DRAFT

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

AEN 300
PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL
ANALYSES

RUTH NDUNG’U AND MARTIN NJOROGE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND

LINGUISTICS
JULY 2005
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Lecture I

Introduction: The Focus of Phonetics and Phonology

1.1 The basis of phonetics and phonology

Both phonetics and phonology deal with human speech sounds whose production is

effected by a combination of three major features. The three features are referred to as the

dimensions or specifications in the analysis of human speech sounds. These dimensions

are:

1. The air stream mechanisms

From the three initiators, there are four natural air stream mechanisms namely:

Pulmonic: utilizes the pulmonic eggressive mechanism.

Glottalic: utilizes ingressive and eggressive mechanisms.

Velaric: utilizes ingressive mechanism.

2. The vocal tract

This is divided into three regions or cavities.

a) The nasal cavity starts at the nose and goes back to the lowered velum.

b) The oral cavity starts at the lips and goes back to the raised velum.

c) The pharyngeo-laryngeal cavity starts at the pharynx (back wall of the end of the

nasal cavity, cylindrical in nature) and moves down to the larynx.

Using these mechanisms, we can say that a sound is nasal, oral or pharyngeo-laryngeal.
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3. The vocal organs

These stretch from the lips to the larynx. In this we have the active and passive

articulators. The active articulators are the tongue, lower lip and lower teeth (lower

organs). The passive articulators are the lips, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, palate and

larynx (upper organs).

The examples below illustrate how these dimensions are used to classify speech sounds.

[p]: pulmonic eggressive (air steam) oral (tract) voiceless bilabial (organ) stop.

[n]: pulmonic eggressive (air stream), nasal (tract) voiced alveolar plosive (organ).

Activity

Describe the following sounds according to these specifications:

/p/, /s/ and /l/

Illustration

/n/ - pulmonic egressive

- oral

- alveolar

- voiced
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1.2 The central pool of human speech sounds

The three specifications presented in 1.1, here above, are also responsible for other

human – but not speech – sounds such as laughter, clicking and booing. They are also

responsible for other activity too, for example, breathing, eating, coughing, yawning and

sneezing.

Human speech sounds are articulated and described according to the three specifications.

These speech sounds are collectively described as the ‘central pool of human speech

sounds’. Each language draws a limited set of sounds from this pool for its phonetic

inventory. The human speech sounds are presented in the Internal Phonetic Alphabet

(I.P.A.) chart (See Appendix 1.)

Activity

1. Identify the phonetic inventory of your first language from the Central Pool of human

speech sounds. Identify both consonants and vowels.

2. For the consonants draw a table and insert each consonant in its appropriate slot. For

the vowels draw a quadrangle and insert each vowel at the appropriate point.
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Lecture 2

Different analytic approaches

2.1 Segmentation

Speech is a continuum with few points in the stream which constitute

a) Natural breaks – to breath in, swallow, and cough.

b) Breaks that show an articulatory, auditory or acoustically steady state that could

serve as a basis for analytical segmentation into real phonetic units. For instance, the

series of words - ‘the red pen’ has breaks that allow analytical segmentation.

The segmentation that enables the view of real phonetic segment of speech is mostly

imposed. Human beings do not say distinct sounds but a continuum of speech sounds

with anticipatory articulation of each sound in the series. However, for a detailed study

of human speech sounds, segmentation is prerequisite.

2.2.1 Two chief approaches to segmentation

2.2.1.1 The parametric approach

In the parametric approach there are parallel segmentations of speech. Each component

of the vocal performance is treated as a parameter whose value is in the state of constant

change. The components could be

a) Auditory such as pitch of voice or loudness of the voice, for example, the series of

words

Do you really mean that?

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could be said in many different ways. For instance it could be said in two ways with the

same pitch-pattern but due to the variation in loudness of voice one ends up being a shout

and the other a murmur.

b) Initiatory such as syllable structure. In the initiatory component, the potential values

of a feature are continuous but have a measuring system to limit them. For example,

the syllable structure in each language determines the number of sounds that can

occupy each of the parts of the syllable.

2.2.1.2 The linear approach

The linear approach is a serial segmentation in which the speech continuum is divided

into units of varying durations. For example, in the analyses of the degrees of stricture,

the following durations are established

Maintainable duration – fricative

Momentary duration – flap/tap

Each of the speech units can then be characterized in terms of representative values

shown during the production of that unit by the individual phonetic components making

up the performance.

In the linear approach, any phonetic feature can have only a limited number of values,

which are referred to as categories. For instance, pitch is a phonetic feature, which has

three values only, namely; high, mid, low.

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The linear categories are thus discrete. This makes the linear featural categories

convenient for use in the spoken and written description of the speech continuum. This

explains why the linear analysis is the one taken in most textbooks on phonetics.

2.2.2 The representation of the speech continuum

When the speech continuum is analysed, either parametrically or linearly the speech

continuum is presented in terms of the following:

a) Symbols and diacritics

b) In terms of phonological rules (algorithms) such as /r/ [ŗ] / t, p

This rule would be rewritten as “/r/ becomes devoiced when it immediately follows the

voiceless stops /t, p/.”

c) Phonotactics – distribution statements.

d) Metrical trees

The analyses of the speech continuum include the analyses of phenomena attributed to

‘strings of sounds’ such as stress, the syllable, pitch and rhythm. Each one of these is

attributed to measurements in metrical analysis. These measurements are presented in

metrical trees. For example, the syllable structure tree presented here below
(Syllable)

Onset Rhyme

Nucleus Coda

Fig 1:The syllable structure tree

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e) Metric numbers

Some phonological phenomena can be calculated and assigned a numerical value. For

instance, stress can be assigned a numerical value because words have relative degrees of

stress.

