Book of Ancient Egypt 2nd Ed - White Et Al. (2016)

NEW
Book of
ANCIENT
Explore one of the greatest ancient

civilisations to have walked the Earth
Welcome to
Book of
In 1922 a magnificent discovery captured the attention of the world.

As Howard Carter slowly unveiled the opulence of Tutankhamun’s
newly located tomb, people from every corner of the world were
enthralled. Egyptomania gripped the world. The rituals and beliefs
of a highly advanced society were once again exposed; this was the
most influential breakthrough in Egyptology since the Rosetta Stone
had been discovered by Napoleon’s men and later deciphered by
19th century scholars. In this second edition of All About History’s
Book of Ancient Egypt, we will step back in time and walk the banks
of the River Nile to learn what made this society one of the most
powerful ancient civilisations in history. We’ll introduce you to some
of the most iconic and infamous pharaohs, tour the awe-inspiring
landmarks raised in their honour and identify the religious tenets
that guided everyday life in Egypt. You’ll explore the grisly burial
rituals that ensured safe passage to the afterlife and even learn to
read the hieroglyphics that adorn surviving monuments and papyri
– all through amazing articles, illustrations and photography. It’s
time to walk like an Egyptian!
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Book of Ancient Egypt Second Edition

© 2016 Future Publishing Limited
Part of the
bookazine series
Book of Ancient Egypt
CONTENTS 3100-332 BCE

Step inside the ancient world through the eyes one of
history’s most powerful civilisations
08 Map of Ancient Egypt 60 Hatshepsut: The queen

who became king
10 Historical timeline Discover the convoluted tale behind one
woman’s rise to the limelight as pharaoh
Get an overview of the period as a whole
12 Kingdoms of 66 Ahmose I’s

Ancient Egypt unifying power
Discover the historical periods when Egypt Follow in the footsteps of a king who defeated
enjoyed great power and influence invaders and merged a divided kingdom
FAMOUS THE
PHARAOHS PYRAMIDS
22 Power of the pharaoh 72 Inside the
Learn about the absolute power wielded by Great Pyramid
the pharaoh, who ruled as god on Earth Get to grips with this awesome landmark that
attracts thousands of tourists every year
30 Cleopatra’s ruthless rise
to power 74 Building the pyramids
Revel in the dramatic life of a queen who Understand the feat of construction behind
would be the final pharaoh of Ancient Egypt the most iconic symbols of Ancient Egypt
74
36 Alexander: Liberator 80 Pyramids of a polymath
of Egypt Meet the brilliant mind behind the impressive
Pyramid of Djoser
Grasp the true nature of the ruthless warlord
who ushered in Roman rule from Alexandria
42 The mighty pharaoh

Ramesses II
Follow the lengthy reign of a pharaoh who
proved a great warrior and lived to 96
50 Nefertiti: Behind
LIFE & DEATH
the beauty 86 Inside the Nile
Find out about the woman beneath the Navigate the landscape and the terrain of an
famously beautiful bust of a queen ancient world built around the Nile
56 Peace & prosperity of 88 Life on the banks of

Amenhotep III the Nile
Witness the period of rule that led a nation to Explore the rituals that guided everyday life
its peak as a political and economic power and ensured entry to the afterlife
Contents
98 Gods of Ancient Egypt

Learn about how the myths and legends of
80 the gods guided every part of life
106 Inside the

Karnak Temple
Tour the vast and sacred temple of light
108 Sacred animals of

Ancient Egypt
Discover why the Ancient Egyptians held
some animals in such high regard
112 Magic & medicine

Learn about the gruesome medical treatments
of an advanced and educated society
112 118 Egypt’s medical

trailblazers
Step inside the office of the world’s first
doctors
120 Death, burial &

the afterlife
144 Take a look at the extreme death rituals that
were conducted to achieve immortality
LEGACY
128 What did the Ancient
Egyptians do for us?
Identify the greatest inventions and
discoveries we have inherited from this
ancient society
136 Egyptology
through time
Discover how Egyptomania has gripped
archeologists and fascinated the public
144 Inside the

Giza complex
See the enigma behind this tourist landmark
146 Curse of the

boy king
Learn the full story behind the
curse of King Tut’s tomb
154 Decoding the

hieroglyphics
© Alamy
Take a lesson in deciphering

the mysterious hieroglyphics
Map of
Ancient Egypt
From the Nile Delta to the fertile floodplains,
explore the setting that became the
birthplace of a great civilisation
Ancient Egypt, 3300-30 BCE

The pyramids in Giza form part The Golden Age
of the Giza Necropolis, which 2613 BCE – 2494 BCE
also contains the Sphinx
The Fourth Dynasty is often
referred to as the Golden Age,
when the entire nation benefited
from a boom in arts and culture.
The relative peace of the
previous dynasties continued,
enabling the pharaohs of the
era to realise their architectural
aspirations. The Old Kingdom
(the third to sixth dynasties) is
The Age of the Pyramids often referred to as the Age of
2700 BCE – 2200 BCE the Pyramids; almost every ruler
Ancient Egypt saw a number of phases of pyramid building, but those had a pyramid tomb constructed
built during the third and fourth dynasties became the most iconic. Built in their honour). Such structures
almost solely as pharaohs’ tombs, the most famous are in Giza: the Great would have required huge work
Pyramid of Giza (Pyramid of Khufu), the Pyramid of Menkaure and the forces, with many Egyptologists
smaller Pyramid of Khafre. These colossal structures, built between 2560 believing a complex form of
BCE and 2510 BCE, are part of Seven Wonders of the World and stand as government must have been A lack of foreign incursions and major invasions left
the Old Kingdom a relatively peaceful period
a testament to the ingenuity of Ancient Egyptian society and culture. created to organise them.
O First hieroglyphics O The Old O Rejuvenation of O Rise of Thebes O Hyksos raiders O King Thutmose
used Kingdoms the Faiyum For years, invade III rises to
Hieroglyphics During the Much of the Memphis has Hyksos raiders (a power
are first used by fourth to eighth Egyptians’ remained the Semitic people from One of the most
the many tribes dynasties, the longevity largest hub of the Asia) invade the powerful and
and peoples of Great Pyramids are comes from Egyptian realm, Delta. They establish long-lasting rulers,
Egypt during the erected in DahShur the successful but Thebes has themselves and Thutmose III’s
Predynastic period. and Giza. They implementation of now become the eventually introduce many successful
3300 BCE are considered agriculture – Faiyum Agriculture was largest and most the chariot. military campaigns
Hieroglyphics continued
one of the is a main site for this. a cornerstone of populous city. 1630 BCE bring new wealth
to be used up until the
Seven Wonders. 1900 BCE Ancient Egypt 1800 BCE to Egypt.
fourth century CE
2575-2150 BCE 1400 BCE
3300 BCE 3100 BCE 2900 BCE 2700 BCE 2500 BCE 2300 BCE 2100 BCE 1900 BCE 1700 BCE 1500 BCE
O Narmer becomes O First pyramid built O First intermediate O Ahmose I unifies

first pharaoh The very first pyramid, period begins O 11th-14th dynasties Egypt
Narmer is believed to have the Step Pyramid, is After the government established With control of Upper
united the sophisticated erected in Saqqara falls apart at the end The Middle Kingdom Egypt, Ahmose I
neolithic states into the for King Djoser, the of the Old Kingdom, begins, and with it comes successfully drives the
first Egyptian kingdom, second ruler of the Ancient Egypt a new era of stability as Hyksos from Lower Egypt
making Memphis his Third Dynasty. divides and civil the warring regions are to unify the country for
new capital. 2950-2575 BCE wars erupt. united once again. the first time in 160 years.
3100 BCE 2125-1975 BCE 1975-1640 BCE Written in hieratic script, the 1523 BCE
Edwin Smith Papyrus is a
medical text
The Hyksos influence The Hyksos rule Rosetta Stone is carved

had a big effect on
Egyptian warfare
over Egypt 196 BCE
1650 BCE – 1550 BCE Commissioned and carved during the
It is estimated that the reign of Ptolemy V, the Rosetta Stone
invading Hyksos warriors is a relic of huge historic importance.
remained in power for 100 It was written in two languages
to 160 years. From a region (Egyptian and Greek) to reflect the
of Western Asia known as two main bloodline dynasties of
Canaan, they took advantage Egyptian history, and three separate
of civil unrest among the scripts (hieroglyphic, demotic and
Egyptian states and conquered Greek) to represent the vast cultural
Lower Egypt. The 15th cross-section of the kingdom. Used as
Dynasty saw the introduction a religious document at the time, the
of chariots and composite Rosetta Stone has proved invaluable in
bows, as well as new advances The Rosetta Stone was thought helping modern linguists understand
lost until its rediscovery in 1799
in pottery and agriculture. the use of language in Ancient Egypt.
10
History of Ancient Egypt
The Amarna The rule of the

Revolution Greeks
1370 BCE 332 BCE – 30 BCE
Setting aside foreign invasions The arrival of Alexander the
and occupations, some of the Great, a Macedonian conqueror
biggest upheavals endured by and member of the Argead
Ancient Egyptians came from Dynasty, changed Ancient
within and systematically altered Egypt forever in 332 BCE. It
the very fabric of society. The brought about the end of the
Amarna Revolution, which saw classical Egyptian dynasties
the pharaoh King Amenhotep IV (which had numbered 30) and
outlaw the polytheistic practices altered everything from laws
that influenced everything to education and culture. By
from art to religion in favour the time of Alexander’s arrival
of worshipping a single god, in Egypt, the nation was under
was one such upheaval. When Persian rule and its leaders had
Amenhotep IV inherited the no desire to go to war with the
throne from his father, he took vengeful Greek king, so control
the name Akhenaten, moved of the country was handed
the country’s capital to present- over peacefully. Under a new
day Tel el Amarna and began Ptolemaic Dynasty (beginning
defacing temples across the land. with Ptolemy I, naturally),
Such a central focus on domestic The revolution came to an end when Egypt received something of a Following Alexander’s death,
changes caused a great deal of Tutankhamun inherited the throne, rejuvenation now that it formed Ptolemy Lagides became the
returning Egypt to polytheism new satrap of Egypt
territory in Asia to be lost. part of the Alexandrian empire.
O A peaceful O Rameses II O Persian king O Alexander the O Cleopatra VII O Cleopatra and
kingdom rises to power Cambyses II Great conquers begins her Mark Antony
Egypt continues Known as invades Egypt reign lose the Battle
to prosper, with Rameses the The Egyptian The Macedonian The final of Actium
King Amenhotep Great, he rules throne is conqueror monarch of Octavian, future
III becoming for a staggering transferred marches the Ptolemaic emperor, destroys
famous for 90 years. from pharaoh on Egypt, Dynasty begins the naval forces
beautifying 1279 BCE Psamtik III encounters some with the of Egypt – this
the kingdom following resistance, but Shakespeare- facilitates its eventual
The Luxor Temple is one Alexander’s acquisition
during his the Battle of is mostly hailed as muse Cleopatra. absorption into the
of six that sit along the of Egypt was a relatively
peaceful reign. Pelusium. a liberator. 51 BCE Roman Empire.
East Bank of the Nile peaceful process
1390 BCE 525 BCE 332 BCE 31 BCE
1300 BCE 1100 BCE 900 BCE 700 BCE 500 BCE 300 BCE 30 BCE
O Tutankhamun O Nubians conquer O Final dynasty O The Ptolemaic line

O Belief in one god becomes king Egypt The 30th and final begins
The son of Amenhotep After the religious The 25th Dynasty begins dynasty before the Having become
III, Akhenaten shocked upheaval of his father’s with the successful Ptolemaic era begins satrap in 323 BCE
the Egyptian world by tumultuous reign, the Nubian invasion by with the reign of after Alexander the
discarding the old religious child prince becomes leader Kashta. Egypt Nectanebo I. The final Great’s death, General
doctrines and focusing on king and returns Egypt becomes part of a much dynastic king is Darius Ptolemy Lagides
one god, Amen. to polytheism. larger realm. III Codoman. declares himself king.
1349 BCE 1333 BCE 1075-715 BCE 380 BCE 305 BCE Cleopatra VII was Egypt’s last
Nectanebo I started the
monarch before it became
30th Dynasty
part of the Roman Empire
Era of foreign rule Gaius Octavius eventually Battle of Actium

become Emperor Augustus 31 BCE
728 BCE – 332 BCE of Rome
The history of the Egyptian throne When Roman general-turned-
is a multicultural affair. For all politician Marc Antony married
the pharaohs who could call the queen Cleopatra VII, it seemed
land on which they ruled their the two nations would finally be
homeland, there were others who united. However, following the
simply invaded and took the entire assassination of Julius Caesar,
country, or a major portion of it for Rome was in turmoil. With
themselves. The biggest successive the Republic failing, Caesar’s
period of foreign rule started with maternal great nephew Gaius
the invasion by Nubian King Piy in Octavius challenged the might of
728 BCE. The Nubians were then Cleopatra’s naval fleet in 31 BCE.
The Assyrians originally driven out by Assyrians in 669 His forces crushed it, eventually
attacked the Nubian- BCE, followed by the arrival of the leading to Egypt’s assimilation into
ruled Egypt in 671 BCE
Persians in 525 BCE. the newly formed Roman Empire.
11
“Ancient Egypt
became an epicentre
for culture and
religion”
12
Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt
Kingdoms
of Ancient
Egypt
Spanning many eras, the New, Middle and Old
Kingdoms would see the pharaohs reach the
peak of their power and culture soar
F
or 3,000 years the Ancient Egyptian empire Kingdom that iconic structures that have endured
endured. It emerged, like so many other millennia were built. The Middle Kingdom was
independent kingdoms, from the ruins of when a nation was unified and forged anew. Then
warring and fragmented fiefdoms and grew the realm was aggressively expanded and culture
into a nation that shook North Africa and fostered like never before in the New Kingdom.
the surrounding world to its core. It became an Ancient Egypt wasn’t just an era of military
epicentre for culture and religion, where conquest and expansion, it was a time of
science and magic were intertwined innovation too. The Egyptians invented
as one. But those golden ages, early forms of cosmetics, including
those heights of human
The invasions eye makeup; they were one of
achievement that challenged of Egypt led to the first civilisations (alongside
even those of Greece and new cultural aspects Mesopotamia) to evolve a robust
Rome at their peaks, were not written language; they created
being embedded into
achieved in a day. papyrus thousands of years
Before the Assyrians society, such as the before the Chinese produced
came, before the Persians use of horses and paper; they designed the basic
invaded, before the Greeks chariots calendar structure that we still use
conquered and the Romans today; they can even lay claim to
annexed, the Egyptians rose and inventing bowling and early forms of
fell all by themselves. While darker breath mints.
periods would form between them (three in fact, In short, they were a nation the like of which
known as the Intermediate Periods), the timeline of we’ve never seen before or again. Gods, pharaohs,
Ancient Egypt has been defined by three distinct pyramids, mummification, agriculture and much
eras: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and more helped to define the Ancient Egyptians
the New Kingdom. A time of cultural rebirth and as one of human history’s most fascinating and
monumental construction, it was during the Old intelligent civilisations.
13
Famous faces
through time
Uncover the celebrities of each kingdom
of this great civilisation
The Old Kingdom
Djoser c. 2670 BCE
Of all the kings that ruled Egypt in the infant years of
the Old Kingdom, the pharaoh Djoser is perhaps the
most influential. He may not have been the man who
united Egypt as one in Narmer, but he typified two
characteristics that would go on to define
Ancient Egypt. He conducted Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khufu oversees
military campaigns that construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza
solidified and expanded
the borders of the
empire while nurturing
the growth of his
nation’s culture. He
also commissioned
the first pyramid
on Egyptian soil;
the Step Pyramid
at Sakkara was the
blueprint for pharaonic
splendour and inspired
future generations to build
even greater examples.
The Middle Kingdom

Mentuhotep II 2061 BCE – 2010 BCE
The kingdom splintered after the prosperity and Tomb art from the Old Kingdom
expansion of the Old Kingdom. This mini dark age of
sorts was known as the First Intermediate Period and
The Old Kingdom

saw Egypt divided by two competing dynasties. Lower
Egypt was controlled by the Tenth
Dynasty and Upper Egypt
by the Theban Dynasty.
About 14 years into his
reign, Mentuhotep II
had grown tired of
A time of rebirth, the Old Kingdom saw the introduction of the first
the stalemate and pharaoh, dynasty and pyramid to the world
P
attacked the Lower
Egypt capital of
Herakleopolis. He rior to the Old Kingdom, in an era known as this time. The Old Kingdom began in about 2686
eventually broke the the Predynastic, Prehistoric or Protodynastic BCE, with the formation of the Third Egyptian
rival dynasty, unified Period, Egypt was going through something Dynasty. The term ‘Old Kingdom’ was introduced
the two realms and
effectively founded the
of a transformation. The nation was divided by 18th-century historians and is used broadly
era now known as the into colonies, each with their own lords and to signify the first of three peaks of Egyptian
Middle Kingdom. rulers. The north and south of the country were civilisation. Often referred to as the ‘Age of the
also distinct in both practices and culture, with Pyramids’, the Old Kingdom saw Egypt nurture
The New Kingdom Hierakonpolis the capital of the south and Bes the every aspect that would make it great. From the
Ramesses II 1279 BCE – 1213 BCE capital of the north. Third Dynasty and its first pharaoh, Djoser, to the
Tutankhamun may be the most recognisable pharaoh, but Excavations over the last century have radically apparent last king of the Sixth, Netjerkare Siptah,
King Tut’s reign was a speck of Egyptian sand compared changed the way we view Egypt prior to the Old the nation was transformed into a cultural and
the power, influence and achievement of Ramesses II. The
Kingdom, including the fact that the First Dynasty military powerhouse.
third pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, Ramesses II took an
already prosperous kingdom and the rise of Narmer was not an overnight The pyramids are a symbol of this era, and the
and made it greater and process. Upper Egypt, the more affluent of the template for these monumental icons began in
grander than it had ever two states, had three main cities – Thinis, Nekhen the reign of Djoser. His vizier and closest adviser,
been. He expanded its
borders, conquering and Naqada. One by one, these states conquered Imhotep (who would be deified in generations
the Canaan and one another or merged, and by about 3100 BCE, to come as a demigod and god of healing) was
subduing everyone Egypt emerged as one whole state with the the architect behind the Pyramid of Djoser, and
from the Nubians
warrior pharaoh Narmer at its head. Two dynasties his designs were a significant leap in engineering
to the peoples of
the Levant. He was followed his founding during a period known as in Ancient Egypt. Prior to Djoser, kings were
also a prolific builder the Early Dynastic Period, and it was here that buried in rectangular, flat-roofed tombs called
of monuments the blueprint for the Old Kingdom was forged. mastabas, but the Third Dynasty’s founder desired
and temples and
even went as far as Memphis became the capital and Abydos the immortality in death by means of a tomb worthy
constructing his very own religious epicentre. Even architecture and the arts of a divine ruler. Imhotep’s revolutionary design,
capital city, Pi-Ramesses. began to approach the classical Egyptian form at stacking squared versions of mastabas on top of
14
The Great Sphinx of Giza is believed

to have been built in the time of
Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khafra
Ancient Egypt’s
first pharaoh
Who was the man who unified two
distinctly different halves of the same
realm and set the stage for the Old
Kingdom period?
The Old Kingdom was the first true age of prosperity
and progress for Egypt, but it would have been nothing
without the two dynasties that came before it and the
man who founded the pharaonic line to begin with. That
man was Narmer and, much like many of the leaders
and radicals who changed history in the post-neolithic
world, he is a man steeped in myth, legend and mystery.
Nevertheless, his actions and decisions at the beginning
of the First Dynasty set the precedent for the 29 others
that would follow.
Narmer ruled sometime during the 31st century
BCE and became the first man to unite the states of
Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Of course, for an event
that happened so far back in prehistory, most of the
information we have comes from references found in
tombs and the conclusions drawn by Egyptologists and
historians, but there are some intriguing details we can
take from them.
Seal impressions found in tombs at Abydos linked to
the pharaohs Qa’a and Den (both of whom ruled, to the
best of our knowledge, after Narmer during the First
Dynasty) cite a list of ancient kings that name Narmer as
the first. There have even been stone vessels (elaborate
vases) found in the Step Pyramid tomb of Djoser that
pay tribute to Narmer, perhaps expressing an intended
connection with the founder and his way of life. Some
historians argue that a ruler by the name of Menes was
in fact the founder of founders, while others theorise
Narmer and Menes were one and the same.
one another to create a pyramid, created the jewel the pinnacle of pyramid design in Egypt and it
in the king’s rebuilt kingdom. A grand necropolis, would remain the tallest man-made structure for
a symbol of the enduring Ancient Egyptian a staggering 3,800 years. It served as a testament
reverence for death, surrounds it and the finished to the power of the pharaohs and the enduring
article would go on to inspire pharaohs for potency of the many Egyptian gods.
generations to come. The Fifth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (2498
The grandeur of the Step Pyramid (the Pyramid BCE – 2345 BCE) saw an evolution of theological
of Djoser) at Sakkara wasn’t lost on those who practices across the entire nation, with certain
followed in Djoser’s footsteps. By the time that cults growing in prominence (gods rose and fell
the Fourth Dynasty kings were ruling over in popularity, and usually those favoured by
Egypt (2613 BCE – 2498 BCE), a new a particular dynasty or geographically
set of pyramids were forming. The important location were able to
Fourth Dynasty is considered the survive obscurity). The Cult of Ra
‘golden age’ of the Old Kingdom,
The Old (god of the noon sun) and the
the very peak of prosperity. Kingdom boasted Cult of Osiris (god of the afterlife)
The economy was thriving a strong centralised rose significantly in popularity
thanks to a peaceful realm administration during this period of time.
and open trade routes with its The Egyptian economy was
neighbouring nations. As with from the capital of also booming, with the influx of
every peaceful period of Ancient Memphis goods like ebony, gold, myrrh and
Egypt, a spree of construction frankincense growing all the time.
swept the nation. The Egyptians pushed their trading
Khufu, the second pharaoh of the boundaries even further with agreements
Fourth Dynasty, was the man to create a with Lebanon and modern-day Somalia. In short,
monument so grand it would eventually be named it was a time of enterprise without the fear of
one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: invasion or war. This economic strength bled into
the Great Pyramid of Giza. Built over a two-decade the Sixth Dynasty (2345 BCE – 2181 BCE), as did
period, the 146.5 metre-high structure was a feat of the growing popularity of the inscription of spells
engineering that put even Imhotep’s Step Pyramid and incantations inside burial chambers and tombs. There’s even an argument that Narmer is a
in Sakkara to shame. Giza would become the site Known commonly as the Pyramid Texts, these pseudonym for the mysterious monarch King
Scorpion, but currently no evidence exists to
of many more pyramids and temples, known as inscriptions would form the basis of the Book of corroborate this claim
the Giza Necropolis. The Giza Pyramid became the Dead.
15
The Middle Kingdom

Once again divided and once again whole, Ancient Egypt rose from its own ashes
to become a military and cultural powerhouse
F
or every period of greatness and monumental king took full advantage of revolt and attacked effort was continued by his son and successor
achievement in Ancient Egypt’s history, Herakleopolis. By the time of his arrival, there was Mentuhotep III. His rule was brief by pharaonic
there is a stretch of time where governments barely a battle to be had, and the city, and the rest standards (a mere 12 years) but he further
crumbled, territories divided and the of the region as a result, were taken. He quelled accelerated the unification, including an expedition
nation fell into a dark lull. As the royal what little resistance could be offered by the to retake Punt (an old trading partner of Egypt). The
hold on the country fell apart towards the end remaining rulers of the decaying Tenth Dynasty throne then passed to Mentuhotep IV, whose reign
of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was plunged into an then set about reunifying the kingdom as one. remains something of a mystery. His name is often
era of uncertainty that is referred to as the First Such a task was not quick, taking a staggering omitted from lists of kings found in tombs through
Intermediate Period. 21 years to bring the Lower and Upper regions into the Middle and New Kingdoms, suggesting his rule
To make matters worse, the power of the line. He began by conducting a series of military was a short one and ended abruptly.
pharaoh was splintered when two rival dynasties campaigns to regain the territories lost during The Turin Papyrus (otherwise known as the
began vying for power – the Tenth Dynasty (based the dark time of the First Intermediate Period. He Turin King List) is one such document; it describes
in Herakleopolis, the principal city of Lower Egypt) travelled south to the Second Cataract in Nubia, the period following Mentuhotep III’s death as
and the 11th Dynasty (centralised in Thebes, Upper a region that had gained independence from its “seven kingless years”. Information regarding the
Egypt). This period of conflict and dissention lasted masters. Mentuhotep II brought the Nubians to heel ‘missing king’ remains frustratingly scarce, but
for 125 years, until the reign of Theban pharaoh before restoring Egyptian authority in the Sinai some details suggest a coup of sorts may have
Mentuhotep II. region. It was a ruthless expression of power in an taken place.
Ascending to the Upper Egypt throne in 2055 era when authority was a long forgotten force. Records found at Wadi Hammamat, a large
BCE, Mentuhotep II watched as the Tenth Dynasty His consolidation of power in Egypt and efforts mining region in ancient times, do attest to his
began to destabilise with in-fighting and regular towards unifying the nation ushered in what reign and make reference to expeditions to quarry
riots. In his 14th year of regnal rule, the Theban we now know as the Middle Kingdom, and that stone for monuments. The records name a vizier,
Rock tombs of Beni Hasan, an Ancient

Egyptian burial site primarily used
during the Middle Kingdom
16
Amenemhat, as its commander. Whether or not rule with his successor, Senusret II. The new The Pyramid of Amenemhat I
this is the same Amenemhat that would eventually pharaoh focused mainly on the maintenance of began construction in Thebes. It is
assume the throne, we cannot know for sure. the realm, building a pyramid at el-Lahun as well not known why it was relocated,
along with the capital, to Lisht
However, it certainly seems likely. as attempting to convert the Faiyum oasis into
So began the next dynasty with Amenemhat I workable farmland.
at its head. He began by moving the capital back Under the sole rule of his successor Senusret
to Memphis (the capital during the Old Kingdom), III, the Middle Kingdom enjoyed the peak of its
as well as forming a standing army (an asset his power and influence. The new warrior king was
successors would maintain for the rest of unlike anything the era had seen before –
the dynasty). he represented a mind-set from a long
The new king began fortifying During forgotten era, an aggressive hunger to
the country’s borders, especially the Middle expand the kingdom and conquer
those between Egypt and Asia, new lands. He moved a huge
where he erected the Walls
Kingdom the army north of the kingdom and
of the Ruler in the East Delta. elevated flood levels attacked the Nubians relentlessly,
In fact, Amenemhat I rebuilt
or built new fortifications all
of the Nile boosted punishing them into surrender
before claiming considerable
The feudal
around Egypt, transforming
agriculture and
buoyed the
Nubian territories. governments
military strategy from
expansion to simple defence. economy
His successor, Amenemhat III,
is famed for his radical approach to of the Middle
Amenemhat I would eventually
begin a co-regency with his son,
construction. He took advantage of the
country’s limestone and sandstone quarries Kingdom
Senusret, before the elder king was assassinated like never before, beginning a huge programme of In the Old Kingdom before it and the New Kingdom that
– supposedly by his own guards. His successor, building that spread across the entire kingdom. followed, the pharaoh’s rule was absolute. Priests, nobles
now Senusret I, began a more expansive series His son, Amenemhat IV, has a poorly recorded and even the queen herself could act, with consent,
on the king’s behalf, but the for the most part, the
of military campaigns before eventually entering rule but his successor, Sobekneferu, became
pharaoh answered to no one but the gods. However, that
a co-regency with his own son, Amenemhat II. the first recorded female Egyptian ruler in the definitive rule came under threat when the Old Kingdom
His son enjoyed a relatively peaceful reign of his country’s history (although her reign lasted only crumbled and splintered into two separate realms.
kingdom and eventually chose a traditional joint four years). With two dynasties now vying for power, the normal
authoritative structure of the kingdom was in ruins.
Prior to the rise of the pharaohs, the entire country
Ancient Egyptian men building was divided into small administrative colonies known as
a wooden coffin in a Middle nomes. Each nome had an appointed leader (nomarch),
Kingdom carpentry shop and it was these independent city states that the first
pharaoh had to unite in order to establish Egypt as a
single nation.
Even after unification, the nomarchs – 20 of whom
were based in Lower Egypt and 22 in Upper Egypt
– remained. However, they existed more as regional
officials who would report directly to the royal court. As
the country entered the First Intermediate Period, these
nomes began to assume autonomy once again. By the
time of reunification, new sole pharaoh Amenemhat I
found these states unwilling to bend the knee entirely.
The position of nomarch was considered hereditary
(rather than being subject to the king’s discretion), an
issue made all the worse by marriages that created
powerful alliances between multiple nomes. In order to
maintain peace in the kingdom, Amenemhat was forced
to agree to an alliance of sorts, creating a bizarre feudal
system that lasted until the reign of Senusret III.
17
The New Kingdom

The last great age of Ancient Egypt was its grandest
yet – an era of economic enterprise, domestic
beautification and military expansion
L
asting from the 16th to 11th century BCE, and tributaries that led into the Mediterranean
the New Kingdom saw Ancient Egypt Sea). By the time the pharaoh in Thebes realised
transformed. Its kings and queens both what was happening, it was too late. The Hyksos
looked ahead at the promising future were fearsome warriors who used advanced
of the realm and back in the weaponry – mainly cavalry, chariots and
hope of emulating the monarchs powerful compound bows – and who
Mortuary
of the past. The empire was were comfortably settled. The 15th
expanded by the sword of beliefs Dynasty was established and
warrior kings, while the realm developed during lasted for more than 150 years,
itself was rebuilt from the this era, leading to an but the Hyksos presence divided
ground up by a new economic Egypt in two, with the invaders
prosperity. This was Ancient
influx of talismans controlling Lower Egypt while
Egypt at its peak, as reflected and amulets for the Thebans ruled Upper Egypt.
in the resultant boom in arts protection in the Kings made many efforts to defeat
and culture. afterlife the Hyksos, but the tribesman were
The New Kingdom was preceded seasoned warriors and weren’t so
by another fracture known as the easily deterred.
Second Intermediate Period. Towards the It wasn’t until the time of Ahmose I, the
start of the 16th century BCE, a small warrior first pharaoh of the 17th Dynasty, that everything
tribe known as the Hyksos had begun settling changed. Having watched his family fail to A statue of Akhenaten from
his Aten Temple at Karnak
in the fertile land of the Delta (a group of rivers banish the Hyksos, Ahmose I raised a huge
18
army and met the Hyksos with unrelenting force.

Over many years he pummelled the borders,
slowly driving the Hyksos back. Eventually, the What
Theban pharaoh drove the occupying forces from
his homeland and set about restoring Egypt to its happened
former glory.
With Egypt unified, the 17th Dynasty’s founder
next?
began an expansive series of military campaigns Following the end of the
that added new territories to the realm while New Kingdom and its final
regaining lands lost in the Second Intermediate golden age, what was next
Period. These conquests brought new wealth into for this ancient civilisation?
the economy – it re-energised the construction of While the period we know as Ancient
temples and monuments and enabled Ahmose I to Egypt officially ended with the death
rebuild the decorated nation of old. of Cleopatra VII and its addition to
the Roman Empire in 30 BCE, its
Ahmose I’s desire to restore Egypt to its former
true demise could be attributed to
greatness would be reflected in the actions of the the death of Ramesses XI. The span
kings and queens who followed. Amenhotep III of time that followed, the Third
rebuilt monuments, tombs, and statues on a scale Intermediate Period, saw the power
of the pharaohs start to deteriorate
never seen before, solidifying the bubbling new as political in-fighting took hold. The
culture of arts and expression. period lasted about 350 years and
Queen Hatshepsut was the first woman to take was split into three stages: the first
saw the rule of the country divided
the title of pharaoh, and she helped nurture the
between the 21st Dynasty (which
country’s economy, including expeditions to Punt controlled Lower Egypt) and the High
and other trading posts. Thutmose III created one Priests of Amun at Thebes (which
of the most impressive armies ever assembled by a ruled most of Middle and Upper
Egypt). The two states existed in
pharaoh and used it to expand Egypt’s borders with relatively peaceful harmony.
conquest after conquest. The 18th Dynasty was a The second period saw the
time of achievement on multiple fronts, but like any country reunited thanks to the rise
of the 22nd Dynasty and new king
age of success, there was also a catch. Shoshenq I – the Libyan monarchy
That blip came in the form of Amenhotep IV, came to power in about 945 BCE,
also known as Akhenaten. A religious zealot who expanding out from the East Delta to
control the entire nation. Once the
despised the power of the Church of Amun (the
country’s bitter enemy, the Libyans
patron god of the Theban kings), Akhenaten did now ruled Egypt as native Egyptians.
not believe in the polytheistic practices that had The country began to destabilise
defined Egyptian theology since the country’s once again under the rule of the 22nd
Dynasty in 850 BCE, and by 818 BCE,
earliest times. He outlawed the worship of any god a rival 23rd Dynasty had risen, which
other than his chosen deity, Aten, and forced the then caused the nation to fragment
country into massive religious upheaval. into warring states.
The country would eventually fall
The Amarna Period, as it would come to be
to a Nubian invasion, lasting 25 years.
known, only lasted 16 years, but the damage was This marked a trend for the coming
already done. The upheaval was so universally centuries as Egypt’s grand native
despised that Akhenaten was branded the history was buried by an Assyrian,
Persian and eventual Greek invasion
‘Heretic Pharaoh’, even by his own son and future during the subsequent Late Period.
pharaoh Tutankhamun. His legacy was summarily In short, the nation had fragmented
expunged from many future histories and a course so far from the stable centralised
structure of the three kingdom eras
was set to bring Egypt back to its former glory. that it ultimately benefited from the
The dynasty that followed pushed Egypt’s stability outside rule brought with it.
prosperity to new heights. The most notable
pharaoh of the period, Ramesses II, took the great
armies formed by Thutmose III and weaved a
military campaign that moulded Egypt into its
most powerful form. He sired a considerable
number of children (most of whom he outlived)
and built a huge tomb and necropolis in the Valley
of the Kings.
Like the 19th Dynasty, the 20th was also defined
by the legacy of one man: Ramesses III. However,
while Ramesses II would strengthen his nation,
his descendent would ultimately weaken it by
draining the treasury with unsuccessful military
campaigns and defensive operations. It was his When the New Kingdom
era drew to a close with the
mismanagement of the crown that eventually set death of Ramesses XI, Egypt
about the slow decline of the New Kingdom and would never again prosper
under native Egyptian rule
the native pharaonic line as a whole.
19
FAMOUS
PHARAOHS
Follow in the footsteps of Ancient Egypt’s most infamous and iconic leaders
and understand their bizzare rituals and beliefs
22 Power of the pharaoh 56 Peace and prosperity of

Learn about the absolute power wielded by the Amenhotep III
pharaoh, who ruled as god on Earth Witness the period of rule that led a nation to
its peak as a political and economic power
30 Cleopatra’s ruthless rise
to power 60 Hatshepsut: The queen
Revel in the dramatic life of a queen who
would be the final pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
who became king
Discover the convoluted tale behind a female’s
rise to the limelight as pharaoh
36 Alexander: Liberator
of Egypt 66 Ahmose I’s unifying
Grasp the true nature of the ruthless warlord
who ushered in Roman rule from Alexandria
power
Follow in the footsteps of a king who defeated
invaders and merged a divided kingdom
42 The mighty Ramesses II
Follow the lengthy reign of a pharaoh who
proved a great warrior and lived to 96
50 Nefertiti: Behind
the beauty
Find out about the woman beneath the
famously beautiful bust of a queen
36
42
30
60
22
Power of the pharaoh
Power of
the pharaoh
Over the course of more than 30 different dynasties,
the rulers of ancient Egypt became both conquerors
of the world and conduits of the gods
A
ncient Egypt was a kingdom like no other. While pharaohs were often worshipped with
For 3,000 years a nation united as one, it the same religious fervour reserved for the gods
expanded its horizons across the face of the themselves (such devotion was common in both
Earth, erected true Wonders of the World life and in death – for instance, Ptolemy II, the
and became one of the most powerful second ruler of the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty, had
empires history has ever seen. Yet for all those himself and his queen deified within two decades
achievements, none would have been possible of their rule and welcomed the cults that formed
without the rulers at its head – the kings, the around them), a pharaoh was still seen more as a
queens and the pharaohs. Through the actions divine conduit. They were viewed not as the equal
and decisions of over 170 men and women, Egypt of creationary gods such as Amun-Ra, but as a
became an epicentre for culture and philosophical manifestation of their divinity.
thinking. It became a place of polytheism, where a In death, a pharaoh was just as influential as
pantheon of gods lived in (relative) harmony they were in life – the Egyptians viewed death
and informed every facet of daily life. not as the end of all things, but the
But who were these figureheads immortalisation of the great and the
and what was their true just. Cults would worship a pharaoh
role in everyday Egyptian There are 225 long after their death, while their
society? How did a king or known names in the name and deeds would live on
queen rule a kingdom that in the constellations named
stretched from the Nile to the
annals of ancient Egypt after them and the monumental
Euphrates? These questions which can be traced back tombs erected to protect their
have fascinated historians for to pharaohs who ruled wealth and prestige. However,
centuries, and only now are over the kingdom the importance of an individual
we beginning to understand the pharaoh was often relative – cults
responsibilities of a monarch in an were sometimes disbanded so as to
age of deeply religious devotion and avoid undermining the sanctity of the
magical superstition. current regime, while countless tombs and
The role of a pharaoh in Ancient Egypt is cenotaphs were stripped of their stone and precious
a complicated one, full of responsibilities and limestone in order to facilitate the monumental
expectations, but it can be broadly defined by two building of later rulers.
distinct titles: ‘The Lord of Two Lands’ and ‘High As a mortal man, the pharaoh was the most
Priest of Every Temple’. Pharaohs were considered important individual on Earth; surrounded by
both divine figureheads and mortal rulers and servants and dignitaries, they would operate from
as such were involved in everything from godly opulent palaces and coordinate religious doctrine
rituals to dispensing justice. As king, the pharaoh with the help of the most prevalent church at the
was also the conduit of ma’at (truth, justice, time. Egyptian rulers often favoured a particular
prosperity and cosmic harmony – the key tenets god and through these deities certain churches
of Ancient Egyptian society), so his sovereignty rose to significant power, much in the same way
© Alamy
embodied both temple and state. Catholic and Protestant churches benefited or
23
Djoser
Founder of the Third Dynasty, Djoser was the first
Egyptian monarch to commission a pyramid. He
was also a long-time sponsor of Imhotep, arguably
one of the most famous physicians and architects
to emerge from the ancient world. Djoser inherited
the throne from his father Khasekhemwy and ruled
Egypt for around three decades. Like his father,
Djoser was fond of architecture and construction, A deeply religious and spiritual
and soon set about adding his own monuments to individual, only the king could
the Egyptian landscape. envision something as grand as
His most famous construction was the Pyramid the pyramids
of Djoser, a large necropolis consisting of statues,
pillars and other decorations, all centred around a suffered from a given religious skew in Medieval usher in a new golden age during the 18th Dynasty
six-tiered step pyramid. Prior to this, pharaohs were
usually buried in rectangular, flat-roofed tombs Europe. For instance, the god Amun became the and spent a great deal of his reign beautifying the
known as mastabas. Under the direction of polymath patron god of the Theban kings for centuries, and land. Statues and temples were built, while an
genius Imhotep, who rose to become Djoser’s vizier his church became so powerful it caused one influx of wealth from military successes across the
and closest advisor, a total of six mastabas (in each
pharaoh (Akhenaten) to effectively outlaw it border had enabled him to adorn his palace
one decreasing in size) were shaped into squares
and stacked atop one another. The final monument and establish another in its place. and the capital of Thebes with gold and
was almost 21 metres (70 feet) tall, and was Egypt’s A pharaoh would also coordinate expensive cloth.
first true pyramid. the defence of the kingdom’s The daily life of a pharaoh
Despite his fascination with construction, Djoser Hatshepsut
borders while leading every would differ slightly between
was still no layabout monarch when it came to
foreign excursions. He conducted a number of military campaign personally.
was the longest the dynasties, but overall his
campaigns, mostly in the Sinai Peninsula (located What could be more frightening reigning female (or her) duties would remain
between the Mediterranean and Red Seas), where
he mostly subdued outspoken subjects.
to a rebellious state or pharaoh of Egyptian the same. Pharaohs would
neighbouring nation than a descent, with a rule often waken in a specially
resplendent tool of the gods designed sleeping chamber –
“The Egyptians arriving to cast them aside?
They would oversee irrigation
spanning around 22
years
the Ancient Egyptians were a
people deeply in touch with their
believed the dream and the inundation of the Nile River,
ensuring the fertile land along this
faith, a spectrum of dogma, science,
magic and superstition. Just because
world was where body of water was fresh for agriculture.
The king would even commission the building
a pharaoh was the divine manifestation of
godly will on Earth didn’t mean he was free from
gods, men and of new temples and the renovation of existing

monuments, with some rulers even destroying the
worry or concern. The Egyptians believed the
dream world was a place where gods, men and
demons walked work of their predecessors. Ancient Egypt was a

kingdom that embodied the personality of its ruler
demons walked the same path, so a pharaoh’s
sacrosanct sleeping quarters would be adorned
the same path” at that time. For instance, Amenhotep III wanted to with spells and incantations, and perhaps statues
Influential figure Influential figure

Narmer Khufu
31st century BCE 2589-2566 BCE
Less well known than some of the more outlandish and A Fourth-Dynasty pharaoh who ruled during
well-documented kings, Nermer still remains one of the the first half of the Old Kingdom era, Khufu
most influential men to ever rule over Egypt. He was (originally Khnum-Khufu) is widely accepted
the first king to unite all of Egypt, effectively ending as the king who commissioned the Great
the Predynastic Era, and founded the very first dynasty. Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders
Evidence has been found to suggest Egypt also had of the World. He was the son of Sneferu and
an economic presence in Canaan (home of the future Queen Hetepheres I and is believed to have
invaders, the Hyksos). Some historians argue the first king had three wives. Very little is known about
was a man called Menes, while others reckon the two are his reign, and the only surviving statue of him
one and the same. (found in a temple ruin in Abydos in 1903) is
one of the smallest ever found.
Merneith Huni
c. 2970 BCE c. 2600 BCE
31st century BCE c. 2690 BCE c. 2670 BCE c. 2575 BCE c. 2570 BCE c. 2530 BCE
Hor-Aha Khasekhemwy Djoser Djedefre Khafre Menkaure
Considered the second The father of Djoser Djoser, founder of the The son and immediate Djedefre’s successor, The son of Khafra and
pharaoh of the very (who would go on to third Egyptian dynasty, successor of Khufu, Khafre (or Khafra) built grandson of Khufu,
first Egyptian dynasty, build the first pyramid), is most famous for his Djedefre is known for the second largest Menkaure built a famous
Hor-Aha inherited the Khasekhemwy was the step pyramid (the first to building one of the most pyramid at Giza. He’s also monument at Giza, the
throne from the man archetypal leader for his be built on Egyptian soil) impressive and enduring linked to the creation of Pyramid of Menkaure and
who unified Predynastic son to follow, conducting and his close relationship Egyptian monuments, the Great Sphinx, but a number of temples.
Egypt, Narmer. He military campaigns and with multi-talented Great Pyramid of Giza. his involvement remains
conducted campaigns building monuments. architect-priest, Imhotep. hotly contested.
against the Nubians.
24
Symbols of a pharaoh
Exuding wealth and power was a key part of pharaonic propaganda.
Here are just a few of the items that did the job for them
Crook and flail

Originally linked solely to
the god Osiris, the crook and
flail later became a combined
symbol of pharaonic
authority. The shepherd’s
crook stood for the power and
responsibility of kingship,
while the flail was shorthand
for the fertility of the land.
Ankh
The ankh, which is usually
grasped in the left hand of a
pharaoh, is one of the most
important symbols associated
with the pharaohs. It represents
the concept of eternal life, a
state of being that was close
to the hearts of the pharaohs,
Nemes headdress as represented by their tombs
Less of a crown and more of symbol of a
and monuments. The ankh also
pharaoh’s power, the nemes was a headdress
represents religious pluralism
that covered the whole crown, the back of
(all gods as one).
the head and the nape of the neck. Usually
striped with gold (to represent the ruler’s
wealth), the nemes had two large flaps that
hung behind the hears and draped over the
front of the shoulders.
2492-2487 BCE 2112-2063 BCE 2063-2055 BCE 2055-2010 BCE 1878-1839 BCE 1860-1814 BCE
Userkaf Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Senusret III Amenemhat III
He built a pyramid The third ruler of the 11th Ruled during the First As part of the 11th The fifth known monarch A pharaoh of the 12th
at the mortuary Dynasty, Intef II ruled Intermediate Period as Dynasty, Mentuhotep II of the 12th Dynasty, Egyptian dynasty,
complex at Sakkara, Upper Egypt for the part of the 11th Dynasty. ruled for just over half a Senusret ruled during Amenemhat III’s reign
as well as beginning best part of 50 years. Despite inheriting a century. He is credited the most prosperous is considered the
the tradition of He united most of the mostly peaceful Upper as the man who reunited period of the Middle golden age of the
constructing sun southern families together Egypt, Intef III was Egypt, thus ending Kingdom. He conducted Middle Kingdom era. He
temples at Abusir. to strengthen the south of still actively busy with the tumultuous First vast military campaigns erected pyramids and
the country as one. military campaigns Intermediate Period. that brought stability to continued work on the
in a hope to reunite the region and built the Great Canal.
the nation. Canal of the Pharaohs.
25
Thutmose III “The visiting of temples was a vital part

Emerging from the shadow of arguably the most
ambitious and powerful women to ever assume
of a pharaoh’s roving duties – known
the Egyptian throne, Thutmose III went from a
co-regent to the head of one of the most powerful
empires in the ancient world. As was tradition in
more commonly as ‘doing the praises”
the 18th Dynasty, Thutmose spent the first 22 years or busts of Bes (the god of repelling evil) or around the king and dress him for the day to
of his reign co-ruling with his aunt and stepmother
Hatshepsut. When his father Thutmose II died, the Nechbet (a goddess of protection) adorning the come. Instead of the opulent gowns and sashes of
prince was too young to inherit the throne, so his walls and columns. formal wear, the king would have been dressed in
aunt assumed his royal responsibilities. She would go The pharaoh would then move into the nearby a similar fashion to his courtiers – a simple linen
on to reject the title of regent and assume the title
of queen – however, Hapshetsut never denied her
Chamber of Cleansing, where he would stand tunic, sandals and a sash around the waist. He
nephew’s kinship and legitimacy, so the two ruled behind a low stone wall to protect his royal wouldn’t have worn the heavy ceremonial crowns
peacefully together as he grew into a man. modesty as a group of servants washed his body commonly seen on statues; instead he would have
When he inherited the throne in 1479 BCE, with warm and cold water. After being dried worn a simple diadem most likely made of
Thutmose III began a rule defined by the activity of
his military. He conducted a total of 17 campaigns, with linen towels, the pharaoh would silver and gold with a uraeus (a coiling
and his expansionist nature led to him being move into the Robing Room. Here, The cobra) at the front.
described as ‘the Napoleon of Egypt’ by some the Chief of Secrets of the House From there, the pharaoh would
historians. He possessed a tactical genius that
of the Morning (a man tasked
pharaoh proceed to the temple adjoining
enabled him to expand Egypt’s borders with fervour
and re-establish Egypt as one of the most powerful with overseeing the monarch’s would rise at dawn the palace. He would pray to
empires that ever existed. As well as his conquest garments for every occasion) to meet the sun, then the gods and pay tribute alone
of Syria, Thutmose III built a huge number of
would coordinate the careful he would don his before moving to the throne
monuments and put a great deal focus on adding to
the temple at Karnak. clothing of the king by another room to conduct the first
crew of servants. cosmetics, jewellery meetings of the day. The king
Since we only have stone and perfume after would meet with his advisors
pictorials or statues to present bathing and dignitaries from across the
the image of the king, it’s easy to land every day, receiving reports from
assume the Egyptian monarch wore a across the kingdom and ordering his
ceremonial headdress and carried an ankh and officials to oversee certain aspects that require
cane or flail wherever he went, but this is far from further attention.
the reality. Of course, for official ceremonies, such Of course, while any citizen could petition for
as the meeting of dignitaries of public addresses, an audience with the king, not everyone made
the king would wear all the paraphernalia, but it to the throne room. Even those who did may
this was far from the case when it came to the well have only met with the vizier instead. The
laborious, day-to-day running of a kingdom. pharaoh would pass laws into effect, but it seems
The handlers of royal linen, the handlers of most likely that many of these were ratified by
©Markh
the royal crowns and headdresses, and even his closest advisors so as not to drown the king in
the director of royal loincloths would all gather administrative duties.

