration sys-

Compressor Drives. The correct electric motor size(s) for a

Instead, ammonia fan-coil units designed for recirculation (over-

Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System

Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System

Compressor controls adequately designed for starting, stopping,

that is in droplet or aerosol form. Lubricant that reaches its satura-

Electronic Control Fittings

High-Pressure Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling

complete discussion of the basis of these line sizing charts, see

Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel

Cooling For compressors installed where ambient temperatures below

Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient

Cooling A variable Vi compressor makes compressor selection simpler

Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only

Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System

Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers

Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity

pressure (1290 kPa) at its outlet compared to the idle condenser

Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with

Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped

1. Evaporative condenser 10. Tank drain

Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of

One of the best means of controlling room temperature is a room

Low-Side Float Control

Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled

Another reason to maintain the lowest possible defrost tempera-

Fig. 42 Conventional Hot Gas Defrost Cycle

Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle

refrigeration. The outlet pressure-regulating valve should be sized

Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle

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