Example the presentation of numerical metrical numbers for stress as illustrated here

Root

Weaker Stronger

The Weaker Stronger

2 Hunger Begger
3 1

f) Use of metrical symbols and signs

Example

σ – syllable

C – Consonant

V – Vowel

F – Foot (in rhythm)

/ /, [], /e/ – slashes or slants, square brackets and I.P.A symbols

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Lecture 3

Phonetic Analyses

3.1 Phonetic Analysis

This refers to the analyses of sound production and perception. Phonetics analyses human

speech sounds in terms of the following:

1. The speech sounds’ production

2. The speech sounds’ description

3. The different possible sounds depending on the human vocal organs

4. The speech sounds’ articulation, acoustics and auditory correlates.

3.2 The Phonetic features of a speech sound

The phonetic analyses focuses on both the redundant and non-redundant features of the

human speech sound.

3.2.1 Redundant features of a speech sound

The redundant phonetic features of a human speech sound are non-distinctive. They do

not facilitate a distinction in meaning in the use of the speech sound. However, the

redundant features are part of the description of the speech sound. For instance, aspiration

in English is a phonetic feature of the three voiceless stops /p, t, k/ in word initial position

but it is not a distinctive feature. No meaning distinction of words is caused by aspiration

in English.

Example
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[pen] [pʰen]

The second articulation of the word pen in English is non-distinctive. It simply leads to a

mispronounced word. All features of the sound segment – both redundant and non-

redundant – are therefore given at phonetic level. The speech sound is then described as

a phone allophone. Phone is concrete realization of human speech sound i.e. in writing

and speech mainly the latter. Allophone is the concrete realization of human speech

sound that is determined by the environment e.g. dental, laminal, apical areas of

articulation. For example:

[t] is a phone whose allophones can be:

[t ] when aspirated - tin

[t ] when unreleased - spit

[t ] when labialized - two

[t ] when dentalised - ten

[t ] when palatalized - tune

Each of them is a phone in its own right. For a sound to have allophones, it must have

more than one concrete realization. Phones are presented in square brackets []. When

not bracketed, the sound is called a grapheme e.g. t.

Activity

Identify all the non-redundant features of /p, t, k/ and describe each of the features using

the appropriate diacritic symbol.

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3.2.2 Non-redundant features of a speech sound

The non-redundant phonetic features of a speech sound are distinctive. For instance,

aspiration is a phonetic feature in Kiswahili of the three voiceless stops /p, t, k/ in word

initial position and it is distinctive.

Example

/pʰa:/ roof /pa:/ antelope

3.3 The notations used at the phonetic level of analyses

3.3.1. Diactric marks

The redundant features of a speech sound are presented as superscripts using diacritic

symbols (refer to the I.P.A chart in Appendix 1).

Examples

diacritic phonetic feature

[ʰ] aspiration

[ʲ] palatalization

[ʷ] labialization

2. The square bracket [ ]

The square bracket is used in the presentation of speech sounds at the phonetic level of

analyses.

Example
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The word bin in English is phonetically presented as [Ƅĩƞ·]. The vowel /ı/ is nasalized

because it precedes a nasal consonant /n/. The nasal consonant /n/ is lengthened because

it follows a short vowel and it is word final.

Lecture 4

Phonological Analyses

4.1 Phonology

Phonology is the study of human speech sounds in terms of the following:

(i) The function of sounds.

In every human language, sounds are used in words in order to convey meaning. In

Lecture 1, we learned that each language constitutes its phonetic inventory from the

central pool of human speech sounds. Each language utilizes this selection of sounds in

its phonetic inventory to create words of different meanings. For instance, Gikuyu has the

sounds /t/ and /h/ in its phonetic inventory. Gikuyu utilizes these sounds to create words

of different meanings.

Example

/he/ give me /te/ throw away

(ii) The structure of sounds

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In terms of structure, sounds are classified as plosives, trills, flaps or taps, fricatives,

approximants and vowels. In terms of function they are classified as consonants and

vowels.

(iii) The sounds that occur in a particular language

Each language, as discussed in Lecture 1, utilizes only a small percentage of the human

speech sounds. It is, therefore, possible to identify a language’s phonemes and form the

language’s phonetic inventory.

(iv) The restrictions of occurrence

Each language has rules that determine what is well formed or ill-formed in a

combination of sounds.

Example

Each language also determines the gaps that exist in the language. These could be

accidental or systematic gaps. For such gaps, the language also determines the accidental

gap – fillers.

Example

4.2 Sounds representation at the phonological level

Sounds representation is based on sound segments as units which function as a system.

The segments are transcribed using transcription that is phonetic and represented between

slants/ slashes, / /. This level only gives the distinctive or non-redundant features of the

sound segment.

Examples /pin/; /slæb/

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Lecture 5

Phonological and phonetic forms

5.1 The relationship between the phonetic and phonological forms

Phonetic forms have much in common with the phonological forms. From a generative

point of view the phonetic form is the output of the input of the phonological forms.

Example

5.2. Segments and processes

A distinction is made between segments and processes.

5.2.1 Segments

Segments are the unique, single sounds produced during an articulation. The articulation

can be a single, co-articulation, or homorganic

5.2.2 Processes

Processes are articulatory and they determine the syllable structure

5.3 Analysis

5.3.1 Phonetic analysis of speech

Phonetic analysis of speech is essential for the following reasons:-

5.3.1.1 The comprehensive description of speech production.

Such description is in terms of

- initiation
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- phonation

- articulation

The three features were presented in AEN 200 and in this Unit they are discussed further

in relation to the analyses of human speech sounds.

5.3.1.2 Classificatory labels

Phonetic analyses provides the classifactory labels that enable the distinction of unique

human speech sounds as:-

- phones

- allophones

- phonemes

5.3.1.3 Transcriptional symbols

The transcriptional symbols are associated with the speech production and they classify

that production as follows:-

- phonetic (narrow)

- phonological (broad)

5.4.2 Phonological analysis

Phonology relates the phonetic events of speech to grammatical units operating at the

morphological, lexical, syntactic and semantic levels of language. In such analyses,

phonology explains the way the phonemes are influenced by varied linguistic phenomena

as illustrated here below:

level what would influence the phoneme

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morphological addition of morphemes

lexical stress placement in words

syntactic stress placement in sentences.

semantic tone/ intonation

Phonological analyses is thus essential for the following reasons:

a) The comprehension of the contrastive function or opposition of speech sounds, for

example, ten/ den, tin/ din, tip/ did that have a commutative relationship

b) The classificatory labels, bilateral opposition, multilateral, privative, gradual.

c) Transcriptional symbols that state the phonetic manifestation of phonological

elements.