Ahmose I Hatshepsut
1539-1514 BCE 1473-1458 BCE
Founder of the 18th Dynasty and one of Hatshepsut (‘Foremost of Noble Ladies’) was
the most influential pharaohs, Ahmose I the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. She
successfully united his kingdom after more remains the longest-serving female pharaoh and
than a hundred years of division. The Hyksos, arguably the most successful. She was the Chief
a Semitic warrior tribe, had settled in the Wife of Thutmose II and, upon his death, she
Delta and used advanced weaponry such as became regent for their son Thutmose III. In an
compound bows and chariots. By sheer force unprecedented move, she installed herself as
of will, Ahmose I defeated the Hyksos and queen in 1473 BCE, but did so without denying
drove them out of Egypt. His military successes her own stepson’s legitimacy. As such, when
would infuse the nation with wealth and a new Thutmose III came of age, he and his aunt/
monument-building program rejuvenated the stepmother co-ruled until her death in 1458 BCE.
face of the kingdom.
1806-1802 BCE 1764-1759 BCE 1701-1677 BCE 1610-1580 BCE 1560-1557 BCE c. 1540 BCE 1506-1493 BCE
Sobekneferu Khyan Seqenenre Tao Khamudi Thutmose I
Khendjer Merneferre
A female pharaoh who Khamudi was the last The third pharaoh of the
The 21st pharaoh of the An ancient Egyptian
ruled Egypt for around ruler of the Hyksos, 18th Dynasty, Thutmose I
13th Dynasty, Khendjer pharaoh of the mid-13th
four years during the 12th otherwise known as the (or Tuthmosis) ruled during
built a small pyramid for Dynasty, he reigned
Dynasty, Sobekneferu 15th Dynasty. He and his the prosperous era known
himself in the mortuary over Upper and Middle
inherited the throne people were driven from as the New Kingdom. He
complex at Sakkara. Egypt concurrently with
when her predecessor Egypt by the Theban conducted many military
He’s the earliest known the pharaohs of the
Amenemhat IV died pharaoh Ahmose I. campaigns and expanded
Semitic king of Egypt. 14th Dynasty.
without a son. the boundaries of the
kingdom further than any
other previous monarch.
26
The pharaoh was the arbiter of his people and Ahmose I is depicted expelling the
as such was always on the move. The Egyptians Hyksos invaders from Egypt
endured in the harsh environment of Northern
Africa not just because of their ability to adapt and
survive, but because of the ferocious activity of
their rulers. Simply sitting in state in the nation’s
capital would have been disastrous, so a successful
pharaoh would visit every corner of his kingdom,
inspecting the building of temples and overseeing
the construction of new fortifications to protect the
borders of his kingdom. The visiting of temples was
a vital part of a pharaoh’s roving duties – known
more commonly as ‘doing the praises’, it was an
awe-inspiring mark of respect to see the pharaoh
and his court visit a temple and offer tribute to a
local god.
Festivals were another important part of
Egyptian culture, especially those that celebrated
the sanctity of the pharaoh’s rule. The Opet festival,
usually held at the Luxor Temple, would represent
the renewal of the royal ka, or soul (the very life
force of Egyptian society) and by association
the power of the king himself. The Sed festival,
usually held in a king’s 30th year to celebrate their
continued rule, was another huge occasion that
would see the entire kingdom decked out in its
finest decorations. In short, these festivals were a
testament to the love and reverence the Egyptian Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)
people had for their ruler.
Few pharaohs made an impact on ancient Egypt quite as severely as the 18th Dynasty king Akhenaten. He didn’t
Yet, for all their influence and divine status, change the nation by his military campaigns or his desire to erect great and imposing monuments – his mark on
one man could not be in all places at all times. As history used the most powerful tool available: religion. For time immemorial, Egypt had celebrated and worshipped
such, a pharaoh would often deputise his priests, a host of different gods, each one representing the different facets of life, industry and human nature itself. The
rise of Theban pharaohs and their prosperity in the 18th Dynasty had elevated the god Amun to patron status.
tasking them with travelling to different corners of The Church of Amun had grown in power, too, and its gradual influence over the court of his father, Amenhotep
the kingdom to oversee new and existing temples. III, had soured the prince as a child. When he ascended to the throne in 1351 BCE, Amenhotep IV dismantled the
He would often pass a great deal of responsibility church that had irked him so much as a young man. He banned polytheistic practices (worship of multiple gods)
onto members of the royal family, most notably across the nation and forced his people, priests and family to worship one, single god: Aten. He even moved the
capital from Memphis to Akhetaton, but ultimately his attempts to undo the theological fabric of his countrymen
the Great Royal Wife. A pharaoh would likely take failed and his Amarna Period was buried by future monarchs trying to erase his legacy.
multiple wives, but only one would be his true

Amenhotep III Ramesses II
1391-1353 BCE 1279-1213 BCE
Otherwise known as Amenhotep III the Magnificent, One of the most famous and recognisable
Amenhotep III was ninth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. pharaohs (perhaps second only to
Under his stewardship, Egypt saw a renaissance in Tutankhamun), Ramesses II is celebrated
its arts and culture; he redecorated the kingdom as the most successful and powerful of the
with monuments; vessels, statues and temples were Egyptian kings. He led a large number of
erected. Egypt rose to a new era of cultural awakening. military campaigns to the north and south
Amenhotep III inherited a relatively peaceful kingdom, so of the country, vastly increasing the size of
he was able to focus most of his attention on beautifying the kingdom as he conquered new lands.
the kingdom. Over 250 statues bearing his name have He reigned for 66 years and celebrated an
been discovered, proving him to be one of the most unprecedented 14 Sed festivals. He was also
prolific builders of the era, a prolific builder, his monuments including
the city of Pi-Ramesses.
1479-1425 BCE 1401-1391 BCE 1353-1336 BCE 1332-1323 BCE 1290 -1279 BCE
Thutmose III Thutmose IV Akhenaten Tutankhamun Seti I
The sixth pharaoh of the 18th The eighth pharaoh One of the most Arguably the most famous He was a pharaoh of the
Dynasty, Thutmose began of the 18th Dynasty, controversial kings pharaoh of all, King 19th Dynasty, which held
his reign in a co-regency with Thutmose IV erected the of Egypt, Akhenaten Tut was the son of the power over Egypt during
his aunt and stepmother tallest ever obelisk at the (formerly Amenhotep IV) heretic king Akhenaten. the New Kingdom era.
Hatshepsut. As a sole ruler, he Temple at Karnak. He rejected the polytheism He helped reverse He was the father of
helped to expand the nation’s was buried in the Valley that had defined the much of his father’s Rameses II.
territory like never before. of the Kings. nation since its inception actions and returned
and enforced the worship Egypt to its traditional
of a singular god, Aten. polytheisticstructure.
27
The lives
of Egyptian
queens
With the exception of queens such as Cleopatra and
Hatshepsut, who took the most powerful seat for
themselves through guile and sheer will, the queens
of Ancient Egypt experienced very different worlds.
The royal women of the Old and Middle Kingdoms
were required to be passive, and expected to
provide male heirs without refrain or complications.
However, with these subservient requirements
came a deceptive amount of hidden power. Should
a queen hold the favour of her king, he might leave
the running of the kingdom in her stead while he left
the kingdom to conduct military campaigns or focus
on monument construction. She would also oversee
the running of the palace and ultimately act as regent
should the king die before a male heir was of age to
inherit the throne independently.
By contrast, the life of a queen in the New
Kingdom era was far different. Royal women were
afforded far more authority and prestige. The more
astute and popular queens were able to acquire their
own secular and religious titles, such as God’s Wife
of Amun, and receive with it the land, servants and
followers such a potent station could offer. Relief depicting the coronation of a pharaoh
Influential figure
Ramesses III
Influential figure 1186-1155 BCE
Merneptah The second pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty, he is considered
the last great king to hold any substantial authority in the
1213-1203 BCE prosperous New Kingdom era. Ramesses III is celebrated
The fourth ruler of the 19th Dynasty, Merneptah was for maintaining stability in the kingdom while it began to
the 13th son of Ramesses II and only came to power suffer both economic strife and a constant threat of foreign
because all of his older brothers predeceased him – he invasions. The Sea Peoples (a large group of seafaring raiders)
was over 60. He’s famed for his military campaigns, were constantly attempting to invade and eventually settled
including defending Egypt from a combined force of in Canaan. Ramesses III is believed to have claimed he
Sea Peoples and Libyans. He also moved the capital defeated the Sea Peoples and granted them the land as an
from Pi-Ramesses back to Memphis, where he built a act of kindness, but it seems likely he was instead unable to
large palace next to the temple of Ptah. halt their occupation.
1047-1001 BCE 943-922 BCE 690-664 BCE 672-664 BCE 610-595 BCE 570-526 BCE 525-522 BCE
Psusennes I Shoshenq I Taharqa Necho I Necho II Amasis II Cambyses II
The third king of the Most famous for A pharaoh of the 25th Conducted a number A warrior king of
21st Egyptian dynasty, suspending traditional Dynasty, Taharqa spent of military campaigns Persia, Cambyses
Psusennes I was most hereditary succession in most of his campaign across Asia, but is invaded Egypt in
famous for the discovery favour of a system where in conflict with the most famous for a 525 BCE and founded
of his intact tomb in the most powerful men Assyrians. He’s also surprise defeat to the First Persian
1940. He reigned for just selected a new ruler. known for his impressive the Babylonians who Occupation. Defeated
over 40 years. This practice lasted for additions to the Temple subsequently drove Psamtik III to take
around a century. at Karnak. all Egyptian influence the throne.
from Syria.
28
queen, who would hold the most power outside of they hosted foreign dignitaries and entertained
her husband. While the lesser wives (who would kings with all the authority of their husband. Of
range from foreign princesses to a pharaoh’s own course, not all queens could boast such influence,
sisters and daughters) would often remain at one but those most favoured were still a formidable
of the king’s many palaces around the presence and influence in the royal court.
country, the Great Royal Wife would The hierarchy of the royal court, and
usually travel with the king as he
The Egyptian society as a whole, was
conducted his duties. fragmented often based upon an individual’s
Queens formed an important Palermo Stele importance and contributions.
part of a pharaoh’s persona. features the names Directly under the pharaoh
As the mother of princes, stood the queen, but in cases
a queen could inspire cults
of the kings of Egypt where the Great Royal Wife
and followings in her own between the First was not as elevated, a grand
right, and many of the Dynasty and the vizier would advise the king on
most influential kings were matters of state. Beneath the vizier
Fifth Dynasty
immortalised in pictorials and and advisors were the priests and
statues with their favourite consort nobility of the royal court. These were
at their side. When a pharaoh was the elite and were usually heads of the
busy elsewhere – usually with overseeing the most powerful families of the period. Beneath the
construction of a tomb or standing at the head of nobility and the holy men were physicians, sages
a foreign campaign – the running of the country and engineers, followed by scribes, merchants and
was often left to his queen. Some queens, such artists. Finally, at the bottom of the hierarchical
as Queen Tiye (the wife of Amenhotep III), were pyramid were the vast majority of the population –
elevated to such a high position of power that the everyday working people themselves.
From their inception with King Narmer and the
First Dynasty, to their conclusion with the suicide
Tutankhamun of Cleopatra VII and Egypt’s absorption into the
Perhaps the most recognisable pharaoh that ever lived, King Tut (as he’s colloquially known) reigned for 11 years Roman Empire, the pharaohs were the epitome of
during the New Kingdom (a period of time considered the second golden age in ancient Egyptian history). royal power in the ancient world. They commanded
Inheriting the throne at the age of nine or ten, Tutankhamun faced a similar situation to that of Elizabeth I when armies that conquered even the most bloodthirsty
she assumed the English throne from her sister Mary I over a thousand years later. His father, Akhenaten (formerly
Amenhotep IV), had sent the nation into upheaval, rejecting the multi-god practices that had defined Egypt since of enemies, orchestrated the construction of vast
its inception in favour of a single deity. When Tutankhamun became pharaoh in 1333 BCE he started dismantling and impressive monuments that have survived to
the efforts of his father – he abolished the single worship of the god Aten and re-elevated the god Amen to this day, and maintained over 30 dynasties that
prominence. The stranglehold on the priesthood of Amen was lifted and the capital was moved back to Thebes.
Some attribute the almost overzealous manner in which King Tut reversed his father’s reformation with one of his shaped the world around its majesty.
royal advisors/viziers, Horemheb, but whether the driving force was Tutankhamun’s alone or in conjunction with The pharaohs may now have been consigned to
his court, he still made every effort to effectively expunge his father’s reign from history. Ancient Egyptian history, but their mark upon that
history will last forever.
Influential figure
Alexander the Great
332-323 BCE
One of the most famous and dominant rulers of the
ancient world, Alexander the Great of Macedonia
eventually turned his attention to the land of the
pharaohs and conquered it in 332 BCE. While in a
constant state of military activity, Alexander still installed
himself as pharaoh for almost a decade. Egypt was
floundering under Persian rule at the time of his conquest
and his arrival was seen as something of a liberation. He
oversaw the integration of Greek culture into Egypt and
even created Alexandria, which became the capital for
© Alamy
Statues of pharaohs in the Temple of Ramesses II, Luxor the Ptolemaic kingdom that would follow.
Ptolemy V Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XV
204-181 BCE 80 BCE 44-30 BCE
423-404 BCE 404-399 BCE 360-342 BCE 358-338 BCE 323-283 BCE 283-246 BCE 51-30 BCE
Darius II Amyrtaeus Nectanebo II Artaxerxes III Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Cleopatra VII
Darius II is believed The first During his reign, the Known more commonly
to be the last known Ptolemaic king literary and artistic as simply Cleopatra, she
Persian king of the was a Macedonian splendour of the was the last queen of
27th Dynasty. He general. Upon Alexandrian court Egypt before it became
was defeated by Alexander‘s death, thrived. He also oversaw an annex of Rome. She
Amyrtaeus, effectively he became satrap of the Great Library of married Mark Antony and
ending the First Egypt and declared Alexandria and erected committed suicide after
Persian Occupation. himself pharaoh in the Great Mendes Stela. false news of his death.
305 BCE.
29
Cleopatra’s
ruthless rise
to power
How the middle daughter of a despised pharaoh
fought, schemed and seduced her way to becoming
the most famous Egyptian ruler of all
E
gypt was in turmoil. In the year 81 BCE children, and Cleopatra VII was the second oldest
Ptolemy IX, the pharaoh who had dared after her sister, Berenice IV.
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the Great, was dead. A series of bloody and with an eager and curious mind driven by a near-
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violent family feuds had robbed his dynasty insatiable thirst for knowledge. She easily excelled
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beloved daughter, Bernice III became queen. were amazed by her aptitude for languages, readily
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ceremony, the groom had his new bride Syrians, Medes or Parthians. While she
murdered and claimed the throne as surrounded herself with the wonders
wertyuiop[]as his own. The citizens of Alexandria of the academic world in the riches
were furious, and an angry mob Cleopatra was and luxury of the royal residence,
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wertyuiop[]as out of control. have been able to speak ripped apart.
As the commander of the as many as a dozen Pharaoh Ptolemy XII was
army and the personification in a troublesome position. His
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mass unrest in Egypt and anyone, had chosen not to act on – not yet,
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pharaoh at all. So the throne was offered to the enough to understand that to keep the Romans
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with a fondness for drink and excess, he was that time one of Rome’s most important figures),
hardly the shining beacon the struggling country which secured the Romans’ support, but dammed
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it through him in the eyes of his tax-burdened citizens. In 58
it had fallen into. A nickname for the illegitimate BCE he was forced into exile, taking his talented
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30
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Cleopatra’s ruthless rise to power
“The young princess

was clever and
quick-witted
with a curious
mind”
CLEOPATRA
69-30 BCE
As the last active

pharaoh of Ptolemaic
Brief Egypt, Cleopatra
Bio had to contend with
Julius Caesar during
her reign. Self-styled as a
reincarnation of the goddess
Isis, Cleopatra was later
challenged by Octavian after
Caesar’s assassination. Her
consort, Mark Antony, lost the
Battle of Actium and committed
suicide. Cleopatra proceeded to
follow suit.
31
Roman army courtesy of the statesman Aulus into the background and established herself as sole
Gabinius, he discovered his oldest daughter monarch of the country. This was dangerous; the
Berenice sitting on the throne. Displaying the Alexandrian courtiers swarmed over the young,
brutal and uncompromising ferocity that ran impressionable king, filling his head with whispers
through his entire family, he had his daughter of sole rule and the dangers of his older sister. If
summarily executed. He then proceeded to Cleopatra had been more patient and attentive, she
reclaim the throne, from which he ruled could perhaps have trained a capable and obedient
until his death in 51 BCE. The crown and co-ruler in him, one who would have aided her
all the debts he had amassed became the rule, instead of bringing it crashing down. But that
property of his oldest surviving was simply not the Ptolemy way, and she
daughter, Cleopatra. was a Ptolemy in every sense of the
The 18-year-old was not – as word – daring, ambitious and deadly.
some expected – a naïve, She had four She dropped her brother’s image
wide-eyed child torn from children by two from coins and erased his name
her books to rule a kingdom from official documents. With
fathers – Caesar and
on the brink of war. She had her skill, drive and cunning she
served as consort to her father Mark Antony – but was perfect for rule; in her mind
for the final few years of his only one, Cleopatra she deserved Egypt and wasn’t
reign and all her education Selene, made it to prepared to share it.
since birth had been designed The early years of her reign
to mould her into a capable
adulthood would be testing, as not only was
queen. Queen, that was; not king, the country still struggling under
not pharaoh. Cleopatra was cursed by the father’s debts, but years of infrequent
the requirement of all Egyptian queens to floods of the Nile had led to widespread famine.
serve alongside a dominant male co-ruler and so Over her shoulder Cleopatra could feel the ever-
found herself burdened with the task of being a looming and rapidly expanding threat of Rome, and
subordinate co-regent to her ten-year-old brother, with a weak Egyptian army, her fertile land was
Ptolemy XIII. ripe for the picking. As hungry peasants flooded
Faced with a regency council full of ambitious into the cities, Cleopatra’s popularity plummeted,
men who ruled in her brother’s stead and led and her repeated decisions that seemed designed
by her own ruthless, impatient and intelligent to please Rome at Egypt’s expense reminded the
nature, Cleopatra pushed her brother-husband bitter population of her despised father.
A husband & two lovers
Ptolemy XIII Theos Julius Caesar Mark Antony

Philopator Roman, 100-44 BCE Roman, 83-30 BCE
Macedonian, 62-47 BCE How did they get together? How did they get together?
How did they get together? Cleopatra and her brother both Antony summoned Cleopatra to see if
The marriage between Ptolemy and needed Caesar’s support. Cleopatra she would hold true in her promised
his sister was arranged, as was the met with Caesar before their support during the war against the
tradition with Egyptian royalty. scheduled meeting and managed to Parthians. She reportedly charmed
Was it true love? sway his vote. Her methods can be him during this meeting, perhaps
Considering their joint rule erupted left to the imagination. much the same way she had Caesar.
into a brutal civil war, we can assume Was it true love? Was it true love?
there was little love lost between the Although the union was initially Although it may have been borne
siblings. There is no evidence they spawned from mutual political out of political agendas, the two had
consummated their marriage. gain and the two were forbidden three children together, and Antony
How did it end? by Roman law to marry, Cleopatra risked everything to be with his
Ptolemy was forced to flee seemed to stay loyal to Caesar and Egyptian queen.
Alexandria when the forces of had his child. How did it end?
Caesar and his sister-wife Cleopatra How did it end? After the ill-fated Battle of Actium,
claimed victory. He reportedly This love affair was cut short when Antony committed suicide upon
drowned attempting to cross the Nile Caesar was assassinated on the Ides mistakenly hearing Cleopatra was
when fleeing. of March. dead, and she quickly followed suit.
32
In the middle of this political turmoil, Cleopatra a ruse; a rival of Caesar’s was more valuable dead
found herself facing a familiar rival. Her brother than alive.
was back and, aided by his many guardians and When Caesar arrived in the harbour of
regents, was now a vicious and ruthless king who Alexandria four days later, he was presented with
was not afraid to wipe her from the land and from the head of his rival. However, in mere moments
history. He completely erased his sister’s name from Ptolemy’s advisors realised their mistake, for
all official documents and backdated his monarchy, the Roman general was completely and utterly
claiming sole rule since his father’s death. With her appalled. He wept loudly and openly before leading
popularity and reputation already in tatters, the his forces to the royal palace in Alexandria. As
disgraced queen fled the city of her birth before he observed the local resentment and civil war
an angry mob could storm the palace and inflict threatening to break the land in two he made a
upon her the same grisly fate as so many of her decision; he needed the wealth that Alexandrian
greedy and ill-fated predecessors. taxes would give him, and the only way
Having lost not only the support
Cleopatra
of increasing taxes was to establish Five myths
of her people but also the land
she so strongly believed was did not abandon
stability in the city. The sibling
rivalry had to end. He summoned
Cleopatra and Ptolemy to appear
unravelled
hers to rule, Cleopatra escaped
to Syria with a small band of her ambitions, but before him. This was easy for She was smuggled
loyal supporters. Fuelled by set about building Ptolemy who swiftly journeyed in a rug
The image of a dishevelled and flushed
outrage at her brother, and even the army she would to Alexandria, but Cleopatra
Cleopatra being unrolled from a Persian rug
more so at the advisors who would have to use all her
need to reclaim her at Caesar’s feet after being smuggled into the
had crafted him into a vicious cunning just to make it into the palace comes from the overzealous pen of Greek
enemy, Cleopatra did not abandon throne city alive. biographer Plutarch, but it’s difficult to prove this
happened. It seems unlikely that Caesar, one of
her ambitions, but set about building With the harbour blocked by her the most powerful men in the world, would have
the army she would need to reclaim brother’s ships, she slipped away from welcomed a suspicious package into his room and
her throne. As the female pharaoh amassed her her troops and travelled in a small boat along the even if so, there’s no reason for her not to have
emerged earlier and made a more elegant entrance.
forces in Syria, her young brother, barely 13 years coast in the dead of night. Her journey had been
old, became distracted by the ever-pressing Roman completely and utterly unfitting for a pharaoh of
civil war. After a humiliating defeat to Caesar in Egypt, a Ptolemy queen; but victory demanded She was a femme
Pharsalus, the Roman military leader Pompey the sacrifice and she was confident the streets and fatale
The idea that Cleopatra flittered between
Great fled to the one place he was assured he could waters she was being smuggled down would soon powerful men, wooing and manipulating with no
find refuge; his old ally, Egypt. be hers again. It had been a challenge to make it idea of who fathered her children, is the result
With his wife and children watching nervously into the palace district, but the real night’s work of an ancient smear campaign run against her by
Roman officials. In fact, there’s only evidence of
from afar, Pompey disembarked his grand ship was about to begin – she was about to go face to
her having been with two men: Julius Caesar and
to board a small fishing boat to the shore. The face with arguably the most powerful man in the Mark Antony.
Egyptian boy pharaoh, Ptolemy, sat on the shore known world.
in a throne fashioned specifically for the occasion. Her brother would bend over backwards, slay She was Egyptian
He watched Pompey closely, his face guarded and Caesar’s enemies and kiss his feet for his support, One of the most famous Egyptian
unreadable, but the men around him threw their but he was quick to panic, eager to please and pharaohs of all time wasn’t Egyptian at all
– she was Greek. Her family line is that of Ptolemy,
arms open and, with wide smiles, cried, “Hail, terrified of angering Rome. Her brother was a fool. one of the generals of Alexander the Great, and
commander!” It was not until the ship reached the Caesar needed Egypt as much as Egypt needed despite her family living in Egypt for over 300
shore that Pompey realised the murderous web Rome and she would use that fact to her advantage. years, she would have been regarded as Greek.
Cleopatra was actually rare in that she could speak
in which he was entangled. Before he could cry Egyptian, unlike many of her predecessors.
out he was ran through with a sword and stabbed
over and over again in the back. While the once- She wore a fake beard
great consul was decapitated and his mutilated The concept of female Egyptian queens
corpse thrown into the sea, Ptolemy did not sporting fake beards comes from the
Egyptian belief that the god Osiris had a grand
rise from his throne. The
beard, prompting Egyptian pharaohs to do the
ceremony had been same to establish themselves as divine beings. But
by the time of Cleopatra this tradition had all but
died out, and there’s no record of her donning a
fake beard. In fact, the only female pharaoh known
to have worn one is Hatshepsut.
She died from an asp

bite
This myth has gained momentum due
to paintings of Cleopatra holding a snake to her
bosom as she passes away. However, the accounts
of this event are in some doubt, mainly because
an asp will not cause a quick death as Cleopatra’s
was reported to be. It is more likely she drank
a combination of poisons. The idea that the asp
bit her breast is certainly incorrect, as all ancient
sources state it bit her on the arm.
33
All in the family

The Ptolemies of Egypt could trace their ancestry to Ptolemy I Soter,
a Greek general of Alexander the Great who became ruler of Egypt
in 323 BCE. After Alexander’s death, his most senior generals divided
his vast territory between themselves. Completely oblivious to the
dangers of interbreeding, it became customary for the Ptolemies to
Follow Cleopatra’s family tree and discover just how close-knit marry their brothers and sisters. It was convenient for them as not only
the Ptolemies really were… did it ensure queens could be trained for their role from birth, but also
established them as an elite, untouchable class far removed from the
masses, similar to the revered Egyptian gods who married their sisters.
Ptolemy VIII UNCLE Cleopatra III

182-116 BCE MARRIES 161-101 BCE
NIECE
SISTER SISTER
Cleopatra IV MARRIES Ptolemy IX MARRIES Cleopatra Selene Ptolemy X
138-112 BCE BROTHER 143-81 BCE BROTHER 135-69 BCE ?-88 BCE
COUSIN Ptolemy XI
Berenice III MARRIES 115-80 BCE
115-80 BCE COUSIN
UNCLE/
NIECE/
STEPFATHER/
STEPDAUGHTER
Ptolemy XII UNCLE MARRY
MARRIES Cleopatra V
117-51 BCE NIECE 95-? BCE
SISTER
SISTER MARRIES Ptolemy XIV
Arsinoe IV Berenice IV Ptolemy XIII MARRIES BROTHER
BROTHER 60-44 BCE
?-41 BCE 77-55 BCE 62-47 BCE
Cleopatra VII
69-30 BCE
She would not wait to bow and plead her case had been granted all the charm, intelligence and The apparent peace did not last long. Already
alongside a child, she was going to speak to the ambition of her forefathers. She would steal Caesar poisoned by the ambitious whispers that had
Roman general that night. She sneaked into and Rome’s support while her brother slept; fed his youth, Ptolemy joined with his rebellious
the palace and managed to find her her charisma would succeed where her sister Arsinoe IV. Between them they amassed
way into Caesar’s private chamber. brother’s sword had failed. an army large enough to challenge Cleopatra and
The ‘dictator in perpetuity’, as The young Ptolemy XIII awoke Caesar’s forces in Egypt. The country they fought
he would come to be known in the next day, not expecting his for would pay the price, and in December of 48
Rome, towered over the small dangerous older sister to have BCE the famous stone city of Alexandria was set
woman; she would have to even made it to the palace. When alight, destroying not only the lives of hundreds
crane her head to look him in he discovered that not only was of citizens, but also the world-famous library that
the eye, she realised instantly. she there, but had also seduced housed countless priceless manuscripts. When
He was far older than the Caesar overnight into joining Caesar’s reinforcements poured into the city from
young, bold Egyptian queen and her cause, it was the final straw. Pergamum, Ptolemy’s forces were finally defeated.
his receding hairline was poorly Screaming in desperation, he fled The young and impetuous king tried to flee across
disguised. The general was past his from the palace, tore his crown from the Nile in an overcrowded boat, but his vessel
physical prime, but he had just won Cleopatra’s image on a his head and fell to his knees. His sister sank, dragging him and his elaborate, heavy golden
his greatest victory. This was her first silver coin showed her had done it again. She was completely armour down with it.
to have a hooked nose
time gazing upon the Roman celebrity and utterly impossible to get rid off and, One Ptolemy was dead, but another still lived.
known the world over, but this was even as the crowd surged forward in Ptolemy XIV, Cleopatra’s 13-year-old brother,
also the first time he was facing her. Her brother protest, Caesar could not be swayed. The siblings became her husband and co-ruler immediately
was a child, a mere puppet pharaoh on strings, would rule Egypt together, just as their father had after her brother’s death. She might have had
dancing to the pulls of his corrupt advisors, but she intended. Rome had spoken. Caesar’s support, but tradition was still tradition
34
She penned
Cosmetics, a book End of an Era
of pharmaceutical Cleopatra’s surviving children were adopted by
Octavia. They became Roman citizens and faded
treatments for such quickly into obscurity. Egypt, now a Roman
ailments as hair loss province, was ruled by a prefect. Greek remained
the official language. While Alexandria continued
and dandruff to flourish, it became a site of many religious and
military uprisings.
In 269 CE, Alexandria was claimed by yet
another woman, when Zenobia, the ferocious
warrior queen of Palmyra, conquered Egypt.
Zenobia, who was an admirer of Cleopatra, was
quick to behead her detested Roman foes. She
ruled Egypt until 274, before she herself was
taken hostage by the Roman Emperor Aurelian.
In an ironic twist of fate, Zenobia appeared in
golden chains during Aurelian’s Triumph in Rome.
The legacy of Greco-Roman Egypt still survives.
It can be seen in a series of magnificent temples
that were built along the River Nile. These include
the Temple of Hathor at Dendera, where fabulous
images of Cleopatra and Caesarion still dominate
the walls therein.
The delicate amalgamation of the
Egyptian and Roman cultures can
also be seen on many mummy
portrait panels from the Greco-
Roman period. Contrasts
are visible in paintings and
sculptures where traditional
Egyptian iconography
is paired with Roman
symbolism. The result
– a hybrid blend of the
ancient and even more
ancient – is now all that
remains of the former
bond between Rome
and Egypt, Antony
and Cleopatra.
Cleopatra was as much an

intellectual and scholar as
a passionate fighter
and a lone woman could not rule Egypt. As for Egyptian throne, slowly winning the love of the
Caesar, he had put in place a reliable partnership Alexandrian mobs that had previously screamed
and Egypt was, for all intents and purposes, a for her head. She travelled to Rome with her son
Roman territory. In a lavish display of the new and resided in Caesar’s country house as heated
union, a fleet of Roman and Egyptian ships sailed rumours about the paternity of her son gained
down the Nile accompanied by the grand royal speed. She did little to squash them; a possible heir
barge where Cleopatra and Caesar sat together. of Caesar was a very powerful tool to have.
Egypt and Rome were united, but Cleopatra still When Caesar was assassinated on 15 March
found herself co-ruler to another Ptolemy who 44 BCE, Cleopatra left Rome and returned to
would inevitably grow up to be ambitious and Alexandria. If there was ever a time to act, it was
treacherous. She could not allow another brother to now. Without her powerful Roman lover by her
be swayed by advisors and driven against her. As side she needed an ally who could assure her rule,
long as Ptolemy XIV lived, her rule was threatened. one who wasn’t going to lead a rebellion against
She wasn’t a fool, she knew Egypt would never her. Brothers, she had learned, could not be trusted.
accept a solitary female queen, but there was a Later that year the youngest Ptolemy was found
technicality that would ensure her effective sole dead, seemingly poisoned. The people’s grief was
rule. Her partnership with Caesar had provided muted; the death of Ptolemies, however young, was
more than his political support; she was pregnant not so uncommon in Egypt, and the people had a
and in 47 BCE she gave birth. The gods’ will was in new pharaoh to replace him: the young Caesarion.
her favour – the child was a boy. She named him Cleopatra had finally done it, she was Egypt’s
Caesarion, or ‘Little Caesar’, and now had an heir. pharaoh, and with her son an infant she was ruling
For three years Cleopatra tightened her grip on the alone in all but name. The power of Egypt was hers.
35
Alexander
Alexander:
loosened the
impregnable Gordian
knot, which bound a
sacred chariot to its
yoke, with a stroke
Liberator
of his sword
of Egypt
A shrewd and far-sighted ruler or a pitiless warlord,
Alexander the Great’s military prowess led him to
conquer the powerful kingdom of Egypt
O
nly one of Alexander the Great’s dreams the battle of Chaeronea, which ultimately brought
has survived, and it tells how in 331 BCE Athens under the Macedonian yoke.
a venerable old figure – possibly Homer In 336 BCE, Philip was murdered. His son
himself – is said to have visited the sleeping inherited the throne and his father’s Persian
conqueror and, with a recital of lines from campaign. Upon his accession, a confederacy of
The Odyssey, advised him on the site for his great enemies menaced the young king on all sides,
Egyptian city, Alexandria. though he quickly crushed the irksome Illyrians
It is fitting that this sole recorded dream-memory and razed rebellious Thebes to the ground. In 334
should reference the epic poet, for Alexander BCE he crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor and
strived to embody the Homeric ideal above all. Like in Cilica earned one of a number of key victories
Hector or Achilles, he would stand astride over the Persians. More victories followed,
history as one of its most celebrated before he then besieged Tyre and Gaza.
warriors, his deeds in life still The conclusion to the siege of Gaza
echoing down to modern times. Alexander’s saw its male population slaughtered
According to one of Alexander’s father, Philip II and the women and children sold
greatest modern biographers, into slavery, as was the custom of
Robin Lane Fox, the
of Macedon, hired the time. The fate of the town’s
Macedonian king feasted upon the great philosopher governor, or certainly the legend
the words of Homer, “not as a Aristotle to tutor his that survived, recalls the climax
distant reader but more in the
spirit of a marcher baron living
son from the age to Homer’s Iliad and Achilles’
treatment of his vanquished
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
out the ballads which mirrored
of 13 enemy Hector: Alexander passed
Greek, 356-323 BCE
his home world.” thongs around his enemy’s feet and

Becoming king of
The seed of that home world was dragged his battered body through the Macedon after his
Macedonia, a kingdom lying to the north of dust in his chariot’s wake. Brief father’s murder,
Greece. In 356 BCE its king, Philip II, and his queen, The fall of Gaza flung open the road to Egypt Bio Alexander led the
Greeks into war
Olympias, welcomed the birth of Alexander, who and in November 332 BCE Alexander entered the against the powerful Persian
grew up a strong and able-bodied young man. At most powerful kingdom in the Persian Empire. Empire. With charisma and
the age of 16 he acted as regent while his father With their Persian overlord, Darius III, absent cunning, he led from the
frontline to build an empire that
waged war against the Persians. Two years later following Alexander’s victory at Issus during the stretched from Libya to India,
he won the Great Triple Laurel Crown Ribbon previous year, the Egyptians had no protection creating a new golden age for
Hellenic culture.
commanding the left wing of King Philip’s army at from this battle-hardened invader and his well-
36
Alexander: Liberator of Egypt
Although the
most famous stood
in Egypt, Alexander
founded 70 cities
commemorated with
his own name
37
“Alexander travelled to the oasis of Siwah,

home to the oracle of the mysterious
ram-headed creator god, Amun”
marshalled troops. Alexander’s navy, meanwhile, Mareotis and the sea, facing the island of Pharos,
was already at anchor in the strategically important where book four of The Odyssey spoke of the
city of Pelusium. Hence, the Persian satrap in stranding of Menelaus. It was here at Pharos that
Egypt, Mazaces, sought only to win Alexander’s the world’s first lighthouse would arise in the
grace and favour. “The fact that Phoenicia, Syria following century, claiming immortality as one of
and most of Arabia were already in Macedonian the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
hands,” writes the ancient historian Arrian, a Historians argue over Alexander’s intentions
key source for Alexander’s story, “induced him behind the foundation of the eponymous city,
[Mazaces] to receive Alexander with a show of some claiming that he hoped it would supersede
friendship and to offer no obstacle to his free entry Memphis as the new capital of Egypt. Whatever the
into Egypt and its cities.” case, Alexandria’s power and prosperity across
Mazaces met Alexander in the the next two millennia would likely
Egyptian capital of Memphis, and outstrip even its founder’s ambitions.
His Egyptian in the home of the pharaohs the Alexander’s It replaced Tyre as the pre-eminent
successor invader sacrificed to the native

gods. This show of piety won
first wife,
Roxanne, was
international marketplace,
working against the commercial
A general in Alexander’s army, Ptolemy him good favour with the vitality of the Phoenicians and
fought at Issus and travelled with his natives who, according to some reputedly the most boosting that of the Greeks.
king to the Siwah oasis, where Alexander
is thought to have confirmed his divine sources, still held a festering beautiful woman in As building work on his
heritage. resentment against the Persian illustrious city began, Alexander
He became ruler of Egypt upon king Artaxerxes III, who after
Asia. Her Iranian departed and travelled west
Alexander’s death in 323 BCE. In 304 BCE
reconquering Egypt 11 years name was ‘little with a group of attendants before
he adopted the title of pharaoh and
established the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which previously had eaten the sacred bull star’ heading south for 300 miles through
lasted until the death of Cleopatra VII in of Apis. Whatever the veracity of this the desert to the oasis of Siwah, home
30 BCE and Egypt’s incorporation into the tale, its purpose served Alexander well as to the oracle of the mysterious ram-headed
Roman Empire.
He is widely regarded as a wise and far- ‘the acclaimed avenger of Persian impiety’. creator god, Amun (also known as Amen, or
sighted ruler, taking control over Cyprus, From Memphis he sailed down the Nile and Ammon), whose name meant ‘the Hidden One’.
Palestine and portions of Asia Minor. The stepped ashore at Canopus, where, in 331 BCE, The reasons for Alexander’s journey are unclear;
people of Rhodes whom he defended from
attack by his Macedonian rival Demetrius he commenced work on one of his crowning seldom did he depart from a militarily strategic
bestowed his title of Soter, or saviour, upon achievements, the founding of Alexandria. With course. The historian Callisthenes of Olynthus,
him in 305 BCE. those Homeric verses perhaps ringing in his head, writing just 20 months after Alexander’s visit,
He began construction on the Great
he chose its location on the ground between Lake believed that “it was Alexander’s glorious ambition
Library at Alexandria, a dream Alexander
himself was unable to realise during
his lifetime, and the city became a Defining moment
centre of learning with a reputation that
spread across the Mediterranean world Alexander’s accession to the
and beyond. The Great Library would Macedonian throne
incorporate the private library of Aristotle,
the great philosopher.
336 BCE
The assassin Pausanias murders Philip II on the day of his wedding to O Siege of Tyre
It is thought that Ptolemy’s son (Ptolemy As Alexander marches
the concubine, Cleopatra (not to be confused with the famous Egyptian
II) most likely completed the library upon through Phoenicia, the
his father’s death. Ptolemy Soter died queen). The author of the plot remains unknown, though both Olympias
great cities of Sidon and
at 84. The library was later destroyed and Alexander invite suspicion. It is argued that Alexander is vindicated Byblus surrender, though
some time between 48 BC and 642 AD by the allegiance shown to him by Philip’s loyal generals, Antipater and mighty Tyre refuses him
according to historians and Egyptologists. Parmenio. The Greek states subjugated by Philip see a chance to throw entry and resists his siege.
off the Macedonian yoke, while in Asia Cleopatra’s father champions the When the Persian fleet
claim of his daughter’s infant son. However, Alexander soon reminds his joins Alexander, however,
subjects of Macedonia’s pre-eminence. the tide turns in his favour.
Timeline 332 BCE
356 BCE
O Alexander of Macedon O Battle of Charonea O Alexander invades O Battle of Issus
is born Philips’s victory against Persian empire After defeating the
Philip II of Macedon and his Athens, in which Alexander Having spent the winter Persians at Granicus and
queen, Olympias, welcome commands the heavy cavalry making his preparations, capturing Miletus, he takes
the birth of their son. Philip’s that protect the phalanx, Alexander crosses the on for the first time Persian
statesmanship and military ensures the hegemony of Hellespont in the spring King Darius III at Issus,
power eventually give him Greece – which has passed with 30,000 infantry, where he wins a great
control of independent successively from Athens including six regiments of victory. Darius flees from
Greece before he launches to Sparta to Thebes – now the Macedonian phalanx, the field, leaving behind
his Persian crusade. belongs to Macedonia. and 5,000 cavalry. his wife and mother.
356 BCE 338 BCE 334 BCE 333 BCE
38
to go up to Amun because he had heard that

Perseus and Heracles had gone there before him.”
them, although Alexander’s system did little to
disrupt the life of the country. Darius
Writing much later, Arrian claims, “Alexander
longed to equal the fame of Perseus and Heracles;
Traditionally the Egyptian economy had not
been run by coin but by trade in kind, and the
III, King
the blood of both flowed in his veins and just as loss of the Nubian gold mines many years before of Persia,
legend traced their descent from Zeus, so he, too,
had a feeling that in some way he was descended
had deprived the pharaohs of a source of precious
metals. The hiring of soldiers and the raising Pharaoh of
from Amun.”
Modern historians follow a different logic,
of fleets, however, required hard currency and,
even before the arrival of the Persians and then
Egypt
claiming that he set out with envoys from the Greeks, the pharaohs had in recent times When Alexander launched his famous
Cyrene in a bid to secure his western frontier employed a Greek general to raise bullion from conquest of Asia, it was the Persian king
Darius III who would feel the brunt of the
with Libya. His detour added to his those who held it – namely the nobility
Macedonian military might. Darius himself had
legend, however, and Zeus-Amun (the and the priesthood. Alexander enjoyed a notable career as a soldier and was
two gods becoming intertwined) continued this tradition, appointing reputed to have distinguished himself during
battle against a rebellious tribe in central Iran.
was eventually said to have Considered the a special minister, Cleomenes, to
His empire also included Egypt, which came
visited his mother, Olympias, in raise money for the fleet and
order to sire her son.
greatest military mercenary battalions.
into the Persian fold in 343 BCE, courtesy of
Artaxerxes III’s significant defeat of Pharaoh
Leaving the desert and genius of the ancient Revolt in Samaria, far to Nectanebo II.
Alexander’s first victories in Asia came
returning to Memphis, “the world, Alexander did the north, saw Alexander against Darius’ satraps, though the great
new son of Zeus relaxed, giving not lose a single battle leave Egypt, never to return. king took to the field in 333 BCE, fighting
free rein to his generosity and His remarkable ambitions and Alexander at the Battle of Issus. Despite
his sense of myth,” writes Fox.
in 15 years of war talents carried him instead into outnumbering the enemy, Darius’s army
was routed and he left his shield and robe
“Sacrifice was offered to Zeus the further war against Darius and to on the field. Ancient historians claimed that
King, the Greek god whom Alexander his campaigns beyond the Indus. His roughly 110,000 Persians perished compared
believed that he had visited at Siwah in a great victory against the Persian king came to an estimated 300 Macedonians.
Alexander’s victory at Issus threw open the
Libyan form.” He enacted various games and poetry at Gaugamela in 331 BCE. A little over three years road to Syria, whose fall in turn lay Egypt
recitals before setting about the arrangement of his later, Alexander set out on his ill-fated conquest of open to his advance. When his conquest
Egyptian administration. India, which precipitated his death in Babylon in of Asia resumed in 331 BCE, Alexander and
Darius met again at the battle of Gaugamela,
“Alexander was deeply impressed by Egypt,” 323 BCE, aged just 32.
arguably the Macedonian king’s most famous
writes Arrian. “The potential strength of the In Egypt, meanwhile, Cleomenes continued his victory. The ancient historians numbered the
country induced him to divide the control of it duties, overseeing the completion of the mighty Persian troops at 1 million strong – a ridiculous
among a number of officers, as he judged it to be city of Alexandria. Such was the prosperity born figure, though few modern historians would
deny that they greatly outnumbered the
unsafe to put it all in the hands of one man.” In from his position that when Alexander’s successor Greeks who totalled around 47,000 men.
truth, Alexander followed the lead of the Persians in Egypt, Ptolemy, put Cleomenes to death and Darius again fled the battle before its
and the native pharaohs by dividing the country inherited his vast wealth, he is said to have taken conclusion, though his subsequent murder
by his own courtiers deprived Alexander of
into two – Upper and Lower Egypt, it is thought – 8,000 talents. As the Ptolemaic dynasty prospered, his desire to take the king alive. Alexander
with two native ‘nomarchs’ to administer justice Egypt, with Alexandria a shining jewel in its returned his body to Persepolis and ordered
and day-to-day governance. Two Macedonian commercial crown, stood as a land of vast power that he be buried like his predecessors
and potential. Alexander married Darius’ daughter Stateira at
generals, meanwhile, were appointed to oversee
Susa in 324 BCE.
Defining moment Defining moment

The Sogdian Rock O Battle of the Hydaspes Death of Alexander
Crossing the Indus,
327 BCE Alexander takes on the 323 BCE
Alexander pushes on to conquer the far East, taking Hyrcania, Areia, Bactria ruler Porus, who brings While preparing for an Arabian expedition, Alexander falls ill
and Sogdiana. In modern-day Samarkand, in central Asia, he faces a final 200 war elephants into in Babylon and dies in his 32nd year. In 12 years of conquest he
clutch of Sogdian rebels under the leadership of Oxyartes. The significance battle. Alexander’s light- has taken western Asia, though so many of his ambitions remain
here is not the size of the force, but its location in the seemingly impenetrable armed troops attack unfulfilled. In what would stand as a tragedy in the great king’s eyes,
the advancing Indian
natural fortress of the Sogdian Rock. Arrian records how 300 men scale the the unity of his empire crumbles upon his death, broken up between
forces before the phalanx
rock, signalling their success to the troops below by waving bits of linen. advances and drives the a clutch of hard-headed Macedonians. These are capable men and
Alexander sends a herald to tell the defenders that his ‘winged men’ have beasts back upon their many prove practical rulers, but none shares Alexander’s talent or
arrived. The defenders surrender. Alexander then marries Oxyartes’ daughter, own men. vision. Still, Alexander’s legacy prepares the road for the Roman
Roxanne, uniting Europe and Asia. He sets out to conquer India. 326 BCE Empire, and then the Christian world that follows.
323 BCE
O Conquest of Egypt O Battle of Gaugamela O Legend of the Branchidae O The conquest halts O The desert march O Death of Hephaestion
After taking Gaza, the Darius had been granted 18 massacre Hydaspes is a Alexander’s return to While encamped at
great city of the Philistines, months to raise a new army Though widely dismissed as untrue, watershed and the Babylon is tarnished by the Median capital of
Alexander marches after Issus and his mighty this massacre stands as one of the victory accrues many his decision to march Ecbatana, Alexander is
unopposed into Egypt, force opposes Alexander most lurid chapters in the Alexander losses. The army through the Gedrosian shattered by the illness
whose satrap offers a quick at Gaugamela. Alexander’s legend, the conqueror allegedly refuses to go any desert. Many of his and death of his beloved
surrender. Alexander, now skirmishes break the charge slaying a town of innocents in further and Alexander, battle-weary troops friend and soulmate
lord of Egypt, Phoenicia of the Persian scythed revenge for their ancestors’ though almost at the succumb to the heat, Hephaestion. It is said that
and Syria, then marches on chariots and his phalanx and decampment from Greece to Asia ‘world’s end’, is forced energy-sapping dunes Alexander crucifies the
the Persian heartlands. Thessalian cavalry win the day. during the Persian Wars. to return to Babylon. and lack of water. physician who fails him.
332 BCE 331 BCE 327 BCE 326 BCE 325 BCE 324 BCE
39
Technology
Alexandria became the centre of advanced
learning during this period and, as a result,
many scholars and philosophers travelled
to the city to develop theories. Hipparchus
studied in Alexandria’s observatory and
proposed theories on distances between the
Earth, Moon and Sun.
The astronomer
Hipparchus in Education Religion
Alexandria Alexandria boasted a library the Religion was of paramount
likes of which the ancient world had never importance for the Alexandrians. Ptolemy
seen. Its students, however, were only able combined the gods and goddesses of
The library contained to study in Greek. Since Alexandria had Greece with their Egyptian counterparts,
scrolls from around
large Egyptian and Jewish populations, creating new cults and temples of worship.
the world
this often limited access to higher learning The god of the dead, Osiris, became the
to the Greek population. more Greek-looking Serapis.
The art and architecture

of Alexandria was unique
in its mix of Greek and
Egyptian styles
Hellenic soldiers
with their iconic
shields and spears
Government Military
Alexandria was ruled by the Alexandria’s rulers had to
Greek King Ptolemy II who, adopting muster their own forces from the
the customs of Egypt, made himself populace to defend the city. The
pharaoh and dressed in Egyptian styles. army was based around the model of
Egyptians had to worship him as a god, Alexander, with armoured spearmen
but the Greeks were given a higher status forming a phalanx. These men were
Pharaoh King and were not subject to his absolute rule. usually Greek rather than Egyptian.
Ptolemy II
40
Industry
Trade of material and grain
exchanges around the city port helped
build Alexandria into one of the world’s
most important ports. Alexandria
represented one of the main gateways to
vast supplies of food in the Nile Delta that
could be exported abroad.
The Greek god Serapis and

the Egyptian Osiris were both
worshipped in Alexandria
The great fleets of trade, with