Example

Two /tu:/ [twu:] where the arrow stands for the relation “is pronounced as” or “is

manifested phonetically as” or “is realized phonetically as”….

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Lecture 6

Analyses of Initiation

6.1 Descriptive elements

These are elements of initiation, phonation, articulation (temporal, prosodic, metrical

organization)

6.2. Classification of sounds segments by Initiation

This classification is based on the

- Airstream mechanisms and airflow direction.

- The nature of mechanisms that is responsible for setting the air stream in

motion.

6.3 Air stream mechanisms

(Speech sounds) Production of speech sounds involves the utilization of a flow of air that

is commonly referred to as an air stream. The air stream is provided or initiated by the

action of some organs of speech. The air stream is the basis of the whole of the sound of

human speech. The initiator sets in motion air stream and thus the initiator is the most

important part of an air stream mechanism. The air stream could be used as ingressive –

to pull in air or as egressive – to push out air.

6.3.1 Types of airstreams

Three main types of airstreams are used in the production of human speech sounds. Each

has a different initiator.

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a) Pulmonic(egressive)

The initiators consist of the lungs and the respiratory muscles. The respiratory muscles

move the walls of the lungs, which then form the initiator. In using the egressive

pulmonic air stream mechanism expiration must become an active process and it must

utilize muscular control. This airstreams is the basis of almost all human speech sounds.

Only the egressive pulmonic airstream is used in the articulation of human speech

sounds. Some languages in special circumstances use the ingressive pulmonic airstream

but not phonetically. For instance, in English the initial sound in the word ‘yes’ utilizes

the ingressive airstream when one is speaking in an off hand manner.

b) Glottalic air stream mechanism

A closed glottis initiates the glottalic airstream. The glottis is the opening between the

vocal cords. The air utilized in this airstream is in the pharynx and above the larynx. The

larynx has muscles that enable it to be pushed up and down in the throat. When it moves

this way and the glottis is closed the movement pushes air out or in within the passage.

The Glottalic airstream has both ingressive and egressive air flow.

i) The egressive Glottalic airstream mechanism

It is utilized in Caucasian, African, central and North American languages. The sounds

produced have a low volume because the air controlled in the glottalic mechanism is not

sufficiently large for more than a small fraction of speech to be uttered at one movement

of the initiator. The vowels produced with this mechanism are inaudible.
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The sounds articulated with the egressive Glottalic airstream mechanism are known as

ejectives.

Example

Voiceless bilabial ejective /p’/

ii) The ingressive Glottalic airstream mechanism

c) The velaric air stream mechanism

The velaric airstream mechanism is initiated by the velum. The back part of the tongue is

lifted to make firm contact with the velum. This movement forms what is referred to as a

velic closure. The closure sets in motion only that air that is in the mouth. The airstream

is ingressive for, with the lips closed, it utilizes only the inflowing air.

The air stream is used in the production of sounds found in certain African languages, for

example, Zulu, Hottentots and Bushman. The sound segments are known as clicks

because they are articulated with a sucking movement.

d) The oesophageal airstream

The oesophageal airstream is physiologically considered part of the glottalic airstream

mechanism. However, it is only used by those who have undergone laryngectomy. The

air stream still sets in motion the air in the passage between the pharynx and larynx.

Unlike other airstreams, users of this airstream have to practice using it after undergoing

the operation. It is, therefore, not one of the natural airstream mechanisms.
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Lecture 7

Analyses of Phonation

7.1 Phonation type

The phonation types are as a result of the different states of the glottis. Phonation has to

do with the generation of acoustic energy at the larynx by the action of the vocal folds.

The state of the glottis determines the presence or lack of vibration that accompanies a

human speech sound.

7.2 The four states of the glottis

a) Voiced state

This phonation state is achieved with a narrowed glottis so that the air stream causes the

vocal cords to vibrate. The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are known as

voiced sounds.

Example

/b/ - voiced bilabial plosive

/d/ - voiced alveolar plosive

/z/ - voiced alveolar fricative

/i/ - Vowels

b) Voiceless state

This phonation state is achieved with an open glottis so that the airstream flows out with

no vibration of the vocal cords. The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are

known as voiceless sounds.

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Example

/p/ - voiceless bilabial plosive

/t/ - voiceless alveolar plosive

/s/ -voiceless alveolar fricative

c) Whisper state

This phonation state is achieved with a considerably narrowed glottis so that the

airstream flows out with a strong hushing noise. To practice, fill your lungs and then

softly say ‘ee’. What you have articulated is known as the ‘whispered mid-low front

vowel’ - /∂/. The whispered breath takes longer to flow out than the one utilized for a

voiceless state.

Activity

Alternately say the sounds /e/ and /h/

If you say the sounds correctly, you will perceive the difference between the two flow

outs of the airstream mechanism. That is the difference between the voiceless and

whisper phonation states.

d) Creaky state

This phonation state is achieved with the glottis completely closed along most of its

length except near the front-end opening. This state of the glottis allows air to escape in a

low frequency through a small vibrating segment near the front end of the glottis. Each

explosive burst of air is heard distinctly.

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Activity

Say /a/ from a low to a very low pitch.

If you say it correctly at some point the vibration is so low that you can perceive the

individual explosives bursts of air. These individual bursts of air are known as creaks.

The sounds articulated with this state of the glottis are voiced.
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Lecture 8

Classification according to place of articulation

8.1 The places of articulation

The place of articulation of a human speech sound is according to the distribution of

speech organs along the vocal tract, from the larynx to the lips. These speech organs

shape the airflow audibly in different ways.

8.2 Major articulatory areas and articulations

The major articulatory areas are defined in terms of the vocal tract. The vocal tract

specifies all the areas in which it is possible to articulate human speech sounds. The tract

is divided into three major areas or cavities

- nasal cavity/ area

- oral

- pharyngeal – laryngeal

Diagram 1: The vocal tract

8.2.1 The nasal area/ cavity

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This cavity starts at the nostrils, goes through the nasal passage and up to a lowered

velum (Cf. Diagram 1). The lowered velum closes off the oral passage of air. All the

sounds articulated with a lowered velum are called nasals.

Nasals are articulated with modification of the airstream by the articulating organs in the

mouth. There are no articulating organs in the nasal passage. Therefore, no stricture type

takes place in the nasal cavity itself. However, due to the lowering of the velum, the

higher percentage of air flows out through the nasal cavity.

Note

Constriction of air in the nostril is not known to be exploited in any language for the

articulation of human speech sounds.

8.2.2 The oral cavity or area

The oral cavity starts at the lips, through the mouth and up to a raised velum (Cf.

Diagram 1). All the sounds are produced with a raised velum that blocks the flow of air

through the nasal cavity. So all air flows out through the oral cavity.

The oral cavity is used for the majority of the human speech sounds. Articulations are

through the juxtaposition of lower articulators and the upper articulators.

The lower articulators are also known as the active articulators. They include the lower

lip, the lower teeth and the tongue.

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The upper articulators are known as the passive articulators. They include the upper lip,

upper teeth and roof of the mouth.

8.2.3 The Pharyngeo-laryngeal cavity

There are two sub-division here.

a) The pharyngeal articulations are formed in the pharynx. The pharyngeal wall acts as

the articulator. Because they cannot form a complete closure, sounds formed are

fricative. There are only two pharyngeal sounds. They are formed with a gag-reflex i.e.

chocking reflex e.g. (h) which utilized the muscles of the diaphragm. It is produced with

what is called induced contraction of the pharynx. {G} Voiced {h} voiceless.

b) The glottis articulations are formed in the laryngeal area through the constriction of

the vocal chords e.g. glottal stop and voiceless fricative. In the formation of glottal stops,

the epiglottis forms a complete closure with the larynx. In articulating fricatives, the

epiglottis forms a close approximation closure e.g. stop{?}, fricative {h} – voiceless and

{h} – voiced. Sounds formed in the larynx are glottal and those formed in the pharynx

are called pharyngeal. The pharyngeo-laryngeal area gives only five speech sounds.
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Lecture 9

Analysis of articulations in the oral cavity

9.1 Labial articulations

9.1.1 Bilabial

The two lips are involved e.g. /p, b/

9.1.2. Labio dental

The lower lip and the upper teeth are involved e.g. / f, v/

9.2 Dent-alveolar articulations

9.2.1 Dental

/ð, θ/ articulated by the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back of the upper front

teeth.

9.2.2 Alveolar

The tip/ blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. E.g. /t, d/

Tip/ apex – apico

Blade – lamino

9.2.3 Post alveolar

e.g. / ∫, z/

9.3 Retroflex and palatal articulations

Retroflex sounds are articulated with the sub-lamino, as the tongue slides back beyond

the post-alveolar sub-zone.

It enters the pre-palatal zone.

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It is almost pointing up

The under blade or sublamina makes contact with the palatal arch.

Since the tip/ apex of the tongue is virtually curled back the sound are called retroflex e.g.

/t, d/.

The palatal sounds are articulated with the back (antero-dorso) part of the tongue in

juxtaposition with the palatal sub-zone.

Example

/ɲ/ - nyumba (house) in Kiswahili

9.4 Velar and uvular articulations

Articulated with the back of the tongue (postero – dorso) against the soft palate. Velar,

for example, /k, g/ and uvular, for example, /q, /

Illustration

To articulate /q/ make a stricture for /k/ then let the tongue slip slightly further back and

down.
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Lecture 10
Analysis of articulations in the pharyngeo – laryngeal cavity

10.1 The pharyngeal articulations

Pharyngeo – the articulations in the pharynx are called the pharengeal sounds. The

pharynx is the cavity behind the mouth, from the back of the nose down to the larynx.

The pharyngeal sounds can be – oropharynx: produced right behind the mouth or

laryngopharynx, produced in the lower part of the pharynx, immediately above the

larynx. The pharyngeal walls act as articulators though they cannot form a complete

closure stricture.

- Fricatives /ħ / (occur in Arabic, Somali, Hebrew)

The sounds are articulated with a gag reflex (as if choking) that includes mild contraction

of the pharynx.

10.2 The laryngeal articulations

Glottal articulations are found in the laryngeal area. They are articulated through the

constriction of the vocal cords.

The epiglottis can fold over the larynx to form a complete closure or it can constrict the

vocal cords to form a close approximation. If it is a complete closure the sound produced

is the glottal stop/? /.

If it is close approximation the sounds produced are the two fricatives. / h and /
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Note

Nasal cavity: nasal sounds

Oral cavity: labials, dent alveolar, retroflex and palatal and velar and uvular sound.

Pharyngeo – laryngeal: pharyngeal and glottal sounds.

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Lecture 11

Classification according to manner of articulation

11.1 Manner of articulation

The manner of articulation is determined by the vocal organs. It is specified according to

the degree of stricture i.e. – the degree to which the vocal organs or articulators impede

the airflow.

11.2 Stricture types

Each stricture type generates a sound of specific type and quality. It is the stricture type/

manner of articulation that finally shapes the air stream into specific sounds by placing

the articulating organs in different positions.

The vocal tract is considered a four dimensional tube that runs from the larynx through

the mouth to the lips and through the nasal cavity to the nostrils. This is the tract that

contains the vocal organs and the four dimensions indicate – space in relation to the

organs and time.