Art the Pharos lighthouse safely
guiding them into Alexandria
The art of the city
reflected the taste of the
Greek invader, but the
city catered for different
Alexandria, 250 BCE

minorities, including the
Egyptians. The city was full
of Greek-style busts, but
within the interiors of official
residences, hieroglyphics of
the pharaohs could be found. Experience the vibrant pace and diverse culture of
the ancient world’s most prosperous city, where many
different cultures coexisted
C
osmopolitan, free and prosperous, the ancient columns surrounding a series of temples and vast
city of Alexandria combined the culture meeting places.
and society of two great civilisations – the Egyptian and Jewish influences remained,
Ancient Greeks and Egyptians. creating a unique and diverse port that quickly
The city bears the namesake of its founder, became the centre of the ancient world through its
Alexander the Great, who conquered the Nile trading power and intellectual institutions.
Delta in 332 BCE and founded Alexandria at By the time Ptolemy II ruled the city, Alexandria
the location of a small Egyptian town called was the biggest metropolis in the ancient world,
Rhacotis. As the city became part of the extended its sprawling suburbs and great thoroughfares
Greek Empire, Alexander personally approved surpassing Carthage and Rome in their grandness.
its development and transformation into a great As empires came and went, Alexandria remained
metropolis of culture and learning. Its streets as a golden gateway to the rich and abundant lands
were designed to reflect this reforming zeal, of the Nile, and as an independent city until the fall
© Alamy
with its wide boulevards and Corinthian order of Cleopatra in 30 BCE.
41
RAMESSES II
1303-1213 BCE
Ramesses II, known

as Ramesses the
Brief Great, was one of
Bio the longest-reigning
pharaohs in Egyptian
history. Like other ‘greats’ of
antiquity, he was worshipped
by his people, feared by his
enemies and adored by himself.
This master of bronze-age
propaganda erected countless
stone memorials to cement his
legendary status for the ages.
42
The mighty Ramesses II
The mighty
Ramesses II
A shrewd and far-sighted ruler or a pitiless warlord,
Alexander the Great’s military prowess led him to
conquer the powerful kingdom of Egypt
T
he year was 1274 BCE and a god was on the century of abortive attempts. But as soon as Seti
march. Standing six-feet tall with a square returned victorious to Egypt, the scheming rulers
jutting jaw, thick lips and a long sharp nose, of Kadesh re-pledged their allegiance to the Hittites.
Ramesses II rode his golden chariot ahead Ramesses had returned to Syria to salvage two
of an army of 20,000 archers, charioteers tarnished reputations: his father’s and that of his
and sandalled infantrymen. Only five years into previously great empire.
his reign as pharaoh, he had already established Ramesses and his army had been marching for
himself as a fierce warrior and strategic military a month. They departed from the pharaoh’s royal
commander, the rightful blood heir to the residence along the eastern edge of the lush
newly established 19th Dynasty and a Nile Delta in April, cutting across the
true spiritual son of the goddess Isis After 30 Sinai peninsula, following the curve
herself. Ramesses’ soldiers would of the Mediterranean coastline
have seen their commander-in-
years of rule, up through Canaan, past the
chief as the rest of Egypt did: as Ramesses was strategic highland outpost
a god in the flesh possessed of inducted into a group of Meggido, into the fertile
legendary strength and bravery, of longest serving valleys of Lebanon and finally
incapable of error and on a arriving in the forests outside
divine mission to re-establish
kings. He would rule Kadesh. The pharaoh’s scouts
Egypt as the dominant for another 36 fanned out to assess the enemy’s
superpower of the Middle East. years preparations for battle. The locals
Ramesses’ destination was painted a deceptively favourable
Kadesh, a heavily fortified Syrian city picture. The Hittite king Muwatalli was so
in the Orontes River valley. Kadesh was an afraid of the great Ramesses and his legendary
important centre of trade and commerce and the charioteers that the Hittite army was biding its time
de facto capital of the Amurru kingdom, a highly a hundred miles away.
coveted piece of land sandwiched on the border Ramesses had been living the life of a god for so
between the Egyptian and Hittite empires. As a long that perhaps he believed a little too much in
boy, Ramesses had ridden alongside his father Seti his own divine intimidation. While still an infant,
I, when the elder Egyptian king finally wrested his grandfather helped forge a revolutionary new
Kadesh from the Hittites after more than half a dynasty in Egypt, one based on military might and
43
Nemes
The headdress was a
mainstay throughout most of
Ancient Egypt’s dynasties.
Godlike
image
The various details in
and on the pharaoh’s
royal appearance were
specifically designed
to elevate his status as
More construction was completed in
a god among men.
Ramesses’ reign than any other pharaoh
absolute royal authority. Ramesses’ Now he was no longer a boy watching such
grandfather was born Paramessu, a campaigns but a man – a god – leading them. He
Sceptre foot soldier who had worked his way was an hour’s march from Kadesh and heartened
In Egyptian society up to general in the Egyptian army. He to hear his enemies were rightfully trembling at
the sceptre was a found favour with Horemheb, another his godly might. Ramesses ordered his troops to
sign of leadership. lifelong military man who had become make camp. The royal tents were raised, the horses
pharaoh after the untimely death of the watered at a gentle tributary of the Orontes, and
teenage king, Tutankhamun. Horemheb, the soldiers circled the chariots as a half-hearted
who had no sons of his own, saw a barricade against the unlikely possibility of attack.
disciple in Paramessu, someone who In reality, an attack was not only likely, it was
would carry on his aggressive campaign imminent. It turned out the locals rounded up by
of brutal subjugation of rebellious tribes the Egyptian scouts were planted by the Hittites.
in Nubia, Libya and distant Syria in the King Muwatalli and his large force of Hittite
name of strengthening the kingdom. charioteers, archers and infantrymen were camped
When Horemheb died, Paramessu on the far side of Kadesh, hidden from view in the
Anatomy ascended the throne and changed his

name to ‘Ramessu beloved of Amun,’ the
river valley. Luckily for Ramesses, a second wave of
Egyptian scouts captured a pair of Hittite spies and
of the Great man history knows as Ramesses I.

From birth, Ramesses II was groomed to
beat the truth out of them. Muwatalli was planning
an ambush. The target wasn’t Ramesses’ camp, but
Pharaoh be pharaoh. His father Seti I inherited the

throne 18 months after Ramesses I became
the legions of unsuspecting Egyptian infantrymen
still marching. Ramesses dispatched his speediest
king and his son was raised in the lavish messengers to warn the approaching troops, but
royal palaces of the pharaohs, waited upon by it was too late. Thousands of Hittite charioteers
nurses and handmaids and trained by tutors descended upon the unprotected infantry. The
in writing, poetry, art and, most importantly, Hittites rode three to a chariot: one driver, one
combat. Seti named Ramesses the archer and one spear-wielding warrior to cut down
commander-in-chief of the army when the boy foot soldiers at close range. They wore ankle-length
prince was only ten years old. At 14, Ramesses chain-mail armour, while the Egyptian infantry
began to accompany his father on military were naked to the curved blades of the Hittite
campaigns and witnessed the overwhelming scimitars. The heavy chariots ploughed through
power of the Egyptian charioteers in combat on the ranks, littering the hillside with corpses and
more than one occasion. sending the survivors fleeing for Ramesses’ camp.
44
What happened next says more about Ramesses

II than perhaps any other event in his long reign as
pharaoh. The Hittite forces pursued the decimated
Wives and offspring
Egyptian army all the way to Ramesses’ camp, A pharaoh is expected to provide lesser wives and untold numbers of bloodline. He gave his male heirs
suitable heirs to the throne, and concubines. He is believed to have high-ranking administrative posts
crashing easily through the porous Egyptian Ramesses the Great approached fathered an estimated 80 sons and and trained each of his first 12 sons
defences and battling their way toward the royal this royal task with particular gusto. 60 daughters, an impressive and as possible successors, but none of
tents themselves. Then, according to a first-hand During the first ten years of his father somewhat excessive number, even them managed to outlive Ramesses.
Seti I’s reign as pharaoh, a teenage by pharaoh standards. Ramesses The thirteenth son, Merenptah,
account known as the Poem of Pentaur, Ramesses Ramesses sired ten sons and at least had good reason for spreading his assumed the throne around 1214
emerged from his tent and single-handedly faced as many daughters. Over the course seed. Although he was born into BCE, but despite Ramesses’ best
down the enemy hordes: “Then His Majesty of his long lifetime, Ramesses had six a common family, Ramesses was efforts, the Ramessid Dynasty
to eight principal wives, dozens of intent on reinstating a pure dynastic withered away in only 150 years.
appeared in glory like his father Mont, he assumed
the accoutrements of battle, and girded himself
with his corslet, he was like Ba’al in his hour.” entire Hittite army? Hardly. Ramesses the Great, image, they would have no choice but to believe
This was the moment that saw the birth of most Egyptologists now believe, deserves his title the statue’s unspoken message: here stands your
Ramesses the Great. The pharaoh took to his not for his heroics on the battlefield or his potency king, your ruler, your god. What’s more, Ramesses
chariot and sliced through the Hittite ranks, cutting as a patriarch – he allegedly fathered well over 100 ruled as pharaoh for a staggering 66 years. His
down the foe with his bow while rallying his children – but for his flair for propaganda. Ramesses reign spanned several lifetimes for the average
troops to battle. The image of Ramesses on his was, quite literally, the greatest image-maker of Egyptian, reinforcing the idea that his rule really
golden chariot — his bow drawn back in deadly antiquity. Those visiting the ruins of the great was eternal. The sheer length of his reign largely
fury, his wheels rolling over the crushed bodies Egyptian temples today are sure to find themselves accounts for the grand scale of his construction
of his enemies — is carved into the walls of more in awe of a seated stone statue of Ramesses II projects and the ubiquity of his image. The ancient
Egyptian temples than any other story in the guarding the gate, or a series of identical Ramesses pharaoh Khufu was only king for 23 years and
empire’s 3,000-year history. If you believe the sculptures supporting interior pillars. To everyday he built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Imagine what
Poem of Pentaur, which adorns the walls of temples citizens staring up at his colossal and unblemished Ramesses was able to accomplish in 66.
at Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel and more, then King
Muwatalli was so cowed by Ramesses’
superhuman strength that he immediately
petitioned for surrender.
“The heavy chariots ploughed
But is that really how the Battle of Kadesh went
down? Do historians believe the account of the
through the Egyptian ranks,
Poem of Pentaur, that a single man defeated an littering the hillside with corpses”
Ramesses’ favourite wife Nefertari,
depicted in her royal chariot
45
To understand the impressive scope of Ramesses’ temples, ten square kilometres (four square miles) and the Asiatic empires beyond. Foreign diplomats,
architectural vision, we only have to look to the of towering columns, expansive courtyards and traders and migrant labourers arrived at the newly
royal city that bore his name, Per-Ramesses, or stairways encrusted with multicoloured tile work. built capital in droves. In addition to the traditional
Piramesse. Located 120 kilometres (75 miles) from The empire’s wealthiest families, government Egyptian temples built to Seth and Amun, there
modern-day Cairo, Piramesse began as a humble officials and high priests lived in surrounding villas were foreign cults dedicated to Ba’al, Anat and the
summer palace built by Ramesses’ father Seti I connected by canals and lush water gardens. Syrian goddess Astarte, whom the pharaoh adopted
near the family’s ancestral home on the eastern The farmland encircling the city was some of the as the patron deity of his chariot horses. Piramesse
edge of the Nile Delta. Over the course of 18 years most fertile and productive in the region, supplying may have been the ‘Ramsses’ of the Old Testament,
of construction and expansion, Piramesse became Piramesse with ample grain, fruits and vegetables where Hebrew slaves were put to work on the
the third-largest religious centre of Egypt — next to feed its 30,000 citizens and fill the pharaoh’s pharaoh’s great storehouses. Whether Ramesses
to Memphis and Thebes — and the political capital ample storehouses. Piramesse was also a himself was indeed the wicked pharaoh of The
of the entire empire. Very little of Piramesse’s striking, cosmopolitan capital. Ramesses Ten Commandments is another matter.
grandeur remains today, but first-hand accounts likely chose the city’s location for its Importantly, the pharaohs of
describe a city of incomparable beauty and wealth. proximity to the fortress at Sile, the Under Ancient Egypt were more than
The Royal Quarter sat on a hill overlooking the traditional gateway to the eastern Ramesses, the mere figureheads: they served
Nile. Streets lined with royal residences and provinces of Palestine, Syria multiple roles as religious leaders,
Ancient Egyptian military generals and political
army soared in rulers. The pharaoh’s ultimate
numbers to reach a responsibility was to lead the
empire toward ma’at, the ideal
force of around state of cosmic harmony, justice,
100,000 order and peace. The Egyptians
were skilled astronomers and charted
the orderly and predictable movements
of celestial bodies, each connected with a god
or goddess. The goal of individual human beings
and Egyptian society as a whole was to reflect
the divine harmony of the heavens on Earth. The
pharaoh, through his legal, religious and military
roles, exerted the greatest influence of all.
In that sense, Ramesses was indeed a great
pharaoh. The Egyptian empire enjoyed a prolonged
period of stability and ma’at under his watch. For
all of his posturing as a superhuman warrior who
crushed his enemies by the hundreds of thousands,
Ramesses was in fact a savvy military and political
strategist. The historically dubious Poem of Pentaur
is not the only document of Ramesses’ greatness.
Hanging in the hallways of the United Nations
building in New York City is a clay replica of the
world’s first peace treaty, signed in 1269 BCE by
The interior of the temple at Abu Simbel
the Hittite King Hattusillis III and Egypt’s very
His glorious rule

O Born into greatness O C
hild-in-chief O C
o-regent O Crowned king O’Victory’ at Kadesh Everlasting king O
Ramesses II didn’t come from At only ten years Ramesses was officially At the death of Seti Both the Hittites and the Egyptians laid claim to the Ramesses outlived his 12 oldest
royal blood – his grandfather old, Ramesses named co-ruler of Egypt I, Ramesses had Kingdom of Amurru, located on the borderlands between sons, reigning until the
Ramesses I was a military was appointed as in Seti’s eighth year as firmly established these two superpowers in the 13th century BCE. The conflict extraordinary age of 96. His
hero who won the favour of commander-in-chief of pharaoh. Around this time, himself as a capable came to a head in the historic Battle of Kadesh, one of the mummy shows signs of severe
the heirless Horemheb – but the army. Four years Ramesses and his two young military leader and largest and best-documented military clashes in antiquity. and degenerative arthritis and
his birth coincided with later, he accompanied sons led military campaigns the rightful heir Both sides claimed victory, but Ramesses was the better a wicked case of smallpox,
Egypt’s rise to increased Seti on several military to quash rebellions in Nubia, to the Ramessid propagandist, inscribing his Poem of Pentaur – “he is braver suggesting his last years were
military and political power. campaigns in Libya including an impressive throne. Thus began than hundreds of thousands combined… not speaking somewhat less than comfortable.
1303 BCE and Palestine. chariot raid. his six-decade reign. boastfully” – on the walls of five major Egyptian temples. 1213 BCE
1299 BCE 1283 BCE 1279 BCE 1274 BCE
1303 BCE 1249 BCE
O The boy who would be king O M

arriage to Nefertari O Construction boom O Deification
Ramesses II was a young boy when his father Seti I Nefertari was the first and best-known wife of After Kadesh, Ramesses Ramesses celebrated his first Sed or jubilee festival
became pharaoh. Inside Seti I’s impressive temple Ramesses the Great. He married her while still enjoyed a period of relative in the 30th year of his reign when he was approximately
at Abdju, a colourful wall relief depicts the young a prince and she bore him four children before peace, during which he 60 years old. The ancient ceremony dates back to the
Prince Ramesses holding a scroll upon which is he ascended to the throne. Nefertari was from restored or constructed earliest pharaohs and was meant to renew the king’s
written an unbroken royal lineage dating back to a prominent Egyptian family, the daughter of a new temples at Thebes, authority and rejuvenate him physically and spiritually.
Menes, the first pharaoh who united Upper and Lower high official and the sister of the mayor of Thebes. Memphis, Karnak and Ramesses celebrated 13 seds, each one elevating his
Egypt into a single kingdom. Egyptologists argue Ramesses’ adoration of Nefertari is recorded in Abu Simbel. Next to the spiritual status higher and higher. In a world-view that
that Ramesses was likely only one of several possible the statuary at the small temple at Abu Simbel pyramid makers, he’s the already considered pharaohs to be born of the gods,
successors to the throne, but the official history claims and in works of elegiac poetry to his beloved most influential builder in Ramesses likely attained full deification in the eyes of
it as his sole birthright. first companion. Egyptian antiquity. his people while still on Earth.
1300 BCE 1293 BCE 1275 BCE 1249 BCE
46
Egyptian
Battle of Hittite army army division
Hittite manoeuvre
Kadesh Egyptian manoeuvre
04 Reinforcements 01 Ramesses on
Egyptian military strategists had foreseen the the march
threat of an ambush and shipped a chariot Ramesses led a massive
division to Kadesh by sea. The reinforcements Egyptian force, but Hittite spies
send Muwatalli’s forces retreating across the tricked him into thinking the
Odontes River. Hittite chariots were hundreds
Ramesses’
Egyptian camp of kilometres away.
reinforcements
Amun
05 Fruitless
bloodshed
The next day, the forces
faced off for the battle
that would decide
supremacy. But both
03 Ramesses’ sides had sustained so
many casualties the day
stand before that neither had
The Battle of Kadesh The Hittite chariots
Kadesh anything left and, after
crashed through the
Battle chariots was history’s largest
chariot battle
The Egyptians and Hittites adopted the horse-driven chariot from

half-prepared defences
of Ramesses’ camp and Ra
fruitless bloodshed, a
ceasefire was called.
charged toward the
the Asiatic steppe cultures. Horses weren’t mounted in battle but royal tents. According 02 Surprise attack
strapped to rolling platforms holding a driver and one or more to Ramesses’ account, Ptah Muwatalli and a battalion of 2,500 Hittite chariots
warriors. Speedy chariots could dash in and out of battle, attacking he was able to fight were waiting in the forests on the other side of
with a combination of arrows and close-range javelins and spears. The
off the Hittite hordes Seth Kadesh. The Egyptian divisions were miles from
Hittites were famed charioteers, charging en masse with thousands of
single-handedly. camp when they were broadsided by a charge of
chariots carrying chain-mailed warriors. Egyptian chariots were lighter,
Others credit his elite Hittite charioteers. The Egyptians fled with the
the frames made of wood wrapped in stretched canvas, and the floor
made from leather netting. corps of bodyguards. Hittites hot on their heels.
of the Egyptian armed forces. The capital city

“They may have lost an enemy in was more than a showcase for the prosperity of
the empire. It also housed the pharaoh’s largest
the Hittites, but there were plenty of armoury, a massive bronze-smelting factory whose
blast furnace provided the swords, spears and
aggressors itching to take their place” arrowheads for Egypt’s army. Shortly after the
peace treaty was signed, Ramesses imported Hittite
own Ramesses II. But was this the peace treaty the of Hittite diplomats. The new King Hattusillis had craftsmen to instruct the armoury workers in the
Hittites begged Ramesses to sign after his brutal more to worry about than an Egyptian pharaoh secrets behind their impervious Hittite shields.
show of strength during the Battle of Kadesh? Not with an old vendetta. The Assyrians to the east had The Egyptians may have lost an enemy in the
at all. The true outcome of the Battle of Kadesh amassed wealth and political might that threatened Hittites, but there were plenty of aggressors itching
was a blood-soaked stalemate. Ramesses was saved to crush any single empire that stood in its way. to take their place. Until the very end of his reign,
from the Hittite chariot ambush by the arrival of But together, Hattusillis proposed, the Hittites and Ramesses vigilantly defended Egypt’s borders
reinforcements from the sea. The Egyptians Egyptians could defend their sovereignty. against threats from Libyan tribal leaders, Assyrian
pushed the Hittites back across the The peace treaty hanging in the UN is raiders and more. Ramesses’ power was about
Orontes, but both sides lost so many Ramesses’ a testament to Ramesses’ long-term much more than military might, though; he was
men in the slaughter that both political vision. He could easily a god among men. To understand his significance
mummy shows
kings lost their appetite for the have viewed Hattusillis’ offer as a as a religious leader, it is important to understand
main event. Ramesses returned he was short of sign of weakness and attempted how the Ancient Egyptians viewed the universe.
to his native Egypt with stature at 5ft7 (170cm), to rout the Hittites once and From its earliest beginnings, Ancient Egyptian
nothing to show for a months- had a hooked nose and for all. Instead, he saw an religious worship centred on a deeply held belief in
long military campaign. opportunity to drop a centuries- the afterlife. In fact, the concept of ma’at originated
A decade later, and the
had incurred many old feud that cost Egyptian lives with the ostrich-winged goddess Ma’at who ‘weighs’
pharaoh once again looked to wounds and and resources and engaged in an the hearts of the deceased to determine their
prove his power by driving his fractures unprecedented act of diplomacy worth. The dozens of other gods and goddesses
forces to the north to test the strength that would bring peace and stability in the Egyptian pantheon – Ra, Osiris, Amun, Isis,
of Amurru and Kadesh. This time, the to the kingdom for generations to come. To Seth and many more – each played a role within a
Hittite King Muwatalli was dead and the Hittite seal the newly brokered relationship between the complex mythology of creation, death and rebirth.
empire was in the throes of a succession crisis. Hittites and Egyptians, Ramesses accepted one of To the average Egyptian citizen in Ramesses’ time,
Ramesses easily took the city and claimed Amurru Hattusillis’ daughters as his seventh principal wife. the gods were responsible for the orderly function
for Egypt. Expecting a full-scale reprisal by the Back in Piramesse, the royal capital, the new of the universe and offered personal protection
Hittites, Ramesses was instead greeted by a cadre Hittite allies proved invaluable to the strengthening and guidance on the mysterious journey from life
47
to the afterlife. Egyptians expressed their gratitude

and devotion to the gods through the celebration of
seasonal festivals and by bringing offerings to the
gods’ temples.
The pharaoh, of course, was not your average
Egyptian. The royal cult was deserving of its own
worship. Ramesses was the intermediary between
the divine and the human. While living, pharaohs
were the sons of Ra, the powerful Sun god. In the
afterlife, pharaohs are the offspring of Osiris. In
a competing cosmology, pharaohs are the living
incarnation of Horus, the son of Isis. In any case,
the implications are clear. The pharaoh is the
earthly link to an unbroken line of divine authority,
stretching from the very creation of the universe
itself to the eternities of the afterlife.
The government of Ancient Egypt was a
theocracy with the pharaoh as absolute monarch.
But that doesn’t mean that Ramesses personally
oversaw each and every aspect of Egyptian civil
life. His chief political officers were two viziers, one
each for Upper and Lower Egypt. Serving as chief
justices of the Egyptian courts, viziers conducted
the tasks of collecting taxes, managing the grain
reserves, settling territorial disputes and keeping
careful records of rainfall and the Nile’s water levels.
Treasurers managed the finances of ‘church’ and
state, as well as running the stone quarries that
built national shrines. If an average Egyptian had
a grievance, he would take it up with the local
governors in charge of each of Egypt’s 42 nomes – The warrior pharaoh
or states. Governors reported to the viziers, who met From the moment Ramesses’ father became pharaoh, succession crisis, Ramesses marched north and retook
daily with the pharaoh for counsel. the young prince was groomed as an aggressive the disputed Amurru kingdom. In the past, this would
military leader, trained in chariotry and archery, the have provoked all-out war, but both sides had grown
During his long life, Ramesses renovated or two deadliest weapons of antiquity. Even before concerned over the rise of the Assyrians to the east.
constructed more temples than any pharaoh in all he was crowned pharaoh, a 22-year-old Ramesses The result was a pact with the Hittites that bolstered
30 Ancient Egyptian dynasties. He also placed his was already leading the Egyptian army on his own. the borders of both empires. Near the end of his life,
Ramesses strengthened Egypt’s empire by personally Ramesses built a series of strategic fortifications on
figure prominently inside each and every one of
crushing rebellions in Galilee and the port city of the western flank of the Nile Delta to defend against
them, often on equal footing with the gods. At first, Akko near the modern-day border between Israel the rising threat of the Libyans, whose would later be
this appears to be an unparalleled act of hubris. and Lebanon. While the Hittites were embroiled in a crushed by Ramesses’ son Merenptah.
But seen through the lens of the Egyptian religious
mind, this spiritual self-promotion starts to make shadow. In the darkened interiors of temples, statues of Ramesses – each more than 21 metres
sense. If the highest goal of Egyptian civilisation is however, artists used the more time-consuming (70 feet) tall – guard the entryway to the grand
to achieve ma’at or divine harmony, then you need bas-relief method, in which drawings and symbols temple. Inside of it, each wall bares some reference
a supreme leader whose very will is in absolute are raised relative to the background. In the interest to the great pharaoh Ramesses. Every pillar in the
harmony with the gods. Through his numerous of time, Ramesses ordered all of his temples to be great hall is carved with Ramesses in the form
construction projects, Ramesses proved his devotion etched in incise relief inside and out. That’s one of Osiris. Wall reliefs recount Ramesses’ heroic
to the gods while also nurturing his own thriving reason why Ramesses built more temples than any military exploits. And deep in the Holy of Holies
cult of personality. king before or since. sit the three most revered creator gods of the
Ramesses built some truly refined and subtle Critics of Ramesses’ theatrical and self- Egyptian pantheon – Ptah, Amun and Ra – next to
temples, especially his small addition to his father congratulatory construction style have irrefutable the deified image of Ramesses himself.
Seti I’s monumental temple complex at Abydos. evidence in the two temples at Abu Simbel. Both In his day, Ramesses was arguably the most
But refined and subtle was not in his nature. For structures are carved directly into the living rock on powerful man to walk the Earth. He was the
starters, he liked to do things quickly. In traditional a sheer cliff overlooking a switchback curve in the divinely ordained ruler of a thriving and cohesive
temple construction, all decorative motifs on the Nubian Nile. Ramesses dropped all pretence of piety civilisation that was centuries ahead of its time.
outside of a temple were hewn using incised relief, with the construction of the larger temple at Abu As pharaoh of Egypt, he over-achieved in every
in which images and hieroglyphs are carved into Simbel, which is appropriately called the Temple category: crushing foreign enemies in battle,
the stone to accentuate the contrast of sun and of Ramesses-beloved-of-Amun. Four monumental maintaining domestic order within his kingdom,
building massive monuments to the gods
© Alamy; Thinkstock; Look and Learn
“The highest goal of Egyptian throughout Egypt and preserving his own glorious
legacy until his death.
civilisation is to achieve ma’at, which is As long as his stoic stone visage crowns the
ruins of his magnificent kingdom, the greatness
of Ramesses will continue to echo loudly through
divine harmony” the ages.
48
Ramesses’ greatest
constructions
Abu Simbel
1264 or 1244 BCE
These two temples along the banks of the Nile are outsized
paeans to Ramesses and Nefertari. Both temples are carved
into a sheer rock face. The smaller features two 12m (40ft)
statues of Nefertari flanked by four even larger colossi of
Ramesses. Standing guard outside the big temple are four
goliath seated statues of Ramesses, each nearly 21m (70ft)
tall. Deep inside the larger temple – which places Ramesses
II on equal footing with the gods – a ray of sunlight pierces
twice a year: once on Ramesses’ birthday.
Per-Ramesses
(or Piramesse)
1280 BCE
Ramesses II built this sprawling
complex along the northeastern Nile
Delta as the royal seat of the Ramessid
Dynasty. The site originally held a
modest summer palace constructed
by Ramesses’ father, Seti I, but the
great pharaoh gave it the supersize
treatment, adding more than 10km2
(4mi2) of mansions, social halls,
military barracks and an enormous,
opulently tiled throne room, which
was fittingly dedicated to the great
pharaoh, Ramesses himself.
Ramesseum
1270 BCE
This immense structure near Thebes
was Ramesses’ official memorial
temple. Nearly every wall of the
285km2 (11mi2) temple complex is
scrawled with eulogies to his military
victories, particularly the exaggerated
depiction of his routing of the Hittites.
In antiquity, dozens of imposing
statues of Ramesses adorned each
pillar. Today, the largest stone
colossus lies broken on the ground.
It is the inspiration for the English
romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley’s
famous poem, Ozymandias.
Great Hall
1290-1224 BCE
Ramesses II completed the Great
Hypostyle Hall at the Temple
at Karnak during his reign, with
decorations celebrating his power,
much like everything else he had
built. This 5,500m2 (60,000ft2)
monument, which is comprised of
“The pharaohs served
16 rows and 134 columns – most of
these columns are actually over 15m
(50ft) in height. Later pharaohs would
multiple roles as religious
add their own decorations. The Great
Hall is considered one of the greatest
feats of building ever achieved in the
leaders, military generals
ancient world.
and political rulers”
49
Nefertiti:
Behind the
beauty
The chiselled features and perfect proportions of
her limestone bust is recognised the world over.
But who was the woman behind the masterpiece?
O
n 6 December 1912, an Egyptian workman virtually wiped from Egypt’s historical records,
digging along the banks of the River Nile their faces chiselled away from stone reliefs, their
unearthed one of the most precious treasures names scratched out from inscriptions. To add to
in the history of Egyptology. The man was the mystery, all references to Nefertiti vanished
one of many working on the excavation completely in about the 12th year of Akhenaten’s
of an ancient sculptor’s workshop, a dig overseen reign, with no mention of her made thereafter. What
by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt. As had they done to instil such hatred in their people?
he felt the knowing jolt of his pick against hard And why did Nefertiti suddenly disappear? It is only
stone, he brushed away the earth to reveal now, more than 3,000 years after their deaths,
the distinctive colours of ancient that the answers are being discovered.
paintwork, and immediately called The truth about Nefertiti’s parentage
for his superior. Borchardt recalls: is uncertain, but it is likely she was
“The tools were put aside and Following their born outside of the royal family:
the hands were now used,” reign, Nefertiti and possibly the daughter of a court
revealing the slender neck of a vizier, or a Mittani princess sent to
limestone bust buried upside her husband were unite two kingdoms. What we do
down in the dirt. Digging wiped from Egypt’s know is that her face was one of
deeper, they revealed a pair historical records timeless beauty – her name means
of full, red lips; a dramatic, ‘the beautiful one has come’ – and
sloping nose; almond eyes; and she would have been a desirable
dark, arching eyebrows. Finally, they match for the young Egyptian prince,
uncovered a huge cylindrical crown, then known as Amenhotep. The pair were
one that had only been seen before in the few married in their mid-teens, had their first child
existing hieroglyphic depictions of one Ancient shortly after, and ascended the throne around 1351
Egyptian: Queen Nefertiti. BCE. What is known of their early reign is sketchy,
Since its discovery, the bust has become one but archaeologists have deduced that throughout
of the most visited and most iconic artefacts the 18th Dynasty, a cult of the god Amun had grown
of the ancient kingdom. Yet it remains one of incredibly powerful, so much so that by the time
the most elusive. Following their reign, Nefertiti Amenhotep was crowned, the cult’s priests were
and her husband, the pharaoh Akhenaten, were almost as powerful as the pharaoh himself.
50
Nefertiti: Behind the beauty
“Nefertiti was
virtually wiped
from Egypt’s
NEFERTITI historical
records”
c. 1370-1330 BCE
Along with Cleopatra,

Nefertiti has reached
Brief iconic status as a
Bio ‘Queen’ of Ancient
Egypt. Nefertiti
and her pharaoh husband
Akhenaten became embroiled
in a religious revolution in
which they only worshipped
Aten, bringing upheaval to the
realm. It’s thought that Nefertiti
ruled as Neferneferuaten after
Akhenaten’s death, but no one
knows for sure.
51
But in the fifth year of Amenhotep’s reign, prominent chest. Scenes depicting the royal family
Egypt’s female something extraordinary happened. The pharaoh became more intimate, showing the couple kissing
pharaohs changed his name to Akhenaten, plundered and

closed down the temples and threw the priests out
and bouncing their children on their knees. But
what is perhaps most extraordinary about the art of
of office. After thousands of years of polytheism, he Amarna is the way Queen Nefertiti was portrayed.
Most of the ancient rulers were
and Nefertiti declared that there was now only one Reliefs and statues show Nefertiti chariot-racing,
men, but a few women became
true god: Aten, the sun-disc. And the only way to smiting enemies and even leading worship – roles
the empire’s most powerful
reach this god was through the pharaoh that before had always been reserved for
individuals
himself. Akhenaten then led a mass the pharaoh. During the first five
Sobekneferu exodus from the ancient capital of After years of their reign, she appeared
Sobekneferu was the Thebes and set about building millennia of in reliefs almost twice as often as
first female pharaoh. a new city in the middle of her husband, and is often shown
When her brother polytheism, they
the desert, which he called as being of equal size to him,
died without leaving a
‘Amarna’. This was to be the declared that there suggesting that Nefertiti was far
male heir, Sobekneferu
ascended the throne. new centre of the Ancient was one god, Aten, and more powerful than the wives
Very little else is known Egyptian empire. The city was the only way to reach of the pharaohs before her.
about her, but some surrounded on three sides by However, it wasn’t long before
believe that she is the Egyptian princess inhospitable cliffs – a natural
Him was through this period of rich culture and
who rescued Moses from the reeds. defence against enemies of the the pharaoh peace came to an abrupt end.
crown. The young pharaoh knew that Akhenaten had exhausted nearly all of
Nitocris his actions had not been popular, and the his resources in building his new city and
The Greek historian
Heroditus listed Nitocris
rumblings of unrest could be felt across the nation was on the brink of bankruptcy. Large
as the last pharaoh the kingdom. parts of the Egyptian empire had fallen under the
of the Sixth Dynasty. With this religious revolution also came a control of the expanding Hittite kingdom, after
She is believed to have cultural one. Egyptian art, which before had the pharaoh had refused to listen to the advice of
killed her brother’s been stiff and formal, became much more his generals to send military enforcements to the
murderers by inviting naturalistic. Depictions of Akhenaten took on a far north. Not only was there an economic crisis, but
them to a banquet in an
more feminine shape, with rounded hips and a the spiritual crisis that had been bubbling beneath
underground chamber and flooding the
room with water from the Nile.
It is likely that Nefertiti led
Hatshepsut worship, indicating that she
held significant power
Hatshepsut is considered
one of Egypt’s most
successful pharaohs.
She established several
important trade routes,
which led to a huge
growth in the nation’s
wealth and also commissioned hundreds of
building projects.
Twosret
This woman came to the
throne after her young
stepson, with whom she
was co-regent, died. She
ruled during a turbulent
time and it is likely that she
was overthrown during a civil war.
Cleopatra
Perhaps the most
A sculpture
famous female pharaoh portraying Nefertiti
in Egypt’s history, and Akhenaten
Cleopatra is infamous
for her liaisons with
several important
Roman politicians, and
is believed to have committed suicide after The ruins of Amarna as
Mark Antony’s death. seen today, surrounded
by inhospitable cliffs
Queen Nefertiti depicted in

an Amarna-era relief
52
Nefertiti: the first woman to

be airbrushed?
CT scans of the famous bust have revealed that prominent cheekbones, a slight bump on the ridge
Nefertiti may not have been as beautiful as was of the nose and even wrinkles around the mouth
first believed. Scientists have been able to analyse and cheeks. Just like modern airbrushing, it is likely
the layers of stucco below the outer one and that the queen’s sculpture was altered to adhere to
have discovered that the original model had less contemporary ideas of beauty. A limestone relief depicting Nefertiti
making offerings to the sun god, Aten
the surface was ready to explode. The pharaoh’s These are questions that we will likely never Amarna was abandoned and fell into ruin,
new religion had destroyed all the ancient know the answer to, as in the years following the old gods were brought back from the dead
traditions that the Egyptians held so dear, and his death, nearly all evidence of Akhenaten’s and the priests of Amun were reinstated. But
very few were prepared to let go of their trusted reign was destroyed by the people he had so there remained one remnant of the old religion,
and much-loved gods. Revolts broke out across deeply wounded. Deemed a heretic, his name one that couldn’t be destroyed with a hammer
the nation, spurred on by the bitter priests and was scratched from the walls of the temples and or chisel. The remnant was the boy’s name.
military officials who were desperate to take back depictions of the beautiful Nefertiti mutilated with Just like his father and stepmother before him,
the powers that had been so ruthlessly stolen chisels. But Akhenaten’s legacy lived on in the Tutankhaten gave himself a new name, a name
from them. By the time of his death around 1334 form of a son, the identity of whose mother is still that would honour the glory of Amun and the
BCE, Akhenaten’s country was a broken one. contested. The boy named Tutankhaten, meaning gods that his people loved so dearly. It was one
It is unlikely that these revolts came as a ‘the living image of Aten’, and he succeeded to the that thousands of years later would be pasted
surprise, but what the Egyptians could never throne when he was about nine years old. Despite across newsstands and history books, and known
have predicted was the disappearance of Nefertiti his tender age, he immediately set about reversing to people in every corner of the globe. That name
in the 12th year of her husband’s reign. Whereas the changes made during his father’s reign. was Tutankhamun.
before her face had adorned the walls of temples
and palaces, from the year 1339 BCE, all records Images of the royal family
and depictions of her stopped being made. What were more intimate then
ever seen before
had happened to the queen – the woman the
pharaoh seemed to worship? Some historians
believe that she fell out of favour, perhaps because
she was unable to bear Akhenaten the son he
so desperately wanted. Others believe she died,
a victim, perhaps, of the flu epidemic that was
plaguing the country, or even at the hands of a
jealous member of Akhenaten’s harem.
But one piece of art, known as the Coregency
Stela, suggests that Nefertiti didn’t disappear,
rather that she became someone else. In the
piece, Nefertiti and Akhenaten are depicted with
one of their daughters, but Nefertiti’s name has
been chiselled out and replaced with a different
one – ‘Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten’. This was
the name of Akenhaten’s co-regent, who was
crowned around the same time that Nefertiti’s
name disappeared from history. Could Nefertiti
have taken on a new name and become her
husband’s co-regent? And if so, could this explain
the identity of the mysterious pharaoh who came
to power after the death of Akhenaten?
53
The search for Nefertiti

Discovered in 1898, could the female mummy of tomb KV35 belong to the
famous Egyptian queen?
S
ince the discovery of Nefertiti’s bust, court, and particularly by Nefertiti. The wig had been would have been a punishment worse than death.
archaeologists have scoured the Egyptian discovered in tomb KV35 – the resting place of the By destroying the mummy’s mouth, the spirit
desert in search of her resting place. Although 18th Dynasty pharaoh, Amenhotep II. Intrigued as of the dead would be unable to speak its name
no formal identification has been made, one to the ownership of the wig, Joann requested for the at the doors of the afterlife, condemning it to an
Egyptologist believes she has found Nefertiti’s sealed chamber to be re-opened. eternity of damnation. The mummy’s right arm
mummy in the tomb of Amenhotep II, the great What she discovered within the room was curious had also been broken off, and what appeared to
grandfather of Akhenaten. to say the least. The only mummy to whom the be its detached and outstretched limb was placed
The mummy, known as ‘The Younger Lady’, wig could viably belong was that of The Younger beside it. But closer inspection revealed that this
was discovered buried alongside Queen Tiye, Lady, whose head had been shaved. This lack of hair bodiless arm belonged to someone else entirely – it
Akhenaten’s mother, and a young boy, possibly his emphasised a remarkably long neck – one all too had been mummified in a different way and the
brother, back in 1898. The discoverer, Victor Loret, familiar to an Egyptologist who had dedicated years measurements did not match those of The Younger
originally believed the mummy to the study of Egypt’s Amarna Lady. In what was to become an astonishing
to be male, but a closer inspection period. Further inspections led to discovery, another arm was found hidden beneath
by anatomist Dr Grafton Elliot the conclusion that this mummy the wrappings of Queen Tiye’s mummy. Unlike
Smith Tests concluded that it was was indeed a woman, and one the first arm, this arm was bent at the elbow and
a woman. The room containing the who had died in her twenties or its hand was clasped, indicating that it had been
mummies was then sealed, and thirties – an age that, should she holding a sceptre, the sign of a pharaoh. It fit the
had been all but forgotten until have survived her husband as the Younger Lady perfectly. Whoever had broken off
1993, when Egyptologist Joann evidence has suggested, would fit this arm had clearly wanted to destroy all evidence
Fletcher stumbled across one that of Nefertiti. of this woman’s power, and Nefertiti’s heresy would
unlikely piece of evidence. But what was perhaps most have been an understandable motivation for the
Joann, who at the time was intriguing about The Younger desecration of a grave.
completing a PhD in Ancient Lady was the damage that had The claim that The Younger Lady is indeed
Egyptian hair, came across a wig been inflicted upon the mummy Nefertiti is one that has been met with strong
in the Cairo Museum that was in A wall painting showing shortly after its burial. The lower contention, and is a claim that may never be
the Nubian style – a style favoured Akhenaten and Nefertiti with half of the mummy’s face was resolved. But it’s hard to deny that the evidence all
their young family
by royal women in Akhenaten’s violently smashed in, which points to one very clear conclusion.
Inside the burial
VALLEY OF THE KINGS chamber of tomb KV35
Tomb KV35
RAMESSES II
TOMB OF TUT’S
SUCCESSOR, AY
KING TUT’S TOMB YUYA AND TJUYU
TOMB OF HOREMHEB SONS OF RAMESSES II
RAMESSES IX
AMENHOTEP II’S TOMB,
WHERE THE YOUNGER
LADY IS BURIED TUTANKHAMUN’S HATSHEPSUT AND
TOMB THUTMOSE I
SETI I
THUTMOSE IV
SETI II
THUTMOSE III
54
Clues to the mystery Joann Fletcher

examining the mummy
of The Younger Lady
The physical evidence from The Younger
Lady all point to the same conclusion…
Arm
The right arm has been
broken off, but a detached
forearm was found in the
tomb that is bent at the Head
elbow and clasping a long- The mummy’s head is shaved, originally
vanished sceptre – the sign leading archaeologists to conclude
of a pharaoh. that it was male. However, a woman’s
wig was found buried alongside the
mummy, in a style that was especially
popular in Akhenaten’s court.
Brow
There is a clear
impression of a tight-
fitting brow-band –
Face something that would
The lower half of the face has been smashed in, have been needed
most likely by grave robbers shortly after the to support a heavy
woman’s burial. According to Ancient Egyptian crown.
religion, this would have prevented her spirit
from speaking its name, thus preventing her
from entering the afterlife. The woman had
clearly done something to anger someone.
Ears
The mummy has two piercings in her
left ear, which was unusual in Ancient
Egypt. However, depictions of Nefertiti
Beads show her with a double piercing.
Several loose beads have been found on the mummy’s
chest, left over from the necklace she would have worn
before it was stolen. These have been identified as
Nefer beads: the same beads on Nefertiti’s famous bust.
55
Peace &
prosperity of
Amenhotep III
In a time of relative peace, the son of Thutmose IV
led Egypt to a zenith of political and economic power.
His name was Amenhotep III
W
hen Amenhotep III, the ninth pharaoh the two centres of influence. That was until warrior
of the 18th Dynasty, came to power king Ahmose I flexed his muscles and displayed
he inherited a realm in its prime. The his might, taking up the mantle laid down by his
military successes instigated by his family and banishing the Semitic usurpers back
ancestor (and progenitor of the dynasty) over the border.
Ahmose I, 150 years before, had kick-started the And so came a new era for the Egyptian people
nation into an age of transformation. Nurtured – the seeds of the New Kingdom had been sown,
by the rulers that followed, Egypt had cast aside and over the next 150 years, the kings that followed
the reclusive and insular policies of old moulded the nation through military campaigns
and expanded the kingdom by trade and the fortification of vital trade routes
and sheer economic might. The and agreements. The Nubians to the
country had entered a new south and the remainder of the
golden age and the politically
Amenhotep III Hyksos to the north had learned
savvy Amenhotep III would was a keen hunter to fear the wrath of the pharaohs
preserve that prosperity not and steles depicting once again.
with blades and blood, but When Amenhotep III was
his exploits hunting
with marriage and diplomacy. born, sometime between 1386
The New Kingdom, one of lions were distributed BCE and 1388 BCE, he found
the distinct eras when Ancient throughout the himself with few cares. The son
Egypt enjoyed a peak as a kingdom of Thutmose IV and Mutemwiya,
civilisation, was a stark contrast the young prince didn’t begin his life
to the Second Intermediate Period with a secure hold on the throne, either.
that had preceded it. Political in-fighting, His mother was considered a ‘minor wife’ and
economic despondency and an insular shunning of was often overshadowed by the more powerful and
the outside world left Egypt weak and vulnerable favoured Queen Nefertari and later Queen Iaret.
– so it was no surprise when half the country was It’s not known if Nefertari or Iaret had legitimate
invaded and subsequently occupied by Hyksos children of their own with the king, but it seems
raiders. Having grown strong over time, these unlikely since the Theban prince inherited the
settlers established a new royal dynasty to rival throne around 1391.
the weakened line residing in Thebes. For over 100 Amenhotep was between six and 12 when
© Alamy
years, Egypt had therefore been divided between he was made king of Egypt, and within two
56
Peace & prosperity of Amenhotep III
AMENHOTEP III
c. 1388-1351 BCE
Titled the Magnificent,

Amenhotep III ruled
Brief Egypt in a time of
Bio great prosperity, when
the culture was at the
peak of its power and artistic
influence. So much is know
about Amenhotep because
so many statues of him that
depict his reign and his family
have survived. Amenhotep is
father to Akhenaten, husband
of Nefertiti.
57
years he was already married. His first wife, And so began a reign typified by opulence; it
Tiye, would forever remain his favourite and she was a hyperactive three decades of monumental
would eventually bear him three sons: Grand construction. Over 250 statues, temples, buildings
Prince Thutmose (who would train as a priest and steles (clay tablets usually created to promote
but ultimately predecease his father before he the successes and absolute sovereignty of a
could assume the throne), Amenhotep (who monarch) were constructed over his time as king.
would go on to stylise himself as the religious Amenhotep III commissioned a new pleasure
zealot Akhenaten upon inheriting the throne as palace at Malkata (located on the West Bank of
Amenhotep IV) and Smenkhkare (who would go the Nile, opposite Thebes) and a staggering 600
on to briefly succeed his brother on the throne statues of the goddess Sekhmet at the Temple of
years later). The royal couple also welcomed four Mut at Karnak. He even had two giant, 21m (70ft)
daughters into the world: Iset, Sitamun, Nebetah tall enthroned statues of himself and queen Tiye in
and Henuttaneb. Thebes as part of the Necropolis. Sadly, time hasn’t
Amenhotep went on to amass a number of been kind to many of Amenhotep’s monumental
wives, as was the custom for pharaohs throughout creations, but the Colossi of Memnon, located in
Ancient Egyptian history. Many were the products modern-day Luxor, remain as a dual testament to
of political negotiations, but two were far closer the grand nature of the 18th Dynasty king’s vision
to home. During the last decade of his reign, of a beautified Egypt.
Amun vs Aten Amenhotep III elevated two of his own daughters –
Iset and Sitamun – to the status of ‘Royal Wives’. By
The pharaoh’s building spree didn’t just extend
to the creation of tributes either – Amenhotep III
As powerful as King Amenhotep III was, another
power was growing in the realm, one that had been modern standards, such unions appear horrifying, took a far more hands-on approach when it came
there long before he ascended to the throne: the but for the royal families of the Nile it was common to interacting with the subjects of his kingdom.
church of Amun. Ancient Egypt was a polytheistic
kingdom, worshipping multiple gods, much like the practice. Kings were often advised by courtiers Steles, describing his achievements as a ruler
Norse or the Greeks. However, it wasn’t uncommon and priests to improve their chances of having a and Egypt’s position at the centre of culture and
for one god or goddess to rise in prominence if son succeed them by ensuring they married only civilisation, were sent to every corner of the land.
favoured by a particular monarch – the Thebans
of the 11th Dynasty had chosen Amun, and his
royal blood. Incest was far from a taboo for the Unlike many of his fellow kings, Amenhotep III
prominence had risen even higher following the Ancient Egyptians – even the gods and goddesses seemed a savvy politician at heart, who understood
expulsion of the Hyksos. The church had grown with of the Egyptian pantheon were known for their the importance of image and legacy. These steles
him and now controlled as much land and wealth as incestuous bonds (such as the goddess Hathor who
the king, often attempting to influence politics within
Amenhotep III’s court. was both mother and wife to Ra). Scarabs, such as this one created to
As a result, the king began paying tribute to the With no wars or great military campaigns celebrate one of Amenhotep III’s many
minor god Aten in an attempt to draw influence weddings, were a popular means of
to his name, the reign of Amenhotep III might spreading information across the land
away from the bothersome church. The following
Amenhotep IV hoped to garner around his new sound a little uneventful; however, just because
favoured deity never reached the height he desired he wasn’t having to constantly look to his borders
during his reign, but the shadow of the church didn’t mean the new king lived a quiet life. From
of Amun would have a profound effect on prince
his earliest years, Amenhotep III dreamed of
Amenhotep and ultimately lead to one of the biggest
theological upheavals in Egyptian history. recapturing the abject beauty and aesthetic pomp
of the previous golden age, the Old Kingdom.