11.2.1 The four dimensions

1. Vertical dimension. Represented by the degree of closeness between the articulatory

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organs. In most articulations the active articulator approaches the passive one in a

vertical direction.

2. Transverse dimension

The side-to-side dimension that specifies the location of the oral air path, which can be

a) Median: through the centre of the mouth as in - /θ/ /ð/

b) Lateral: through or along one or both sides of the mouth as in / /

3. Longitudinal dimension

This represents the location of the articulation at any of the points in the vocal tract from

the lips back and down to the larynx. E.g. the difference between / p, t, k, q, / is

longitudinal – all have the same manner of articulation but different locations of

articulation.

4. Time dimension

This dimension specifies whether an articulation is one of

a momentary gesture

a maintainable posture

11.2.2. Maintainable stricture types

There are three degrees of stricture in the production of sounds.

1. Complete closure

In this stricture, the articulators seal off the flow of air completely. The articulators are

then drawn apart suddenly. When drawn to gather, the air behind the articulators builds
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up in pressure and the sudden parting of the articulators makes the air escape with ‘a

popping noise’ or plosion. The sounds thus produced are known as plosives due to the

noisy release. They are also known as stops because of the complete stoppage of the

airflow by the articulating organs.

- Stops – the complete closure. E.g. / p b t d t đ c f k g q g/

2. Close approximation

The articulators come close to one another but they do not seal off the air escape. The

passage left for the air to escape is however so narrow that air flowing through cause

turbulence. The sounds produced have an audible friction whether they are voiced or

voiceless.

fricatives e.g. /Φβ f v h ħ/

3. Open approximation

The articulators are wider apart than in the close approximation stricture. Airflows out

with hardly any turbulence e.g. in /υ j ω/

/o u i/ vowels

4. The trill

This involves an alteration between the complete closure and the open approximation.

The active articulator repeatedly hits against the passive articulator because of the

passage of the powerful air stream used in the articulation of a trill e.g. in /B r R /

Conclusion: all these stricture types: the stop, fricative, approximant and trill are

maintainable articulations. The articulation posture can be held in place for some time.
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However some have a longer maintainable stricture than others.

Approximants>fricatives>trills>stops.

11.2.3. Momentary stricture types

In these articulations there is very brief/ momentary contact between the articulators.

1. Tap or flap

The active articulator momentarily makes contact with the passive articulator and then

withdraws – taps or flaps against it e.g. in /ſ ι/

2. Approximant (Semi vowel)

The semi vowel unlike all other sounds has just two phases of the articulation process.

Approach and release

If the hold phase is included, the semi- vowel turns into a vowel

e.g. /w/ - very short/u/

/j/ - very short /i/

 34

Lecture 12

Analyses and classification of Vowels

12.1 Articulation of vowels

Vowels are articulated with a stricture of open approximation they are normally voiced

(voiced or creaky state). They are distinguished in terms of.

12.1.2 The lip position

This is the most obvious and most easily controlled feature of the vowels.

round – [u] fully rounded

Spread – [i] fully spread.

12.1.2 Vertical tongue position

The vertical tongue position is also known as the tongue height. This position gives the

distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The height

determines the size of the resonance chamber.

12.1.3 Horizontal tongue position

This gives the relative advancement or retraction of the body of the tongue – front,

central and back.

12.2 Cardinal vowels

A set of universal reference vowel sounds based on

a) vowel limit of the tongue height or vertical dimension and horizontal dimension e.g. /i/

is a dorso – palatal approximation. If the tongue is further tensed up and its pushed closer
 35

to the hard palate audible turbulence can be heard, thus we produce the dorso palatal

approximant / j/ or fricative /j/

b) Vowel closeness

This limits the upward and backward direction/ boundary. Movement beyond the

resonance chamber yields consonantal sounds.

Note

Speech comprises sounds or sequences of sounds. The flow of articulatory movement is

considered a series of segments. This is what distinguishes speech from mere noise.

The description of language in terms of units is – traditional

Convenient – it gives the discrete and finite hints that language is dependent on.

The segment can be – perceived

- articulated

Each sound segment can be identified as a ‘stable state of the articulatory

mechanism’(Clark and Yallop 1990 pp 95) the stable state includes all the articualtory

settings that best characterize the sound in question and it is referred to as a TARGET.
 36

Lecture 13

Co-articulations

13. 1 Articulations and the number of articulating organs

Most articulations are single i.e. have only two articulating organs: one passive and the

other active. We also have co-articulations namely. The sounds discussed so far have a

single articulation – one active articulator and one passive articulator

13.2 Co-articulations

It is possible for sounds to be articulated at two different places. This is called co-

articulation. There are two types of co-articulation.

13.2.1 Co-ordinate or double co-articulation

These are two simultaneous articulations resulting in one sound segment. The two are

said to be of the same rank or degree of stricture i.e. if the first is open approximation, the

second also is e.g. in articulating /w/, there is the approximation and rounding of the lips.

So the sound is said to be bilabial (rounding of lips). At the same time, the back of the

tongue is raised towards the velum for an open approximation. So the sound is dorso-

velar. The two postures take place at the same time. Vocalic sounds have a double

articulation.

13.2.2 Secondary co-articulation

 37

The two simultaneous articulations are of different ranks. One articulation is primary and

the other is secondary. The articulations are used to form the adjective that names the

sound. The secondary articulation is mostly of an open approximation e.g. /t/ can have

the secondary articulation and it is said to be labialized. The sound is described

phonetically in square brackets [tw] and the secondary articulation indicated with a

diacritic. Other secondary articulations are nasalization, pharyngealization, velarization,

palatalization, rhotacical, retroflexion etc.

13.3 Homorganic sound sequences

These are successive occurrences of two similar or different articulations. The two make

up one sound unit, transcribed with one phonetic/ phonemic symbol. The orthography

however, two graphemes (letters) are used.