Amenhotep becomes king Second son is born
1388-1386 BCE 1380 BC
Following the deaths of his father Thutmose IV, the Amenhotep (later Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten) is born. His
six- to 12-year-old prince inherits the throne during a older brother, great prince Thutmose dies while serving
ceremony in the capital, Thebes. The young pharaoh as a priest in the church of Amun. While his father
assumes a kingdom at the height of its prosperity, would continue the relative peace of the New Kingdom
influence and military prowess. The wars and military era, Amenhotep IV would end up reversing much of his
excursions conducted by his forebears have moulded father’s efforts to solidify Egypt’s political and economic
the nation into one of the most formidable powers in prominence. After witnessing the rise and negative
the world, so Egypt enjoys an unrivalled era of peace. influence of the church of Amun, Amenhotep IV (assuming
the new title Akhenaten) drains the treasury, neglects his
people and forces the nation to worship a single god.
Timeline
1411 BCE 1386 BCE 1387 BCE 1383 BCE
Amenhotep is born Amenhotep III marries Limestone quarries Brief Nubian campaign
The son of Queen Tiye opened Amenhotep III conducts
Thutmose IV The king ends up One of the first his first and only military
and one of his marrying a number of actions Amenhotep III excursion around his
favoured wives women (around nine, makes as king is to fifth year of regnal rule.
Mutemwiya, including two of his open a number of It’s not considered to be
Amenhotep is own daughters), but limestone quarries in particularly important
the second of none of them shares the Tura in preparation and more a symbolic
two sons to be popularity and influence for his monument- flexing of Egypt’s might.
born into the of his first, Tiye. building spree.
royal family.
58
Peace & prosperity of Amenhotep III
The mortuary temple built by

Amenhotep III is mostly a ruin now.
Among the rubble only the impressive
Queen Tiye:
Colossi of Memnon have survived
Ruling as two
Of all the individuals Amenhotep III met in his life, none
had more of an impact than his first wife, Tiye. Upon
their marriage in around 1390-1388 BCE, Amenhotep III
elevated his new queen to the title of Grand Royal Wife.
This new title essentially preserved her power in the
royal household among the many wives the king would
collect over his lifetime. By the same token, it also made
her the most powerful woman at court. Such a position
has often been noted as belonging to a king’s mother,
but Amenhotep III’s mother never claimed the title
during her time as queen, leaving herself at the mercy
of the new queen.
In Ancient Egypt, it was through women that the
royal lineage was carried, so the queen enjoyed a
much revered status at court. Amenhotep III was the
quintessential king as a young man, bold and with a
love of sports and hunting, but he always turned to his
Great Royal Wife for guidance. She was his most trusted
were very much the propaganda of the age, but so strong, he even arranged to marry not one, but advisor and confidante; as such, she wielded a great
deal of power. So defined was her status that foreign
the king ensured these boasts were justified; roads two of Shutterna II’s princesses. Of course, it should rulers were often happy to negotiate through her and
were relaid across the kingdom, with new temples be noted that pharaohs often took multiple wives, she was the first queen of Egypt to have her name
and buildings repaired or rebuilt wherever it was usually favouring one or two by elevating them to officially recorded on new acts of state.
needed. Amenhotep III wanted the whole kingdom the status of ‘Great Royal Wife’. Amenhotep III depicted
to reflect on its hard-fought wealth and status, and Amenhotep III was no meek negotiator when beside his mother Mutemwiya
it showed. it came to the pressure of diplomacy; many
Events during this period have also revealed leaders and monarchs wrote to the king offering
an equality between Amenhotep III tribute in exchange for the hand of one of
and Queen Tiye. The king was so his daughters in marriage. One such
passionate about his building request from the Babylonian king
projects, he often focused all By his Kadashman-Enlil during the final
his attention on them – this death, Egypt’s years of Amenhotep III’s reign was
left much of his political sphere of influence outright rejected by the king with
responsibilities to his wife. the words: “For time immemorial,
stretched from the
While these absences weren’t no daughter of the king of
reflective of his entire Euphrates to the Egy[pt] is given to anyone.” This
reign, it still gave the queen Fourth Cataract of exchange and many more were
the opportunity to prove the Nile recorded on a series of clay tablets
her political prowess in court known as the Amarna Letters, and
and affairs of state. She became their contents have proved invaluable
a popular head of state and is often in understanding the geopolitical landscape
portrayed as equal height in pictures of them in an age where Egypt was in ascendancy.
Defining moment
together – a startling representation of the equality Amenhotep died around 1353 BCE, possibly Amenhotep III dies
shared between the royal couple. from a variety of ailments including arthritis, 1353 BCE
After over 30 years of peaceful rule, the Egyptian
Amenhotep III also paid considerable attention to severe dental problems and perhaps even obesity.
monarch passes away. Studies of his remains show he
diplomacy during his reign. Instead of waging wars He was buried in the Western Valley of the Valley likely suffered from severe arthritis and decaying teeth.
on the battlefield, the 18th Dynasty monarch used of the Kings. When he passed the throne to his Both would have caused him considerable pain and
the power of political engagements to maintain son, Amenhotep IV, Amenhotep III left behind a likely added to his reportedly frail appearance in those
Egypt’s relative stability. He built relations with a kingdom at the height of its power and influence. final years of his rule. Some historians have presented
the theory that the king shared his rule in co-regency
number of kingdoms, most notably with the kings However, it was a realm united to an equally with the young Amenhotep IV, but most historians
of Mitanni (modern-day northern Syria) Shuttarna prominent church, and one that would be shaken and historical authors subscribe to the theory that
II and his son Tushratta. In fact, his relations were to its core with the revolution that followed. Amenhotep III ruled with his wife until his death.
1378 BCE 1370 BCE 1356 BCE 1352 BCE 1350 BCE
Amenhotep marries A daughter is born First Jubilee Sed Festival Amenhotep marries The Colossi of Memnon are
Gilukhepa Amenhotep III and The king and the queen Tadukhepa completed
As part of his careful Queen Tiye welcome celebrate their first In the 36th year of After years of careful
web of alliances with the a daughter, Situman, jubilee after 30 years of his reign, a whole 26 planning and construction,
surrounding kingdoms, into the world. She and rule on the thrones of years after marrying the giant statues depicting
Amenhotep III agrees her sister Iset would Egypt. These nationwide her aunt Gilukhepa, Amenhotep and his queen
to marry the daughter eventually marry their celebrations are named Amenhotep III Tiye are finally finished at the
of the Mitanni king, own father. after the wolf god, Sed. marries another Theban necropolis.
Shuttarna II. Mitanni princess.
© Alamy
59
HATSHEPSUT
c. 1507-1458 BCE
A successful and long-

reigning pharaoh,
Brief Hatshepsut was also a
Bio prolific builder. Many
statues of her survive,
including those depicting her
with the traditional false beard.
Her grand mortuary temple was
built on the West Back of the
Nile and many pharaohs later
followed suit. It is now known
as the Valley of the Kings.
60
Hatshepsut: the queen who became king
Hatshepsut:
the queen
who became
king
After decades of stability, Egypt once again found
itself in crisis when one woman decided to
shatter the status quo
S
ome of the most powerful individuals of the took the throne in 1526 BCE. It was a time of great
ancient world, the pharaohs of Egypt were strength and stability.
believed to have inherited the throne by Then came the reign of Thutmose I from 1506-
divine right and were worshipped as gods 1493 BCE, who extended the empire’s borders
on earth. Huge temples were built in their further than ever before. When he died, the throne
honour, statues were carved in their image and was passed to his son, Thutmose II, who was born
pyramids were built in their memory to ensure to him by one of his minor wives. To secure his
their everlasting legacy. However, in what kingship, Thutmose II was married to his half-
may be one of history’s biggest cover- sister, the daughter of Thutmose I. She
up operations, one of its greatest was therefore of fully royal blood and
rulers has been all but lost to the Hatshepsut declared his chief wife. Her name
desert. And the reason behind was the longest was Hatshepsut.
this monarch’s reign being Even at the tender age of 12,
erased from history would
reigning female Hatshepsut already held a great
seem pretty trivial to us now: pharaoh of Egyptian deal of influence in the royal
this pharaoh was a woman. descent, with a rule court. It is likely that Thutmose II
In the 16th century BCE, spanning around 22 was even younger than her, so his
Egypt was experiencing a time wife took the reins when it came
of great stability. Founded by
years to making decisions on both foreign
Ahmose I in 1543 BCE, the 18th and domestic policy. Her husband was
Dynasty marked the start of an era physically frail too, as his thin and scab-
when the empire reached the peak of its riddled mummy would reveal, and he ruled for
power. Once Ahmose had expelled the Hyksos no longer than 13 years before dying in his 20s.
settlers from Lower Egypt and brought the Nile Hatshepsut had given so much during his short
Delta under his control, the nation was politically reign, but she had been unable provide Thutmose
unified for the first time in more than 500 years. with the one thing he would need to continue his
Ahmose reorganised the country’s administration dynasty: a male heir.
and undertook huge construction projects, which Instead, the throne was passed to a son by
© Alamy
were continued when his successor, Amenhotep I, a woman of his harem. The boy – also called
61
Ahmose- NIECE Ahmose I SISTER Ahmose-Nefertari

MARRIES MARRIES
Sitkamose UNCLE R. 1539-1514 BCE BROTHER 1562-1495 BCE
Ahmose- Ahmose Ahmose- SISTER Amenhotep I

MARRIES Senseneb
Ankh Sapair Meritamon BROTHER R. 1526-1506 BCE
HALF
The 18th Dynasty Ahmose
SISTER
MARRIES HALF
BROTHER Thutmose I
SISTER
MARRIES
BROTHER
Mutnofret
family tree R. 1506-1493 BCE
The Ancient Egyptians
believed in the divine right
of kings. By marrying HALF
Hatshepsut SISTER Thutmose II Iset
into his own family, MARRIES HALF
1508-1458 BCE BROTHER R. 1493-1479 Died 1471
the pharaoh could
ensure that the heir R. 1473-1458 BCE BCE BCE
was of as royal blood as
possible and thus seen as
legitimate by his people.
It also kept the family
Neferure
small, lessening
the chances
of creating
potential Hatshepsut Thutmose III
rivals for Meryetre R. 1479-1425 BCE
the throne.
The mummy of Thutmose III was

discovered in the Deir el-Bahri
Cache in 1881
Thutmose – was no more than a toddler, so he changed her title from ‘King’s Wife’ to ‘God’s Wife
needed a regent who could handle the affairs of of Amun’ and took on a new name, Maatkare (from
government until he was old enough to do so ma’at, meaning order and justice as established by
himself. As tradition dictated, the job fell to the gods). In doing so, she was reinforcing the
the widowed queen – his stepmother and idea that the throne was hers by divine right.
aunt. For a while, the regency played out Only she was descended directly from royal
like any other that had previously been blood, therefore only she could maintain the
witnessed in the ancient kingdom. country’s prosperity and stability.
Monuments and reliefs from the However, there was still the small
time depict a boyish Thutmose III problem of her gender. Ancient Egyptian
performing his pharaonic duties with religion dictated that the throne could only
Hatshepsut by his side. However, by be passed from father to son, as women
year seven of his reign, and possibly were not believed to be capable of carrying
much sooner, something happened out a king’s duties. To legitimise her
that would destroy the stability that rule, Hatshepsut would have to assume
the pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty had male traits. Reliefs began depicting her
worked so hard to create. Hatshepsut, wearing the striped nemes headdress
the female regent, took the throne and uraeus cobra, symbols of a king.
as king. Others depict her wearing a woman’s
The transition can be plotted ankle-length gown but standing in a
through subtle changes in the reliefs striding pose, the same that male figures
and inscriptions of the time. A few of the time were painted in. Similarly,
years after Thutmose’s ascension, inscriptions conveyed both the male and
they began depicting Hatshepsut female elements of the new pharaoh,
carrying out tasks that were more incorporating feminine word endings
Statues of Hatshepsut at the Temple of commonly reserved for the pharaoh, that leading to such grammatical
Hatshepsut show the queen donning such as making offerings to the gods conundrums as ‘His Majesty, Herself’.
the traditional false beard
and ordering up obelisks. Then she As the years went on, it seems she
62
discarded her femininity entirely and was depicted although it is possible that she led military
with a broad, bare chest and wearing the pharaoh’s campaigns against Nubia and Canaan.
false beard. But it is through her building projects that
What inspired Hatshepsut to do the impossible Hatshepsut has left her biggest mark. Arguably one
and crown herself pharaoh? Some say it was pure of the most prolific builders in Ancient Egypt, her
power lust, while others argue that threats from a commissions were grander and more numerous
competing branch of the royal family forced her than any of her Middle Kingdom predecessors. She
onto the throne in order to ensure her stepson’s employed the great architect Ineni to construct
succession. But what is certainly true is monuments at the Temple of Karnak, as
that during her reign, Thutmose III was tradition for pharaohs, as well as
was not kept under house arrest It’s not known to restore sections that had been
but was instead sent to the army ravaged by foreign rulers. She
to learn how to become a good
exactly how many erected twin obelisks at the
soldier, and therefore a good female pharaohs entrance of the temple; at the
king. That it was Hatshepsut’s ruled Egypt, but most time they were the tallest in the
intention to overthrow world at almost 100 feet. Reliefs
scholars accept that
Thutmose and possibly make commemorating the event
her daughter, Neferure, her there were at least show the obelisks being towed
successor, is an unlikely scenario, seven down the River Nile by 27 ships
but should not be ruled out entirely. powered by 850 oarsmen. It would
Whatever the motive, Hatshepsut have been a monumental occasion.
threw herself into the role, determined to She was also responsible for carrying out a
prove herself just as a good pharaoh by virtue of vast public works programme across the empire,
her royal bloodline. She set about restoring trade including the creation of a network of processional
routes that had been disrupted during the Hyksos roadways and sanctuaries.
occupation, dramatically increasing the wealth Hatshepsut’s masterpiece, however, was her
of the 18th Dynasty. One of these routes was mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. Built on the
to the Land of Punt, a kingdom somewhere on
the Red Sea coast that has developed an almost
West Bank of the River Nile, near to the entrance
to what is now called the Valley of the Kings, the
The
mythological status. Five ships set out in her name,
bringing back frankincense, myrrh and ebony,
female pharaoh kick-started a new era of royal
burial at this iconic location. Its focal point was
search for
among other valuable goods. She also sent raiding
expeditions to Byblos and Sinai. Her foreign policy
the Djeser-Djeseru, a colonnaded structure that
was built into the cliff face and surrounded by
Hatshepsut’s
is generally regarded as having been peaceful, gardens. It was designed by Senenmut, an architect mummy
After being lost to the desert for three
millennia, a tiny piece of evidence
revealed the truth to her whereabouts
Upon her death, the she-king was buried in tomb KV20
in the Valley of the Kings, alongside her father Thutmose
I. However, when renowned Egyptologist Howard Carter
excavated the tomb in 1903, he found nothing but a
sarcophagus bearing her name; Hatshepsut’s mummy
was nowhere to be seen.
In 2007, a fresh search was launched by the former
Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs Zahi Hawass
to find the missing pharaoh. A number of unidentified
female mummies from the 18th Dynasty were lined up
and examined using the latest technology. One of the
prime suspects was a mummy from tomb KV60, just in
front of tomb KV20, where two women had been found.
One could be identified as Hatshepsut’s wet nurse
thanks to the inscription on her coffin, the other an
obese lady who had been found on the floor next to her.
Egyptologists had previously suggested that the
mummy could be a royal one due to the positioning of
the left arm across its chest, but only now did they have
the technology to find out once and for all whether
it belonged to Hatshepsut. The team performed CT
scans of mummies known to be closely related to
her, including the three Thutmoses, to try to create a
composite image of the 18th Dynasty facial structure
and compare it with the mummies in contention. While
doing so, they also decided to scan other objects from
the tombs, including a sealed wooden box bearing her
cartouche. What this scan revealed proved to be the key
to the mystery. In it, along with Hatshepsut’s mummified
liver, was a single tooth. Not only was the obese mummy
from KV60 missing a tooth, it was also an exact match
© Getty Images
for the loose one found in the box. Hatshepsut had

A relief showing Queen Hatshepsut
burning incense to honour a god finally been found.
63
Five greatest
building
projects
Hatshepsut’s commissions were so grand
that after her death, many pharaohs tried
to claim them as their own
Red Chapel
Hatshepsut made several
contributions to the Temple of
Karnak, but this was one of
her largest. It was built to be a
barque shrine, where a model
ship was kept. The Ancient
Egyptians believed these were
used by the sun god to travel
through the night, and also to
transport the dead to the afterlife.
The shrine was made of red quartzite
with a black diorite foundation.
Twin obelisks
These were erected at the
entrance of Karnak, and at the
time they were built were the
tallest structures in the world.
One still stands at 97 feet tall
and weighs approximately
320 tons. An inscription at its
base says that it took seven
months to cut the monolith out
of the quarry.
Temple of
Pakhet
This was an underground,
cavernous shrine dedicated
to the lioness goddess of
war. Cut out of the rock into
the cliffs east of the Nile, the
temple is composed of two
chambers with a connecting and government official who was also the tutor that was found in an unfinished tomb used as
passageway. A huge number of of Hatshepsut’s daughter. A man of low birth, a rest house by the workers of Djeser-Djeseru
mummified cats were found here, Senenmut’s story is a fascinating one. His name depicts a male and a hermaphrodite in pharaonic
some having been brought great
distances to be buried ceremonially. first entered the historical record on a national level regalia engaging in an explicit act. This artwork
as the ‘Steward of the God’s Wife’ when Hatshepsut is considered further proof that the pair were
Mortuary was still regent, although after she was crowned engaged in a sexual relationship. Beyond this,
pharaoh, he was given more prestigious there is little to suggest that business
temple titles – 93 in total – and became the ever became pleasure between the
By far Hatshepsut’s greatest
building achievement, her ‘Great steward of Amun’, which put Women pharaoh and her architect. If it had,
mortuary temple at Deir
el-Bahari consists of three
him in charge of all of Karnak’s had rights their relationship would have
building and business activities. been unprecedented as, despite
layered terraces reaching 97
It is without a doubt that
that many of their Senenmut’s numerous titles,
feet tall. Each is supported
by columns and connected this man held significant ancient counterparts he was still a commoner.
by long ramps that were once
surrounded by gardens. It is
influence in the royal court. didn’t, including the Senenmut went to the grave
considered the closest that Egypt Some historians have attributed right to own property unmarried, and Hatshepsut
came to classical architecture. Hatshepsut’s success to him, followed shortly after in 1458
describing him as the real force
and demand BCE after 22 years on the throne.
Precinct of Mut behind her rule. Others believe he divorce She died in her mid 40s, possibly
One of the four main temple
may have played a far more intimate as a result of an infected tooth, or
enclosures that make up the
immense Karnak Temple role in the pharaoh’s life than this. She she may even have been poisoned by an
Complex, the Precinct of Mut allowed him to place his name and an image of ointment used to treat the chronic skin condition
consists of a spring-fed sacred himself behind one of the main doors in Djeser- that she and her late husband had inherited from
lake and a temple dedicated
to the mother goddess. King Djeseru, and on the walls of his tomb he is their forefathers. In a final attempt to legitimise
Hatshepsut restored it after it described as one who “gladdened daily the king’s her reign, she requested that her father, the
was badly damaged during the heart”, “served in the palace of her heart”, and even beloved Thutmose I, be moved to her tomb so
Hyksos occupation.
“saw to all the pleasures of the king”. Some graffiti that they could rest together.
64
Scientists were unable to confirm

they had found Hatshepsut’s
mummy until they identified one
of her teeth from a separate find
The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

is located on the west bank of the
Nile, in the Valley of the Kings
“Five ships set out in her name, carefully considered how the successful reign
of a female pharaoh might affect the Egyptian
bringing back frankincense, myrrh and social order, and eventually made the decision to
eliminate her records so as to prevent a feminist
uprising. Hatshepsut’s crime may be nothing more
ebony, among other valuable goods” than the fact that she was a woman.
There is still debate as to whether any other
Her stepson Thutmose III went on to rule Thutmose’s waning years, while others women managed to become pharaoh in the
for a further 30 years, proving to be a similarly suggest it was a money-saving method, years following Hatshepsut’s reign.
ambitious builder and a mighty warrior. He led 17 whereby existing buildings could be One who caused much speculation
campaigns in enemy-held territory, and conquered accredited to the current king. The 18th was the wife of Thutmose III’s
land as far north as Syria and as far south as the It has been suggested that Dynasty bore great-great grandson, Nefertiti,
Fourth Cataract of the Nile. Meanwhile, the relics when Thutmose came of age, as there is evidence that she
of Hatshepsut’s reign continued to stand proud on he demoted Hatshepsut back many of Egypt’s most was promoted to co-regent and
the Egyptian skyline, her towering obelisks and to the role of regent, and famous pharaohs, possibly ruled as a pharaoh
imposing statues casting a shadow in her memory attempted to eliminate any including Akhenaten, after her husband’s death. It
upon the land she once called hers. evidence of her as pharaoh to is clear that if she had, the
Nefertiti and
However, towards the end of Thutmose’s regency, claim that the royal succession Egyptians did not want her reign
he ordered that his stepmother’s cartouches and ran directly to him from his Tutankhamun to be remembered, as just like
images be chiselled away, and her statues torn father. It seems the most likely Hatshepsut, her name was chiselled
down, disfigured and smashed before being buried explanation is not a sinister one, but off records and her mummy damaged.
in a pit. There was even an attempt at Karnak to rather a cold, rational attempt to extinguish It would be more than 1,000 years before
surround her obelisks with walls. Various theories the memory of an “unconventional female king another female pharaoh would ascend to the
have been given to explain this sudden and whose reign might possibly be interpreted by Egyptian throne. Her name was Cleopatra and,
dramatic turn of events. Some argue that this was future generations as a grave offence against ma’at,” unlike Hatshepsut, her story would be told in every
© Alamy
carried out as a typical act of self-promotion during as Tyldesley put it. She proposes that Thutmose corner of the globe for millennia to come.
65
Ahmose I’s
unifying
power
After years of unrest, one king would defy invaders,
unify a kingdom, found a dynasty and organise the
construction of the last ever natively built pyramid
T
hink of Ancient Egypt and you might very rest of Egypt. The collapse of the 13th and 14th
well imagine a vast empire ruled by god- Dynasties in the south gave this tribe all it needed
fearing monarchs; men and women who to take root in the region. By 1650 BCE, the Hyksos
erected grand tombs and monuments in had grown strong enough to establish its own
their honour. But that stereotypical snapshot dynasty, considered the 15th, with the noble Salitis
of the Nile kings is only half the story – for every assuming the title of king in the newly established
peaceful period of absolute rule, there was a time Hyksos capital of Avaris.
when Egypt was divided or controlled almost The Hyksos didn’t rule their newly acquired land
entirely by foreign powers. Ahmose I, who was the with an iron first either – if anything, their presence
founding king of the 18th Dynasty, was in northern Egypt actively benefited the
born into such a time. The kingdom region and its people. They brought with
he was destined to inherit was Ahmose I them new tools and foods, as well as
bisected by invaders who had opening that corner of Egypt up to
dominated Lower Egypt for
had many the bountiful trade routes of Asia.
over a century. And it would children with Their arrival was a gradual one;
be his defence of this long- his wife and sister, with Egypt’s fragmented political
standing status quo that Ahmose-Nefertari. Two system allowing foreign traders
would define his position as and tribes to travel through the
one of Ancient Egypt’s most of their sons (Sapair region with relative ease, it was
celebrated leaders. and Saamen) died inevitable that a warrior tribe such
To appreciate the gravity of young as the Hyksos would eventually
Ahmose I’s actions at the beginning settle there. The fact they brought with
of the 18th Dynasty, and the effect it them chariots and compound bows, both
would have on the country for centuries to advanced weaponry for the time, made them all
come, you have to travel back to the reign of his the more formidable.
father, Seqenenre Tao. Tao ruled from 1560 BCE A counter dynasty was established in Thebes
to 1558 BCE, but his time on the throne, like many in the vacuum left by the plague-ravaged 14th
before him, was blighted by an occupying force Dynasty, and it was from this line that Ahmose I’s
to the north of the country. Around 1720 BCE, a family rose. By the time his father Tao came to
nation of Semitic tradesman and warriors from Asia power, the kings in Thebes were already trying
known as the Hyksos had invaded and occupied to drive out their hostile neighbours. Tao taunted
© Alamy
the Nile Delta, establishing a separate realm to the the Hyksos, refusing to pay tribute, and led a
66
Ahmose I’s unifying power
Little remains
of Ahmose’s single
pyramid, but we do
know it was around
70 square feet in size
when completed
AHMOSE I
c. 1539–1514 BCE
After inheriting the

throne at the age of
Brief ten, Ahmose I would
Bio continue his father
and brother’s fight
against the Hyksos tribe of
invaders, eventually driving
them out of Egypt. His bold
leadership signalled a new era
for the reunified Egyptian state.
He built the last pyramid and
founded the 18th Dynasty.
67
“Ahmose’s military ethos was simple:

attack the Hyksos relentlessly. Grind
them down. Burn their fortresses”
number of military campaigns into Lower Egypt Ahmose I was the blueprint for the change in
– however, considering the severe head trauma to mind-set. He, like his brother and father, realised
his mummy, it’s believed he likely died in one of that the Hyksos’ superior weaponry gave them the
these campaigns. The throne passed to his eldest advantage, as did their fortresses along the border
son Kamose, who continued the war against the between the two kingdoms.
Hyksos. Kamose was successful in driving the Ahmose’s military ethos was simple: attack the
Hyksos further into Lower Egypt, but he died five Hyksos relentlessly. Grind them down. Burn their
years into his reign. fortresses. Destroy their settlements and drive
Statues were often built Ahmose I inherited the throne at the tender age them out of the Delta. Around three campaigns
from sandstone. This one of ten, but with Thebes now at war with Lower were led by Ahmose, each one slowly pushing
is possibly of Ahmose I
Egypt, control of the country instead passed to the Semitic warriors further and further back.
his mother Ahhotep. While acting as He wisely cut off the Hyksos’ capital,
Ahmose I’s regent, Ahmose I’s mother is recorded

as Ahhotep I, suggesting she Ahmose
Avaris, from outside intervention and
eventually took the Horus Road
mummy officially took the role of queen

in the interim. During this time,
was a follower
of the god Amen
and the city itself. The offensive
went on for many years and was
Ahhotep consolidated power in a bloody affair, as all wars are,
Like many of the kings and queens who
Thebes, uniting disenfranchised and dedicated many but eventually the usurpers
were preserved in grand tombs of the era,
Ahmose I’s mummy provides a fascinating members of the Egyptian military victories to were sent over the border back
insight into the physiological features of court in order to strengthen into what we know now as
Egypt’s most powerful leaders. Originally
him (a trend followed
the kingdom for the campaigns Palestine and Syria.
thought to be the body of a 50-year-old
to come.
by many later Ahmose I’s conquest of
man, later studies suggest he died in his
30s. However, some clues – such as a lack By the time Ahmose I came pharaohs) the Hyksos signalled the end
of similar physical characteristics and the of age and continued his father and of foreign occupation and the
fact his arms weren’t crossed on his chest,
as per the tradition – suggest the remains brother’s offensives against the Hyksos, beginning of the country’s unification.
may not even be those of Ahmose I. the conflict had been raging for roughly three The Egyptian king could see his nation was a pale
The state of his remains also reveals an decades. After centuries of isolated rule without imitation of former glories and was in dire need of
intriguing post-mortem history. His tomb
challenge or interference from the outside reorganisation and rejuvenation. He continued his
was discovered in 1881 within the Deir
el-Bahri (a complex network of mortuary world, Egypt was now a polarised nation. It also military excursions with haste, keen to re-establish
temples located in the Theban Necropolis) galvanised Egypt’s elite to become more actively Egypt’s once far-reaching hold. After chasing the
alongside fellow 18th Dynasty monarchs involved in the machinations of their kingdoms Hyksos back into Syria, he continued operations
such as Amenhotep I and Thutmose I, but
it’s believed his body was originally interred and the political make-up of the wider world. there, likely burning their bases and acquiring
at Dra’ Abu el-Naga (located nearby on the
West Bank of the Nile).
So why was his body moved from one Defining moment
necropolis to another? The strips of cloth
wrapped around a mummified body are The 18th Dynasty established
often marked with hieratic script to denote
O Ahhotep becomes 1539 BCE
the high-ranking individual and his family, regent Interestingly, the beginning of the 18th Dynasty (with O Tjaru falls
but the cloth surrounding Ahmose I’s Since Ahmose is still Ahmose I as its first pharaoh) wasn’t officially established In the early months of
body contained his name and that of a too young to rule until after Ahmose successfully drove the Hyksos out of Ahmose I’s campaign
monarch who ruled Egypt 400 years later by himself, de facto against the Hyksos,
Egypt around 1520 BCE – however, like many dynasties,
– the priest-king Pinedjem II. It’s believed control of Upper his forces take control
its official numbering was established retroactively. The
Pinedjem II’s family moved Ahmose I’s Egypt falls to his of the fortress Tjaru,
victory of the Hyksos and the unification of Upper and
remains to join the future king because his mother Ahhotep. A effectively cutting off
tomb had been plundered by thieves. popular individual, she Lower Egypt was deemed a worthy enough achievement the Hyksos capital of
maintains the attacks to warrant the beginning of a new era. As such, the Avaris from the Hyksos
against the Hyksos. beginning of Ahmose I’s reign is considered to be the homeland, Canaan.
Timeline 1550-1539 BCE beginning of the 18th Dynasty. 1532 BCE
1720 BCE
O Hyksos invade O Kamose dies O Ahmose I marries O Campaign against
Asian traders and Ahmose I’s Ahmose-Nefertari Hyksos
warriors occupy brother dies of As is the tradition, It is around this time
the Nile Delta, unknown causes Ahmose I marries a number that Ahmose I officially
establishing a – the throne of his sisters. Ahmose- begins coordinating
separate realm to the eventually Nefertari (God’s wife of military campaigns
rest of Egypt. This passes to his Arum) is made his Chief against the Hyksos.
eventually expands younger brother, Wife – he also weds sisters Khamudi is the
to cover the entirety who is now ten Ahmose-Sitkamose and established king in
of Lower Egypt. years of age. Ahmose-Henuttamehu. Lower Egypt.
1720 BCE 1550 BCE 1537 BCE 1532 BCE
68
land and territory. He also pushed further into Ahmose I is also famous for being the last
Nubia, showing an aggressive new attitude to Egyptian monarch to have a pyramid erected on
foreign relations. native soil. With one foot planted in the golden
Ahmose I’s bold leadership was ushering in years of his kingdom’s past, Ahmose I desired a
a new era for Egypt. The Middle Kingdom and prosperous new age for his people. His successes
Second Intermediate Period eras, riddled with overseas had boosted the economy and he wanted
political in-fighting and foreign occupation, to express it in the most lavish way
was over; the New Kingdom was here possible, with a pyramid. It would
and Ahmose was determined to
rebuild the country’s glory. The
‘Ahmose’
be a monument to his life and
achievements, and would stand Khamudi:
reunified north brought with it
new artistic and architectural translates roughly
for all time in his homeland.
Interestingly, Ahmose’s
The last
techniques, including advances
such as glass blowing. The
from Ancient Egyptian
into ‘The Moon is
pyramid wasn’t built as a
tomb, but rather a cenotaph
ruler of
arts thrived under Ahmose,
with pottery and other forms of born’ or ‘The child of
(in other words, a purely
ceremonial monument). It was
the 15th
expression filling the streets of
Thebes and the wider kingdom.
the Moon’ built near Thebes, in what we
now know as Abydos, and was
Dynasty
While it would be his father, Apepi,
Ahmose’s expansive campaigns completed in the final years of his
who first began defending the Hyksos-
brought wealth back into Egypt, which reign. It was constructed from sand and controlled Lower Egypt against the newly
he put to good use, building new temples and rubble, as was the tradition of the time, with renewed Theban court, it would fall to
starting construction on a new pyramid – one he limestone used as a casing to hold the pyramid Khamudi to fight the greatest challenge to
their occupation (and ultimately fail). But
hoped would rival the great structures in Giza. in place. When it was completed, it had a base who was this usurper king, the last of the
Thebes itself was also a key component of length of around 52.5m (172ft) and a height of 40m self-appointed 15th Dynasty to rule over
Ahmose’s new vision for Europe. He started by (130 ft). While it was considerably smaller than the half of Ancient Egypt?
The man named Khamudi remains one
making the city his capital – a simple choice grandest of tombs found elsewhere in the country of the greatest mysteries of the 15th
considering it was his family’s home. Thebes had (the Pyramid of Giza stands at a colossal 130m), it Dynasty, mainly due to the brevity of his
also been the country’s cultural and spiritual would have still been an impressive sight among reign. A number of historians, including
epicentre during the prosperous age of the Middle the temples of Thebes. Tragically, the pyramid Egyptologist Kim Ryholt, suggest his rule
lasted barely a year compared to the four
Kingdom, so the locale had considerable historical didn’t survive; it was mostly stripped off its decades of his father. Other historians,
value for Ahmose I, a man who was desperate precious limestone for other buildings in the years including Donald Redford and Dr Aidan
to rekindle those glory days, even purely by after Ahmose’s death and the rest of the construct Dodson, subscribe to the theory that
Khamudi’s reign lasted around ten to 12
association. Finally, Thebes’ geographical location soon crumbled. Only a pile of rubble 10m high years. We do know that Khamudi had
had an impact on its new status as capital; being remains where it once stood. evacuated most of his people from the
situated in the middle of the newly unified nation Like many pharaohs, the date of Ahmose’s death Hyksos capital of Avaris prior to the last
and most violent siege of Ahmose I,
afforded the city a little more protection from a isn’t certain, but the most common theory cites
however it’s unknown whether the Semitic
potential reinvasion by the Hyksos, as well as 1525 BCE. Yet it’s a testament to the impact he ruler died in the siege or fled to Syria/
providing enough distance to monitor the Nubians had on Ancient Egypt in life that the nature of his Palestine with the rest of the refugees. A
to the south. death would be rendered almost entirely irrelevant. single monument – an obelisk – attributed
to his reign remains in Avaris.
Defining moment
The kingdom expands
Defining moment
1528-1525 BCE Ahmose dies
After driving the Hyksos back into Syria and Palestine, Ahmose 1525 BCE
begins expanding the newly unified Egypt exponentially. Unlike his brother, Ahmose I’s reign over Egypt isn’t short-lived –
To the north, he chases the Hyksos, destroying fortresses in fact, he ends up ruling the country for around 25 years before
far beyond the Egyptian borders. Some historians argue that dying at the age of 35. The cause of death is unknown, but by
Ahmose was actively hunting the Semitic invaders down, the time the throne passes to his son, Amenhotep I, Egypt has
while others prefer the theory that he was simply fortifying his prospered. Successful military campaigns and renewed trade with
own borders. During this 22nd year of his sovereignty, Ahmose neighbouring nations have brought wealth and new commerce to
pushed as far as the Eastern Mediterranean. He also conducted the country, while a renaissance in the arts (including architecture
a number of campaigns in Nubia (modern-day northern Sudan) and textiles) sees Egypt rejuvenated with new temples and sites of
to the south. tribute to the god Amen.
1525 BCE
O Ahmose I takes O The heir O The pyramid rises
Avaris apparent dies Ahmose commissions
Between the 18th and Initially, the young a new pyramid, the
19th years of his reign, Ahmose-ankh is first in centuries, to
the Hyksos capital deemed Ahmose I’s be erected at Abydos.
of Avaris finally falls. successor, but he It’s smaller than
By controlling this dies, so the line of other pyramids by
city, the Theban ruler succession instead completion, but is still
drives the invaders turns to his eldest an impressive sight
© Alamy
towards Canaan. son, Amenhotep. from Thebes.

1529-1528 BCE 1531-1526 BCE 1528 BCE
69
THE
PYRAMIDS
Wonder at the magnificent feat of construction that was
pyramids, which were raised to house the dead
72 Inside the Great Pyramid

Get to grips with this awesome landmark
74 Building the pyramids

Understand the feat of construction behind the
most iconic symbols of Ancient Egypt
80 Pyramids of a polymath
Meet the brilliant mind behind the impressive
Pyramid of Djoser
The pyramids
74
72 80
One of the Seven Wonders of the World, explore the

intricate architecture of Khufu’s pyramid
A
lthough Egyptologists have been studying metres or so of the pyramid. Then an internal ramp square metres. Wooden cranes were stationed in
the Great Pyramid of Khufu for centuries, was built to continue hauling rocks up. It is a mile- each open space to lift the blocks onto the next level
they haven’t yet reached a consensus on long, narrow structure spiralling inside the pyramid, of the ramp. Later the notches were filled in.
how it was built. Specifically, how were the much like the ramps in a parking garage. To allow There is some evidence that an internal ramp
massive two-ton blocks placed 480 feet for men to haul the stones, the ramp is at a seven per exists at the Great Pyramid. In 1986, a team of
above the desert floor? cent slope. Somehow it has remained hidden inside French scientists used microgravimetrics to
A French architect named Jean-Pierre Houdin the pyramid since its completion 4,500 years ago. survey the pyramid. They were looking for hidden
has posits a theory to explain the mystery. Houdin But how would men hauling the blocks up the chambers by checking for areas of low density,
has devoted his time to studying the Great Pyramid ramp make the turn at each corner of the ramp? which would indicate open spaces. The team
and creating graphical models using 3D software. He They would need a place to stand in front of the did find one new chamber that was filled with
proposes that an external ramp was built to haul the blocks. Houdin believes that each corner was sand. However, one diagram puzzled them – there
rocks – pulled by means of ropes – for the first 60 temporarily left open, with a notch of about three appeared to be a low density spiral inside the
72
Inside the Great Pyramid
Layout of the 04 Relieving chambers

Houdin believes that these chambers were built
05 The grand gallery
This long, narrow room slants upwards.
Pyramid of Khufu to relieve weight on the King’s Chamber. Others
have thought that they were for ventilation or
It has a corbelled ceiling and benches
along its sides, with slots cut into each
The Great Pyramid has both ascending to allow Khufu’s soul to rise to heaven. bench. Egyptologists aren’t quite sure
and descending chambers about its use.
01 The King’s chamber 06 The entrance

This is the main chamber of the pyramid. The entrance wasn’t created until 820
Unlike later pyramid chambers, its walls CE by Caliph Al-Ma’mum, who tunnelled
are blank. A granite sarcophagus sits into the pyramid so they could search
inside, but no lid has ever been found. for treasure. The original entrance was
sealed after the pyramid’s completion.
02 The Queen’s chamber