13.3.1 Geminates

This refers to a sequence of two identical or almost identical consonants. The two

consonants are clearly pronounced within one and the same morpheme

E.g. [ll] in Allah – God in Arabic

[tt] in notte – night in Italian

[nn] in nnadi- name in Yoruba

13.3.2 Affricates

An affricate is a stop that is released into a homographic fricative within one and the

same morpheme. E.g. t ∫ - lamino – post alveolar stop that is released into a post alveolar

Fricative.
 38

ts – Apico alveolar stop that is released into an alveolar fricative.

13.3.3 Lateral fricatives

The stop is released into a homorganic lateral fricative e.g. t – alveolar stop /t/ released

into the lateral fricative /l/

13.3.4 Prenasalised stop

A stop that is preceded by a homorganic nasal e.g. mb nd mp nt usually found in

African languages.
 39

Lecture 14

Segmental and parametric analysis

14.1 Introduction

Parametric forms and phonological forms have much in common. In generative

phonology the phonetic form is considered the output of the input of phonological forms.

E.g. /e/ the phonetic form of this sound is dependent / determined by the phonological

context. E.g. in bell it is [ε] or [e], in pen it is [ẽ](nasalized). There is therefore a

distinction between two things – segments, processes.

14.2 Segmental analysis

Segments are the unique/ single sounds produced during an articulation. The articulation

can be .

a) a single articulation

b) a co-articulation double, secondary.

c) Homorganic articulation.

Segmental analysis deals with the analysis of the speech sounds in terms of segments. It

deals with the

a) Articulation of the segments

- the dimensions involved

i. the air stream

ii. the vocal tract area

iii. the vocal organs

b) the type of articulation

 40

- single articulation

- co-articulation

- homorganic articulation

basically, therefore, segmental analysis describes the sound segments without necessarily

looking at their - function in specific language. This analysis is essential because it

enables linguists to isolate individual sounds for detailed study. Speech is more or less a

continuous flow of energy that has peaks and troughs of the energy movement. This flow

can be converted into a series of separate segments that can be – perceived or articulated.

The pre-supposition is that it is possible to

a) tell where each segment begins and ends

b) there are indeed unique segments

I.e. the consonants and vowels of various kinds.

In segmental analysis any sound can be identified as a ‘stable state of the articulatory

mechanism’(Clark yallop 1990:95). The stable state includes all the – articulatory settings

that best characterize the sound in question.

The stable state is referred to as the TARGET. Vowels and fricatives can be produced in

isolation and they can be prolonged indefinitely e.g. /i/, /e/ /u/, /f/ /s/ /∫ /

For these sounds it is possible to speak of a genuinely stable state. Flaps/ taps, trills and

stops are dynamic or transient in their articulation. These sounds are thus identified only

by motional targets that relate to characteristic articulatory properties. The concept of

target is important in phonetics as it is used to justify segments. The concept provides a

useful point of reference of how speech sounds are actually articulated by speakers. In
 41

speech however, these sounds are modified variously. The concept, therefore, should be

seen to point beyond itself to assumptions about the organization of speech.

14.3 Metrical analysis

Relates to measurements. This form of analysis gives speech a plus or minus value of a

phonetic/ phonological feature.

Looking at individual sounds is artificially cutting up the speech continuum into series of

segmental sounds. However, some phonetic and phonological phenomena are

characteristic of the relations sounds have with each other. The stretches that are greater

than the segments. Such features are called the prosodies or suprasegmentals. They are

related to three basic components of speech

a. initiation

b. phonation

c. articulation

prosodic/ suprasegmental features

types of phonation or production of sound.

Voiced and creak

Voiceless and whisper

The other units above the single segment are important/ significant in stating

phonological generalization e.g. arrangements or tactic behavior of phonological units.

 42

Organization and distribution of segments is language specific. However the segments

are arranged to give the following syllable structures

V Zero onset

CV onset

VC termination

CVC onset and termination

 43

Lecture 15

Phonemes and phones

15.1 Phoneme and the phone/allophone

The historical perspective

Def: the component of language that deals with phonemes and their possible combination

There is no strict chronological description of phonological theory since each school of

phonology could be seen as a new step in a continuously progressive evolution.

Forerunners (not attached to any school but still influential) of phonological theory

The term phoneme

The term had been introduced in 1873(by the French linguist Dufriche - Desgenettes)

De Saussure used the term to refer to a common prototype in parent language, which is

reflected by different sounds in the languages derived from this parent language.

Countenery and Kruszewski (1870s and 1880s) also used the term to mean a – linguistic

unit, which underlies an alternation between sounds in etymologically related forms (both

in cognate languages and written similar languages.

Edward Sapir: contributed in a decisive way to the development of phonological theory.

His work greatly influenced

a) The American, the Bloomfield school

b) Generative phonology because of his views on

i. phoneme combination

ii. And his emphasis on the psychological pattern and on alterations and

underlying forms.
 44

THE PRAGUE SCHOOL

A structural linguistics school that came up in the 1920’s. It was influenced by thoughts

from the east of Europe, Moscow and America i.e. from linguists such as de Courtenery

and Scerba. Some of the ideas incorporated were

i) The phoneme as a sound

ii) The formal view of grammatical description (propounded by the Fortumator School in

Moscow).

Jakobson (the most creative and dynamic), Trubetzkoy – the Linguistic Circle of Plague

founded in 1926 by Mathesius. According to the Prague circle, the aim of phonological

theory should be

1. to set up phonological systems

2. to account for significant differences

3. to find correlations e.g. contrasts such as t/ d/δ p/b

4. to formulate general laws concerning the structure of phonological

systems

5. To account for historical change.

(The theses were discussed and accepted by schools such as – the French Dutch School

of linguistics)

The aim of the Prague school

The main aim was to create an entirely new discipline which would be independent of

phonetics. This however, was not feasible because in description of languages it is not

possible to separate form from function i.e. describe the phonetic features of a sound in a
 45

language without presupposing phonological classification – phones, phonemes, and

allophones.