The name of this chamber is a misnomer.
Many Egyptologists believe that it was
originally built for Khufu. However, as he
was still living when the chamber was
finished, it was abandoned.
03 Unfinished 04
subterranean
chamber
This chamber lies below
ground level. It may have been
built in case Khufu died early,
but he may have also simply
changed his mind about where
he wanted to be buried. 01 05
According to Houdin, openings

were left at the corners so workers
02
could use the internal ramp
06
03
pyramid. In 2000, a member of the team met with about before. It could be the remains of the open This side view
shows the internal
Houdin and showed him this scan, which lends notch leading to a ramp. In addition, Brier has ramp snaking
weight to his internal ramp theory. pointed out that the Sun Temple, built 100 years up through the
During a 2007 visit to the Great Pyramid, after the Great Pyramid and now partially in ruins, pyramid’s
interior
Egyptologist Bob Brier pointed out two more features contains an internal ramp. This shows that the
that could be supportive evidence of the ramp Egyptians were building these types of ramps.
having existed. When the Sun hits the pyramid Working with the former director of the German
at a certain angle, you can see broad white lines Archaeological Institute, Houdin‘s petitioned the
at a seven per cent angle running around it. Brier Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities to survey
climbed the pyramid to examine what appeared to the pyramid in a non-destructive way. So the
be a notch. Although it had irregular measurements, mystery of the Pyramid of Khufu may not be quite
there was a small chamber that he had never heard so far off as we may at first imagine.
73
Building
a pyramid
Lacking tools and technologies modern
architects take for granted, an ancient
people created one of the Seven
Wonders of the World
T
he god-king’s legacy is complete. The In reality, both then and now, the structure the Early Dynastic period has given way to what
immense life-giving river that flows nearby looms over a sprawl of human activity. For over will be called the Old Kingdom.
– later to be called the Nile – has by now had twenty years, thousands of men have laboured to It was the Old Kingdom pharaoh Djoser who
people farming its banks for about two and get around 2.3 million blocks in position at a rate ordered the building of the first ‘step’ pyramid
half millennia. Like almost every pyramid, of around 300 stones per day. Contrary to later at Sakkara, 20 kilometres south of here. That
it rises from the Nile’s west bank, the place where myth, these people are not slaves sweating under design, involving receding platforms, was the work
the sun ‘dies’ each evening. Later visitors will see the whip, but paid workers, some of whom possess of Imhotep, one of the few Egyptians – besides
an exterior of ascending ochre-brown bricks, for its specialist skills. Two settlements rise nearby, one the pharaohs themselves – who will one day be
outer surface of reflective limestone will have long for permanent workers and their families, the other venerated as a god. As vizier (chief official) to the
ago been stripped away. Today it gleams white in for the migrants who work here for a few months pharaoh, Imhotep also excelled as an astronomer
the sunshine. at a time. and physician. In the latter capacity he wrote a text
What will one day be called the Great Pyramid of The god-king is called Khufu, although he will that describes the treatment of over 200 illnesses.
Giza is located on a plateau, south of the future city also be known as Cheops. Around seven centuries But not even a god-king is spared his or her
of Cairo. Paintings and postcards will later on create before his birth, the unification of a southern and mortality. That, above all, is the purpose of the
an impression of windswept loneliness, where northern kingdom had created a dynasty with pyramid. The pharaoh’ soul is destined to reach an
pyramids set amid uninhabited desert. mighty pharaonic rulers at the helm. In this time, after-world called Sekhet Aaru (meaning ‘the Field
74
Building a pyramid
“Khufu has
been planning his
‘house of eternity’
since ascending
the throne”
The Great
Pyramid was the
world’s tallest man-
made structure until
Lincoln Cathedral
was built in 1311
The pyramids of Giza were once

clad in limestone, which made
them gleam white in the sun
of Reeds’). If his soul so chooses, he can return to And to expedite the passing of the pharaonic explores will find a subterranean chamber,
earth, the apex of the pyramid serving as a beacon. soul, the pyramid has been set within an expansive apparently never used.
When the Great Pyramid of Giza is complete, its complex. Khufu’s funeral will begin in a temple Above this is a room, later to be misleadingly
base covers 13 acres and its summit rises to 481 feet in the adjacent valley from where his body will called the Queen’s Chamber, which was likely used
(147 metres). Within a few decades, two of Khufu’s be transported by priests to the pyramid along a as a store for the pharaoh’s funerary gifts. Highest
successors, Khafre and Menkaure, will have left causeway. There is a mortuary temple where his of all is the King’s Chamber, its roof supported by
pyramids of their own a few hundred metres away, body is worshipped and three smaller pyramids for granite beams, each weighing 50 tons and designed
together with a massive reclining sphinx statue. his queens. Meanwhile, noblemen will be buried to deflect the weight of the masonry above. Here,
The three Giza pyramids, their sides perfectly in nearby mastaba (bench) tombs, the standard almost in the centre of the pyramid, the pharaoh’s
aligned to face north, south, east and west, will Egyptian tomb during the Early Dynastic period. mummified corpse is placed within a granite
dwarf all others built before or after. Upon his death, Khufu’s great solar barge, 143 sarcophagus. But sometime in the ensuing 45
Like all the pharaohs, Khufu has been planning feet by 19 feet (43 metres by 5.7 metres), is buried centuries it will be lost, or even perhaps stolen by
his ‘house of eternity’ since ascending the throne. in a deep pit for his use in the afterlife. Within tomb raiders.
As the intermediary between the gods and mortals, the pyramid itself are ascending and descending The god-king’s legacy, the last surviving Wonder
it is believed he will become Osiris, god of the dead passages, shafts for the possible purpose of of the ancient world, survives. Of the god-king
© Alamy
upon dying. ventilation and at least three chambers. Future himself, there is nothing.
75
Built by slaves?
T
he popular image of the pyramid’s at Giza, and eventually discovered two settlements
construction involves immense lines of southeast of the Great Pyramid. One was laid out in
wretched labourers dragging vast blocks an organic fashion, suggesting it grew over time. The
along with an encouraging lash from the other town was laid out in a grid fashion, bounded
slave-driver’s whip. The Flight from Egypt is to the northwest by a great wall, known today as the
described in the Old Testament’s Book of Exodus. ‘wall of the crow.’
The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt The grave of a pyramid builder was
around 450 BCE and surmised that the inadvertently discovered by a tourist in
Giza pyramids were built by 100,000 1990. A decade later, the nation’s chief
slaves “who laboured constantly Although Egyptologist Zahi Hawass announced
and were relieved every three the discovery of labourers’ remains
months by a fresh gang.”
associated with in grave pits near the pyramid,
In 1888, British archaeologist Ancient Egypt, the which would have been an
Flinders Petrie, examining the very first pyramids unlikely privilege for a slave.
Middle Kingdom pyramid at Although not mummified, the
were probably
Lahun, found the remains of dozen skeletons were buried in
a labourers’ town. Its encircling built in Ancient foetal positions, heads pointing
walls suggested the labourers were Mesopotamia west and feet pointing east, in the
captives. Slavery did exist during traditional Egyptian fashion. These
the various dynasties. However the workers had bread and beer placed in the
estimates of Herotodus are wrong: it is more pits, offerings for the afterlife.
likely that the Giza pyramids were built by around Graffiti within the pyramids have been signed by
5,000 primary workers (quarry workers, hauliers and crews such as the ‘Friends of Khufu’ or the ‘Drunks of
masons) augmented by another 20,000 secondary Menkaure,’ pointing to a team ethic and the likelihood
workers (ramp builders, mortar mixtures, artists, of specialised work groups. Lehner’s research indicates
cooks, wood suppliers). the workers in both settlements were well fed. Animal
Egyptologist Mark Lehner, an associate of Harvard’s remains reveal that they ate 21 cattle and 23 sheep per
Semitic Museum, did research during the Nineties day, shipped to the site from outlying farms.
“The grave of a pyramid builder was

discovered by a tourist in 1990”
01 Transport
A large block from the Giza quarry is rolled
atop logs and pulled by a team of labourers
to where a series of ramps wrapped around
the core of the pyramid.
01
The Giza
pyramids are
protected by the
watchful presence
of the Great
Sphinx
76
Building a pyramid
Over the centuries, theories that the

pyramids were built by slaves prevailed Day in the life
of a pyramid
builder
Workers with specialist skills lived nearby,

while migrant labourers worked month-
long shifts
06:00 am
The craftsman (stone carver) lives with family in a typical
Egyptian house within a labourer’s town. The house has a
pillared public area, a domicile and a rear area for cooking.
At dawn he rises and has a breakfast of figs, dates and
bread with his family. Meanwhile, a migrant labourer rises in
a simpler dwelling that he shares with other men.
07:00 am
The craftsman joins fellow workers and they head to the
quarry. The pyramid has been under construction for over
a decade, but the craftsmen consider its construction as
part of their duty to the gods. They use stone and copper
tools such as chisels and drills. At other times they will be
carving passages within the pyramid itself.
10:00 am
The labourers are attempting to shift a 2.5 ton block from
03 the quarry. Wooden containers in the shape of a quarter-
02 circle are attached to each corner of the block so it can
be rolled along like a barrel. At other times the blocks are
dragged along using robes, and sled-wheels would be
impeded by sand and gravel.
11:00 am – 1:00 pm
In the mid-morning heat, the workers break and chat. The
stone carver goes to an area of shade and maybe takes
some wine from a pitcher. In the early afternoon, both the
stone carver and labourer break for lunch. They eat bread
and fish caught in the Nile.
16:00 pm
02 Limestone When the labourers reach the building site, they must
04 Oxen are occasionally used in the transport of bricks from
Giza and the nearby Fayoum depression.
transport the blocks up ramps encircling the core of the
pyramid. The men haul the blocks along the ramps by
rope and lever them upwards. Huge amounts of gypsum
and rubble are used to fill the gaps between the blocks.
03 Water
Water is sourced from the Nile to lubricate the movement of
wooden sleds over sand and gravel, or mixed with mud and
19:00 pm
The craftsman arrives home and he and his family have a
baked to make bricks.
meal of roasted beef or mutton with carrots and lentils.
As darkness gathers, he has some beer and lights an oil
© Corbis, Thinkstock
04 Oxen lamp. If in the mood, he might play the board game senet
Oxen are occasionally used in the transport of bricks from with his children. As his family settles down for the night,
Giza and the nearby Fayoum depression. the labourer is doing likewise, dreaming of the day his shift
ends and he can return to his family village.
77
The pyramids
in numbers
The Great pyramid was the world’s tallest
artificial structure for 3,800 years
The limestone quarries in Giza

as they appear today
Quarries, ramps
The pyramid had a workforce of around
30,000 people, rotated over time
& levers
T
he pyramids were preceded by tombs called challenges and is a source of much speculation
mastabas (an Arabic word meaning ‘bench’), today. To move some of the larger blocks by barge,
which consisted of an underground burial canals may have been dug. Most blocks were
chamber and overground chapel. These probably dragged overland on wooden sleds with
mastabas first seem to have appeared ropes. Alternatively, blocks may have been placed
some time around 3500 BCE, during a time atop wooden rollers or within circular containers to
Around 45,000 cubic metres of stone were when mummification techniques were also in the be rolled along like a beer keg.
removed from the Aswan quarry process of being perfected. When the blocks arrived at the site, there would
By the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, have been several thousand workers there: some
pharaoh Djoser had sufficient wealth to skilled craftsmen, some labourers, some locals and
commission the first ‘step’ pyramid atop an some from outlying provinces.
existing mastaba. But it was under Khufu’s father Getting the blocks up and into position involved
Snefru that the first true pyramids building a series of ramps upon inclined
appeared. His earliest pyramid at planes of mud, brick and rubble. As
Maydūm was originally a step Despite the pyramid grew taller, the ramp
The Great Pyramid of Khufu weighs an pyramid, but it collapsed after had to be widened and extended
the substantial
estimated 5,955,000 tons attempts at modifications. Of his or else it would collapse. Since
two later pyramids at Dashūr,
literacy of Ancient the core of a true pyramid
structural faults left the Bent Egypt, no records was essentially a step pyramid
or Blunted Pyramid with its exist of building plans with packing blocks laid on
characteristic incline. Later, the top, the ramps would not have
or discussions of
Red Pyramid was successfully approached it at right angles;
The workers’ settlement had a population built as a true pyramid. methods and instead they ran from step to step.
of approximately 15,000 people The lessons of Maydūm and materials American Egyptologist Mark
Dashūr impressed upon Khufu’s Lehner speculates that a spiralling
engineers the importance of getting the ramp may have begun in the stone
foundations right: the base of the Great Pyramid quarry to the southeast and continued around the
is level to two centimetres. To achieve this, the pyramid. The blocks were drawn into place along
workers may have poured water into the excavated on sleds that were lubricated by water or milk.
site and levelled everything above the waterline. More recently, the French Egyptologist Jean
They would then lower the water level, removing Pierre Houdin has used 3D imaging to identify
The pyramid’s outer casing had 144,000
more material until the foundation was level. an anomalous spiral structure within Khufu’s
The pyramids were made of limestone, granite, pyramid. Houdin proposes a theory based around
polished stones*
basalt, gypsum and baked mud bricks. In the an internal ramp: a regular external ramp was
case of the Giza pyramids, limestone blocks were used for the first 30 per cent of the pyramid, then
quarried at Giza and probably a few other sites. The a spiralling internal ramp transported the blocks
granite stones may have been brought up the Nile beyond that height.
by barge from Aswan, and basalt was sourced in Levering methods would have complemented
the nearby Fayoum depression. the ramp structure. The blocks may have been
The blocks would have been carved away lifted incrementally, using wooden wedges to
*White blocks represent 10,000, transparent blocks using copper or stone tools. Transporting them gradually move the stones upwards. It would have
represent 1,000 stones
to the building site would have presented serious been a tremendous feat.
78
Building a pyramid
An enduring mystery
T
he end result was a structure that was To get inside, they used brute force. They used fire rudimentary technologies, apparently in tribute
symbolic on many levels. The pyramid’s and battering rams to gain entry. Previously, in a fit to a single human, it has far outlived the ancient
sloping limestone walls are representative of of religious fanaticism, the sultan of Egypt, Al-Aziz civilisation that produced it. In four millennia from
the descending rays of the sun, and its north Uthman (1171-1198), had attempted to demolish now, who can know whether the same will be said
pointing shaft points to the area of the night Khufu’s pyramid. He failed, due to the scale of of today’s great buildings?
sky around which the stars rotate. the monument, although damage was done to
A modern visitor entering Khufu’s pyramid does
so through the so-called ‘Robbers’ Tunnel’. In 820,
Menkaure’s pyramid, and in many ways the
pyramid remains impenetrable even today. “The structure that
the Arab Al-Ma’mun led his men on a tomb raid.
The men expected to find treasure, but Al-Ma’mun
Despite valid theories and advanced imaging
technologies, much about its construction and was symbolic on
himself was intrigued by a legend that the pyramid purpose will probably always be mysterious.
contained a book of limitless historical knowledge. However, built with mostly voluntary labour and so many levels”
How to build a pyramid

One theory, posited by Jean-Pierre Houdin, suggests two ramps were used…
PHASE 1 PHASE 2
01
02
02 Starting the
internal ramp
As workers continued building the
01 The pyramid base rest of the pyramid, they also built
According to Houdin, the pyramid’s base was
and used an internal ramp to haul
built using an external ramp until the base
the heavy blocks. This allowed
reached a height of about 60 metres. Workers
them to build the pyramid from
then slowly broke down the external ramp and
the inside out.
used its blocks to build the rest of the pyramid.
PHASE 3 PHASE 4
03
04
03 Completing the
pyramid 04 A smooth
After the core of the pyramid was
completed, workers filled in the corners surface
that had previously held cranes. Originally, the exterior of the
Egyptologist Bob Brier found one area pyramid was also covered with
on the pyramid’s exterior that may be casing stones, which gave it a
evidence of one of these corners. smooth appearance. Today only
the core inner structure is visible.
©Corbis
79
Pyramids of
a polymath
Once a man, then a god, the multi-talented Imhotep
helped design the very first pyramid and rose to
prominence as a legend of medicine and architecture
I
mhotep is one of Ancient Egypt’s most intriguing became famed for his intellect. He worked as a
characters. Attributed with being one of the scribe and learned his trade as an engineer, two
first physicians to step out of the shadow of careers that would do him well in the court of the
antiquity, the low-born priest and scholar even pharaoh. He also turned his attention to medicine,
helped a pharaoh design and construct the first and it was in this field that Imhotep forged just one
true pyramid on Egyptian soil. Yet, after all those of his many legacies.
achievements in life, fate had a far more pivotal The Edwin Smith Papyrus, so named after the
role for him in death. His accolades became legend, dealer who purchased it in 1862, is purported
and in an age when gods walked on earth as to be based on the works and cases of Imhotep
kings, Imhotep was reborn a deity revered by and himself and describes in incredible detail the types
assimilated into many a culture. of procedures performed on patients
He may have been immortalised on in the age of the Old Kingdom.
the silver screen in the 20th century The document itself, a rarity
as an occult priest with a thirst for Some considering it depicts applicable
vengeance and immortality, but followers initially medicine rather than arcane
the reality we can discern from confused Imhotep treatments also attributed to
the records of the earliest of the the era, was written around
Egyptian eras reveals a very
with the Thoth, the 1700 BCE, but is likely
different man – someone upon Egyptian god of based on medical practices
whom immortality was thrust, archaeology, math performed a thousand years
long after his consent could have previous. It describes around
and healing
been obtained. 48 procedures, ranging from
Records surrounding Imhotep’s the treatment of head traumas to
earliest years are patchy, but estimates tumours and spinal issues. Whether this
place his date of birth in the vicinity of 2650 BCE. document was truly based on Imhotep’s own
His father is said to have been a man named work or simply inspired by his legend isn’t clear,
Kanofer, who was a celebrated architect; his mother but his medical genius was undisputed and would
is said to have a woman called Khreduonkh from drive his later deification.
the province of Mendes. The particulars of his However, it should be said that Imhotep was
childhood and his ascent into young manhood not a man of pure science in a world that clung to
remain shrouded in even deeper layers of mystery, magic and superstition. To the Ancient Egyptians,
but it’s clear that, at some point in the early years magic and science were one, and Imhotep is as
of King Djoser’s reign, the young man was rising likely to have studied and conducted practices as a
© Alamy
in prominence. A veritable polymath, Imhotep sage as he would have as a physician. Imhotep was
80
Pyramids of a polymath
IMHOTEP
“A veritable c. 2650-2600 BCE
polymath, Brief
Bio
Imhotep is famed for
being one of very
few commoners to
Imhotep became
have been afforded
divine status after his
death. As an architect, engineer,
physician, high priest of the
famed for sun god Ra and chancellor to

the pharaoh Djoser, Imhotep
reached a status rarely
achievable outside the ruling
his intellect” elite. Pyramids of his design still

stand today in Sakkara.
81
a radical thinker, but he was still a product of the oversee huge swathes of office, from religious
time in which he lived. quandaries to matters of state, and had influence
Those early cinematic depictions of Imhotep as in areas such as the treasury, the maintenance
a maniacal holy man may have sent chills down of agriculture across the land and the Egyptian
the spines of audiences, but that fictional detail judicial system. It was a position of utmost power,
has roots in reality, too. Religion was a key part of and the king was quick to put every facet of
Ancient Egyptian life – the actions, wisdom and Imhotep’s intellect to good use.
favour of the gods permeated every facet of life, Djoser then tasked Imhotep with designing a
so it seemed appropriate that the inquisitive mind tomb fit for a monarch under the gods, a testament
of Imhotep would find intellectual refuge in the to his rule that would stand tall above all. Prior to
church. He entered the church of Ra – the Sun god this, kings and queens had been buried in relatively
often linked with the local deity equivalent known simple structures known as mastabas, which were
as Atum – and quickly rose to the position of High usually rectangular in shape and flat-roofed with
Priest. The city of Memphis was the capital at the sloping sides. Imhotep’s answer would be radical:
A king’s time, and the home of the pharaoh himself – it a step pyramid that soared to 62 metres in height
skyward would have remained the seat of power in the

Third Dynasty, but Heliopolis (the birthplace of the
and was constructed from stone and limestone.
This type of pyramid differs from the those found
ambitions
As with Imhotep – the man with whom Djoser has
Church of Ra) would have likely been the
religious epicentre of the country.
in later dynasties due to the sharp angles
of its design (the ‘step’ comes from the
Whether it was due to his stacking of six mastabas, each one
become so closely associated – the Third-Dynasty king is
a figure steeped in mystery. He is sometimes attributed
prowess as a scribe, a physician As with many decreasing in size from bottom
with founding said dynasty, however, whether he actively or a budding engineer, Imhotep to top). On the scale Imhotep
established a distinction between the last kings of Egypt eventually found himself
of the gods, planned, it was revolutionary
and himself or not, his desire to build new monuments
rubbing shoulders with people Imhotep began to concept, and in execution, it
and tributes contrasts the instability of the First and
Second Dynasties. from high places in King draw his own cult of was said to be an unparalleled
Even Djoser’s parentage remains shrouded in mystery. Djoser’s court. The Third- followers throughout
Queen Nimaethap is mentioned on a jar sealing Dynasty monarch was keen to
relating to King Khasekhemwy, the last monarch of
memorialise the legacy of his the centuries
the Second Dynasty, so some historians have taken
this to mean Nimaethap and Khasekhemwy are in fact royal house and reign long after
Djoser’s parents. A number of historians have also argued his death. He wanted a necropolis
over the length of Djoser’s reign, but most agree that he
ruled for just under three decades. In that time, Djoser
that would last forever, and it soon
funded and commissioned the first pyramid ever built became apparent Imhotep’s technical mind was the
on Egyptian soil. A colossal undertaking at the time, the perfect tool for the job.
creation of the Step Pyramid at Sakkara suggests that Imhotep rose through the ranks of Djoser’s court,
Djoser’s kingdom was not only substantially solvent
at the time, but also relatively peaceful. Wars – both eventually ascending to one of the very highest
domestic and foreign – empty treasuries, so it’s unlikely positions any man, commoner or noble could attain
Djoser was engaged in any significant conflicts during his under the king: vizier. As vizier, Imhotep served as
time as king.
one of the king’s most trusted advisors. He helped

Djoser becomes king Step Pyramid completed
2670 BCE 2611 BCE
Believed to have inherited the crown from Khasekhemwy After years of planning and construction, the Step Pyramid
or possibly Nebka – both of whom are associated with the and eventual tomb of King Djoser is finally finished. The
Second Dynasty – King Djoser was one of the founders of pyramid itself was built by using ramps to shift the heavy
the more prosperous age of the Old Kingdom. While he stones into position, while tools such as large-scale rollers
would go on to commission the impressive step pyramid were employed to roll the stones into their proper places.
at Sakkara (Saqqara), the monarch initially wanted to The rough stone used to form the core was likely gathered
build a tomb at Abydos, but the project was ultimately from the Great Trench being dug around the pyramid.
left unfinished. King Djoser would go on to serve for just The inside of the pyramid is been designed to resemble Statues and other depictions of
Imhotep often show him seated
under three decades as king of Egypt. the pharaoh’s palace so that the afterlife will seem more and studying
familiar to him when he ascends.
Timeline
2650 BCE 2630 BCE 2630 BCE 2600 BCE
Imhotep is born Joining Djoser’s court Work begins on step The death of King Huni
Historians and After some time making pyramid The final (and oft
Egyptologists disagree a name for himself in As part of his grand vision contested) ruler of
on when Imhotep was Memphis as a priest, for a sprawling necropolis the Third Dynasty is
born, but around 2650 a scribe, a healer and at Sakkara, King Djoser believed to have died
is the most commonly a physician, the multi- commissions Imhotep to in or around the same
agreed upon time frame. talented Imhotep joins build a tomb worthy of an year as Imhotep. While
Ankhtow, a suburb of the royal court of Egyptian king and reaches up some texts refer to a
Memphis, is believed to King Djoser. to the heavens. funeral temple for Huni,
be his birthplace. Imhotep’s final resting
place remains a mystery.
82
Pyramids of a polymath
The cut-stone construction is believed

to have been the first of its large size
Having achieved godly status, offerings
from the sick were raised up to statues of
Imhotep in hopes of healing
The pyramid at
Forming part of Djoser’s sweeping Necropolis Imhotep’s deification was spurred on by the
complex, the king finally had a worthy tomb. When Persian conquest of Egypt in around 525 BCE,
Sakkara
The choice to use regular stone for King Djoser’s step
Djoser died, he was interred in the pyramid that when the god Nefertem was replaced in the great pyramid was not revolutionary in itself, but using stone
blocks to construct something as huge as a pyramid was
Imhotep had overseen as architect. But what of Memphis triad of gods alongside Imhotep (as well
unheard of. In order to hold the structure in place, Imhotep
Imhotep himself? After his incredible accolades as Ptah, the creator of the universe, and Sekhmet, used fine limestone (an expensive commodity at the time)
in the court of Djoser, Imhotep continued in the the goddess of war and pestilence). Then, when with packing in between. He incorporated the basic design
service of the monarchs who followed and is the Greeks conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, Imhotep’s of the traditional flat-roofed mastaba, but instead made
each section a square rather than a rectangle. Each ‘step’
believed to have died during the reign of King symbolism in healing and medicine became was constructed by building in accretion layers that leant
Huni, the last pharaoh of the Third Dynasty. intertwined with the Greek equivalent, Asclepius. inwards towards the core of the structure (rather than the
As to what Imhotep did during the those final This increased his fame and following in the wake flat, horizontal building technique used on mastabas) –
this design choice was crucial, since the structure needed to
years, it seems history lost track of the of the Ptolemaic era.
be strong enough to hold itself in place without imploding.
polymath priest. His tomb has never Imhotep’s cult reached its zenith in Imhotep added a passageway within the structure that
been found and some historians Greco-Roman times, during which led directly to the sarcophagus chamber, as well as a
have speculated that it’s buried his temples in Philae, Memphis and complicated network of tunnels and chambers. The pyramid
No record of itself was created as a means of holding and protecting
somewhere in Sakkara. along the Nile were often packed
Such were his achievements
Imhotep’s image with those seeking healing at the
the king’s remains and treasures, but it also formed a vital
part of a larger complex. A number of buildings, statues
in medicine, architecture, remains but there is hands of the god-physician. His and pillars were constructed on site, all of which were
surrounded by a stone wall that reached 10.7 metres (35
scripture and philosophy, Ptolemaic-era statue influence even stretched as far feet) high and was encased in limestone. The treasures of
it seemed the mark of attributed to h as the Roman Empire; emperors the king – 36,000 vessels filled with precious metals – were
Imhotep would long outlive Claudius and Tiberius both had lowered from above into chambers beneath the surface.
the man himself. Imhotep’s im in The Louvre, inscriptions praising his prowess The chamber only had one opening, which was closed off
with a 3.5 ton block.
long-standing association with Paris in their Egyptian temples.
King Djoser led to his name being But it wasn’t just as a symbol of
inscribed on one of Djoser’s statues, healing that Imhotep was glorified. His
Defining moment
but his presence was far more palpable godly accolades were commonly confused Biographical papyrus written
than a simple footnote in the history of a king. and merged with that of Thoth (the god of writing 200 CE
A papyrus originating from the Egyptian temple of Tebtunis
Around a century after his death, Imhotep’s and knowledge) and because of this, he grew to is written. Transcribed in demotic script, it depicts a
reputation as an impeccable physician, sage and be venerated as a patron of the scribes. In fact, it mixture of fantastical details and more realistic events
healer saw him reborn as a demigod of medicine. is said that some scribes would pour a few drops from ancient history. For instance, it makes reference to
Imhotep and his design of the Step Pyramid, as well as
Two thousand years later, ideas of his saintly of water in libation to Imhotep before creating a his close association with King Djoser. However, the story
prominence gained momentum and he was fully written record. In short, Imhotep’s many talents also mixes in Imhotep’s deity-father Ptah, his purported
biological mother Khereduankh and a little sister called
deified. He was worshipped by various cults of followed him into an afterlife of fame, and his Renpetneferet. It also, rather bizarrely, includes a battle
Imhotep during the 26th and 27th Dynasties and legacy ultimately transcended the actions of an between the Egyptians and the Assyrians, with Imhotep
followers would pay tribute at a temple that was ambitious everyman who simply dared to do more battling an Assyrian sorceress with magic.
built in his honour just outside Memphis. than had been done before.
2600 BCE 2700 BCE 332 BC 1862

Imhotep passes away Imhotep is made a Greek conquest of Greece Edwin Smith Papyrus
Information surrounding demigod Around 200 years discovered
the final years and Around a century after later, Macedonian-born The Edwin Smith Papyrus,
ultimate death of his supposed death, conqueror Alexander the rumoured to have been
Imhotep are sadly vague, Imhotep’s accolades in Great claims Egypt. The written based on the findings
but rumours persist life lead to him being new Ptolemaic dynasties and practices of Imhotep, is
that he built his own elevated in status to that followed also adopted purchased. It contains records of
tomb and that it remains become a demigod of Imhotep’s image into their medical ailments of the time, as
undiscovered to this day. healing and medicine. own cultures. well as spells and incantations.
83
LIFE &
DEATH
Discover how everyday life and even death was
guided by religious beliefs and practices
120
86 Life on the banks of 118 Egypt’s medical
the Nile trailblazers
Explore the rites and rituals that guided Step inside the workplace of an Ancient
everyday life and ensured entry to the afterlife Egyptian doctor
98 Gods of Ancient Egypt 120 Death & the afterlife

Learn about how the myths and legends of Take a look at the extreme death rituals
the gods guided every part of life that were practiced to achieve immortality
106 Inside the Karnak

Temple
Tour the vast and sacred temple of light
108 Sacred animals of

Ancient Egypt
Discover why the Ancient Egyptians held
some animals in such high regard
112 Magic & medicine

Learn about the gruesome medical treatments
of an advanced and educated society
Life & death
98
106 112
108
Inside the Nile:

‘Mother of all men’
Tour the iconic waterway that was the lifeblood
of one of the world’s most powerful
ancient civilisations
Sails
These were
square-shaped,
made from
papyrus fibre
and located on
the bridge.
Commercial vessels
They travelled from port to
port with soldiers and scribes
on board. They sometimes
measured over 40m (131ft) in
length, with a curved hull and sail.
Canoes Backbone
Life on the banks There were different types, Power Over the centuries, the Egyptian civilisation gradually settled along the banks of the final
The river was absolutely vital to made from reeds or papyrus. In the canoes, passengers 1,300km (808mi) of the Nile. Farms dominated the landscape around its banks, and its
the Egyptian economy, although They served as a means of either sat rowing or
its huge floods affected the exchange between traders remained on foot, waters were the primary means of communication. For daily tasks, small canoes were
settlements on its banks. and consumers. pushing with long poles. used; however, for trade or transporting passengers, strong sail boats were employed.
86
Inside the Nile
I
t’s impossible to overestimate the importance This life-giving river, known as Hapi in the age The pharaohs relied on astronomer priests
of the Nile to the Ancient Egyptians. The of Ramesses, was rightfully worshipped as a god. to read the stars in order to gauge the timings
7,507-km (4,665-mi) river literally brought life It was the chief mode of transporting shipments of seasonal floods, which were essential for
to an arid desert wasteland. Its fertile valleys of grain, gold and weaponry across the length of agriculture. Ramesses used marker stones in the
provided protection from the harsh elements, its the empire. Ramesses even placed his mortuary upper Nile to carefully record river levels; he would
waters teemed with fish and fowl, and the Nile’s temple, the Ramesseum, along the banks of the then send word to the Delta cities when the waters
seasonal floods deposited mineral-rich silt from upper Nile in Thebes. It doubled as a reserve bank began to swell. This was a cause for celebration and
the highlands to feed Egyptian soil, allowing for and could hold 350 boatloads of grain, ready for people sang praises to the gods during epic festivals
unprecedented agricultural abundance. shipment in the event of a poor harvest. that marked the start of the floods.
Ploughs Canals Cropland

The often-flooded, soft These distributed the Wheat and barley were produced in
soil was ploughed using water during swells of the the irrigated fields and transported Funerary monuments
draught animals. Nile to fertilise the fields. on a small and large scale. The sophisticated pyramid
construction required the
transportation of stone over
long distances.
Hunting and
fishing Lattice masts
Practised using canoes, with Located at the bow and the
nets for fish and spears for stern to steer the vessel.
Sculls aquatic birds.
A pair of identical
oars at the stern
acted as a rudder.
Shell
Made from planks
of cedar wood.
Hub of transportation
The River Nile was the link between the various Egyptian cities, from
the Second Cataracts of Lower Nubia to the Mediterranean Sea. A Strake
whole host of vessels travelled the river, transporting people and The row of planks that
covered the vessel’s shell.
goods from one side of the empire to the other.
87
Life on
the banks
of the Nile
As one of the best documented ancient societies
the world has ever known, daily life in Ancient
Egypt is remarkably well understood
H
uman culture has been a part of the Nile The Nile also made travel up and down Egypt
Valley as far back in time as 6000 BCE. very manageable, as well as facilitating access
That’s long before the time period commonly toward sub-Saharan Africa and north into the
thought to have seen the dawn of the Mediterranean for trade. The nation’s wealth and
Ancient Egyptian civilisation at about 3000 prosperity rested on the river’s shoulders.
BCE. At this time, the various communities of Our understanding of daily life in Ancient Egypt
the Nile Valley were brought together by King has been shaped so very powerfully by the
Narmer. The society that emerged would discoveries made by archaeologists since
continue to develop for several the early 19th century. Such evidence
millennia, all the way up until has granted us a huge degree of
For all of its
30 BCE, when Egypt was in the understanding of a culture that’s
throes of being colonised by the commitment to immensely remote from our
Roman Empire. order, Ancient Egypt own, and yet shows parallels
Like so many cultures experienced its own with how we live today.
around the world, the Key to Egyptian sensibility
beginning of human settlement
‘dark ages’, which was an emphasis on order
is typically profoundly was characterised as a means of negating chaos,
dominated by proximity to a river. by conflict an ethos established through
The River Nile, one of the most centuries of tradition and evidently
famous rivers in the world, became not keenly challenged or subverted.
the lifeblood of the people of Ancient For the highly developed religious culture
Egypt, who built their lives around its ebbs and of Ancient Egypt, this concept of harmony was
flows. The Nile irrigated the land for arable farming, embodied by the figure of the goddess Ma’at.
offered plentiful fishing and was equally plentiful Throughout its history, daily life in Ancient Egypt
in supplying the material needed for papyrus, was informed and influenced by this strong
in the form of the reeds that grew in the river. relationship with religious practice.
88
Life on the banks of the Nile
The Egyptian
army recruited
foreign mercenaries to
its ranks. Many of these
mercenary soldiers
were Nubians
89
Establishing
social order Society &
Ancient Egypt evolved a formalised class
structure, which was the foundation of social
order. A rigid social hierarchy denied what we social structure
I
would now call upward social mobility, which
was not a common experience.
n his immense scholarly work The Histories,
History records that individuals in society
could be defined by seven classes. At the top the Greek scholar Herodotus wrote a book
of the pyramid was the pharaoh, who was exclusively about Egypt set in the years
considered divine, and below him were the between 664 BCE and 525 BCE. This material
further seven levels of society: the priests and
officials, and then below them the warrior has been valuable to our modern-day
class. Below the warriors were scribes, and understanding of life in everyday Egypt. Herodotus
below them merchants then craftsmen. Below writes that “concerning Egypt itself I shall extend
craftsmen were farmers and the boatmen that
my remarks to a great length, because there is
traversed the River Nile and its tributaries.
Critically, we must recognise that the culture no country that possesses so many wonders,
also comprised slaves (typically former nor any that has such a number of work which
prisoners of war), as well as marginalised defy description…” Clearly, Herodotus captures
individuals and groups existing on the fringes
of the mainstream. something of the enduring fascination with
The most acute expression of the social Ancient Egypt in this excerpts from his work.
order was manifest in the money earned Interestingly, our insights and knowledge about
by the different professions. Practitioners
of medicine were among the best paid. In
Ancient Egypt have been informed by the
contrast, craftsmen earned meagre sums. written reports of Greek and Roman
Taxation is a central feature of nation states scholars who travelled to Egypt
with a developed infrastructure, and Egypt
was no exception, with administrative
between the fifth century and the Tombs from
emphasis crucial to its smooth running. second century BCE. Key writers the Middle
The pharaoh served as head of state and include Hecateus of Mitetus
appointed the great treasurer. Evading tax in 500 BCE. Hecateus’s work
Kingdom period
payment incurred severe punishment.
The nation’s clearly defined social hierarchy Periodos Ges (alternative title, would include models
was underpinned by long-standing laws and Periegesis, meaning ‘Tour of depicting features of
administrative structures. One of the binding the World’) offers useful insights
laws was the law of Tehut. Tehut was the daily life, such as
into what daily life was like. He
god of wisdom, and the culture’s broader
writes that Egypt is “the gift of the
farm scenes
sensibility adhered to a mood of integrity and
personal responsibility. Nile” in a phrase that ably articulates
the fascination that has endured for so
many over the subsequent centuries.
In the artwork of Ancient Egypt, the human period through to the time of Ptolemy. Across the
Pharaoh figures who feature largest in any given image on a three millennia of this period, we can identify
monument would have had the most social capital five key elements that shape our understanding
and standing. The lower a person’s position in the of the society: kinship (connection between
Government social order, the smaller their image in public art. blood relatives and through marriage), location
officials Suffice it to say, Ancient Egyptian society and its (connection between people born in the same place
structure adhered to a very strict sense of long- or who live in the same place), gender (connection
established social hierarchy. between people of the same sex and sexual
Soldiers In the Third Dynasty, the pharaoh Djoser unified orientation), age (connection between people of the
the country and established a very clear social same age), and social class (connection between
order based around the capital at Memphis in people born into the same social standing).
northern Egypt, just south of the fanlike shape of At the very highest rung of the social ladder, the
Scribes the Nile delta, which was comprised of tributaries pharaoh was regarded as a living god, in particular
that ran out to the Mediterranean. Under Djoser’s a manifestation of the earthly embodiment of
reign, the Old Kingdom era flourished, and Horus, the god of order, who was the son of the
Merchants it was during this period that kings were goddess Isis. The pharaoh was responsible for
regarded as gods on earth and pyramids maintaining order and ensuring that the gods
were raised in their honour. However, were kept happy with human endeavour. It’s
Craftsmen residing above all people – pharaohs also unsurprising that the pharaoh’s interests
included – were the many multiple and responsibilities included military campaigns.
deities, such as Ra, Osiris and Isis. The women at the centre of the king’s life were
In terms of society and social also accorded great status. One of the most
Peasants structure of Ancient Egypt, famous royal marriages was that of Akhenaten
we have to think about and Nefertiti. In cartouches dated to the Second
a culture that spanned Intermediate Period, the name of a king’s wife
Slaves 3,000 years, reaching would be represented. A number of Old and Middle
from the Predynastic Kingdom wives of kings were buried in a pyramid.
90
A granite scribe statue of
the vizier Paramessu
Day in the
life of a vizier
A vizier’s day was replete with
administrative tasks and a lot of
people management
The importance of public administration was of
great emphasis in this time. Overseeing these
administrative systems were viziers, provincial
governors and senior officials, which were
positions occupied by the nobility.
07:00 am
Get myself dressed in that splendid new linen
robe. Breakfast of fruit and bread and then see
that son heads off to school for scribal study.
Meeting with pharaoh first thing to update
him on new public building programme. Don’t
forget writing instruments and papyrus to make
shorthand notes with.
Ancient Egyptian warriors
in traditional dress
09:00 am
Work from office in Thebes attending to budget
“The women at the centre of the king’s for current public works building programme.
Meet with provincial governor to discuss
administrating records for the forthcoming
life were also accorded great status” harvest. A junior scribe sits in on the meeting to
record notes for the governor. He’s not a fan of
writing at all.
Below the king on the social pyramid was the comprised most people in Ancient Egypt. Their
ruling elite, comprised of nobles and priests. There lives are rarely recorded in extant Egyptian texts. 13:00 pm
Meet with the chief of police for a monthly
may have been family connections between the However, we have been able to develop a sense of update on arrests and other related issues. The
monarchy and the elite strata, although not in their lives through archaeological work on funerary chief explains that his men need stronger legal
every case. A famous exception to this rule was objects. Weaving throughout society were slaves, powers as the border country to the west has
Imhotep; an elite scribe educated in mathematics, who occupied the lowest of the social classes yet become highly susceptible to criminal activity.
Must be sensitive to those more marginalised
writing, medicine and architecture; he rose through played an integral part in the life of the upper groups who aren’t endeavouring to exploit our
the ranks to become an adviser to Djoser. classes. It seems the idea of freedom, as we might city’s opportunities.
The children of a high-level government official understand it today, was not embraced.
in Ancient Egypt could expect a rather different Yet, through surviving writings and information 17:00 pm
kind of upbringing and life in general, compared available on its numerous public architecture, Write up notes of the day’s meetings and then
take a meeting with the Medjay bowmens’ chief
to the child of any other social order beneath monuments and art, we get some sense of a archer. We discuss required new resources and
them on the social hierarchy. Typically, Egyptian culture that saw women enjoy some kind of information about ongoing threats to the safety
writing was the product of the elite class and was social mobility, albeit within the parameters of an of the public. I consult a legal document to
remind the chief archer of the protocol when
indicative of their life experiences. Below the elite overriding patriarchy. Perhaps it is surprising, then,
making an arrest.
were the craftsmen and physicians of Egyptian that the wife of a pharaoh would have often been
society – these comprised what we would today directly involved in military matters and helping
18:00 pm
consider the middle class. influence important policies. Given the country’s Unexpected call out to the riverside to supervise
At the other end of the scale, manual labour emphasis on order in its multifarious contexts, arrival of a delegation of priests from Memphis for
was seen as less worthy of respect than work that Egyptian males’ ‘openness’ to elite women’s a festival. Catch up with my daughters. Spend the
evening with my wife and my brother. Delighted
involved writing or arithmetic. At the lowest rung freedom runs counter to the stress so clearly placed by his rendition of the New Kingdom poem The
on the social order were farmers – the class that on marriage and motherhood. Flower Song – a real favourite of ours.
91
Home life
T
hrough the trail of archaeological the day-to-day running of the household were the another living space, which was especially handy
excavations, we have come to gain an slaves, who would assist an elite man in washing for the poorest of society. They lived in single-room
insight into some class-based variations and shaving for the day ahead. Husband and wife houses that were furnished primarily with mats
in the rhythms and patterns of life in an would boast a servant each to assist their morning and perhaps a single stool. To keep the sunlight
Ancient Egyptian home. preparations, in addition to servants who would get and heat at bay, windows would be covered with
An ordinary working Egyptian man, such as a the children ready for the day ahead. A nobleman reed mats. There was also no running water, so it
farmer, would have had no slaves at the home to would also employ a man to supervise his land in would have been sourced from a local well.
help him prepare for the day ahead. His wife would terms of arable and pastoral work. For all of its seeming remoteness from our
have been responsible for preparing the children The homes of Egyptians were constructed from own lives, the daily lives of a typical family in
for the day. A bench would suffice as a place to a combination of mud and papyrus, the climate Ancient Egypt revolved around an extended
eat at and the family would sit on reed mats. understandably informing the kind of building family, particularly among the rural communities.
When the farmer went out to work on his land, his materials used. However, with the Nile flooding Away from these rural communities, in a city
wife would typically remain at home and tend to annually, materials shifted to bricks made from like Memphis or Thebes, houses were in close
domestic work, such as preparing food. clay and mud. Among so many other things that proximity to each other. Given the commonality
A farmer would have been required to take some we can thank the Egyptians for, the word ‘adobe’, of shopkeeping, the ground floor of a property
of his harvest to the temple as payment for using which stems from the Egyptian word dbe, meaning was often used for business, while home life was
the temple land. Evening meals for the family ‘mudbrick’ can be attributed to them. conducted upstairs.
were modest. Bread and fruit would have been Contrasting with the very modest conditions
staples of the everyman’s daily diet, and beer was a of most Egyptian homes, those of the elite might
commonly consumed drink. have as many as 30 rooms, as well as a garden
In contrast with the ordinary labourer’s home, with space enough for many guests. The flat roof of
the homes of the elite were well appointed. Key to an Egyptian house meant that it could be used as
“Key to the day-to-day Ventilation

Ancient Egyptian houses
running of the household had vents on the roofs
and high windows to
were the slaves” allow cool air to circulate,

while preventing
direct exposure to
the elements and
discouraging intruders.
Strong walls
Like many houses of the Ancient
world, the walls were made of
mud – ‘dbe’ – bricks. Mud was dried
under the sun in wooden moulds
and the bricks were then covered in
bitumen to make them waterproof.
Entrance hall
Front door The first room on entering
This would have been
the house would have been
made out of thick elaborately decorated, with a
wood with a system of shrine to honour the god Bes, who
wooden safety locks. was the protector of the family.
92
Entertaining Egypt
Key to developing a culture’s sense of identity is not For the pharaohs, hunting was the king’s sport just as poems in a village named Deir el-Medina. The texts date
just work and big-picture value systems; how the it once was in Britain. Then there was the Nile itself, back to the period of the New Kingdom.
society entertains itself is also important to consider. which was the perfect venue for swimming and sailing. Children in Ancient Egypt would typically play with
Board games were hugely popular in Ancient Egypt, As with most, if not all, cultures, music was a key small models of animals, reflecting the rurally centred
notably one game called Senet – an especially well- part of the creative expression in the daily life of lives that most Egyptians shared. It doesn’t seem too
known and simple game that people played for more Egyptian people. The harp and lyre were widely used wildly speculative to suggest that, as in our own culture,
than 2,000 years. Senet simply involved throwing instruments, and we can imagine how perhaps their the forms of entertainment embraced by the people
sticks down in order to determine how far a player’s love of poetry related well to their musical inclinations. mirror somewhat the class distinctions that influenced
game piece would advance along a board. Archaeologists have excavated a collection of such and shaped their lives.
Roof Decoration Kitchen

People often slept and Walls would have been white Kitchens were well equipped,
worked on the roof. They washed and some were decorated with designated areas for cutlery,
also dried and salted with geometric patterns or pictures. utensils and jars. They also had
meat and fish up here. clay ovens, in which they baked
bread and other foods.
Bedroom
The Ancient Egyptians slept on mats that
could be rolled out, or on beds made of
threaded hemp with a wooden headrest
and a mattress filled with wool or straw.
Basement
This area would have been used to
Living room store food and valuables, and was
The Egyptians have been credited with inventing often accessible via a trap door.
the living room – a central room where members of
the family ate and socialised. These would have had
stools, tables and ceramic vases, with the best pieces
of furniture made from carved and painted wood.
93
Lessons in
educating Egypt
Mathematics
In this lesson, scribal students undertake training
in accountancy protocol, record keeping and
the requirements for maintaining budgets on
architectural projects so as to understand income
and outgoings. Don’t forget to bring your scribe
board and reed stem pen to make notes with.
Architecture
In this lesson, scribal students will learn the rules
of proportion and scale. We will also revise rules of
geometry and physics in order to identify issues in
organising the movement of building materials. Key
to our work will be how to record information about
issues with safety on site.
Poetry
In this poetry class you will recite three poems
handed down from our ancestors. In each of these
poems, we can learn something of the wisdom of
how to live the most full and orderly life. We will then
concentrate on transcribing three new spells and
three new hymns.
Hieroglyphic practice
In this class we will focus attention on Demotic
writing so that you can make notes quickly and then
develop full documents. We will then revisit the
storage of your papers in our archive of clay jars. You
will be tested on how to locate an item in the archive. Priests had to learn certain religious
manuals by heart and any inaccuracy
could negate the power of the act
Social and moral instruction
Instruction will be given by a chantress as you learn
several new hymns to share with your friends,
families and the wider community. You will then
transcribe her instructions. In your work as successful Education
C
scribes you will be required to transcribe meetings
on a daily basis. ertainly, education in Ancient Egypt was standing. What we know about education in
regarded as a means of improving one’s Ancient Egypt is derived significantly from The
social standing, and formal schooling was Books Of Instruction, which offer us a fascinating
a fundamental part of the lives of young insight into the dynamics of social life and the
people from the elite strata of society. expectation of right behaviour.
However, we can also say that Ancient Egypt was Historian J M Roberts writes that “the
a culture that recognised the more broadly bureaucracy directed a country most of
enriching value of education as a way whose inhabitants were peasants,”
of deepening one’s understanding making the distinction between
of the world. Education what we might call “the haves”
As we might typically expect in the home and “the have nots”. Thousands
to be the case, it was in the involved imparting of Egyptian boys would have
family unit where a child been educated to work as
children with a code
would learn and develop their scribes (in Egyptian the word
value system. Boys had the of morality, focused sesh meant ‘to draw’), and a
opportunity to be trained in the on maintaining the school dedicated to this was
work that interested them, but social order located at Thebes. However,
girls did not have this opportunity we need to be mindful that this
available to them. Education, then, education was enjoyed by only a
would have extended to include imparting minority and that almost all Egyptians
younger family members with a code of morality did not undertake a formal education. At this
(with its emphasis on maintaining order at both school, the students were educated in history
individual and broader social levels) and training and literature (tales, hymns and poems), as well
Many boys that received education
for a particular kind of work, whether agricultural, as different kinds of writing. Students were also
went on to become priests or scribes craftwork, medicine or work as an administrator. instructed in the disciplines of surveying, military
Each kind of job carried with it a certain social endeavour, architecture and accountancy. Memphis
94
Learning how to worship and

appease the gods
Because the religious instruction received from function bestowing on them particular authority.
the deities was accepted, preaching as a means At the school, students would also be taught about
of converting people who did not ‘believe’ was how to conduct purification ceremonies. These
unnecessary in Ancient Egypt. Festivals were a would be undertaken by a priest in order to prepare
major part of religious devotion and priests were themselves to enter the most sacred area of any
central to organising these. At the priest’s school, temple, namely the sanctuary.
students would be instructed in ritual, magic spells A student priest would be educated in the
and hymns and songs as offerings to the gods. particulars of the many feast days and festivals such
At the school, students would not refer to one as First of the Month and the New Moon festivals.
single text but instead to a variety of texts that One of the most important festivals for a student
described rituals and religious belief systems. The priest to be taught about would be the Opet festival
student would also be educated in the routines and that was given at Karnak.
observances of a temple. Alongside their more obvious, priestly duties and
A priestly role that students might aspire to would responsibilities, a student priest would be educated
be that of kher keb, which means the lector priest. in a wide range of administrative processes that sat This inscription shows the jackal-headed
This priest would read from a given text, this alongside their public religious functions. god Wepwawet and the earth-deity Geb
was notable for being an administrative centre of

Ancient Egypt; the emphasis on writing allowed
the Egyptian state to become evermore cohesive
and unified.
In a 1972 academic paper in the Journal Of
The American Oriental Society, Volume 92, No.
2, Professor Ronald J Williams of the University
of Toronto quotes from the Greek historian
Diodorus Siculus (writing in the first century BCE).
Siculus, who travelled in Egypt during 60-57 BCE,
observed that the students had “strong bodies, and
with spirits capable of leadership and endurance
because of their training in the finest habits.”
Diodorus also explains that scribal students
learned two kinds of writing, “that which is called
‘sacred’ and that which is more widely used for
instruction.” The type of sacred writing Diodorus
identifies is exemplified by The Book of the Dead,
which served as a key text for the people of
Ancient Egypt and took the reader through the
range of ceremonial beliefs.
Algebra would have been a very
important part of the mathematics
lessons taught to boys from the
Only boys
most privileged backgrounds.
from privileged Egyptian numbers were
backgrounds were developed using just seven
taught algebra, a ideograms: a single vertical
stroke representing one; a shape
fundamental part resembling an ‘n’ but which
of Egyptian was in a fact a representation of
mathematics a heel bone for the number ten;
100 was represented by a coil shape
that represented a coil of rope. An
ideogram of a lotus plant represented 1,000,
and an ideogram of a human finger was used to
represent a value of 10,000. An ideogram of a frog
represented 100,000 and 1,000,000 was a value
represented by a kneeling god. The young pupils
had a lot to remember!
Fictional stories, poetry and hymns all
The rituals performed in burial were learnt comprised examples of how an education in
© Alamy
through texts like The Book of the Dead

literacy yielded important literary material.
95
Working for a living

Ancient Egyptian workplaces comprised of some jobs that you might like to try out
Working
as well as those that you definitely wouldn’t
life
H
Best jobs Worst jobs istorian J M Roberts wrote that “Ancient
Egypt has always been our greatest visible
Agriculture inheritance from antiquity.” As such, the
Farm Owner Labourer archaeology and scholarship that has
As the farm owner, you’re very much your own A huge number of the population were labourers. subsequently developed around Ancient
boss and there’s no need to commute to work. They would work in the fields of farmers or Egypt offers us a sense of both the big and small
The big challenge for the farmer is dealing with as servants in the homes of society’s nobles. picture of the nation.
the inundation: the season of floods that comes Like the farmer, the labourer would be required
Social status, then, was connected with one’s
every year between June and September. During to work on public building projects during the
this time, farmers would do government work as a inundation. Labourers earned little money, with occupation: a relationship that echoes and
labourer on grand public building projects. very little opportunity for social mobility. anticipates what still holds true for so many in the
21st century around the world. When was the last
time you went to a social gathering and weren’t
asked what work you do to make a living?
Administration It’s essential to make clear the point that
agricultural working life was the broad base on
Vizier Servant
Living in a comfortable home and tended to by A servant in the context of Ancient Egypt’s which Egyptian society and culture was built. In
servants, a vizier enjoyed significant authority bureaucratic system would have been required the Early Dynastic Period and thereafter, farmers
supervising the work of other bureaucrats. to help prepare the vizier for his day at work, lived in small villages and cereal agriculture was
The vizier also advised the pharaoh on a wide attending to helping him get dressed and then the most important domestic product.
range of matters. Typically, a vizier would live in preparing breakfast for him and then making Key agricultural crops were emmer wheat and
proximity to one of the major administrative city sure he had all of his belongings to hand before he
barley. In their development of technology and the
centres, such as Alexandria, Thebes or Memphis. headed out to work in the city.
agricultural industry, Egyptian farmers developed
irrigation systems that expanded the amount of
land that could be farmed beyond immediate
Military proximity to the River Nile.
Another key agricultural product was wine, and
Charioteer Servant
A rather ‘glamorous’ soldiering role, or even Life at military forts would have been tough it was not only grapes that were used to produce
an elite role, you could say. Charioteers used and potentially dangerous for everyone based it: farmers also made wine from figs, dates and
composite bows, which meant that their there. The servants at a fort would have pomegranates. Common to all farming life were
arrows could be fired over a large distance. attended to the vast panoply of supporting sheep and goats, and wealthier farmers would also
The chariot was hugely important in giving the tasks to maintain an efficient fort, which would own cattle and oxen that would be a source of
Egyptian army a particular advantage. Charioteers have been populated by archers, slingmen, axe and
food as well as used for ploughing.
were rigorously trained in military tactics and club men, doctors, scribes and priests. All of society
combat skills. in microcosm. Essential to the organisation of the country and
its workers were the scribes. For a scribe, their
routine work would include writing up data about
Courtly life taxes, creating and administrating census lists and
drawing up calculations for the varied, immense
Pharaoh Sandal bearer
The highest authority in the land, and with Following behind the pharaoh, carrying his building projects across the country.
all of the luxuries and comforts of home sandals. If you look at the Narmer Palette, Egypt was indeed a country of grand designs.
that you could imagine. The pharaoh was you can see a sandal bearer at work. While it The tradition of a civil service is a long-standing
attended to throughout his whole life, and seems like an awful job, in one way or another feature of so many countries. Historian Dr Gae
was able to do as much as he wished to shape it wasn’t, as it was highly regarded work. The Callender has made the point that “the Middle
a more favourable public perception of him pharaoh’s sandals symbolised his highest status in
Kingdom was a time when art, architecture and
through the mediums of public art and grand the country and might also have been associated
monuments in the kingdom. with cleanliness. religion reached new heights but, above all, it
was an age of confidence in writing, no doubt
encouraged by the growth of the ‘middle class’
Religion and the scribal sector of society.”
Priest Mummifier Labour-intensive work on public buildings
Highly regarded as a wise communicant with the Given the emphasis that Ancient Egyptian culture and monuments was a constant feature of
deities, priests occupied a very special place in placed on preparation for death, the tradition working life for many Egyptians, and this
Ancient Egyptian culture. Becoming a priest of mummifying corpses, a weeks-long process, would have been supervised by the scribes,
involved an initiation ritual and taking vows. was a very ordinary part of working life in the whose education included sustained study
Temple priests were responsible for the smaller world of religious practice. The mummifier would
of administrative processes and principles of
temples, while a high ranking priest advised the remove the internal organs of the corpse and
pharaoh directly and performed sacred rituals. liquify the brain by putting a hook up the nose. architecture and maths.
In Ancient Egypt, winches, pulleys, blocks
or tackle were not used in civil engineering
96
A painting from the burial chamber of