The definition of a phoneme

The Prague school phonologists first defined the phoneme as a

i) Psychological unit i.e. a sound image or sound intention.

ii) However, under the influence of de Saussures’ work, the Prague School

established – phonological opposition as the fundamental concept in defining

the phoneme.

Phonological opposition – a difference of sound which in a given language may serve to

distinguish intellectual meaning i.e. meanings which belong to the linguistic content that

is communicated – sounds marking For Example, dialect or social group etc are

eliminated

I. Note

Due to its functions in the distinctive pairs/ non-distinctive pairs the phoneme has two

definitions:

a) The smallest phonological unit, which cannot be decomposed into smaller

successive units.

b) Its characterized as the totality of the phonologically relevant properties of a

sound unit.

In both definitions the property of distinction or opposition is important. It is this

property which gives the phoneme a positive function of recognition or identification(in

actual speech) deviating from Dufrische’s (1873) definition. Trubetzkoy since a phoneme
 46

contains only the relevant properties, a speech sound may not therefore be equaled to a

phoneme – it should be considered the realization of a phoneme.

Speech sound = phone/ allophone.

Phoneme and variant

A phoneme may be realized as different speech sounds. These sounds are the variants of

the phoneme. There are two types

i) combinatory variants- variants that are predictable in terms of stress, pitch, juncture,

the vowel in the preceding or the following syllable, the preceding or following

consonant etc. e.g. /n/ can be n. nasalization of vowels before nasals /r/- [ŗ],[r]

ii) facultative variants: predictable in terms of position in a word i.e. word initial, medial

and final e.g. the voiceless stops in English ai/I – in either, s/z – analyze recognize.

Three rules are used in determining in which case different sounds are variants of the

same phoneme or are distinct phonemes.

i) If two sounds in the same environment may be interchanged without a change in the

meaning of a word, then the sounds are facultative variants of the same phoneme

variants. E.g. tⁿ in /tin/ or t

ii) If the two sounds cannot be interchanged without altering the meaning (or making the

word unrecognizable) then they are realization of two different phonemes e.g. t in /tin/.

iii) If two articulatory and acoustically related sounds never occur in the same

environment they are combinatory allophones variants of the same phoneme (phonetic

similarity) e.g. the [n] [ņ] both are nasal, stops, alveolar but [ņ] is dentalised because of

its occurrence before a dental sounds e.g. in teeth length /ð/ or /θ/ i.e. the sounds should

have common properties which distinguish them from all other sounds in the language.
 47

Distinctive oppositions

Opposition: this is a central concept in Prague phonology. Oppositions are classified

(Trubetzkoy) according to three different aspects (of the phonemes phonetic qualities)

1. A phoneme’s relation to the entire system (i.e. to other members of the system) gives

two classifications

i) Dimensions of opposition

a) Bilateral (one dimensional) oppositions. These give only 2 members e.g. the phonetic

quality voice.

b) Multilateral (multidimensional) opposition – they have more than one member e.g.

place of articulation oppositions alveolar, labial.

ii) Isolated and proportional oppositions

a) Isolated: the relationship does not recur in other oppositions in the language. E.g. r/l

trill lateral (approximant fricative)

b) Proportional: the same relation recurs in other oppositions e.g. p/b t/d k/g

2. The classification corresponding to the relation between phonemes that are members of

an opposition. 3 types

a) Privative

b) Gradual

c) Equipollent oppositions

a) Privative: one member is characterized by the presence of a property which the other

members lacks e.g. voicing, nasalization, rounding. If a member has the quality it is said

to be

marked unmarked if doesn’t have the quality.

 48

e.g. /u/ vs. /‫כ‬/

/t/ vs. /d/

b) Gradual opposition: there is the appearance of different degrees of the same

quality(e.g. vowels) e.g. u – o /u uo/ i.e. lip rounding quality

c) Privative:

3. The classification according to the phoneme’s constant validity or suspendability.

In both definitions, the property of distinction or opposition is important. It is this

property that gives the phoneme a positive function of – recognition or identification.

15.3. Phone

a) The smallest phonological unit, which cannot be decomposed into smaller successive

units.

Or

b) Phonetically: the smallest phonological unit that is characterized as the totality of the

phonologically relevant properties of a sound unit.

15.3 Allophone

A phoneme may be realized as different speech sounds. These sounds are variants/

allophones of the phoneme. There are two types of allophones, namely:-

i) Combinatory variants

The variants that are predictable in terms of stress, pitch, juncture, the vowel in the

preceding or the following consonant etc. i.e. phoneme in combinations e.g. the
 49

shortening of a long vowel because it is followed by a consonant: e.g. sea [i:] seen[i]or

the vowel in the stressed syllable being shorter than the one in the unstressed syllable.

ii) Facultative variants

These are predictable in terms of position in word i.e. word – initial, medial, final e.g. the

aspiration of the voiceless stops in English in word initial position. Can be – allophones –

free variants e.g. ai/i – in either, s/z in analyze.

 50

Lecture 16

Distinctive oppositions

16.1 Opposition

Opposition is a central concept in phonology. Oppositions between phonemes are

classified according to three different aspects of the phoneme’s phonetic qualities.

16.1 A phoneme’s relation to the entire phonetic system

This is the phoneme’s opposition to other members of the phoneme system. It can be in

terms of

Dimensions of opposition

a) Bilateral opposition – one – dimensional oppositions. These give only two members of

an opposition. E.g. the phonetic quality [voice] gives [±voice] or the phonetic [±nasal].

b) Multilateral opposition – multidimensional opposition. These give more than one

number of an opposition. E.g. manner of articulation gives stops, trills, tap or flap,

fricatives, approximants.