Sennedjem showing a farmer ploughing
projects. Instead, levers and sleds and the use of Critically, women, while having not been
immense ramps of earth were the combinations formally educated, worked at all levels of Border law
of ‘hardware’ that allowed for immense pieces of
stone to be moved and positioned. It might be
society, and shared almost all of the same legal
entitlements as men, from performing the duties
and order
fair to say that the Hollywood movie The Ten of a royal household right through to piloting An Egyptian police force was not a consistently
Commandments recreates this kind of boats on the Nile and working as trained or administrated unit, but it did exist in
activity quite faithfully. market traders. Crucially, women the forms of what we could call policemen. Guards
certainly protected particular people and places and
Ancient Egypt, unlike its The River from the upper class served in the
maintained a patrol of a given place.
eastward neighbour of Nile afforded priesthood, often as chantresses, As time went on, the police force became more
Mesopotamia (modern-day Iran), an extremely high-profile and refined and the practices of its police captains
did not become so urbanised
Ancient Egyptians the resonant role in such a highly became standardised. The police force was tied
and, therefore, working life opportunity to trade religious community. quite strongly to Egypt’s military and, in its earliest
iteration during the Old Kingdom period, a police
for most of the population with civilisations in Key to Egyptian working
presence was very much a community effort.
was largely centred around the Mediterranean life was trade both within
Similar to the modern day Neighbourhood
agricultural work. Arguably, while and beyond its borders. Debate Watch, if a community could afford it, they might
slavery did have a key role in the and beyond continues about whether the trade hire guards to patrol and protect their suburb. The
social hierarchy of Ancient Egypt, benefited the working man or the more organised and administrated police force in its
it was not as prevalent as can be found pharaoh more. Because of the Nile leading earliest form was comprised of men of the Medjay
in other contemporary societies beyond that of so readily to the Mediterranean, Egypt could trade tribe who were highly skilled archers and came from
the neighbouring Nubia. So well regarded were the
Egyptian borders. relatively easily with the Mediterranean countries.
Medjay, that their tribal name became the generic
name for the police during the New Kingdom period.
“Labour-intensive work on public As the idea of a police force evolved, it did at

times function as a paramilitary of sorts and the
buildings and monuments was a Medjay would be engaged to patrol Egypt’s borders
on foot and on horseback as cavalry. The nascent
police force would also enforce tax collection
constant feature of working life for among Egypt’s citizens and might also function as
messengers between government officials when they
many Ancient Egyptians” were needed.
97
98
Gods of Ancient Egypt
Gods of
Ancient Egypt The Ancient Egyptians are perhaps best known
for their complex religion, whose hundreds of gods
were worshipped in some of the most spectacular
temples ever built
A
s early as 17,000 BCE, carvings of wild living things by simply speaking their names,
cattle alongside strange hybrid creatures while at the nearby city of Sais, creation was
at the site of Qurta in southern Egypt regarded as the handiwork of the goddess Neith.
suggest an early belief in the hidden forces At Hermopolis, life had been sparked into being
of nature. With Egypt’s earliest stone through the combined energies of eight gods, four
sculpture at about 7,000 years old believed to male frogs and four female snakes, while in the far
represent a cow, it is clear this was an animal that south at Aswan, the ram-headed god Khnum had
played an important role in the lives of the early created all life on his potter’s wheel.
Egyptians. So too did their desert environment, But the most important creation myth centred JOANN FLETCHER
in which the dominant Sun was worshipped as a on Heliopolis, where the supreme deity was the
variety of gods, much like the River Nile, whose Sun god Ra. Worshipped as ‘the Mother and Father Professor Joann
annual life-bringing floodwaters were likewise of All’, the Sun produced twin children Tefnut, Fletcher of the
Author University of York
venerated as divine. goddess of moisture, and Shu, god of air, who in Bio is an Egyptologist
As these aspects of the natural world gradually turn produced the sky goddess Nut and the earth who also works with
developed into individual gods, each region of god Geb, parents of twin couples Isis and Osiris, the museums of Harrogate,
Wigan and Barnsley. Her
Egypt also had their own local deities whose Seth and Nephthys. latest book is The Story of
characters evolved through stories and myths. One With Isis and her brother Osiris claimed as Egypt, and her most recent
© C. Turroni
of the key myths for the Ancient Egyptian people Egypt’s first rulers, they were succeeded by their BBC2 series was Immortal
Egypt with Joann Fletcher.
was the Story of Creation, when the primeval son Horus, then the ‘Followers of Horus’, demigods
waters of chaos receded to reveal a mound of earth who preceded Egypt’s first human rulers,
on which life first appeared. each of whom was regarded as the gods’ child.
Yet with so many different deities throughout Over the subsequent 3,500 years of pharaonic
the Nile Valley, each region claimed that life had history (c. 3100 BCE–395), Egypt’s pantheon of
been created by their own local god. In Egypt’s deities continued to expand as more gods were
earliest capital, Memphis, their chief deity Ptah introduced and some merged together, creating a
had emerged from the waters to summon up all complex and varied pattern of religion.
99
Meet the gods

Although almost 1,500 deities are known by name, many of them
combining with each other and sharing characteristics, these are
some of the main ones
RA GEB NUT ISIS OSIRIS

God of the Sun God of the Earth Goddess of the sky Goddess of motherhood God of resurrection
Ra was Egypt’s most important As the grandson of Ra and the As granddaughter of Ra, Nut and magic and fertility
Sun god, also known as Khepri son of Shu and Tefnut, green- was the sky goddess whose The daughter of Geb and Nut, Isis’s brother-husband Osiris
when rising, Atum when setting skinned Geb represented the star-spangled body formed Isis was the perfect mother was killed by his brother
and the Aten as the solar disc. Earth and was usually shown the heavens, held above her who eventually became Seth, only to be resurrected
As the main creator deity, Ra also reclining, stretched out brother Geb by their father Egypt’s most important deity, by Isis to become Lord of the
produced twin gods Shu beneath his sister-wife Nut. Shu, god of air. ‘more clever than a million Underworld and the god of
and Tefnut. gods’ and ‘more powerful new life and fertility.
than 1,000 soldiers’.
HORUS SETH NEPHTHYS

God of Kingship God of storms and chaos Goddess of protection
When his father Osiris became Represented as a composite As fourth child of Geb and
Lord of the Underworld, mythical creature, Seth was Nut, Nephthys was partnered
Horus succeeded him as king a turbulent god who killed with her brother Seth, but
on Earth, and became the his brother Osiris, only to be most often accompanied her
god with whom every human defeated by Osiris’s son and sister Isis as twin protectors
pharaoh was then identified. avenger Horus, helped by Isis. of the king and of the dead.
100
The animal cults of Ancient Egypt

The Egyptians greatly respected the natural with an animal’s head, as imitated by masked bulls and cows were worshipped elsewhere
world, particularly animals whose spirits were priests. Many deities also had a sacred in Egypt, with other animal cults including the
worshipped as divine. With Egypt’s earliest creature, which was worshipped in life then sacred crocodiles of Sobek, representing the
known art representing animals alongside mummified at death. power of the king, and the sacred rams of the
humans, various creatures were placed in The most important of these was the Apis creator god Khnum. There were also the ibis
human burials as early as c. 4000 BCE, and Bull of Memphis. Believed to house the soul and baboons representing the god Thoth, and
the relationship was a fundamental part of of the creator god Ptah when alive, it was the cats sacred to the feline deity Bastet. Such
Egypt’s evolving religion. then worshipped as the underworld god creatures were mummified in their millions
Gods could be portrayed entirely as an Osiris after its death when the next bull was as physical manifestations of the divine and
animal, or in human (anthropomorphic) form selected to continue the cycle. Other sacred symbols of Egypt’s devotion to its creatures.
PTAH THOTH NEITH AMUN HATHOR SEKHMET

God of creation and God of learning and Goddess of creation God of Thebes Goddess of love, beauty Goddess of destruction
craftsmen the moon As a primeval creator deity Initially the local god of and motherhood The lioness goddess Sekhmet
Ptah was a creator god and As the ibis-headed god of represented by her symbol Thebes, whose name means Often represented as a cow controlled the forces of
patron of craftsmen whose wisdom and patron of scribes, of crossed arrows and shield, ‘the hidden one’, Amun was or a woman with cow ears, destruction and was the
temple at Memphis, known Thoth invented writing warlike Neith, ‘Mistress of the combined with the Sun god Hathor symbolised pleasure protector of the king in battle.
as the ‘House of Ptah’s Soul’ – and brought knowledge to Bow’, was worshipped at her Ra to become Amun-Ra, king and joy and as a nurturing Her smaller, more kindly form
‘hut-ka-ptah’ – is the origin of humans. His curved beak cult centre Sais in the Delta. of the gods and Egypt’s deity protected both the was Bastet the cat goddess,
the word ‘Egypt’. represented the crescent state deity. living and the dead. protector of the home.
moon, and his main cult
centre was Hermopolis.
“Gods could be portrayed

in animal or human form,
or as a human with an
animal’s head”
ANUBIS TAWERET BES MAAT

God of embalming Goddess of the home God of the home and Goddess of truth
and the dead and childbirth childbirth and justice
The black jackal god Taweret was a knife-wielding Bes was a dwarf-like god of As the deity who kept the
Anubis was the guardian hippopotamus goddess the household who protected universe in balance, Maat’s
of cemeteries and god of who guarded the home, a women and children symbol was an ostrich feather
embalming, who helped judge protector of women and alongside Taweret, like her against which the hearts of
the dead before leading their children who was invoked carrying knives for protection, the dead were weighed and
souls into the afterlife. during childbirth to scare in his case he carried musical judged in order to achieve
away evil forces. instruments for pleasure. eternal life.
101
Obelisks
Beyond the third pylon stood a
series of obelisks up to 32 metres
high. These granite pillars were
Temples of
once tipped with gold to catch
the first rays of the sun and were
erected by pharaohs Tuthmosis I,
Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III.
the gods
The Egyptians built
temples as homes for
their gods, believing their Innermost sanctuary
spirits resided inside The most sacred part of the temple was
the innermost shrine housing the gold cult
statue of Amun, before which the high priest
their statues to which performed the daily rites and made offerings
stored in the surrounding chambers.
a constant stream of
offerings were presented Hypostyle hall
Beyond the second pylon lay the roofed hypostyle
hall. Made up of 134 columns, most 15 metres
As early as c. 3500 BCE, the Egyptians built high with the central twelve columns 21 metres
temples for their gods. Initially made of wood and high, each was carved to imitate papyrus reeds,
reeds, these soon became permanent structures since the hall symbolised the primeval waters
from which life first emerged.
of stone that formed the centre of almost every
settlement throughout the Nile Valley.
Evolving over time into ever more elaborate
structures, the Egyptians aligned their temples to First court
their environment, to the cardinal points, and to The temple’s first court once housed ten huge
the movement of the Sun and stars. papyrus-form stone columns that formed the
Each temple’s sacred space was also enclosed Kiosk of King Taharqa (690-664 BCE) built
along the main east-west axis, together with
by a huge exterior wall of mud-brick, within several smaller shrines and royal statues from
which the temple itself was made up of a series various periods.
of successive stone-built shrines and courtyards.
Accessed through pylon-shaped gateways once
flanked by tall cedar wood flag poles and secured
by huge cedar wood doors, the temple walls were Pylon gateway
The first of a series of ten monumental
covered in brightly painted scenes of gods and stone gateways originally with huge
kings, and like their floors and ceilings, often doors of bronze-covered cedarwood.
inlaid with precious metals and gemstones. A series of eight grooves in the pylon’s
Then, to heighten the sense of reverence, the facade housed a series of 60-metre-high
cedarwood flagpoles to which the gods’
temple layout became progressively smaller and standards were attached.
darker until reaching the innermost sanctuary,
which housed the gods’ cult statues. These were
believed to contain the gods’ spirits, before which
daily rituals were performed to maintain the Worship beyond the temples
divine presence and satisfy the gods who would in With access to Egypt’s temples restricted to royalty
turn protect Egypt. With the gods in residence, the and clergy, the temples’ outer walls sometimes
temples became storehouses of divine power that incorporated shrines featuring images of ‘listening
ears’. These allowed the gods to hear prayers from
could then be redirected through rituals for the
the general population, with the Amun of Karnak
benefit of the country. praised as a god ‘who comes at the voice of the poor’,
To keep these sacred spaces ritually pure, while the goddess Hathor ‘listens to the petitions
only royalty and designated clergy were allowed of every young girl who trusts in her’. People also
worshipped at home within small domestic shrines,
inside – the majority of people were confined containing small busts of deceased ancestors and
to the temple’s outer areas, where the main statuettes of favourite gods and past monarchs.
administrative buildings were located. For Egypt’s The deified queen, Ahmose-Nefertari, and her son,
Amenhotep I, were more popular than Amun at the
temple complexes were not only religious centres,
workers’ village Deir el-Medina. Families within the
but their outer precincts a combination of town home also used magic to keep out hidden forces and
hall, library, university, medical centre and law evil spirits, particularly during childbirth when the
court – places where people came together for the lives of mothers and children were protected with
spells, amulets and ivory wands, with masks worn to
purposes of community life at the heart of which imitate protective household deities like Bes.
lay the spirits of the very gods themselves.
102
Temple of Khonsu
This smaller temple was built
for Khonsu, son of Amun and
his goddess wife Mut. With her
temple located a little further
south, it is connected to the
temples of Khonsu and Amun
by further sphinx-lined avenues.
Temple harbour
Like most temples, Karnak
was linked to the Nile by
a canal which opened out
into a harbour fronting the
entrance. This allowed the
gods’ cult statues to travel
in and out of the temple by
water, and was also used for
royal visits.
Sphinx avenue
The processional route along Karnak’s main east-
west axis lined with sphinxes whose rams’ heads
symbolised Amun’s sacred animal. Further sphinx-
lined avenues ran along the temple’s north-south axis
to the temple of Amun’s wife Mut, and a further five
kilometres south to Luxor temple.
THE FESTIVAL CALENDAR

The Opening of the Year Opet Festival The Festival of Khoiak Festival of Bastet Festival of the Valley Festival of the Beautiful
(New Year’s Day) Month 2, days 15-26 Month 4, days 18-30 Month 8, days 4-5 New Moon, Month 10 Meeting
Month 1, day 1 (19 July) (September) (November) The cat goddess, Bastet, At the annual Festival of New Moon, Month 11
The Egyptian New Year The Opet Festival began The Festival of Khoiak was closely linked to the the Valley, the cult statue This festival celebrated
began with the start of the as an 11-day event when celebrated the life, death lioness Sekhmet and cow- of Amun was taken out the marriage between the
annual Nile flood, which the cult statue of Amun and resurrection of Osiris. like Hathor, these deities’ from Karnak and across god Horus of Edfu and
brought water to the desert was taken out of Karnak, Since this was based on the lively worship involving the Nile to Thebes’s west goddess Hathor of Dendera.
landscape and allowed accompanied by musicians, agricultural cycle in which much singing, dancing and bank. While it was here, the Beginning 14 days before
crops to grow. With the dancers, soldiers and the the crops cut down were drinking – all key elements statue visited the tombs the new moon, Hathor’s cult
floodwaters repeating the public. The procession grown again, ceremonies of Bastet’s annual fertility and temples of the previous statue was transported 70
moment of creation, it was travelled five kilometres included planting seeds in festival. Boatloads of men kings that were buried kilometres south to Edfu
a time of national rejoicing south to the temple of Luxor, Osiris-shaped containers. It and women would arrive there, accompanied by temple, where it was placed
when hymns claimed where the god’s statue was was celebrated when the Nile at her cult centre Bubastis the local population, who beside the statue of Horus.
‘the whole land leaps for joined by the pharaoh in floodwaters were receding, to celebrate, when it was would also visit the tombs 14 more days of festivities
joy’ and people threw secret ceremonies designed leaving rich, black sediment reported that ‘more wine is of their own relatives to involved the participation of
© Mark Millmore
flowers, offerings and even to replenish royal power, on the riverbanks into which drunk at this feast than in feast with their spirits and the royal family alongside
themselves into the water. amidst feasting and rejoicing. new crops were planted. the whole year’. leave them offerings. the general population.
103
Power of the priests

Ancient Egypt’s priests were known as ‘servants of
god’, who carried out religious rites before the gods’
statues instead of a human congregation
Each successive pharaoh was regarded as a child wife’ priestess to the deputy high priest who
of the gods, and as the gods’ representative on oversaw supplies of offerings and the temple
Earth, was also the supreme high priest of every scribes who kept accounts and composed ritual
temple. However, with so many different temples texts. There were also lector priests who read
throughout Egypt, the pharaoh’s duties had to out these texts, temple astronomers or ‘hour
be delegated to each temple’s high priest, who priests’ who calculated the correct timings
was often a royal relative selected by the king to for rituals, and temple dancers, singers
guarantee their loyalty. and musicians who entertained the gods
Within large temples like Karnak or Memphis, and impersonated them in ritual dramas
the power of the priests was considerable, wearing masks and costumes.
since the temples owned much land and the Other staff included the temple
temple treasuries were very wealthy. The priests gardeners, brewers, bakers and butchers
also controlled the gods’ cult statues, which who supplied the daily offerings, the
functioned as oracles, whose pronouncements temple weavers, jewellers, barbers and
were interpreted by the priests, and could pass wig makers who supplied both the gods
judgment in legal cases and even influence royal and their clergy, and the numerous
succession. At times when the crown was weak, craftsmen, carpenters and builders who
the high priests’ powers became so great that undertook building work, carried out
some took on additional roles as military generals, repairs and kept the temples in good
whose struggles with the monarchy could lead to order. In fact so numerous were such
civil war. personnel that eventually well over
Yet most of the time the priests carried out their 100,000 people were employed in the
role, helping the king maintain strong relations upkeep of Egypt’s three main temples
with the gods whose spirits were believed to dwell of Karnak, Memphis and Heliopolis.
within their cult statues. Housed in the sanctuary
at the innermost part of the temple, it was here
Priest Teti with his family: Teti is in the
that the high priest led daily rites, assisted by a centre with his father the smaller figure on
staff of male and female clergy, from the ‘god’s the left, also named Teti, and his mother,
Meket, on the right
Magic and medicine

Ancient Egyptian religion and magic were
indistinguishable, and hidden forces in both
were regarded as the main cause of illness
Although most communities had part-time medical men and
‘wise women’, people also slept in the temple’s medical centre
(sanatorium) in the hope they would be cured through divinely
inspired dreams. These were interpreted by the priests, some
of whom were also doctors. Since goddess Sekhmet controlled
the forces of disease, her priests, believed capable of calming her
powers, were therefore doctors specialising in diseases. Priests
of the scorpion goddess Selket, patron of healers, cured bites
and stings, while childhood illnesses were treated by invoking
the mother goddess Isis, whose famous magic appears in various
prescriptions including ‘a remedy which Isis prepared for the
headache of Ra’. Even deified mortals were believed to have
such powers, from the polymath Imhotep claimed as a son of
the god Ptah and later identified with the Greek god of medicine
Askelpius to the official Amenhotep, credited with miracle cures a
thousand years after his death. In most cases, treatment involved
wearing charm-like amulets, reciting magical incantations and
taking medicines made from all manner of ingredients, from
water poured over gods’ statues to sour milk and even crocodile
dung. All were listed in medical texts stored in the temple
libraries, covering specialist areas including surgery, dentistry,
ophthalmology, gynaecology and veterinary works.
104
Night
Ritual ablutions Before dawn
Since the priests had to bathe Ritual ablutions
twice a day and twice at night, To be ritually pure, the priests
a fourth bath maintained ritual bathed in the temple’s sacred lake,
purity, while the hour priest shaved off all hair and gargled
astronomers monitored the with natron salt solution, before
night sky from the temple dressing in linen robes and
roof ‘observatory’. reed-woven sandal.s.
Sunrise
Morning ceremony
Sunset At dawn the high priest entered
Evening ceremony the shrine and awoke the god’s
In a reverse of the morning spirit in its statue. This was then
ceremony, the high priest once cleansed, anointed and dressed,
more entered the shrine to put and offered the finest foods
the god’s spirit to rest, burning while frankincense was burned
spicy kyphi incense to create a to purify the surroundings.
restful environment.
DAY IN THE
LIFE OF A Pre-noon
Evening
Ritual ablutions
To maintain ritual purity
throughout the day, the
HIGH PRIEST
The high priest’s day was a series
Reversion of offerings
and ritual ablutions
Once the god had its fill of food
offerings, these reverted to the
priests had to bathe once priests as breakfast. Then to
again before re-entering the of duties performed at set times maintain ritual purity, the high
gods’ presence.
to satisfy the gods who would priest bathed once again before
re-entering the gods’
then keep all things in order presence.
Various times
Various rituals Noon
With numerous rituals Midday ceremony
performed by the high priest At noon, the high priest re-
and clergy at various times, entered the shrine, this time
these were not only set by burning myrrh resin while
the ‘Hour Priest’ astronomers sprinkling water to further
but carefully measured with purify the temple’s shrines
clepsydra water clock.s. and sacred spaces.
“At times when the crown was weak,

the high priests’ powers became so © Alamy, Corbis, Joe Cummings, Thinkstock, Walters Art Museum via Wikimedia Commons
great that [it] could lead to civil war”

Priestesses
Women were priestesses to both goddesses and gods, sacred processions with the king or his deputy the high
undertaking similar roles to their male counterparts and priest, and like them could enter the innermost shrine
receiving the same pay. The most common priestess to make offerings keeping the gods content. She also
title was ‘chantress’, with some women impersonating took an active role in defending Egypt by magical means,
goddesses in rituals and the wives of high priests holding shooting arrows into ritual targets and burning images of
the title ‘leader of the musical troupe’. Although most high enemies. As the role brought great wealth and prestige,
priests were men, as were the lector priests who read out kings appointed their sisters or daughters as God’s Wife
sacred texts, women held both these offices at times. Yet to enhance their own status, and eventually regarded as
the most important priestess was the ‘God’s Wife’, a title the equivalent of a king shown with kingly sceptres, these Anahi was a Chantress of Amun and the
held by a succession of royal women acting as the human women could delegate on the king’s behalf, both within the Leader of the Musicians of Osiris and Khnum,
consort of the god Amun at Karnak. The God’s Wife led temple and in matters of state. around 1100 BCE. Images show her playing her
sacred sistrum rattle for the gods’ enjoyment
© Joann Fletcher
105
Inside the
Karnak Temple
Unveil the process behind the construction of the
largest temple complex in the world: the temple of light
I The layout of
n ancient times the temple at Karnak was known
as Ipet-Isut – ‘most divine of places’. The temple
housed the cult of Amun-Re, the most important
deity in Thebes and dedicated to various gods
and goddesses.
Egyptian cult temples all share a similar design.
However, as Karnak began to grow in importance,
the edifice grew larger and more complex. Each
Karnak
Dissecting the various components of this
pharaoh extended the temple in an attempt to intricate and intriguing complex
outdo their predecessors in personal piety. Eager to
impress the gods, each king embellished the temple 01 Door of temple
with beautiful masonry and enormous pylons, and The temple door was an impressive
structure. This enormous portal,
decorating the complex with elaborate imagery and often made of cedarwood, was
military texts. The temple acted as a ‘generator’ of decorated with studs and sealed
spiritual energy. It was seen as a bridge between with large metal bolts.
the Earth and cosmic realms. Highly visible to the 06
populace, its walls were designed to instil both awe
and fear.
At Karnak, a religious ceremony would have 01 02
commemorated the establishment of the first
temple stone. The foundations consisted of sand- 03
filled trenches; although primitive, these proved
highly substantial. The temple pylons (weighing 05
thousands of tons) are still standing. Pylons,
columns, subsidiary temples and chapels were
crafted in sandstone, basalt and granite. Mined
from established quarries, the stones were removed
in blocks using stone-tipped drills and pounders.
Monolithic blocks (used for colossal statuary) 04
were excavated in one single piece. The building
materials were transported to the temple by river.
02 Temple pylon
The pylon was a highly visible and
impressive structure. Decorated with
military scenes, it was adorned by flagpoles.
05 Temple wall
03 Decoration of 04 Store rooms The temple was surrounded
the temple pylon and magazines by a large enclosure wall.
The pylon was highly visible. For foreign The temple housed large silos During festivals, the populace
dignitaries, newly arrived in Egypt, it of grain, beer and meat and were admitted within the first
Ram-headed sphinxes contained a warning. It was decorated with was the centre of religious perimeter. The sacred precincts
line the temple’s causeway
the image of the pharaoh smiting his enemies. and political affairs. were inhabited by priests.
106
Inside the Karnak Temple
The temple walls consisted of large slabs of stone
© Science Photo Library

that were chiselled with mallets and hammers; they
were then inscribed with religious and military
scenes that were designed to promote the pharaoh
as a devout ruler and warrior. Each 18th-Dynasty
pharaoh added extra buildings to the temple. For
example, the long-lived Ramesses II created the
enormous Hypostyle Hall that dominates the site
today. In most cases the stone walls were erected in
a series of decorated blocks that were interlocked,
meaning the craftsmen used very little mortar.
The masons employed metal chisels and wooden
The complex was extended Building materials set squares; they laid out their blocks checking
by 18th-Dynasty pharaohs came by river
angles and corners. The Egyptians didn’t use
pulleys to construct columns or colossal statuary,
but employed levers and rollers to raise large stone
monuments. As the 18th Dynasty progressed, the
temple complex began to extend across the East
Bank at Thebes. Construction workers erected
obelisks, enormous statuary and a sacred lake.
Karnak typifies the Ancient Egyptian temple.
08 It bears the standard features of most ancient
Egyptian religious buildings, yet surpasses all
others in terms of grandeur and scale.
08 Hypostyle Hall
This fabulous hall, built by Ramesses II, consists
of 134 columns, some of them 69 feet tall. The
columns, designed as papyrus plants, symbolise
the separation of the earth and sky.
09
10 09 Minor temples
Various temples and chapels can be found at
Karnak; some are dedicated to the wife and son
of Amun, while others were built by pharaohs.
10 Sacred lake
The lake was a symbol of purity. Ritual
cleanliness was important to the priesthood,
and they were fastidious with personal hygiene.
07
06 Great Temple of Amun 07 Causeway

This was the home of the cult statue or The causeway is lined with
god. Every day, the High Priest would tend ram-headed sphinxes. These
to the statue; here he would pray, leave creatures represent Amun in
offerings or provide incense for Amun. his animal form.
107
Sacred animals
of Ancient Egypt
The Ancient Egyptians held animals in the highest regard. Both
pets and wild animals were incredibly important to Egyptian
society, from mummified cats to chariot-pulling stallions
© Alamy
108
Sacred animals of Ancient Egypt
T
here are various symbols that define Ancient export cats out of the kingdom and there was even
Egypt’s spectacular place in history. The
civilisation is remembered for the pyramids,
a branch of government created solely to stop any
underground moggy smuggling. Killing a cat was
Scarab beetles
the Sphinx, hieroglyphics, pharaohs and a crime and anyone found to have done so was The study of these little critters lead the
distinct afterlife beliefs. Another enduring severely punished in front of a public audience. Ancient Egyptians to hold a different
element of Ancient Egypt is the role that animals The death of a cat was mourned in the same way perspective on life and rebirth
played. Ranging from household pets to sacred as a human and the family of the deceased feline’s
figures, animals, both domesticated and wild, owner would all shave their eyebrows as a
played a major part in the civilisation’s mark of respect. Dog owners went one
evolution from small settlements step further and mourned a loss by
on the banks of the Nile, into a
The shaving their whole body.
sprawling kingdom. Ancient Cats were by no means the
Like today, cats and dogs were Egyptians believed only sacred animal. Scarab
popular residents of Ancient that felines watched beetles were considered to be
Egyptian households. Many just as revered, as were some
families had dogs as pets, but
over the home and birds of prey like falcons and
they also accompanied groups were seen as spiritual hawks. Even some species of
on hunts as well as being trained guardians rather fish were seen as sacred and
as guard dogs. It is thought that several kinds weren’t eaten by
than pets
© Alamy
Egyptian hounds were ancestors the pharaoh and the nobility for
of today’s basenjis, greyhounds and religious reasons. Carp and catfish
mastiffs, and ancient inscriptions and were eaten in high quantities but this was Known as kheper, scarab beetles are an enduring
hieroglyphics have included dog names like ‘Brave primarily by the lower classes. image of Ancient Egypt. The insects are most
One’ and ‘Reliable’. As well as having a spiritual purpose, animals famous for making their dung into a ball and pushing
it around for their offspring to be hatched out of.
Cats meanwhile, were slightly different. The were domesticised to make daily life easier,
Ancient Egyptians watched the scarab beetles’
Ancient Egyptians believed that felines watched especially in industry. The Ancient Egyptians were distinctive trait and related it to the idea of rebirth.
over the home and were seen as spiritual guardians an agricultural civilisation and irrigation was used The god Khepri was a scarab and he was tasked with
rather than pets. They were very helpful to the extensively and effectively using the water from pushing the Sun across the sky, causing sunrises
Ancient Egytians, as they preyed on mice and birds the Nile. Donkeys were kept on farms as work and sunsets. The scarab beetle became one of the
and, along with ferrets, were used to keep granaries animals to pull ploughs and stamp down seeds. most important symbols in the entire civilisation and
amulets were adorned with the image.
and storehouses free of vermin. It was illegal to Cattle were reared for their meat and milk and
Some animals were

deified according to
Ancient Egyptian beliefs
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109
were a major part of the economy, with taxes put posed a major threat to traversing the waterway.
Gods in upon both their ownership and their trade. Farm Because of this, they were both respected highly.
the sky animals like goats, sheep, pigs, and ducks were also For pharaohs, lions and bulls represented their
eaten and used for fat, leather and wool but the power. Images of a bull viciously trampling over
chicken was not reared until the time of the New others, or a lion successfully hunting its prey would
The Ancient Egyptians were fond of
Kingdom. Some households kept monkeys as pets symbolise the strength of the ruler and of the
birds of prey, as they lived between
and they were trained to retrieve or steal things kingdom that they ruled.
both heaven and earth
for their owners. Early Egyptian farmers even tried A further use for animals was in warfare. At its
to domesticate hyenas, but this idea was peak, the Ancient Egyptian war machine
Falcon short-lived as it soon became clear was dominated by chariot-based
Falcons and hawks were that these wild beasts could not be combat. Powered by one or more
the spiritual guardians tamed in the same way as dogs.
Images of a horses brought in from conquered
of the pharaohs.
The use of animals varied lion successfully settlements, soldiers would wield
Hieroglyphs show
the birds of prey between regions. For hunting its prey bows, swords and spears from
spreading their wings instance, bee keeping was would symbolise atop a chariot to cut down
behind rulers and more popular in Lower and trample enemy infantry.
they were believed to Egypt and the insect soon
the strength of the Chariots were one of the most
be an incarnation of became a symbol of this part ruler and of their powerful units on the battlefield
Horus, the god of the
sky as well as Montu and
of the kingdom. Honey was a kingdom before the advent of cavalry.
Socar, the gods of protection widespread commodity and was Horses weren’t initially native
and strength respectively. used for food as well as makeup to North Africa and only arrived in
and medicine. Bee’s wax was used Egypt after its borders expanded under
to help mummification and was a very sought the New Kingdom. Unlike later Ancient Greek and
Vulture after resource. When an animal was killed, the Roman warfare, horses were very rarely ridden
Vultures were important Egyptians ensured that almost nothing was wasted and only the wealthy could afford a trusty steed
birds to the Ancient with meat, milk, skin, fat, horns and even the dung of their own. Donkeys and mules were used more
Egyptians and stood
all having a purpose. prominently to transport equipment and supplies
for not one, but two
gods. They portrayed North Africa was home to many wild both in war and at peace when working the land.
the ideas of royalty animals as well as the ones domesticated by Animals played a major part in death traditions
and protection the Egyptians. Jackals and snakes such as the and like people, were often mummified. The
and the gods they asp were popular symbols of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife and
illustrated were while antelope and gazelles were hunted for their anyone that died wanted their possessions taken
Nekhbet and Mut. Often
meat. Dangerous animals such as lions, crocodiles with them. This included pets and animals they
depicted on temple ceilings,
they were drawn with their and hippos occasionally came into contact with owned so animals as large as cattle were sacrificed,
wings stretched out. humans and the Nile was home to flourishing mummified and put into the tomb. In the afterlife,
shoreline wildlife such as birds, amphibians and they would once again accompany their former
insects. The Nile was vital to the Egyptian way of owner. There were even different temples and
Ibis life and deadly crocodiles and aggressive hippos cemeteries for all of the different animals that
Now extinct in modern-
day Egypt, ibis were
linked to Thoth, the
god of knowledge.
“Animals played a major part in death
Common on the
banks of the Nile,
many have been found
traditions and were often mummified”
buried and mummified Donkeys were very
© Alamy
in ancient catacombs. important load carriers
They were also associated in Ancient Egypt
with the gods Tehuty and
Djehuty who held the power of
language and had the intelligence to
educate and teach men new skills.
Ostrich
As well as birds of prey,
the Ancient Egyptians
admired the world’s
largest land bird,
the ostrich. The bird
was seen as the
embodiment of order
and was lined to the
goddess Ma’at, who
had an ostrich feather
attached to her headdress.
This garment was very popular
with Egyptian women as a result.
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Sacred animals of Ancient Egypt
Animal agriculture
The importance of cattle and other work
animals made the Ancient Egyptians
proficient at crop making
Some of the first domesticated animals in human
history came from Ancient Egypt. Husbandry was
a vital part of Egyptian life and using the Nile as a
valuable and enduring source of water, irrigation and
animal rearing was mastered. Cattle were farmed
in high numbers as were sheep, goats, pigs and in
later years, horses. The cow in particular was an
incredibly important farmyard animal to Egypt as
they provided milk, meat, leather, fat and horns, all of
which had their uses in society. They pulled ploughs
and would transport the wheat and barley grains that
were produced during harvest season, which would
produce both wheat and barley. Farmers had to be very
protective of their cattle and they were so valuable
that if left unmarked or even just unattended, they
would often be taken by a rival farmer. As with many
other animals, cows were sacred and were linked to the
goddesses Hathor, Isis and Nut.
A multitude of birds Ancient Egyptians didn’t make it into their owner’s list of wanted
could be found on the associated scarab possessions to take to the afterlife.
banks of the Nile and beetles with creativity
were held sacred by the Animals weren’t just killed to escort their owner
Ancient Egyptians to the afterlife; they could also be their food on the
journey to Duat, the realm of the dead. This was
usually fish or fowl and both were mummified
carefully so they would be preserved correctly. It
was also believed that wild animals like crocodiles
and hippos would be as much of a danger in the
passage to the afterlife as they were during life.
Sacrifices were so common that during every
Animals served as a constant year of Ramses III’s 31 year reign, 16,000 cattle and
reminder of the gods
22,000 geese were sacrificed. Many animals were
sacrificed to their corresponding gods. For instance,
dogs were given as an offering to the jackal-headed
Anubis, but cats were an exception and
were never killed for the benefit of the
gods. Over 8 million dog skeletons
and 500,000 mummified ibises have
been found by archaeologists in the
catacombs of the Saqqara burial site.
Many Egyptian gods were
believed to be in the image of
animals native to Egypt and acted
as their representatives in daily
life. Bast had a cat’s head and
Sobek had a crocodile’s head for
example. Geese, who were one
of the symbols of the god of the
Earth, Geb, were given free run of
the house and garden to ensure
that the god was happy.
The importance of animals to the
Ancient Egyptians can still be seen
in hieroglyphics and statues. It’s still
disputed whether animals and pets
were worshipped as deities, but what
© Thinkstock
is certain is that pets were beloved

by the Egyptians and animals
played a huge role in society.
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Magic &
medicine
From bizarre treatments steeped in superstition
to surgical procedures still in use today, this is the
fascinating world of healing in Ancient Egypt
T
ake a stroll through the history books and it’s Life expectancy was, in a word, terrible.
hard to ignore just how weird and gruesome Records imply mortality rates in infants were
the world of medicine was in ages gone by. catastrophically high, and for those who made it
And the kingdoms of Ancient Egypt were into adulthood, those senior years were short-lived
no exception, either. Over its 3,000 years of at best. Women tended to live no later than their
existence, Ancient Egypt became an epicentre for early- to mid-20s, while men fared marginally
culture, art, architecture and engineering. Records, better with mortality rates in the mid- to late-20s.
such as the Edwin Smith Papyrus, have revealed These figures could well have worsened still during
that the time of the pharaohs also produced an the ‘dark periods’ of Ancient Egyptian history
incredibly broad approach to ailments (otherwise known as the First, Second and
and disease. This was an age where Third Intermediate Periods), when the
science, magic and religion were breakdown in civil government and
one. Sages, physicians and the influx of foreign people and
healers were all part of the A healer wouldn’t external pathogens may have
same potent superstition and just tend to the rich made such a poor situation
created an ancient medicinal and the poor – one even worse.
cabinet that aided health. Much of our understanding
However, those medical
discovered relief shows a comes from the preserved
treatments were all well and physician attending the remains of Egypt’s ancient
good if you could last long childbirth of a queen citizens and nobles. It’s from
enough to actually receive it. these age-old cadavers we can
The pharaohs may have been infer some intriguing details about
off conquering far away lands and the diseases and health hazards
building monuments that seemingly faced by those who won the mortality
pierced the sky, but for the normal Egyptian folk lottery of infancy and young adulthood. Infections
who weren’t lucky enough to bathe in milk and be of the eye were common, as one would expect
washed in oils every day, the Egypt of the ancient living in a North African country surrounded by
world was a dangerous and merciless place to live. wind-whipped sand. Poisoning also seems to have
Diseases ran rife in cities, while deadly parasites been quite common, more from the treatments
lurked in the purportedly life-giving waters of the than anything else – scorpions and serpents were
Nile. Egypt was a place of ambition and innovation, sometimes used to treat afflictions, and some could
© Alamy
but it was also a land of death. cause blindness, paralysis and even death.
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Magic & medicine
113
Priests and doctors weren’t always one and the same, but
many shared positions in both areas, such as this priest
depicted treating a musician for blindness
A number of instances of tuberculosis, or more work their way through the body, causing a terrible
The Ebers Papyrus specifically spinal tuberculosis have been found, as amount of harm and making the host sick and
have traces of kidney stones (which can be deadly frail. And for those who dared to drink water from
if not treated accordingly). Evidence also suggests wells that drew on the Nile, they risked the chance
outbreaks of polio, influenza and smallpox across of ingesting guinea worms. Female guinea worms
the different eras of Ancient Egypt. Plague was would often travel through the body to a suitable
an issue too, just as it was in medieval and early nesting site, usually the legs, and force a host into a
modern Europe, over a thousand years later. weak and sickened state.
A ‘year of pestilence’ was recorded that made So how did the Egyptians hold back the shadow
reference to a potential outbreak of plague, but, like of Osiris, the god of death? Despite their distant
most aspects of a time this far in the past, it place in history, Ancient Egyptians were quite
The papyri unearthed in the last few hundred remains in conjecture. advanced in their ability to diagnose
years have radically changed our understanding
of ancient Egyptian medicine. Egyptian doctors
Then there was the Nile. The Some a variety of ailments and illnesses
lengthy river was the lifeblood (both long-forgotten and familiar).
recorded countless procedures and diagnoses in prescriptions
of Ancient Egypt; it was The remedies they used were
detail, creating a unique insight into how a healer were remarkably
in this era identified and treated everything from from its proximity that the almost entirely drawn from
inflammation to depression. earliest pharaohs could sow close to modern nature, so many of them
The Ebers Papyrus, purchased by German healthy crops in a Saharan standards, but some have survived to today as
Egyptologist Georg Ebers in the winter of 1873-1874 environment, while turning modern herbal medicines and
in Luxor, is one such document. A 100-page scroll the swampland of the Delta
were bizarre – such as alternative treatments.
roughly 20 metres long, the papyrus dates back
(a series of small rivers and the use of bacteria- Almost all of our knowledge
to around 1550 BCE, making it one of the oldest
medical papyri ever discovered. Another early tributaries that poured into the filled dung of these diagnoses come from the
medical document, the Brugsch Papyrus (1300-1200 Mediterranean Sea) into one of the incredibly detailed records in the
BCE) provides similar information to the Ebers. most agriculturally lush and fertile Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE),
The Ebers Papyrus covers a wide variety of stretches of land in the world. And yet it also the Berlin Medical Papyrus (c. 1250 BCE), the
ailments, illnesses and disorders, as well as over 700 proved as much a danger to the Egyptians as a Kahun Papyrus (c. 1900 BCE), the London Medical
remedies and treatments. It contains incantations
life-giving treasure. Papyrus (c. 1250 BCE) and the Ebers Papyrus (c.
and spells to banish disease-causing demons
alongside incredibly detailed – and accurate –
The Nile was teeming with parasites, so for those 1600 BCE) – each of which details the Egyptians’
descriptions of the heart. The Egyptians correctly who bathed in it or drank from it, the chances of knowledge of disease, anatomy and healing. These
identified that the heart was at the centre of the becoming ill were likely considerable. Those who texts express an incredibly precise understanding
body’s blood supply. The papyrus also states that went wading through its cool waters, most notably of human anatomy – the practice of mummification
the heart is responsible for pumping four separate along the irrigation channels, were in danger of gave those involved a deeply intimate knowledge
fluids around the body – blood, urine, tears and crossing paths with parasites like the Schistosoma of the body’s composition and natural balances.
semen – much in the same way medieval doctors
worm. This dastardly little blighter would bore And considering that many physicians were also
believed the body was based on a balance of very
similar ‘humours’. its way through your feet or legs and lay eggs in priests, it seems possible surgeons would have cut
your bloodstream. These worms would hatch and their teeth in the sanctity of mummification before
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Magic & medicine
getting to grips with the living. And that intimate to dental or eye surgeries involving nobles or even
knowledge was what gave the Ancient Egyptian the pharaohs themselves – an especially curious
healer the power to deal with almost any ailment. factor when you consider the importance of the
“When you come across a swelling of the flesh in eye in Egyptian symbology. The only evidence
any part of the body of a patient and your patient available confirms the use of topical remedies for
is clammy and the swelling comes and goes under eye maladies and nothing more.
the finger,” reads the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1500 BCE) Surgery became an advanced part of Ancient
in regards to diagnosing swelling and a potential Egyptian medical practice because, unlike other
tumour, “then you must say to your patient: ‘It is a civilisations at this stage in their development, the
tumour of the flesh. I will treat the disease. I will Egyptians had already developed a robust written
try to heal it with fire since cautery heals’. When language. This enabled physicians and healers to
you come across a swelling that has attacked a record certain diagnoses and treatments, and mark
A startling level of patient care was
channel, then it has formed a tumour in those that worked and those that didn’t. Sadly, employed by ancient Egyptian healers
the body. If when you examine it with no early medical textbooks have survived
your fingers, it is like a hard stone, The from this period, but texts such as the
then you should say: ‘It is a
tumour of the channels. I shall
healing arts Edwin Smith Papyrus are believed
to have been based on such notes
Day in
treat the disease with a knife.’ ”
The use of fire remains an
were a closely
guarded profession
and collected experience, hence
the importance they play in
the life
alarming means of treating
any sort of swelling, but the
and many doctors our understanding of how such
practices were conducted.
of a healer
most striking element is the
passed the knowledge The Egyptians divided
down from father 06:00 am
bedside manner. Here we see potential surgery cases into Since medicine was deeply rooted in the religious
an aspect of Ancient Egyptian to son three separate categories: treatable, doctrine of ancient Egyptian society, a healer
medicine that’s often missing contestable and untreatable. A treatable would have likely begun their day in the temple.
Sekhmet, the god of healing, would have been
from medical information from other case was something a physician could the likely point of tribute, as well as other smaller
ancient cultures, and one that typifies solve immediately, while a contestable diagnosis deities such as Heka or Serket.
the importance of sages, healers and physicians was based on the assessment that a patient could
in Egyptian society. During this time, the mental survive in their current state. If the patient showed
welfare of a patient was just as important as the resilience, a healer could then select the appropriate
08:00 am
A doctor would have treated anyone with an
ailment affecting them physically. surgical procedure to conduct. ailment, but it is likely the elite would have been
Surgery was another important factor of day- All surgeries were topical only. No invasive the priority on a given day. We could easily expect
to-day Ancient Egyptian medical practice. More procedures were performed, purely because no a healer to be called into the home of a noble or
even the palace in the middle of the night, should
importantly, it wasn’t a speciality as it is now, forms of anaesthetic were available at the time, an incident arise.
but a necessity for every physician to know and save alcohol. We know that the Egyptians reset
practise whenever and wherever it was needed. bones with splints and stitched up large open
Most procedures that took place, according to the wounds and complications of the skin. They were 10:00 am
Doctors of this time may have operated from a
evidence we have to draw from, were focused on also, rather unsurprisingly, extremely adept at the specific building (especially for procedures and
external trauma, and none was ever conducted use of bandages. surgeries), but they would have often conducted
inside the body. Interestingly, many of the surgical But that doesn’t mean healers weren’t afraid house calls around the city. As you would expect,
of using a blade as part of their treatment. The a healer would bring a number of pre-prepared
procedures we commonly see today – eye surgery,
remedies and tools with them.
dental surgery and those involving childbirth – practice of circumcision was also performed by
were either never performed or no evidence has physicians. Although we don’t know whether
been found to confirm their existence at this time. this was ever performed as a cultural or religious 12:00 pm
More bizarre still is that no records exist relating requirement, but the recovered papyri make A healer would also take the time to meet local
and foreign traders in the markets or bazaars of
the principality they work in. The success of a
A variety of surgical tools were doctor’s practice depended on the resources at
used by doctors of the time, as their disposal, and it’s likely they would source
seen in this wall carving rarer items from traders and merchants.
15:00 pm
a doctor might be called upon to operate on
soldiers in times of war, or even those injured
during the construction of a monument. Since no
anaesthetics were available at the time, alcohol
was used to dull the pain. Surgical procedures
would be bloody, but doctors were proficient in
treating wounds and amputations.
19:00 pm
With most of his major cases and responsibilities
taken care of, a doctor might have returned to the
Ancient Egyptian doctors temple to consult with High Priests, or to simply
purportedly kept their find a quiet moment to reflect and be at one with
remedies and ointments in
© Alamy
the gods. A healer might have also had duties to

travel kits for home visits
attend to at the temple itself.
115
frequent reference to the uncircumcised nature of were used in the treatment of both insomnia and the Ancient Egyptians held a great deal of respect
foreign peoples who they encountered. burns; camphor counteracted bouts of vomiting; and admiration for the animal kingdom and
A number of tools recovered from across the mustard seeds were used as emetic when believed the positive traits of a particular beast
Ancient Egyptian eras have been identified as needed, while mint was used to stop the effects. (courage, resilience, a hardy constitution) could be
being involved in the rituals of mummification, As Egypt expanded its borders during the Old, transmuted by the consumption or application of
which was a process in which internal surgery Middle and New Kingdoms, new ingredients and its flesh. For instance, a pig’s eye might be used as
would have been required. Some of the tools remedies would have become available as traders part of a treatment to cure blindness, with the hope
recovered, including early forms of scalpel, from Libya, Canaan, Nubia and those from the animal’s sight would pass over to the patient.
suggest that such instruments must further afield in Asia arrived in Egypt. These practices, from the reciting of incantations
have existed for circumcisions, The However, all these records of to the application of a salve or remedy, all fed into
amputations and other anatomical knowledge and practical the basic way in which a doctor viewed a patient’s
Ancient
operations to be performed. remedies seem to fly in the face being: the channel theory. The concept worked
Alongside the removal of Egyptians of the deeply religious fabric of much in the same way as the Buddhist chakra or
cysts and tumours, cases of seemingly had a Ancient Egyptian society. Magic the medieval European theory of ‘balancing the
amputations being performed remedy for everything, formed as much a part of the humours’. The body, mind and soul were viewed
have been recorded. There Egyptian view of the universe as one, were a series of 46 physical channels
was also a good chance of
including the use as science, so it’s unsurprising that ran through the body and intersected at the
surviving such a gruesome of aloe to treat that this broad theological view heart. In other words, they meant veins, arteries
experience; the experience of epileptic fits informed the practice of medicine. and intestines. It was a commonly held belief
the Egyptian physician and a vast The presence of demons or malevolent that demons and other forces would block these
knowledge of the medicinal properties spirits were sometimes presented or channels, causing internal strife.
of the natural resources around them meant diagnosed as being the cause of a particular Of course, the diagnosis of internal spiritual strife
that these ancient GPs were capable of treating ailment. By mind-set, Egyptian doctors took a could easily be taken as a shorthand for Ancient
incredibly severe problems. An amputee, for monistic view of ailments: there was no mental or Egyptian doctors having to balance a lack of
instance, would have had their wound treated with physical distinction. That’s not to say that these understanding of more complicated medical issues
willow or even cauterised in some cases. ancient healers ignored the welfare of the mind with an intrinsic need to appease the deep-seated
That knowledge of natural remedies stretched – the translations that make reference to putting religious DNA of the time. It was perhaps their way
far beyond surgery and fed into the everyday the patient at ease and exploring the problem with of consolidating the two ideas.
practices of a local healer. Mint and caraway were them drive this point home – however, we can infer Whatever the reasoning may have been, the
used to treat chest pains; mustard seeds, aloe and the mind was seen as a victim of an ailment rather healer of Ancient Egypt remains one of the most
juniper were used to treat headaches; poppy seeds than the actual cause. This does raise questions intriguing members of its society. And so it seems
as to how the Ancient Egyptians would have rather fitting that Imhotep, the polymath physician
approached or dealt with cases of mental health (a man often cited as the first true pioneer of
disorders, but with the intrinsic link to the most medicine) would be deified a thousand years after
powerful churches of the time, consultation with his death and become a symbol of healing and
High Priests and the visitation of temples to pray care. The archetype of the Egyptian physician
for divine intervention would be considered. was just that: an individual of many talents who
Practices also relied on a process known as straddled multiple principles while bringing healing
‘sympathetic magic’. Like many other cultures, to the people of the kingdom.
“Magic formed as Defining moment

Peseshet in control
much a part of 2500 BCE
Peseshet, who lived during the Fourth Dynasty, is the
the Egyptian view first recorded woman to have been involved in medicine.
Some credit her as a physician (although this fact remains
Most remedies and medicines administered by an

Egyptian healer were taken from nature - such as the
of the universe in contention), but she was officially recorded as the ‘lady
overseer of the female physicians’. This reference alone
is staggering – not only was Peseshet involved in the
© Alamy
pressing and grinding of flowers

as science” burgeoning medical marvels of her time, but there was
also a contingent of female physicians in operation then.
We know she existed because her son Akhethotep, an
important dignitary, kept her stele in his mastaba in Giza.
Timeline
2650 BCE
O Imhotep is born O First recorded surgery O Imhotep becomes O Kahun Papyri O Kahun Gynaecological
Around this time, the performed healing demigod written Papyrus written
polymath and architect According to the Edwin Roughly a century after A collection of texts Sometimes considered part
of Egypt’s first pyramid Smith Papyrus and other his death, the pioneer is gathered together of the Kahun Papyri, but
is born. Imhotep is resources, the very of Egyptian medicine around the time an intriguing document in
also rumoured to have first instance of topical becomes semi-deified of Amenemhat its own right, the Kahun
authored the Edwin surgery is performed by as a god of healing III’s reign. These Gynaecological Papyrus deals
Smith Papyrus. an Egyptian physician. and medicine. documents include exclusively with women’s
2650 BCE 2750 BCE 2700 BCE a selection of hymns health in ancient Egypt.
and medical records. 1800 BCE
1825 BCE
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Magic & medicine
Tools of
Prosthetics
Since amputations were a common
procedure performed by healers,
prosthetics also played an important part
the trade
in the rehabilitation process. Some were
made of wood or wax, but many were
made of leather and animal hide, such as
this prosthetic toe.
Taking a look inside the Ancient

Egyptian healer’s toolbox
Scalpels and blades

While cutting tools were common in the practice
of mummification, they were also an important Pestle and mortar
part of a healer’s medicine bag. Blades such as The mortar and pestle played a vital
these would have been used to bleed blisters, cut part in a healer’s everyday life –
away abscesses and more. salves and pastes were often made
from natural resources.

Edwin Smith Papyrus Herodotus visits Egypt
written 440 BCE
1600 BCE Greek historian Herodotus visits Egypt
This papyrus remains the most detailed and during the reign of King Cambyses II (the
enlightening medical text recovered from the time Persian monarch who successfully invaded
of the pharaohs. It details 48 case histories, covering and conquered Egypt) and spends most
everything from infections to serious trauma. It lists of his time in the Delta region. He records
the procedures for assessing a patient, including the details of the mummification process and
recording of visual clues and smelling the wound, the practice of medicine at the beginning
as well as the taking of the pulse. Interestingly, it is of the Persian occupation. However, some
in the Edwin Smith Papyrus that the word ‘brain’ of his findings have been contradicted by
appears for the first time in recorded history. archaeological discoveries.
O Ebers Papyrus written O Berlin Medical O London Medical O Homer references Egypt O Rosetta Stone
One of the oldest and most Papyrus written Papyrus written More of an epic poet than decrypted
influential of the recorded The Berlin Medical This particular document a traditional historian, The Rosetta Stone is
medical papyri, the Papyrus, otherwise mainly deals with Homer nonetheless finally decoded, proving
document is later bought known as the Brugsch remedies and treatments includes references to an invaluable cypher for
from a dealer in Luxor Papyrus, is a companion and lists a total of 61 Egyptian healers in The reading and translating
(Thebes) in 1873. document to the Ebers’ recipes. 25 of these are Odyssey, stating that “In hieroglyphics. From this
© Alamy; Abi Daker
1600 BCE scroll and includes considered ‘medica’, Egypt, the men are more discovery, the famous
information on fertility while the others are skilled in medicine than medical papyri would spill
and contraception. magical in nature. any of human kind.” their secrets.
1250 BCE 800 BCE 800 BCE 1822
117
Egypt’s medical
trailblazers
Offering the world’s first formalised medical
04 Assistants
Most doctors would have
assistants to keep the patient
immobilised and help with
equipment. An assistant was
also a sign of status.
treatments, take a look inside a healer’s den in

around 1550 BCE
03 Professionals
Doctors were some of the most
well-respected figures in Egyptian
society. In their clinical practices
they used medical equipment,
01 Washing hands remedies and prayers to the gods.
Egyptian doctors understood
that hygiene was vital. 02 Utensils
However, they mistakenly Surgical materials were
believed that the water from improved and become more
the Nile was purified. precise due to the anatomical
knowledge gained from the
mummification process.
03
04
01
05
02
05 Convalescence
The Egyptians did not know about
anaesthesia, so patients would be
conscious when operated on and
treated. However, they did use different
types of painkillers and drugs which
helped to numb the patients’ pain.
118
Egypt’s medical trailblazers
D
uring the Ancient Egyptian civilisation, the treatment more effective. Despite this strong focus empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and
first examples of what we would in modern on the supernatural, Ancient Egyptian doctors practical treatments. Doctors would perform tasks
times call doctors emerged. Imhotep is also made very important discoveries about how such as stitching wounds, setting broken bones and
considered by many to be the first great the human body worked, and they knew that the amputating diseased limbs.
doctor, and during the time period of 260 heart, pulse rates, blood and air were important These first doctors held highly prestigious
BCE the doctor, architect and priest diagnosed over to the workings of the human body and that a positions due to their invaluable knowledge of
200 ailments and prescribed medical treatments weak heartbeat meant that the patient had serious different illnesses and treatments – not to mention
for them all. Such was his influence that after he problems to face. their ability to read and write. They were trained
died he was worshipped as a god of healing. Ancient papyri have also been found that make in the medical schools of temples and travelled
That Imhotep was also a priest wasn’t unusual as specific reference to organs such as the spleen, throughout the land to heal royal families and
for the Egyptians – a god-fearing people with many lungs and the heart, which shows that doctors those who could afford their expertise. Egyptian
different deities – treatment such as painkillers and could treat illnesses individually. In fact, there was doctors used to commonly classify illnesses into
cleaning a wound went hand in hand with asking a high degree of specialisation among Egyptian three categories: those related to the action of evil
higher powers for help. It was not uncommon physicians, with some treating only the head or spirits; to clear causes such as wounds, and those
for a witch doctor to accompany a doctor on the stomach, while others were eye doctors and with unknown causes, which were attributed to the
their rounds, making spells aimed at making the dentists. Surviving medical papyri also show will of the gods.
06 Pharmacopoeia 07 Witch doctor

Remedies with medicinal properties Despite having a good
were recorded in papyrus that understanding of the human
included instructions on their body, Egyptian doctors also
preparation. It is through such material believed in the power of the
that much medical information from spirits to heal. A witch doctor
this period is still available. would make the necessary magic
spells to make the treatment
more effective and increase the
chances of success.
06
07
© Sol 90 Images
119
The Ancient
Egyptians
worshipped more
than 1,400 gods
and goddesses
120
Death, burial & the afterlife
Death, burial
& the afterlife
It was home to a thriving civilisation, but it was
in the land beyond the grave that the Egyptians
believed they truly came to life
B
eneath the burning hot sands of the battling gods, monsters and gatekeepers until it
Eastern Desert lie the remains of one reached the Hall of Judgement. Here, it would
of the greatest civilisations the world be brought before 42 divine judges, to whom
has ever seen. The Ancient Egyptians it would have to prove its worthiness for the
flourished along the banks of the River afterlife. If successful, the spirit could then
Nile between the third and first millennia BCE, proceed to the Weighing of the Heart ceremony.
with an empire that stretched as far north as Its heart, which contained a record of all its
modern-day Syria and as far south as Nubia in good and bad deeds, was weighed against the
northern Sudan. feather of the goddess Ma’at. If the heart was
These people led rich lives. The fertile soil heavier, it was thrown to the crocodile-headed
gave rise to a thriving agricultural society demoness Ammut and the soul was cast
that developed some of the most advanced into the darkness. If the scales balanced, the
farming techniques of the ancient world. Their soul could pass on to the Field of Rushes – a
building projects were unparalleled, and they heavenly reflection of life on Earth.
forever altered the Egyptian skyline with their With so much to compete with in death, the
towering temples and imposing pyramids. Ancient Egyptians spent their lives preparing for
Their armies were undefeated, their science was it. As well as trying to avoid sin, funerary items
revolutionary, and their art provided a blueprint were purchased, coffins were commissioned
for the Renaissance masters. and tombs were built, many of which were more
But it was in death that the Egyptians elaborate than their earthly homes.
believed they truly lived. Their faith in the But it’s the preparation of the body itself after
afterlife was unshakeable, but entry was not death that continues to capture the imagination;
guaranteed. The spirit of the dead would first it is at the centre of our enduring fascination
have to navigate through a perilous underworld, with death in Ancient Egypt.
121
Mummification
The gory embalmment process was able to produce mummies that would last for eternity
E
ternal life wasn’t just about preserving the tombs. The most complicated mummification would be washed in river water. It was then taken
spirit. The deceased’s body also had to process was developed in about 1550 BCE, and is to the per nefer, or ‘house of mummification’, which
preserved, as the Ancient Egyptians believed considered the best method of preservation. With was an open tent to allow for ventilation. Here it
the soul ( ba) and life force (ka) had to return this method, the internal organs were removed, the was laid out on a table ready to be dissected by the
to it regularly to survive. To prevent the body flesh dehydrated, and then the body was wrapped embalmers. These men were skilled artisans who
decaying, it underwent a lengthy and gruesome in linen strips. This was an expensive process that had a deep knowledge of anatomy and a steady
mummification process. Developed and refined took about 70 days to complete, so only the very hand. They were also often priests, as performing
over millennia, it allowed Ancient Egypt to produce rich could afford it. Working class people were religious rites over the deceased was an equally
some of the best-preserved mummies in the world, treated with an alternative method of preservation important part of the embalming process. The most
and we can now gaze upon the faces of men, that involved liquidising the internal organs experienced priest carried out the major parts of
women and children almost exactly as they were with cedar tree oil, draining them out through mummification, like the wrapping of the body, and
more than 2,000 years ago. the rectum and then placing the body in a salty wore a jackal mask as he did so. This symbolised
The first mummies in Egypt date back to substance called natron to dehydrate it. the presence of Anubis – god of embalming and the
approximately 3500 BCE. Before that time, all Embalming took place in the Red Land, a desert afterlife – during the mummification.
citizens regardless of social status were buried in region away from the heavily populated areas and
desert graves, which allowed natural preservation with easy access to the Nile. Upon
to occur through dehydration. An artificial method death, the body would be carried
known as embalmment was then to the Ibu, or the ‘Place of
developed that would ensure Purification’, where it 08
even better preservation and
allow bodies to be kept within
01 Purify the
body
Before the embalming
process can begin,
the body is washed in
03
water from the Nile
and palm wine.
04
02 Remove 07
the internal
organs
A small incision is
made in the left side of
the body and the liver,
lungs, intestines and
stomach are removed.
They are then washed
and packed in natron
before being placed in 04 Leave to dry
canopic jars. The heart The body is stuffed and
is left in the body as covered with natron, a type
it is believed to be the of salt, which will absorb
centre of intelligence, any moisture. It is then left
and will be needed in for 40 days to dry out.
the afterlife.
03 Discard the brain

A rod is inserted through the
nostril into the skull and used to
break apart the brain so that it can 05 Stuff the body
drain out of the nose. The liquid Once again, it is washed in water
is then thrown away as it is not from the Nile and covered with
thought to be useful. oils to help the skin stay elastic.
The natron is scooped out and the
body is then stuffed with sawdust
and linen to make it look lifelike.
122
The Egyptian embalmer’s guide to amulets

These charms were placed between the mummy’s layers of linen, but what did each one do?
The Heart The Knot The Djed The Headrest The Collar The Papyrus The Two The Serpent The Frog
This protected the of Isis This represented According to the This was placed Sceptre Fingers This was placed This was believed
heart, believed Knots were the backbone of Book of the Dead, on the mummy’s The papyrus plant Placed near to the anywhere on to contain the
to be the most regularly used as Osiris, the god if placed under the neck and allowed represented incision through the body and powers of Heqet,
important organ. amulets as it was of the afterlife. neck, this amulet it to free itself of new life and which the organs prevented the the frog-headed
The underside was believed they It was wrapped provided physical its bandages in resurrection. It were removed, spirit from being goddess of life
often inscribed bound and released close to the spine comfort for the the afterlife. was believed to these may have bitten by snakes in and fertility.
with spells from the magic. They were and enabled the deceased and give the dead the been intended to the underworld. When placed on
Book of the Dead said to protect the mummy to sit up also prevented energy and vitality ‘hold’ the incision the mummy, it
that would help the wearer from harm, in the afterlife, them from being to survive the sealed and prevent would allow it to
spirit navigate the and were placed on ensuring its decapitated. terrifying ordeals of evil spirits from be brought back
underworld. the neck. resurrection. the underworld. entering the body. to life.
01
06
When
a pet cat died,
the household
would shave off their
08 Say a prayer eyebrows to
A priest reads spells out signify their
loud while the body is
being wrapped in order
loss
to ward off evil spirits. He
will often wear a mask of
05 07 Add amulets
Charms called amulets are
Anubis – the god associated
with the embalming
placed in between the layers process and the afterlife.
to protect the body during
its journey to the afterlife.
Animal
mummies
The Ancient Egyptians believed that many
of their gods and goddesses could live on Earth
in animal form. The god Amun could take the
form of a goose or ram, the god Thoth could
be an ibis or baboon, and the goddess Bastet
took the form of a cat. These animals were
treated like deities, and when they died, they
were mummified just like humans. In the
Late Period (661-332 BCE), animal mummies
02
were produced commercially and sold for
06 Wrap in linen use as offerings. X-rays reveal that the
First, the head and neck are wrapped animals were clearly bred for the purpose
in strips of linen, then the fingers and some were deliberately killed. Many
and toes. The arms and legs are of the mummies that survive today
wrapped separately before being tied contain only tiny fragments of bone,
together. Liquid resin is used as glue. or are entirely empty, suggesting
that demand for these
sacred items must have
123
outstripped supply.
Burial The Ancient Egyptians’ resting place could be

nothing short of what they experienced in life
L
ong before their deaths, wealthy Egyptians during which a procession of mourners and
built luxurious tombs for themselves and dancers accompanied the coffin to a tomb, which
filled them with objects that would protect was either below ground or within a mastaba or
and assist them in the afterlife. This ranged pyramid. Also present were two women called
from simple items like bowls, combs and ‘kites’, whose job was to mourn overtly and inspire
clothing to chariots, furniture, weapons and others to do the same. Remembrance of the dead
jewellery. The treasures found in Ancient Egyptian ensured passage to the afterlife, and displays of
tombs are among some of the most grief were thought to help the deceased’s
valuable in the world, and show that cause in the Hall of Judgement.
status symbols were considered On arrival at the burial site, a priest
just as important for the afterlife Tombs performed the Opening of the
as they had been on Earth. Food contained Mouth ceremony. The mummy
was also stored in the tomb and everything needed was propped upright while spells
left as offerings after the tomb were uttered and a ceremonial
had been sealed in order to in the afterlife, blade pressed against the mouth (to
sustain the life force (ka) – one including allow it to breathe, eat and drink),
of the five elements that made up toilets eyes (to allow it to see) and limbs
the human soul. Even depictions (to allow it to move). Food and gifts
of food painted onto the walls of the that would assist the spirit in the afterlife
tomb were believed to provide nourishment were then offered and a funerary banquet was
for the dead. held. Finally, the coffin was carried into the tomb,
The day of burial was when the deceased moved where royal mummies would be placed within a
from the world of the living to the world of the stone sarcophagus. This was intended to provide
dead. Both poor and rich were given a ceremony an extra layer of protection against grave robbers,
A stone sarcophagus of some kind, as it was considered essential in who were rife in the Nile valley. Spells and prayers
inside a tomb in the
Valley of the Kings
order for the spirit to pass to the afterlife. Wealthy were recited, and then the tomb sealed, never to be
and royal Egyptians received an elaborate funeral, opened again… or so they hoped.
Mummy of a man
who lived during the
Ptolemaic Period
Shabti
These figurines were buried alongside the
dead, and were believed to act as servants in the
afterlife. They could be made of wood, clay or stone
and were often quite small, although earlier life-sized
models have been found. Many of them are depicted
carrying hoes and baskets, as Ancient Egyptians
believed that in the afterlife they would be
allocated a plot of land that they would have to
farm and maintain. Over 1,000 of them were
found in pharaoh Taharqa’s tomb alone,
making them one of Ancient Egypt’s
most common artefacts.
124
Tutankhamun’s tomb as it
was discovered in 1922 The Sarcophagus of Nitocris
The many layers of a mummy

Mummification was not the final step in the quest for eternal life. The body would be placed in
several cases and coffins – sometimes up to eight – before eventually being laid to rest
01 Objects for 02 Cartonnage case 03 Decoration 04 Wooden coffin

After mummification, a cartonnage Another cartonnage case was The body was placed in an
the afterlife case was created. This was formed added and then a layer of plaster or anthropoid wooden coffin. Those
Once the body had been wrapped
around a straw and mud core, to gesso – made from resin and chalk of royalty may have been painted
in layers of linen, items like
which plaster and linen bandages powder – was painted over the top. with gold leaf and decorated with
jewellery and daggers were placed
soaked in resin or animal glue was Natural dyes like indigo, madder precious jewels. A death mask
on the mummy for use in the
applied, similar to papier mâché. and ochre were used to create made of cartonnage, wood or
afterlife. A scarab amulet was hung
Once it set, the case was split open, intricate designs on the cartonnage, precious metals was placed on the
from the neck to help guide the
the stuffing removed and the body particularly depictions of the god of head to ensure that its soul could
soul during the Weighing of the
placed inside. the underworld, Osiris. recognise its body.
Heart ceremony.
125
LEGACY
Get to grips with how this ancient and
advanced society has influenced how we
live today
128 What did the Ancient
Egyptians do for us?
Identify the greatest inventions and
discoveries we have inherited from this
ancient society
136 Egyptology through

time
Discover how Egyptomania gripped
archeologists and fascinated the public
144 Inside the Giza complex

Learn more about the tourist trap
146 Curse of the boy king

Find out the full story behind the blessings
and curses of King Tut’s hidden chamber
154 Decoding the

hieroglyphics
Take a lesson in deciphering the mysterious
symbols that adorn landmarks and papyri
Legacy
136
What did the

Ancient Egyptians
do for us?
An unimaginably advanced and well-educated society, the Ancient
Egyptians were the brains behind inventions and discoveries that
have prevailed into modern times
T
he Ancient Egyptians’ fascination with and real events are inseparable – the vocabulary inventive spirit aided the development of human
science and new technology resulted in of Egyptian art and text very often makes no real culture over several millennia. Since the early
inventions – such as the calendar and door distinction between the real and the ideal.” The 19th century in particularl, this has been a source
lock – which are still used today. In some inventions and discoveries listed here indicate the of fascination. So, perhaps this is a society that
cases, their innovations combined form and modest and the more expansive ways in which should be regarded with gratitude for all that they
function in quite beautiful ways. the Ancient Egyptians pulled together the real and accomplished. Of course, they did it for their own
Of a culture aware of its own processes and the ideal. From developments in personal hygiene, immediate benefit, but one wonders if, somewhere
history, scholar Ian Shaw has commented that “The to projects as globally meaningful as the calendar deep down, they had a sense that they were doing
Egyptian sense of history is one in which rituals or systems of astronomy, the Ancient Egyptians’ it for posterity, too.
128
What did the Egyptians do for us?
Stone columns
c. 2600 BCE
Ancient Egyptian culture excelled in the
construction of immense public buildings, of
Cats were
which temples would have had a particular especially
resonance for the populace. Ancient Egyptian venerated in Ancient
architects and builders created what are Egypt, being considered
probably now the oldest stone columns in the
world. A testament to their structural integrity, sacred animals.
these columns have endured and, while now Some were even
standing as very beautiful ruins, they remain mummified
very visible reminders of the past.
Visit Karnak and you can still see the stone
columns of the temple there. In addition to
their practical purpose, they had a symbolic
value. The stone columns of Egyptian
architecture combined sturdy function with
a delicate aesthetic sensibility wherein the
capital (the uppermost part of the column) was
typically carved to represent a papyrus reed or
a lotus. The stone columns would have been
brightly decorated.
The transmission of cultural particulars
through travel in the ancient world is
fascinating to consider. Would the Greeks who
travelled to Egypt have been impressed by the
architecture on display and taken tales of them
back across the Mediterranean, from where it Standing like mighty sentinels,
eventually crossed through Europe? the stone columns perfectly
© Alamy
integrated form and function
Time lords
c. 3000 BCE
It was Ancient Egyptian scholars who determined a year
having a duration of 365 ¼ days. They divided this into 12
months. Each month comprised three weeks and each week
comprised ten days. So, not quite the breakdown of units of
time that we know now, but very close. They even added
five extra days at the end of the calendar year. In fact, the
Ancient Egyptians adhered to a solar calendar, and to a lunar
calendar which predated the creation of the solar calendar.
The calendar tied in not only with interests in festivals and
religious observance, but also informed and made easier so
much administrative work and accounting practice. During
the Roman Empire’s colonisation of Egypt, inevitable culture
contact occurred and it was Julius Caesar who adjusted the
calendar in around 46 BCE to add a leap year day. It is from
the Egyptian solar calendar, amended with a few Roman
adjustments, then, that our contemporary calendar takes its
form, having initially been disseminated across Europe via
the reach of the Roman Empire. Related to the invention of
a calendar system was the Egyptians’ development of a sun
clock that operates similarly to a sundial.
“It is from the Egyptian

solar calendar that our
Serving both religious and more mundane
requirements, the Egyptian calendar neatly
contemporary calendar
takes its form”
© Alamy
encapsulates the culture’s affinity for order
129
The plough transformed the possibilities of

the agricultural economy. The process was
refined and eventually drawn by cattle
The plough
c. 4000 BCE
An agricultural powerhouse, Ancient Egypt invented a very early
form of the plough. Archaeological investigations have unearthed
evidence of the ploughing technology such as one that dates from
1550-1070 BCE that is in the collection now at the British Museum.
Because Egypt was not a particularly forested country, the toolmakers
had limited choice in terms of the quality of the timber with which
they could work with and fashion from. Yet, the prototypical plough
illustrated the principle well enough for it become widely used. Only
modestly effective in 4000 BCE, the tool had no sophistication to
it. However, by 2000 BCE, the plough was being attached to oxen.
We encounter examples of Egyptian ploughs that archaeology has
excavated, but it is in Ancient Egyptian artwork perhaps, on buildings
and on artefacts that we get the best sense of the role of the plough
across the essentially agricultural nation. Given how familiar the
plough would eventually become, it seems astonishing to think that
once upon a time there was a moment when it was the latest piece of
farming technology available.
Medicine was allied with the long-
Medicine established tradition of magic spells and

invocations for intervention from the gods
c. 1500 BCE
A significant source for our understanding of
the evolution of Egyptian medical practice
is a papyrus document that historians have
named The Ebers Papyrus, which dates
from c. 1500 BCE. Ebers was a German
Egpytologist who unearthed the papyrus
document at Thebes in 1873-74. By 1000 BCE,
Egyptian culture had begun to determine
medicine as an evidence-based practice. That
said, the culture still found a place for magic
in healing. Because of their trading success
as a culture, a wide range of plants and spices
were introduced into Egypt by traders who
had ventured far beyond the land around the
river Nile. Egyptian physicians explored and
established the potential of drugs and plants
as having medicinal value. This work was
then taken up by the Ancient Greeks who,
taking it home from their travels, then saw it
disseminated across Europe.
Egyptian doctors even made the
connection between the human pulse
and the human heartbeat. Inspired by
the evidence of irrigation channels that
farmers dug, physicians postulated that
such channels also existed within the
human body and so must be kept free from
obstruction to maintain health.
130
Eye makeup
c. 4000 BCE
Think of the actress Elizabeth Taylor
as Cleopatra in the Hollywood movie
of the same name. It makes for fairly
iconic movie images, and the emphasis
on Taylor’s eyes is an apt reminder of
how important eye makeup was for
the Ancient Egyptians, who believed it
could protect against evil by magically
summoning the protective power
of the gods Horus and Ra. Men and
women in Ancient Egypt liked their
eye makeup very much – indeed,
the more of it, the better. Perhaps
unsurprisingly, eye makeup was an
indicator of an individual’s social
status: the more you wore, the higher
up the social pyramid you were. Eye
makeup (kohl) combined soot and
a mineral called galena. It’s a look
that has remained hugely popular.
We know about the importance of
eye makeup thanks to the material
culture of Ancient Egypt: in extant
documents and on other artefacts such
as public art and jewellery, too, such as Heavily applied eyeliner was partially
a gold bracelet from the tomb of 22nd about showing social status, but was
also indicative of an interest in beauty
Dynasty pharaoh Shoshenq II.
© Alamy
“They
concocted The Egyptians
liked aphorisms:
a recipe ‘An answer is profitable
in proportion to
comprising rock the intensity of
salt, mint, dried iris the quest’
flower and pepper”
Personal hygiene
Because Ancient Egyptian bread contained grit, over time it could do damage to the
enamel on people’s teeth. Two inventions were eventually produced in an attempt
to counteract this problem: for a toothbrush, wooden twigs had their ends frayed to
form a brush-like surface. To make their toothpaste, the orthondontically interested
Ancient Egyptians concocted a fascinating recipe consisting of rock salt, mint, dried iris
flower and pepper.
It’s certainly the case that an interest in personal cleanliness and good personal
presentation, which we rather take for granted today, characterised the Ancient Egyptian
sensibility. Hair was largely considered unhygienic, so the more hair you had on your
head, the further down the social ladder you were.
Rotating shaving razors were used from around

1550-1292 BCE. Men and women shaved their
heads and wore wigs instead as their own hair
was considered uncleanly
131
Locking
“The tumbler
mechanisms lock system
were technically
sturdy, but the keys
was hugely
were large. Some of the sophisticated
biggest were up to 2 for the time”
feet (0.6 metres)
long
The door lock

c. 4000 BCE
Cumbersome though Egyptian locks were due
to their significant weight and size, they were
among the earliest versions of the technology
that we so take for granted now.
Archaeology has unearthed tumbler locks
dating back to 4000 BCE. While they may
not have quite invented it, Ancient Egyptians
proved the usefulness of the technology. From
Egypt, the door lock travelled into Europe
with those Greeks who had visited Egypt and
then returned home.
The tumbler lock system was hugely
sophisticated for the time and it certainly
instilled a new sense of security for an
Egyptian’s property – and indeed their very
own welfare. The Egyptian lock was made with
a hallowed bolt that was fixed to a door which
was connected to pins. Each specific lock had
a particular arrangement of pins so as to avoid
duplicates being made. Hence the use of a key.
Inserting the key into the lock caused the pins
to lift up and so the door would open. In Ancient
Egypt, lock and key were both made of wood.
Since each lock had a
unique arrangement
© Alamy
of pins, it required the

correct key to open it
132
Boat building A model recreating the style of boat

that was built during the period
c. 3000 BCE
As a river culture, with the sea in close proximity, the Ancient Egyptians
advanced the science and art of boat building that became so important
to the Mediterranean peoples. Seafaring ship ruins have been excavated
at Wadi Gawasis and Ayn Sokhna, and they demonstrate the skill and
precision that the Egyptians brought to naval industry. As far back
as 3000 BCE, at Abydos, planked wooden boats were being made.
Significantly, the Ancient Egyptians used thick planks in their boat
construction. The planks were held in place by mortise-and-tenon
fastenings. Of their refined approach to boat-craft, archaeologist Cheryl
Ward explains, “Egyptian-built craft are recognisably different from those
of other cultures and demonstrate consistency in philosophy and detail
over a 2,500-year span.” Much of our understanding of the role of boats
and seafaring in Ancient Egypt comes to us via hieroglyphs on tablets.
As in other situations, it seems not unreasonable to suggest that visitors
from further afield, particularly from the Mediterranean, would have
witnessed the skill with seafaring and river navigation and carried the
information back home with them.
Fractions
c. 1800 BCE
We might well take mathematics for granted,
including fractions, despite the head-
scratching that can ensue whenever we
encounter them. To the Ancient Egyptians,
however, we can say ‘thank you’ for the
elegant art of the fraction.
Our knowledge of the development and use
of fractions in the Ancient Egyptian world
of mathematics is derived from a papyrus
scroll that was found in a tomb in Thebes.
Having subsequently been bought by a Scot
named Henry Rhind in a market in Luxor
in 1858, the scroll then found its way to the
British Museum in London in 1864 upon
Rhind’s death.
Deciphered in 1842, the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus revealed a highly
consistent system of fractions that allowed the
agricultural society of Ancient Egypt to plan
the farming cycle. Sure enough, the system
of fractions also found a role in planning for
building projects, accountancy and paying
wages. Egyptian fractions operate somewhat
differently to the system of fractions that we
may know from school.
“A highly
consistent system
of fractions
allowed Ancient
Egyptians to plan
the farming cycle”
133
Astronomy
c. 4000 BCE
Back in 2000, British Egyptologist Dr Kate Spence proposed a theory for the
way in which the architects of the time managed to align the pyramids with
such accuracy. Dr Spence details that degree of precision: “The Great Pyramid is
extremely accurately aligned towards north. The sides deviate from true north
by less than three arc minutes – that’s less than a 20th of a degree – which is
extremely accurate in terms of orientation.”
What Dr Spence’s theory underscored was the faculty of the Ancient Egyptians
to embrace and exploit the discipline of astronomy as a means of navigation and
orientation. The Greek historian Herodotus commented in his work The Histories
that “the Egyptians were the first of all men on Earth to find out the course of the
year, having divided the seasons into 12 parts to make up the whole; and this they
said they found out from the stars…”
From the Egyptians, modern astronomy was able to develop a more refined
sense of the repeating, cyclical patterns of the stars and planets in the night sky.
They named stars, and their work with astronomy also informed the creation of
an astrological system. Archaeology again has unearthed much material culture
that records the commonly held fascination with the night sky.
In their fascination with the Sun, the society’s commitment to architecture
combined to create the temples at Abu Simbel and Qsar Qarum, in which the
sunlight aligns with details of sculpture at certain times.
“Archaeology has unearthed

much material culture that
records the Ancient Egyptian The goddess Nut bends to form the
fascination with the sky” sky. This papyrus copy is based on a

© Alamy
late Egyptian temple at Denderah
Gold mining
c. 3100 BCE
Gold mining has long been a globally significant industry and, as in
many other things, we have the Ancient Egyptians to thank for the
example of this work. One of our main sources for insights into Egyptian
mining practice is found in the writings of Diodorus Siculus, the
Greek historian. The Egyptian terrain was rich in a range of
minerals and resources, and gold was one such naturally
occurring treasure. As far back as the fourth millennium Tattoo art
BCE, the Egyptian people were beginning to access was very popular
gold via alluvial deposits. Then, as of around 3100 BCE, in Ancient Egypt.
engineers developed efficient and productive mining
operations that were located in the mountain range east
Analysis of some
of Coptos and also in the south in Nubia. Consistent mummified corpses
with so much else in their sense of the immediate and has revealed
the eternal, the Ancient Egyptians connected the real
tattoos
practicalities of the world with their religious system: they
considered gold to be the flesh of Ra, the Sun god. Because
Ra was an undying deity, gold too became a talisman of sorts,
embodying eternal life.
“Ancient Egyptians
considered gold to be the
flesh of Ra, the Sun god”
This is a map of the gold mining area
© Alamy
and basanite caves at Wadi Hammamat
134
Writing
c. 3200 BCE
For the people of Ancient Egypt, their belief was
that Thoth, the god of wisdom, had bestowed on
them the ability to write. ‘Hieroglyph’ is a word
that comes to us from Ancient Greece and it means
‘sacred carvings’. Hieroglyphs used over 700 signs.
There was also a complimentary form of shorthand
script typically used for writing on papyrus. For
this ancient culture, writing was certainly a way
to record the history of the royal rulers. Other
subjects committed to written memory were
spells. Egypt was a culture that, to some degree,
combined an affinity for magic with an affinity for
the world of reason, evidence and investigation.
Alongside their spells and incantations, history and
decrees, Egyptian writing also contributed to the
recording of poetry such as The Tale of Sinhue. The
Rosetta Stone has become a globally recognised
archaeological treasure that permitted scholars to
begin investigating the material culture of Ancient
Egypt that archaeology would uncover. After several
thousand years, we ‘suddenly’ find ourselves able
to understand what their notations discussed and
described. The Ancient Egyptians also deployed their Demotic writing is the shorthand that was
© Alamy
writing system as a means of developing a consistent used for note taking and for writing that was
not concerned with sacred matters
bureaucracy; it’s an example we’ve all learnt from.
135
Egyptology
through time
From ancient Greek explorers to Napoleonic conquerors,
Egyptology has a far lengthier and illustrious history than you
may have first believed
F
ew other civilisations have ignited as much that unpopular events or people could be erased
intrigue and hype as Ancient Egypt. A new from memory. Ironically, the kings and queens
discovery or even just a new theory about the whose existence they tried to deny are now some
lost kingdom draws just as much attention of the best known of the ancient land.
from the general public as it does academics. The restoration and conservation of monuments
Children, meanwhile, seem to have an almost first occurred during pharaonic times. Thutmose
innate fascination with it. Whether it is the eeriness IV restored the sphinx and had the dream that
of its mummies or the engineering prowess of inspired this restoration carved on the famous
the pyramids, there is something about Dream Stele. Less than two centuries
this ancient kingdom that has truly later, Khaemwaset, the fourth son of
captured the imagination of people Ramesses II, cleared and restored
from all walks of life. Modern day several structures around Giza
Egyptomania, as this and Sakkara, leading him
fascination has become known,
tourism in Egypt to be considered ‘the first
reached fever pitch in 1922 speaks for itself: an Egyptologist’. Archaeology
when Howard Carter, arguably average of also existed, at least in some
the most famous Egyptologist 4,000 people visit the form. During the Middle
of all time, discovered the Kingdom, the rise of the cult
intact tomb of Tutankhamun. Valley of the of Osiris led to a mass search
However, the interest in the Kings every day for his tomb, which the Ancient
history of Egypt spans back as Egyptians believed they found. Of
far as antiquity itself. The Ancient course, rather than being that of a god,
Egyptians did not study the past in order it in fact belonged to the First Dynasty
to understand the present, as we do today, but they king Djet. The tomb was renovated and further
listed kings and recorded events that occurred refurbishments were conducted during the New
during their reign in order to establish their Kingdom era.
legitimacy, or ma’at – the proper order of things. Greece was the first place outside of Egypt to
For them, the past was fixed, although they also show an interest in the latter’s antiquity. The Greek
© Alamy
believed that it could and should be corrected so historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 450 BCE
136
Egyptology through time
137
Herodotus’s map of Ancient Egypt
HENRY SALT
1780-1827
In 1815 Salt was appointed

British consul-general in Cairo.
During his time in Egypt, he
accumulated thousands of
artefacts, many of which were
donated or sold to the British
Museum or bought by Charles X
of France.
Ramasses II’s ‘Temple of a

Million Years’ at Thebes
and wrote a detailed account of life there, Roman sages, including Hermes Trismegistus
although many of his observations have and Pliny the Elder, wrote extensively about
since been dismissed as inaccurate, with Ancient Egypt, inspiring many more Romans
some claiming that Egyptology would have to visit this mysterious kingdom. However, the
been better off without him. During Ptolemic introduction of Christianity in 68 CE marked
times, another Greek historian, Hecataeus, the beginning of a move away from Egypt’s
composed his Ægyptiaka, a history of Egypt heritage. Temples were transformed into
that credited Ancient Egypt as being the monasteries, hieroglyphs were condemned as
source of the civilised arts and crafts. The ‘nonsense’, and pagans were lynched. By the
Ptolemies themselves were also very end of the 5th century, the transformation
much interested in the work to a Christian society was complete,
of the Ancient Egyptians, and interest in the Ancient
Most of
and many of the Egyptian Egyptians was lost.
monuments, including the tombs in The Arab conquest of
the pyramids, were the Valley of the Egypt in 642 CE opened
restored by them. The Kings were robbed Egypt up to Muslim scholars
most comprehensive and travellers, some who
work from the Greco-
within 100 years of came from overseas and
Roman period, though, being sealed, leaving some from Egypt itself. The
was by a native Egyptian, little opulence to Egyptian historian Abu Jafar
Manetho. Most of his work discover al-Idrisi carried out a study of
has been lost, but it is from the pyramids in the 13th century,
him that the dynastic system, providing descriptions of location,
the organising framework of pharaonic size, measurements and even an analysis
history, is derived. of the mineral content of the stones. But one of
In 30 BCE Octavian, who later became the most powerful incentives for investigation
emperor Augustus, defeated Marcus into Ancient Egypt was treasure hunting. Even
Antonius and Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of in pharaonic times, tombs were being raided
the Ptolemic Dynasty, and Egypt became for their contents, and this practice continued
part of the Roman Empire. Egyptomania down the ages. Treasure-hunting manuals
struck for the first time, as Egyptian art and became a literary genre, with a significant An artist’s impression of Napoleon’s
artefacts were exported to Rome. Even the chunk of these books dedicated to evading the journey through Egypt, plundering
it for its ancient treasures
two religions began to merge. Several notable magic that guarded the treasures.
138
It was also around this time that European

exploration and study of Ancient Egypt began.
Then came the Renaissance, which sparked
a new interest in classical antiquity, Egypt
included. Its teachings were considered a source
of great knowledge, and the first attempts were
made to decipher hieroglyphics. Bizarrely,
mummies also began to be mined extensively
for the alleged medicinal properties of the
ground corpses. In the early 17th century,
John Greaves measured the pyramids and
published the illustrated Pyramidographia
in 1646, while the scientist-priest Athanasius
Kircher was the first to establish a link between
Egyptian hieroglyphs and the modern Coptic
© Alamy
languages, for which he is considered a founder
of Egyptology.
During the Enlightenment, scholarly attention
became more systematic. However, the wars of HOWARD CARTER
the French Revolution made a voyage across the 1874-1939
Mediterranean much harder and travel to Egypt
Key discoveries: Tombs of
declined. In 1797, Danish archaeologist Georg Thutmose I, Thutmose III
Zoëga wrote: “If Egypt becomes more accessible, and Tutankhamun
and the numerous ancient monuments that A student of Flinders Petrie,
Carter first went to Egypt
are to be seen there are carefully studied and as an artist, recording tomb
documented, perhaps future generations will wall reliefs. While doing so,
he supervised a number of
someday read the hieroglyphs and understand excavations at Thebes and was
what those mysterious monuments mean.” That eventually given funding for
day was to come much sooner than he ever his own projects.
could have expected.
FLINDERS PETRIE
1853-1942
Key discovery: Merneptah Stele

This English Egyptologist was
a pioneer of controlled and
recorded excavations as well as
the preservation of artefacts.
He was the first to properly
investigate how the pyramids
were constructed and his report
is still used to this day. Petrie discovered the Merneptah Stele
in 1896 in Thebes. It depicts King
© Alamy
Merneptah’s victory over the Libyans
139
Modern Egyptology
With the discovery and decipherment of The Rosetta Stone came
a new sense of intrigue and interest in Ancient Egypt soared
T
he birth of modern Egyptology in the made a discovery that would change Egyptology
early 19th century was motivated not by forever. A group of soldiers working on fortifications
scholarship, but by politics. In 1798, the near the town of Rashid, or Rosetta, uncovered a
French Republic was at war with Britain. large, irregularly shaped stone. One of its faces
Unable to target it directly, the was inscribed with different scripts:
French chose to instead seize Egypt, hieroglyphics on the top, Greek on
thus breaking Britain’s overland The Great the bottom, and a third, which
communications with the jewel in became known as Demotic, in the
its crown, India, while at the same
Pyramid of Giza is middle. The Greek portion was
time gaining France a valuable the only one of translated, revealing that each
colony. An army of 17,000 led by the Seven Wonders script held the same message.
Napoleon Bonaparte landed near of the ancient World The Rosetta Stone, as it became
Alexandria on 1 July and quickly known, could therefore be used
captured the town. With them still standing to translate hieroglyphics. However,
were 150 civilians who made up the the Greek and Egyptian texts are
Commission of Sciences and Arts, chosen
for their abilities to assess Egypt and develop it
not the same word for word, and much
of the hieroglyphic portion is damaged
“The Rosetta
into a prosperous province.
Instead, it was Egyptian antiquity that interested
or incomplete. Therefore, the Rosetta Stone
played only a small role in the decipherment of
Stone played only
them the most. In 1799, the French Expedition hieroglyphs, but it welcomed an Egyptology boom. a small role”
ZAHI HAWASS
1947-present
Key discoveries: Mummy of

Hatshepsut, mummy of
Queen Tiye, Valley of the
Golden Mummies
Formerly the Egyptian Minister
of State for Antiquities Affairs,
Hawass is now Egypt’s leading
archaeologist. Despite this, he
has been the subject of much
scandal and criticism, and
was sentenced to prison for
allegedly smuggling antiquities.
Zawass uncovering the secrets of

the Valley of the Golden Mummies
140
The chamber in which tomb KV35 was

found. It has been argued to be the
resting place of Nefertiti
JOANN FLETCHER
1966-present
Key discovery: Mummy of

Nefertiti (disputed)
Fletcher’s PhD on Egyptian hair
and wigs was fundamental in
her search for Nefertiti. When
she linked a Nubian wig to the
Amarnan queen, she was given
access to the tomb where it had
been found, and controversially
claimed to have discovered
Nefertiti’s mummy within it.
After French scholar Jean-Francois Champollion A recreation of the Dream

Stele of Thutmose IV
succeeded in deciphering the Rosetta text, and
further advancements were made in understanding
its language and writing system, the study of
ancient Egyptian civilisation became much
easier. Egyptology became more professional via
the work of Egyptologists like Flinders Petrie,
who introduced techniques of field preservation,
recording, and excavating. In 1880, Flinders Petrie
revolutionised the field of archaeology through
controlled and scientifically recorded excavations
and determined that Egyptian culture dated back
as early as 4500 BCE. The British Egypt Exploration
Fund was founded in 1882 and other Egyptologists
promoted Flinders Petrie’s methods.
Flinders Petrie was also responsible for training a
new generation of Egyptologists, who would come
to study and excavate Egypt in its ‘golden age of
discovery’. One of these was Howard Carter. His
1922 discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb spawned
the beginning of a reaction dubbed ‘Egyptomania’,
which would go on to last until World War II,
influencing art and design and inspiring novelists
and film directors alike to write stories based on
the ancient kingdom.
While the craze died down after the war, the
1978 Tutankhamun tour sparked new interest
that remains to this day, as the vast swathes of
documentaries and books about Egypt prove. It
seems that ancient Egypt will remain fascinating
© Alamy
for many millennia to come.
141
Treasures of
Ancient Egypt
These ancient artefacts are now some of the most valuable in the
world, and have helped us piece together the puzzle of Egypt
Tutankhamun’s
death mask 1922 This statue of
the goddess Isis
was discovered in
When Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon discovered the Heracleion
almost intact tomb of the Egyptian boy king Tutankhamun,
the object that received the most attention was the
magnificent death mask they found placed over the
mummy’s head. This is solid gold and weighs about
24 pounds. Although it is difficult to judge how much
it resembles the young pharaoh himself, the narrow
eyes, nose, lips and chin all match the features of his
mummy. Because of the discovery of this stunning
artefact, Tutankhamun has become the most
recognisable pharaoh in Egyptian history, and the
mask itself has become a symbol for Ancient Egypt
and Egyptology around the world..
© Corbis
King Tut’s death mask is
made of solid gold and inlaid In 2015,
with semi-precious stones
Tutankhamun’s Heracleion 2000
mask was During the Late Period, this city was Egypt’s main port for
permanently damaged international trade and collection of taxes. It was originally
built on adjoining islands on the Nile Delta and was
when its beard was intersected by canals, but sank in the 2nd or 3rd century. The
knocked off during ruins were located by the French underwater archaeologist
cleaning Franck Goddio, along with an abundance of buildings
and artefacts that demonstrate the city’s wealth and glory,
including the temple of Amun, a large quantity of coins and
ceramics, huge statues and a stele that outlines the trade and
taxation systems of the time.
“Because of his death mask,

Tutankhamun has become the most
recognisable pharaoh in Egyptian
history, and the mask itself has The planks of the ship had
become a symbol for Egyptology” been carved so that they fit
together like puzzle pieces
Khufu ship 1954

This full-size Egyptian barge was discovered in a pit at the foot of the Great
Pyramid of Giza. It was built around 2500 BCE, most likely for the pharaoh
Khufu of the Old Kingdom, to transport his body to the afterlife. The Khufu
ship is one of the oldest, largest and best-preserved vessels from antiquity,
measuring more than 40 metres long. It was identified as the world’s oldest
intact ship and has been described as ‘a masterpiece of woodcraft’ that could
sail today if put into water. The ship was one of two rediscovered in 1954 by
Kamal el-Mallakh.
142
Valley of the Golden Mummies 1996

This huge burial site at Bahariya Oasis, dating to the Greco-Roman period, was discovered
by Zahi Hawass and his Egyptian team. Approximately 250 2,000-year-old mummies
were recovered over several months. There were four different styles of mummy found,
including gold-gilded ones. These have a gilded mask covering the face and a gilded
waistcoat depicting different scenes of gods and goddesses, hence why the name
‘golden mummies’ was given.
Nefertiti’s bust 1912

The limestone bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal
One of the mummies found
Wife of the 18th Dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten, is in the Valley of the Golden
one of the most iconic and most copied works of Mummies
Ancient Egypt. It was discovered by a team led by
German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, who was
overseeing the excavation of an Amarnan sculptor’s
workshop. Since then, the artefact has been housed “Its wall paintings were in
in Germany. However it has
not been resting peacefully
excellent condition”
there; it has been the
subject of much
controversy, with
There is an
ongoing campaign Tomb of Seti I 1817
allegations over its to return 5,000 Tomb KV17 is the tomb of pharaoh Seti I, and was first
authenticity. There discovered in the Valley of the Kings by an Italian explorer
have also been
Egyptian artefacts named Giovanni Battista Belzoni in 1817. Its wall paintings
The bust of Nefertiti is part
of the Egyptian Museum of demands made for it to their homeland, were in excellent condition and some of the artists’ paints
Berlin collection, currently on
display in the Neues Museum
to be returned to its including Nefertiti’s and brushes had been left on the floor, making it one of the
home in Egypt. best preserved tombs in Egypt. However, it was damaged
bust
when Jean-François Champollion, the translator of the Rosetta
Stone, removed a large wall panel from the tomb during his
expedition in 1828-29.
The wall paintings inside the

tomb of Seti I were found in
excellent condition
The temples were relocated

from where they were originally
found during the building of the
Aswan High Dam
Abu Simbel temples 1813

These two huge temples were originally carved out of the mountainside during the reign
of Pharaoh Ramesses II, as a monument to himself and his queen Nefertari. Over time, the
temples fell into disuse and eventually became covered by sand. They were forgotten until
1813, when Swiss orientalist Jean-Louis Burckhardt found the top frieze of the main temple.
Burckhardt told Giovanni Belzoni of his finding, and in 1817 he succeeded in excavating the site.
143
Inside the Giza

pyramid complex
Uncover the enigma of the awe-inspiring structures at Giza, including
the mighty Sphinx – the world’s largest single-stone statue
T
he Great Sphinx is the huge monolithic statue 04
of a human-headed lion that was carved into a
single mass of limestone bedrock on the western
bank of the Nile during the third millennium
BCE. The Sphinx faces directly east and its 02
stonework features once included a cobra-embellished
headdress and a beard.
Although neither the Sphinx nor its principal
architect were cited within the content of any 03 09
hieroglyphs from the time, the ‘foreman’ of the project 01 09
is widely regarded to be Pharaoh Khafre (c. 2558-
2532 BCE), the ruler of the Old Kingdom, which was
a period of early Egyptian civilisation that endured
for 2,500 years. Incidentally, Khafre’s father – Khufu
(c. 2589-2566 BCE) – built the Great Pyramid at Giza
approximately 400 metres (1,300 feet) from where the
Sphinx statue would later be carved.
Regarding the identity of the labour force, an Old
Kingdom cemetery containing the tombs of some
600 possible workers and overseers was unearthed
in the early Nineties. Following that, in 1999 Egyptian
10
archaeologist Mark Lehner found a settlement dating
back to the reign of Khafre, capable of accommodating
between 1,600 and 2,000 people – a rather convenient
Sphinx construction workforce, perhaps?
4,500 years ago, before bronze and iron were 11
prevalent, the available tools for this colossal
undertaking would have included copper implements
and stone hammers. Modern reconstructions, using
Layout
similar stone and ancient-style tools, have estimated
that the Sphinx could have been constructed in just
of the Giza
three years with 100 people chipping away at a rate of
0.03 cubic metres (one cubic foot) per week.
pyramid complex
Using the huge excavation of stone quarried away Take a tour of one of the world’s most
from the Sphinx enclosure (the pit in which the statue famous historical sites
sits), the labourers were also able to construct the
nearby Sphinx Temple. Each block that was removed 01 Queens’ pyramids 03 Satellite pyramid
from the Sphinx statue site could have weighed up to Of the three smaller pyramids to the south of the Only the outlines of the foundations
Pyramid of Menkaure only the one to the east is remain but this small pyramid held
200 tons and would have been transported on rollers.
actually a real pyramid; the other two are stepped. shrine artefacts.
Until the Thirties, when an archaeologist called
Selim Hassan excavated the lower half of the statue,
the Great Sphinx remained buried up to its shoulders 02 Pyramid of Menkaure 04 Pyramid of Khafre
Khafre’s son, Mykerinos, built the smallest of the Khufu’s son, Khafre, built the second tallest
by sand. Today it stands proudly beside the other three pyramids at Giza. Much of the complex pyramid at Giza, although it may appear
monuments of Giza as a testament to the engineering remained unfinished, suggesting his reign was tallest due to its location on a higher section
skill of the Ancient Egyptian civilisation. short-lived. of the Giza plateau.
144
Inside the Giza pyramid complex
GREAT SPHINX There are three tunnels

in the Sphinx, but none
lead anywhere
Height: 20m (65ft)

Length: 73.5m (241ft)
Width: 6m (20ft)
Build date: c. 2500 BCE 05 Great Pyramid of Giza 06 Queens’ pyramids
The largest of the pyramids is the Great Though these monuments were built for
Pyramid (or Pyramid of Khufu), a royal tomb unknown queens, it’s likely one was the burial
N that would have taken something like 20 place of Khufu’s mother, Hetepheres I, as a cache
years to construct. containing items belonging to her was discovered
05
near the northern-most pyramid.
09
06
10
12
08
07 s
ge
Ima
DK
©
08 Sphinx Temple
Like the Khafre Valley Temple,
the Sphinx Temple would have
been constructed with limestone
blocks excavated from around the
Sphinx statue.
09 Mortuary temple
07 Khafre Valley Temple 10 Causeway
The remains of the Khafre Valley Temple walls in front of the
Great Sphinx are still visible today. The temple consisted of a
courtyard surrounded by 24 pillars. Because of this temple’s
11 Valley temple
east-west axis, it’s been suggested that each of the pillars
represented, or marked, each hour in the day. 12 The Great Sphinx
145
Curse
of the
boy king
The story of how a single discovery and
one man’s determination led an unknown
boy king to become the symbol of
Egyptology the world over
I
t had taken an eternity, details emerged. He saw strange shapes in the
at least it seemed, for the flickering haze, peculiar animals he had never
debris that lay in front of the seen before, towering statues and gold, gold was
large stone doorway to be everywhere, glinting through the darkness.
removed. Lord Carnarvon “Can you see anything?” Carnarvon’s voice
had been pacing back and forth in the tiny alarmed him; Carter had forgotten that anyone
passageway, while his daughter, Lady Evelyn, else was there at all. His mouth was dry, his
anxiously fiddled with her hair. But Howard Carter tongue heavy and with all the effort he could
had stood still, watched, and waited. When the muster he managed three words:
whole door was finally clear he moved toward “Yes, wonderful things.”
it. As he reached forward with his chisel he From Alexander to Caesar to Hadrian, Egypt
discovered his hands were trembling. There was and its ancient mysteries has been a source of
a quiet ‘chink’ as he chiselled away the plaster, fascination and intrigue for some of the greatest
opening the smallest of holes. Inserting a long figures in human history. However, it was
iron rod confirmed that whatever lay beyond Napoleon, following the lead of his heroes, who
was, thank goodness, not filled with rubble, and truly unleashed the era of scientific Egyptology
candle tests proved there were no villainous gases upon the world. When Napoleon set sail to the
lingering beyond. In silence he widened the hole Orient on 19 May 1789 with his 17,000 troops
a little, and when there was room he inserted and machines of war, he also brought over 150
a candle and peered inside. Darkness. His eyes engineers, scientists, scholars, architects, surveyors
struggled to adjust, the candle flickered as ancient and cartographers who were eager to map and
hot air escaped the chamber through the tiny study the wonders they could unearth. With free
gap. But slowly the thick mist began to clear and rein to explore, it was not long before Napoleon’s
146
Curse of the boy king
147
George Herbert, Earl of Carnarvon

Valley of the Kings (right), was one of the era’s most
famous Egyptologists
Before Tutankhamun’s discovery, the Egyptian
desert had already revealed a bounty of
treasures and tombs
Ramesses II
Yuya and
Tomb of Tut’s Merneptah’s Tjuyu
successor, Ay tomb
Tomb of Sons of
Horemheb Ramesses II
Ramesses IX
Amenhotep II’s
Hatshepsut
tomb, where King
Tut’s mother and
Thutmose I
was found Seti I
Tutankhamun’s
tomb
Seti II Thutmose IV
Thutmose III
adventurers were discovering new tombs in the somewhere in the vast desert of sand lay his tomb, resources to do it. In 1909 they became a team, and
Valley of the Kings, so named for the abundance untouched and bursting full of precious ancient when Davis gave up the concession to excavate
of pharaohs who chose it as their final resting place. treasures, alighted his boyish curiosity. in the Valley of the Kings in 1914, Carter and
A thirst for the wonders of Ancient Egypt swept Although he quickly rose through the ranks, Carnarvon leapt at the chance. However, their peers
through Napoleon’s army, and even the ambitious Carter’s fiery and stubborn personality got the viewed the pair as idealistic and naive, warning
young general himself began to catch the fever. better of him when he refused to apologise after them that the only thing that would be discovered
Over the next century, dozens of tombs, chambers encouraging Egyptian guards to defend themselves in their search would likely be the bottom of the
and caches were unearthed by archaeologists and against French tourists who had assaulted Earl’s wallet.
explorers from all over the world. But there was them. He left the Antiquities Service Undeterred, Carter set about searching
still one tomb that remained hidden: that of a little- for good and became a free agent. for the tomb he thoroughly believed
known boy king who sat on the throne for less Meanwhile, Theodore M Davis, a
Having existed. Initially interrupted by
than ten years Tutankhamun. private sponsor of the Antiquities ascended to World War I, Carter was finally
Howard Carter was not a likely Service, and his team had the throne at only free to continue the excavations
candidate for the discovery of this made a curious discovery in 9 years of age, the in 1917, working his way
vault of ancient treasure that had the Valley of the Kings. What from the surface down to the
eluded so many others. The son they had unearthed was a
mummy reveals that bedrock of the valley floor. It
of an artist, his introduction small site with a few artefacts the boy king ruled for was long, exhausting work, and
to Egyptian history came as bearing Tutankhamun’s name. only ten years, it was estimated Carter’s team
a result of his own artistic The discovery was decidedly moved 150,000 to 200,000 tons
dying at 19
abilities and lack of formal underwhelming, but Davis was of rubble in the relentless Egyptian
schooling. He was first convinced he had finally discovered sun. But six seasons of digging later
employed, aged just 17, to the plundered tomb of the king. In his and they had still found nothing. Carnarvon
copy scenes from tomb publication, concerning the discovery he wrote, “I was beginning to believe the critics were right.
walls. He accompanied fear the Valley of the Kings is now exhausted.” Although initially dazzled by the promises of
skilled excavator Flinders Carter did not agree. Now unemployed and Egypt and Carter, with his bounding enthusiasm
Petrie as the latter began scraping a living by selling his paintings to wealthy he had watched the money he had poured into the
to uncover clues about visitors, he hardly had the funds required to pursue adventure trickle away with no reward, and he was
the mysterious Pharaoh his suspicions that Davis’ discovery was not the growing impatient.
Tutankhamun. The true tomb. But he was in luck. The lure of Egypt Carter managed to persuade his friend and
young Carter had no idea and its many secrets had drawn in the wealthy but Carnarvon granted him one final season. If
who this king was, but he frail George Herbert, Fifth Earl of Carnarvon. Both he didn’t find anything it would be the end
felt the buzz surrounding men were eager to make a spectacular discovery, of the money, and the end of the search for
him, and the rumour that and both men needed the other’s skills and Tutankhamun’s tomb. Extreme times called for
148
Digging
for a King
Getting funding
Howard Carter convinces Lord
Carnarvon to finance a search
for the tomb. He begins digging
in the Valley of the Kings, but by
1922 Carnarvon permits just one
more season of funding.
1917-1922
A step in the
right direction
While Howard Carter is
temporarily away from the dig
The site of Tutankhamun’s site, a step is found carved into
tomb in the Valley of the Kings the bedrock.
4 November 1922
Although Carter was meticulous with
his careful treatment of the treasures
of the tomb, he showed less concern A royal discovery
for the mummy itself Carter discovers the sealed door
of the tomb and sees a passage
behind. He then sends a telegram
to Carnarvon to alert him.
5 November 1922
Wonderful things
Through a tiny hole he glimpses
a “strange and wonderful medley
of extraordinary and beautiful
objects”
26 November 1922
Exploration
Carter, Carnarvon and Lady
Evelyn notice a sealed doorway
and secretly reopen an ancient
robber’s hole to crawl inside.
27 November 1922
The burial chamber

Carter opens the sealed doorway
to the burial chamber and
sarcophagus of the pharaoh. It is
officially opened the next day.
16 February 1923
The curse begins

Lord Carnarvon dies after a
mosquito bite becomes infected.
Carter begins liaising with the
authorities and press.
5 April 1923
At breaking point
After interference by the
authorities, Carter locks the tomb
and refuses to return the keys to
the French director of Antiquities.
12 February 1924
The long-awaited return

Lady Carnarvon agrees to
renounce her claims to the tomb
and Carter returns to work. The
tomb is opened officially.
25 January 1925
Mission complete
Conservation work on the
tomb is finally completed and
the treasures are sent to Cairo
Museum.
1932
149
Inside the tomb

Step inside the various rooms and vaults that were
03 Antechamber
This chamber was found in a state
of organised chaos, packed full of an
array of precious items including King
Tut’s throne, two life-sized statues of
found to be contained within the boy king’s tomb the king and a selection of chariots.
The walls are unusually rough and
undecorated, adding to the idea that it
was a speedy, unexpected burial.
01 Staircase 02 Entrance corridor
16 steps descend through This corridor has a steady descent and
bedrock toward a was originally filled with limestone
doorway. This doorway chips and rubble to prevent grave
was sealed and plastered robbers. There is a second plaster
but showed signs that it door at the end, stamped with King
had been penetrated by Tutankahmun’s royal seal. This door
ancient gravediggers at too shows signs of having been opened.
least twice.
03
02
01
“He had been right
all along; they had
found the tomb of the
elusive pharaoh”
extreme measures, and Carter focused his efforts he only allowed himself to conclude that perhaps there was no coffin. But there were promising
on the previously untouched area of ancient he had found a dynasty cache. Even when sealed doorways on the western and northern
workman huts beneath the entrance to the tomb the doorway was fully exposed and the name walls. For both Carter and Carnarvon the lure of the
of Ramesses VI. It had been left untouched ‘Tutankhamun’ could be read, he reasoned that it northern wall, guarded by two statues of the king
because digging there would cause disturbance was he or his officials who had sealed the chamber, himself, was too much to resist. Without alerting
to the stream of tourists eager to visit the tomb. and besides, he could see that the tomb had been the Antiquities Service, the two men and Lady
On 1 November 1922 they began to clear away the tampered with by ancient robbers – it could well be Evelyn embarked on a secret nighttime adventure
rubble and, just three days later, they found a step empty. It was not until that fateful day, as he stood into the burial chamber.
carved into the rock. Carter and his team followed peering into the chamber by flickering candlelight Although their curiosity had been sated, the
the steps down and discovered a blocked and that he fully understood the magnitude of his raiders were keen to hide all evidence of their
plastered doorway with a curious seal upon it. On discovery – he had been right all along; it was the illegal exploration. They reblocked the hole they
6 November Carter sent a telegram to his patron: tomb of the elusive pharaoh. had crawled through, and even hid the modern
“At last have made wonderful discovery in Valley a When the doorway was finally opened it plaster behind a suspiciously placed basket lid.
magnificent tomb with seals intact recovered same revealed exactly what Carter had described: It was a terribly kept secret, and their nocturnal
for your arrival congratulations.” wonderful things. The newly dubbed antechamber adventure was immediately obvious to all who
Carter faced what was probably the longest wait was packed full of an array of treasures, beautiful inspected the tomb. Luckily, with everyone swept
of his life. As he awaited the arrival of Carnarvon he golden chests, grand chariots, beds carved in the up in the excitement of the discovery, there were
pondered what he could have possibly discovered. shapes of animals and an abundance of other no further enquiries about the strangely modern
A man now bitterly accustomed to disappointment, precious objects. However, Carter quickly noticed plasterwork on the ancient tomb.
150
04 Annex
04 This is the smallest room in the
tomb and was found in a state of
disarray. It was packed full with
furniture, baskets, model boats and
more. It was the final room to be
excavated, beginning in October
1927 and ending in spring 1928.
07
07 Death mask
Found directly on the mummy
inside the third coffin of the
sarcophagus, the death mask is
made from solid gold and weighs
around 24 pounds. It was designed
to ensure that his spirit recognised
the body in afterlife.
05
06
05 Burial chamber
This is the only chamber in the tomb
that is decorated, with walls painted
bright yellow and showing scenes of
Tutankhamun with various deities.
The unusual size and lack of detail of
these paintings contribute to the idea
that it was a hasty burial. The room
is filled by four wooden shrines that
surround the sarcophagus.
06 Treasury
Accessed by an unblocked
doorway, this room was packed
full of over 5,000 objects, most
of them associated with the
funeral or rituals surrounding
death. This room also contained
two mummified foetuses that
many believe were the stillborn
children of the pharaoh.
151
Lord Carnarvon and Howard

Carter after the discovery of
Tutankhamun’s tomb CT scans and
X-rays have
attempted to
determine the
What killed cause of death
King Tut? On 29 November the press had gathered for the

official opening of the tomb and locals had already
He was murdered by his started to sell Tutankhamun-themed Christmas
successor cards from makeshift tables set up in the vast
The presence of a piece of bone in his skull cavity
led experts to believe that Tutankhamun died sandy expanse of the valley. Although eager to
from a brain haemorrhage caused by a blow to
the head. Recent examination has discredited discover what lay within the burial chamber,
this theory. Carter was dedicated to meticulously clearing and
documenting every single item discovered in the
Malaria antechamber and annex, and of course, he was
A DNA analysis showed malaria to be present in
Tutankhamun’s system, leading some to believe already very aware of what lay beyond the northern
his weakened body was unable to fight it off.
Although this can be a deadly disease, adults door, for he had already seen it. It took two and
often develop immunity to it, so this theory is in
some doubt. a half months to complete the mammoth task. It
was a nerve-wracking experience for Carter and his
A chariot crash team, as they risked the ancient – and very delicate
Tutankhamun’s body had several injuries down
one side. Car-crash experts concluded that the – artefacts crumbling to dust at their touch. Every
injuries would correspond to death by a chariot single chest they uncovered had to undergo a mini
crash, which shattered his ribs and pelvis.
However, it was later concluded that these excavation of the seemingly random jumble of
injuries occurred after death. ancient items that had been hastily stuffed inside.
Genetic diseases When it was finally time to officially open the
A host of genetic diseases are attributed to burial chamber, Carnarvon gave a speech where he,
Tutankhamun’s death, including temporal lobe
epilepsy. Experts hypothesised that this epilepsy as his brother described, was unusually nervous,
caused a fatal fall that broke his leg, which then “like a naughty schoolboy”, quite obviously anxious
became infected.
that their nighttime raid may be discovered.
Killed by a hippo Regardless, Carter breached the doorway and they
The fact that Tutankhamun had several broken were able to squeeze through three at a time. The
ribs and that his heart was not embalmed made
a case for a injury to the chest as the cause An artist’s sight that greeted them was astonishing – a great
of death. As hunting hippos was a pastime of impression of gilt shrine 2.7 metres (nine feet) high filled almost
Egyptian pharaohs, it gave birth to this seemingly the boy king
outrageous theory. the entire chamber. It was completely overlaid
152
Victims of
‘the curse’
It wasn’t just Carnarvon
who supposedly succumbed
to the pharaoh’s curse…
Aubrey Herbert
Carnarvon’s half-brother
Date of death: 26 September 1923
Cause: Blood poisoning
George Jay Gould I

Visitor to the tomb
Date of death: 16 May 1923
Cause: Fever
Sir Achibald
Douglas-Reid
X-rayed Tutankhamun’s mummy
Date of death: 15 January 1924
Cause: Unknown illness
Prince Ali Kamel

Fahmy Bey
Prince of Egypt
Date of death: 10 July 1923
Cause: Shot by his wife
Arthur
Cruttenden Mace
Part of excavation team
Date of death: 1928
Cause: Arsenic poisoning
Richard Bethell
Carter’s secretary
The excavation of Date of death: 15 November 1929
Tutankhamun’s tomb was Cause: Smothered in bed
a massive undertaking
with gold and undoubtedly housed the coffin of was only one explanation – the tomb was cursed. events of the tomb, the human tragedy was gold. A
the king. Beyond what was now obviously the An array of ‘experts’ came forward, claiming in the close eye was kept on anyone vaguely associated
burial chamber, they uncovered yet another room tabloids that the Earl’s death was certainly linked with the excavation, and the press quickly
packed with gleaming objects. The tomb seemed to to his penetration and plundering of the solemn published details of their untimely and shocking
hold treasure upon treasure upon treasure. It was resting place of an ancient and powerful deaths. For Carter enough was enough.
a discovery of the sort that had never been seen king. Numerous stories of dark and Time and time again he denied the
before and was unlikely to happen again. mysterious events added fuel to existence of the curse, and said
It did not take long for the British press to the gossip fire – such as Carter’s instead that “there was probably
become consumed by this colossal discovery. yellow canary being killed by It is estimated that no place in the world freer from
News of the ancient treasures spread like wildfire a cobra after the discovery of risks than the Tomb.” But the
around 3,500 items
and soon dignitaries and royalty from all over the the tomb, and all the lights in public were having none of it;
world descended on the tomb, each one hoping for Cairo going out the moment were discovered within as far as they were concerned,
a private viewing. Anyone with even the slightest Carnarvon shifted his mortal the fabulous tomb of the curse was very much real.
connection to any member of the team attempted coil. There were tales of an Tutankhamun Although the legend of a
to exploit it, but the general public and journalists ancient script written above curse was obviously not the ideal
had to make do with watching on from beyond the entrance of the tomb: “Death result, Carter, with his bounding
the tomb’s perimeter wall. However, this position comes on swift wings to him that fascination for all things Egyptian,
in itself provided a kind of spectacle, as the crowds toucheth the tomb of the Pharaoh”, and probably would have been delighted
watched eagerly as an array of mysterious items to a gripped public, this curse of the mummy by the mania for Egypt that spread across
were removed from the tomb. Every day more and was becoming a reality. the world after his discovery. Carter’s treasures
more tourists poured into Luxor, and hotels even The true – and rather more mundane – facts of remained in the Cairo Museum until the Sixties
set up tents in their gardens to accommodate the the situation were, of course, ignored. Carnarvon when they travelled all around the world. In the
unprecedented demand. was already ill and frail and had reached the most popular exhibition in its history at the British
On 5 April 1923 disaster struck – Carnarvon was average life expectancy of 57 at the time of his Museum, over 1.6 million people queued for over
dead. The source of his passing was an infected death. Cairo’s electricity supply was notoriously eight hours to glimpse the ancient wonders of the
mosquito bite he had nicked with his razor, but to unreliable, and no such message of ancient horrors boy king’s tomb. Importantly, if it weren’t for the
the public and press who had become so enthralled existed. But for the press who were struggling to determination and self-belief of one man, they may
with the dark mysteries of Ancient Egypt there keep the public entertained by the slow moving still lie buried today.
153
In
hieroglyphic
writing, the
hieroglyphs are the
characters that make
up this complex
language system
154
Decoding the hieroglyphics
Decoding the
hieroglyphics
How the most mundane of demolition jobs led to a
discovery that would go on to unlock the secrets
of a much admired ancient society
T
he written language of Ancient Egypt is There is always a thrill to be found in cracking provided something of a quantum leap by allowing
a visually enchanting form and, as such, a code. Can you imagine, then, the excitement scholars to understand with great clarity, and then
it has held understandable allure in the that rolled like a wave across the archaeological share, the story of Ancient Egypt.
imaginations of scholars and non-scholars and scholarly community when the realisation The Stone itself did not narrate the history of
alike. It’s a written language that just seems was reached about the nature of the tablet that Ancient Egypt or anything equally expansive. No:
so very different to anything that we recognise in had been discovered? Picture the moment in the stone itself records a public decree made by the
modern times. The hieroglyphs attest to the human the Egyptian desert in 1799. French soldiers, led teenage pharaoh, Ptolemy V. However, this very
capacity for invention, creative flair and the desire by Pierre François Xavier Bouchard, under the particular text would eventually allow translators to
to express as precisely as possible what we think auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte, unearth a chunk work out the linguistic system on which Egyptian
and feel about, and perceive in our immediate and of granite rock that measures 112 centimetres writing was based. It became the key to unlocking
less immediate circumstances. Just what do all of in height, 75 centimetres in width and is 28.4 a long-lost corridor of knowledge through to the
those carved images mean, though? Who wouldn’t centimetres thick. time of the Ancient Egyptians. We use that term
enjoy solving such a puzzle? Over the next quarter of a century, English to distinguish the culture from an even older
Imagine, then, being part of the race to crack and French scholars worked tirelessly to decode civilisation that had developed around the River
the code of a mysterious language that dated the treasure. This type of scholarly competition Nile. As Dr Penelope Wilson has commented,
back several thousand years BCE. Imagine the reflected something of the much broader tension “Ancient Egyptian is classed by linguists as an
excitement, the astonishment and wonder when that had existed between France and Britain at the Afro-Asiatic language. This means that it is related
the opportunity to finally do so presented itself time. In an attempt to weaken Britain, Napoleon to North African languages such as Berber and
right on the cusp of the 19th century, when the Age had decided on an offensive on British claims in Cushitic, and to Asiatic (or Semitic) languages, such
of Enlightenment had established its intellectual Egypt in order to disrupt Britain’s hugely successful as Arabic and Hebrew.”
territory and the thirst for evidence-based enquiry venture in North Africa and emerging connections In 1810, the Royal Society of Antiquaries in
in the pursuit of knowledge had taken hold of to India. London published a document entitled Rosetta
Europe and The New World. The discovery of the The artefact was named the Rosetta Stone Stone, brought to England in 1802: account of by
Rosetta Stone was a huge moment in an era of after El Rashid – the location in the Nile Delta, Matt. Raper. Among the documents contained in
thought and intellectual activity. And, in working just about 35 miles north of Alexandria, where it the account was a letter dated 30 May 1810, written
out what the fascinating inscriptions on the was discovered. And this inconspicuous chunk by Major General H Turner to Nicholas Carlisle,
Rosetta Stone meant, the modern world would be of granite rock has become a globally recognised Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries that: “By the
compelled to reconnect with an ancient world. In a archaeological treasure. Relatively swiftly after its 16th article of the capitulation of Alexandria, the
time in which emerging rational modes of thought discovery, it granted access to the thought- and siege of which city terminated the labours of the
were developing, they interwove with the intricate idea-scape, daily life and religious systems of a British army in Egypt, all the curiosities, natural
spiritual and religious tenets and narratives of a culture that has entranced and energised people’s and artificial, collected by the French Institute and
culture beginning to be rediscovered. imaginations for centuries. The Rosetta Stone, then, others, were to be delivered up to the captors (the
155
British)… From the French scavans I learnt, that deciphering the hieroglyphs available from
Sacred and the Rosetta Stone was found among the ruins of excavated and found ruins of Ancient Egypt. At
ordinary Fort St Julien…”

This Royal Society of Antiquaries report also
a time of increasing modernisation in the world,
hieroglyphs began to exert significant force on the
expression includes the Rev Stephen Weston’s analysis of

his translation of a section of the Greek text
imagination of scholars. In part, hieroglyphs were
a language of mysticism. As the British Museum
included in the decree recorded on the stone. notes about the scholastic culture of the 18th
Writing is an act of recording the thought, perception,
Weston’s report certainly provides a century, “People think that hieroglyphs were
value systems, memories, aspirations and fears. It’s a
way of encompassing all of the inner, and outer, worlds very full sense of the issues that symbols recording ideas rather than the
of human experience. For Ancient Egyptian culture, a king would typically engage sounds of a spoken language.”
writing was certainly a way to record the history of the with and provides us with There are over For the people of Ancient Egypt,
royal family. Writing was committed to both stone and a detailed sense of the their name for hieroglyphic marks
to papyrus, and archaeology has gifted us with what conditions in which the
700 characters was ‘the divine word’. Their
are referred to as the ‘Hekanakhte Papers’, which detail
people of Ancient Egypt or letters in the belief was that Thoth, the god of
aspects of agricultural life in the form of letters written
on papyrus by a farmer to his family during a period
lived. Weston’s translation hieroglyphic alphabet wisdom, had bestowed on them
when he was away from home. is entirely fascinating, so compared to 26 in the the ability to write. Hieroglyph
A subject typically committed to written memory it’s feasible to quote an is a word that comes to us from
was spells. Egypt was a culture that, to some degree, excerpt from any part and
English language Ancient Greece and it means
combined an affinity for magic with a fascination for find interest in it. However, ‘sacred carvings’. Certainly, plenty of
the world of reason and evidence-based thought and here is a selection from Weston’s Greek scholars and travellers ventured
investigation. One of the key texts that survived the
translation, as it was published in across the Mediterranean to Egypt. Some
immense passage of human history was The Book of
the Dead, dating from the 16th Dynasty, which was the RSA’s account: “[Ptolemy] dealt out scholars have proposed that Egyptian writing
discovered in the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep. The justice to all, like the great, great Hermes. He began in about 4000 BCE, evolving from writing
Book of the Dead powerfully combines writing and ordered also that all men who came back to their that was already being practised by that time
illustration for a culture that embraced the sombre country in arms, and all disaffected persons who in Mesopotamia – a region comprising Assyria,
reality of death and the ceaseless importance of a returned to Egypt in times of confusion should Babylonia and Sumer and considered as ‘the
disciplined and ordered life. The Book of the Dead
remain on their own estates.” cradle of civilisation’. Today, we know this region
is comprised of 200 spells that were written with
the intention of helping the deceased negotiate the During the 18th century, European scholars as Iraq. However, because the written forms are
challenges of reaching the afterlife. committed themselves to decoding and so different, other scholars have proposed that
Egyptian hieroglyphs developed independently of
Mesopotamian writing.
Over 700 signs comprise the building blocks of
Egyptian hieroglyphic expression, and the Rosetta
Stone allowed scholars to fast evolve their facility
to translate the hieroglyphs. The Rosetta Stone
includes six identical cartouches, and it was this
detail that would draw the attention of Thomas
Young when he set about attempting to understand
what the treasure was telling the world that had
rediscovered it. Young’s ‘rival’, the historian and
linguist Jean-François Champollion, would go on to
identify that some of the writing was an alphabet
and other parts served a syllabic function. He also
found that some text was determinative, meaning
that it represented an entire idea or object that had
already been described.
The Rosetta Stone: discovery to decipherment
O Foiled! O Proof! O International O Taking the credit O Back to England O Pioneering

The French army Jean-Joseph Marcel interest English scholars The British take effort
is prevented, by a creates the very first Baron Silvestre de Sacy seek to underplay possession of the The Stone arrives
British blockade, proof sheets of the studies a copy of the the French Rosetta Stone from in England in
from leaving Stone and they are Stone’s Greek text. He contribution to the the French after the February 1802.
Alexandria with the sent to the National writes a letter of his Rosetta Stone’s latter surrender Egypt. Reverend
newly discovered Institute in Paris. findings to the French decoding. A French A Latin translation of Stephen Weston
Rosetta Stone. January 1800 Ministry of the Interior. translation of the the Stone is made. completes the
1799 1801 text on the Stone 1801 first English
is produced. translation of the
1800-1802 Greek text on
the Stone.
1802
156
The hieroglyphic language of Ancient Egypt is

a time machine that takes us back to 5000 BCE
when the first versions of this language system
Rosetta go-getters
were marked by hunter communities in the Two decades after its discovery, two
Western Desert of Egypt. In these very earliest scholars undertook the intellectual
hieroglyphs we see depictions of cattle and farmers adventure to unlock the rock
and the motivation behind recording aspects of
their lives was to memorialise these details of life
that held most importance for them.
Key to understanding hieroglyphs is recognising
that they function as ideograms. Ideograms are, as
Egyptologist Ian Shaw explains, “signs employed as
direct representations of phenomena such as ‘sky’
or ‘man’) as well as phonetic signs representing the
sound of all or part of a spoken word…”
Hieroglyphs didn’t only provide factual
information. They also allowed for creative and
artistic expression and interpretation. Indeed,
some hieroglyphs are described as ‘determinative’
Thomas Young Jean-Francois Champollion
because a given hieroglyph determines the
full meaning. Hieroglyphs were most particularly At the heart of the race of intellects scrutinising
used on temples and the great public buildings The decree issued on behalf of the Rosetta Stone was the rivalry between Thomas
Ptolemy V is inscribed on the Rosetta Young, an English physicist, fascinated by Ancient
and monuments of Ancient Egypt. They ceased Stone, from top to bottom, in Ancient
being used beyond the Fourth century BCE and, Egyptian, Demotic and Greek Egypt, and French scholar and linguist Jean-
François Champollion. Young was such a bright
young thing that he had even earned the nickname
Details from the Book of the Dead, of ‘Phenomenon’, having discovered the wave
which could be translated once properties of light before proceeding to illuminate
the Rosetta Stone was decoded the world on the subject of Ancient Egypt.
For many involved in decoding the Rosetta
Stone, Young shared their understanding that the
hieroglyphs were a form of picture writing. In an
attempt to develop a more thorough understanding
of the past’s granite gift to the present, in 1814
Young focused his efforts on a single cartouche.
He was able to cross-reference the cartouche with
the Greek script, judging that the Egyptian writing
was referring to the late era pharaoh, Ptolemy V.
The specific was allowing Young to think more
universally: Young described his breakthrough
work in an article for the 1819 edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica.
It was Champollion, however, who achieved
a full translation of the hieroglyphic material.
Champollion’s lecture of 10 May 1831 was a
critical moment, in which he observed that: “The
translation of [the Greek], which contains a decree
issued by the priests of Egypt, who had gathered
in Memphis to render homage to King Ptolemy
Epiphanes, made it completely certain that the two
Egyptian inscriptions on the upper part of the stone
contained the truthful expression of the same
decree in Egyptian language.”
© Alamy
O Text message O Alphabet O The Phenomenon O Young’s report O Pushing the O Where’s home ?
British scholars send copies breakthrough: Thomas Young Thomas Young envelope Debates regarding
of the stone to The Vatican, Swedish diplomat commences publishes his On 10 May 1831, ownership of the
the Society de Propaganda and scholar work translating research in the Jean-François Rosetta Stone
Fide, the Imperial Library Johan David the Stone. He Supplement to Champollion have been ongoing
in Vienna and the Academy Åkerblad compiles determines that the the Encyclopedia commences delivery since its discovery.
at Madrid. a rudimentary direction in which Britannica. The of his course on Egypt wishes to
July 1802 Egyptian ‘alphabet’ hieroglyphs are research is 20 archaeology at the have the Rosetta
and a list of Greek looking indicates pages long College de France, Stone repatriated.
and Egyptian the direction in and simply with his first lecture
proper names as which one should entitled ‘Egypt’. focused on his
they appear on the read them. 1819 analysis of the Stone.
Rosetta Stone. 1814 1831
1802/03
157
The journey to
interpreting the
Rosetta Stone
Summer 1798
Napoleon Bonaparte’s army engages
in an attempt to defeat British
troops in Egypt. Napoleon is also
interested in the archaeology of
the North African country, and
a thousand civilians set to work
to unearth what treasures might
be hidden from view. On 24 July,
Napoleon enters the Egyptian
capital and on 22 August establishes
The Institute of Egypt with a focus on
four disciplines: Mathematics, Physics,
Political Economy, and Literature and
the Arts.
© Think Stock
19 July 1799
Fort Juliet, near the city named El
Rashid. Soldiers are expanding the
size of the fort and in undertaking
this work they demolish an
“The Stone outlines the numerous
ancient wall. French officer
Pierre François Xavier Bouchard
supervises the work. The
benefactions decreed by Ptolemy V
discovery of a stone is made on
Bouchard’s watch. The stone is
during the ninth year of his reign”
damaged. It is missing the corner
of its upper left-hand section.
by virtue of becoming rare, they took on a special into new concepts. When work began on deciphering
Initial research into the stone is resonance and cultural value as a ‘lost’ language. the hieroglyphic content of the Rosetta Stone, scholars
commenced during that summer. The Rosetta Stone comprises three types of took some confidence from their already well-
writing, each of which recorded what has been established understanding of Greek.
September 1799 entitled The Memphis Decree. Having been the capital Critical to our thinking about how hieroglyphs
The Courrier de l’Egypte publishes the city of Ancient Egypt, Memphis was located just south functioned in their place and time is to know that they
first publicly available news of the of the Nile Delta, 15 miles to the south of Cairo. The were considered to possess power enough to affect the
discovery of the Rosetta Stone. contents of the decree refer to the young pharaoh world. Now, that’s respect for the written word!
The article draws together Ptolemy V, who the Greek text describes as It’s certainly true that some discoveries don’t
initial research undertaken
follows: “King Ptolemy, living for ever, necessarily get the recognition during the
at the Institute of Egypt.
Scholars Jean-Joseph Marcel the Manifest God whose excellence original moment in time, and the
and Remi Raige determine the is fine…” It continues in Egyptian unearthing of a slate-like stone in
cursive Demotic text on the hieroglyphs in the uppermost 1898 by British Egyptologists James
stone, but at this stage cannot section; the middle section shows
Only the Quibbell and Frederick Green failed
decipher it. In August 1800, study on Demotic Egyptian writing (used educated scribes to capture the general public’s
the stone begins at the Institute of
Egypt in Cairo. Inevitably, perhaps,
for document writing rather than were able to write imagination in the way that the
arguments quickly begin to develop
writing about sacred subjects); and using hieroglyphs. discovery of the Rosetta Stone had
around ownership of the treasure. the lowest third shows Ancient done, or the visually spectacular
Greek text. The Rosetta Stone is They used shorthand King Tutankhamun death mask
1801 a veritable search engine of the ‘hieratic’ writing would later do. The slate stone,
In 1801, with the British having Ancient Egyptian time. quickly named The Narmer Palette,
defeated Napoleon’s army in Professor Kathryn A Bard was visually unassuming (relatively
Egypt, the Rosetta Stone has explained that Egyptian speaking) but has been of major importance,
arrives at the British Museum writing was borne out of royal like the Rosetta Stone, in allowing us access to a
in London, where scholars then culture’s written expression of thought.
administrative requirements. Widely
continue to study it. The Greek
understood to have been written by priests What could be more of a testament to the Rosetta
text is readily translated and
scholars identify that each section at Memphis, the Stone outlines the numerous Stone’s powerful effect on scholarship and on our
narrates the same information. This benefactions decreed by Ptolemy V during imaginative response to Ancient Egypt than this: on
is a critical realisation: it means that the ninth year of his reign. As such, the text on the 2 March 2004, the European Space Agency launched
the scholars understand that they will Rosetta Stone commemorates Ptolemy’s reign. a spacecraft named Rosetta. On board rode a probe
be able to translate the meaning of the Historical research and scholarship, like scientific named Philae, which was programmed to land on a
hieroglyphics. The Rosetta Stone records
enquiry, builds and develops on what has come before comet (which it achieved in late 2014). The impulse
a decree from pharaoh Ptolemy V that
dates from 196 BCE. – and, as in science, even long-standing theories can, behind decoding an ancient civilisation has found
necessarily, be shown to be inadequate and developed another life in decoding the cosmos.
158
Wondrous words revealed

Over 700 hieroglyphs can be combined to create endless meanings
A
ncient Egyptian hieroglyphs would be consonants. As the British Museum explains, within an oval shape that we know as a cartouche.
written either from top to bottom across hieroglyphs function as “sense indicators, such as a Along the bottom of the cartouche was drawn a
the surface of a page or of stone. Across the boat following the sound dpt which was the word horizontal line; scholars have suggested that this
page, hieroglyphs would be written from for boat.” There was also a complementary form of represents the flat surface of the Earth and that the
right to left or from left to right. The key writing called hieratic (by Egyptologists) and this arc of the oval outline shows the journey of the sun
to reading a hieroglyph is this: if the ideograms of was a cursive (joined) script used for writing on through the course of a day. The cartouche form is
animals, birds or a person is facing left, then you papyrus as a kind of shorthand. an emblem of how a king’s reign extended across
must read from left to right. If the animal, bird or The alphabetic hieroglyphs comprise 24 the land (the flat line) over which the sun passes
person faces right, then you must read across from ‘letters’ represented by images of specific objects (the curve of the cartouche).
right to left. and entities. For example, a vulture represented During the mid-Fourth Dynasty, hieroglyphic
The hieroglyphic system uses over 700 signs. the letter ‘a’. In hieroglyphic text, any time that a writing reached a particular level of refinement and
No vowels are shown in hieroglyphic form, only royal name was being written, it was inscribed was then used on monuments for public display.
1 2 3 4 5 6
c (‘ahhh’) i y (‘eee’) c (e) w (‘ooo’) b

c
Egyptian vulture. This ominous A flowering reed. The reed Two flowering reeds or strokes The arm is often used in the The quail chick adds a pleasant The foot and leg. Egyptians
bird is associated with both was used to make arrows and that may have represented the Egyptian language to represent sound. It is often employed among became familiar with human
battlefields and graveyards. writing tools. sound of the wind on rushes. might or power. signs that represent time. anatomy through mummification.
7 8 9 10 11 12
p f m n r h
A seat, stool or throne. A sign in The horned viper is one of many The owl is a common letter. It is A water ripple is used to note R is shown as a mouth. The letter There are various ‘h’ sounds in the
Ancient Egyptian used frequently snakes used in Ancient Egyptian. rare to see the full face of any transience; the words ‘to’ and is used in the words ‘recitation’, alphabet. This sign shows a rural
in royal titles. It is often attached to a verb. creature in imagery. ‘towards’ often contain this. ‘to eat’ or ‘to speak’. shelter or a house.
13 14 15 16 17 18
h (emphatic ‘h’) h (as in hock or lock) h (‘ich’) s s (‘sh’) k (like ‘qu’ in quaint)
A twisted piece of flax. Flax The placenta can be found in The belly of an animal; this letter A door bolt and a folded sheet of Water features were a symbol of The hill sign is used in the words
was a common material in many words, including those that is used in words that denote the cloth. It sounds like the English ‘s’. affluence; upper-class villas were ‘tall’, ‘high’ and ‘exalted’, as well
Ancient Egypt. deal with fortune and smell. physical form. It has several different variations. designed with pools. as ‘high ground’ or ‘summit’.
19 20 21 22 23 24
k g t t (‘tsh’) d d (dj)
A reed basket with a handle. This The Egyptians were fond of wine. Bread was the most basic food in Tethering rope. The Egyptians Human hand. There are 63 signs Snakes were feared creatures.
can be used in many contexts and The sign of this jar stand is Egypt; here we see a small loaf of had 38 signs for ropes and baskets. for the human body. This sign was This letter is often used in words
is employed as the pronoun ‘you’. transliterated with a hard ‘g’. oven-baked bread. ‘t’ is also a pronoun. used for words of action. of declaration or recitation.
159
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Book of
ANCIENT
EGYPT Explore one of the greatest
ancient civilisations to have walked the Earth
LANDSCAPE OF EGYPT FAMOUS PHARAOHS SACRED ANIMALS

Trace the roots of a mighty civilisation to the Follow the footsteps of powerful and notorious Understand why the Egyptian people held
fertile floodplains of the Nile River rulers who walked as gods among men some animals in such high regard
LIFE & DEATH LASTING LEGACY

Explore the rites and rituals that guided Identify the greatest inventions we have
everyday life and ensured entry to the afterlife inherited from this advanced ancient society

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NEW

Explore one of the greatest ancient

In 1922 a magnificent discovery captured the attention of the world.

Future Publishing Ltd

Book of Ancient Egypt Second Edition

CONTENTS 3100-332 BCE

08 Map of Ancient Egypt 60 Hatshepsut: The queen

12 Kingdoms of 66 Ahmose I’s

42 The mighty pharaoh

56 Peace & prosperity of 88 Life on the banks of

98 Gods of Ancient Egypt

80 the gods guided every part of life

106 Inside the

108 Sacred animals of

112 Magic & medicine

112 118 Egypt’s medical

120 Death, burial &

144 Inside the

146 Curse of the

154 Decoding the

Take a lesson in deciphering

Ancient Egypt, 3300-30 BCE

O Narmer becomes O First pyramid built O First intermediate O Ahmose I unifies

The Hyksos influence The Hyksos rule Rosetta Stone is carved

The Amarna The rule of the

O Tutankhamun O Nubians conquer O Final dynasty O The Ptolemaic line

Era of foreign rule Gaius Octavius eventually Battle of Actium

The Middle Kingdom

The Old Kingdom

The Great Sphinx of Giza is believed

The Middle Kingdom

Rock tombs of Beni Hasan, an Ancient

The New Kingdom

army and met the Hyksos with unrelenting force.

22 Power of the pharaoh 56 Peace and prosperity of

gods, men and of new temples and the renovation of existing

demons walked work of their predecessors. Ancient Egypt was a

Influential figure Influential figure

c. 2970 BCE c. 2600 BCE

Crook and flail

Thutmose III “The visiting of temples was a vital part

Influential figure Influential figure

Influential figure Influential figure

Ptolemy V Ptolemy XI Ptolemy XV

204-181 BCE 80 BCE 44-30 BCE

erutaefs ihtnineddihemans ihs ahsmailliwnehpetsmnbvcxzlkjhgfds

“The young princess

As the last active

A husband & two lovers

Ptolemy XIII Theos Julius Caesar Mark Antony

She died from an asp

All in the family

Ptolemy VIII UNCLE Cleopatra III

Cleopatra was as much an

his home world.” thongs around his enemy’s feet and

“Alexander travelled to the oasis of Siwah,

successor invader sacrificed to the native

Timeline 332 BCE

to go up to Amun because he had heard that

Deﬁning moment Deﬁning moment