Isolated and proportional oppositions

a) Proportional opposition. The same phonetic relationship that classifies one opposition

recurs in other oppositions e.g. [plosion] classifies pb td kg qg etc [fricative]

b) Isolated opposition. The phonetic quality that classifies an opposition does not recur in

other oppositions e.g. B/r/R – [trills] [pharyngeal] ħ, approximant. Both – alveolar, tip of

the tongue.
 51

16. 2. The opposition corresponding to the relation between phonemes that are

members of an opposition

There are three types – privative, gradual, equipollent.

a) Privative opposition

One member is characterized by the presence of a property that the other member lacks.

The member with the quality is said to marked [the phonetic quality] the other member is

unmarked. E.g. [t, d] (voice) or [n, d] (nasal)

b) Gradual opposition

Where there is appearance of different degrees of the same quality e.g. horizontal tongue

position of vowels. It is not meaningful to say [±back] because a vowel could be [central]

or [front]

c) Equipollent opposition

In this opposition there is no question of a ‘mark’ or ‘degree’ to which some property is

present e.g. if one were to explain the opposition between p/t

- Both are voiceless i.e. saying that they are unmarked for voice is not

relevant.

- Both are stops

- They do not have different degrees of the same quality.

The two members are considered to be logically equal in terms of the state of the glottis/

manner of articulation.

16.3 The distinctive validity of the phoneme

Constant and suspendable oppositions

 52

16.3.1 Constant: both members occur in the same environment without restrictions e.g.

open/ close vowels e.g. /i/ /æ/

/kit/ /kæt/

16.3.1 Suspendable

In some positions, no opposition exists between two members = neutralization. It can be

i) context – determined : depends on surrounding phonemes in German Danish

/p/ /b/ in word final position e.g. neutralization of [t voice] in consonants

before fricatives or stops in Russian.

ii) Structure – determined in which the neutralization depends on position in

word or syllable or on accent. E.g. the opposition between voiced and

unvoiced consonants in word final position – German and Russian. Or in

German - the long and short vowels in final word position.

The concept of neutralization covers minimal contrasts – it is only possible where there is

a bilateral opposition between members e.g. s/z, p/b, t/d, i/l:

The sound realized represents an archiphoneme. This can be

a) Realized as a sound which is phonetically identified to one of the members of the

opposition e.g. boud/ bout in German [t] or [d] could be realized.

b) Realized as sound intermediate between the two members. Often transcribed by

use of a capital letter /t/, /d/ - [T]

16.4 Systematization of phonological member units

Oppositions were analyzed according to the distinctive qualities utilized; therefore,

phonemes are arranged in systems

 53

2. vowels: vocalic properties

They are set up in two-dimensional system in the shape of a quadrangle.

There are two main types of vocalic properties.

a) localization (an acoustic property) that gives the position of formant and lip

rounding e.g. for /u/ high us / ‫ כ‬/ low back

b) Degree of aperture = tongue height.

3. consonantal properties: consonant

a) according to place of articulation

b) According to presence or absence of sharp frictional noise.

a. Strident vs. mellow(labials/labial dentals)

b. Sibilant vs. non-sibilant

c. Velar, affricates vs. uvular.

Note

The Prague phonologists chose the concept of opposition as their starting point. They

defined the phoneme and phonological unit. Therefore ‘distinctive function’ was stressed

on.

1) The arrangement of phonemes into properties. The Prague school differs from

other phonology schools in this respect. The prague differs from other schools.
 54

The theory of relevant properties became very important to other schools

especially the generative phonologists.

2) Universal laws – the Prague phonologist propounded universal laws, e.g. those of

systematising phonological units into phonemic inventories (this was also taken

up by Generative phonology) e.g. by use of substitution (commutation) one can

establish the phonemes in any language they know.

 55

Lecture 17

The syllable

17.1 The structure of the syllable

A syllable is defined as a minimal pulse of initiatory activity bounded by a momentary

retardation of the initiator.

17.1.1 The phonological shape of the syllable

Syllable

Onset Rhyme

Nucleus Coda

17.1.2 Open and closed syllables

Open – no termination i.e. no coda.

Closed – terminated by coda.

17.1.3 Complex and simple

Complex – more than one consonants sound in the onset or in the coda

Simple when the onset or coda has only one sound.

17.2 Syllable structure types

 56

Based on the onset and coda

1. V only = zero onset

2. CV - onset

3. VC – termination

4. CVC – onset – termination

Restrictions of sounds that can occupy any of these syllable parts. – using rules or

phonotactics e.g. in English

Ptk for the maximum number in the initial position

r/l

17.3 The phonetic and phonological syllable

The syllable as a unit is posited at both the phonetic and phonological levels of analysis.

a) Phonetically – the syllable is a construct that is useful in explaining a number of co-

ordinatory relations between segments e.g. the combinatory allophones.

c) Phonologically- the syllable

i) Acts as the domain of linguistically relevant prosodic properties such as pitch and stress.

(ii) It gives the basis for organizing and expressing constraints on possible phoneme

sequences e.g. the phonotatic rules.

CV

CCV in English

CCCV
 57

The phonetic syllable is therefore, a framing concept. It makes it possible for one to show

a variety of co-ordinatory relationships with the contexts in which they are embedded.

These relationships involve phenomena in the control of speech production such as

articulation and phonation e.g. the devoicing process /r/ - pray – [ŗ]

This is a co-ordinatory relationship that involves the *** of voicing relative to that of

articulatory events. It reflects the interplay between – contextual factors and – options of

phonetic control. The devoicing process is an instance of inter- segmental co-ordination.

The phonological syllable is a complex unit, made up of a – nuclear elements and –

marginal elements.

Nuclear elements, as phonological entities, are called vowels. The marginal elements are

called consonants. Phonetic segments that manifest nuclear elements of the phonological

syllable are called syllabic segments. Those that manifest marginal elements of the

phonological syllable are called syllabic segments. Those that manifest marginal

elements of the phonological syllable are called non-syllabic segments e.g. stops,

fricatives, lateral resonant. /k/ and /t/ in [kat] are non-syllabic. But /n/ in garden [gadņ] is

syllabic or /l/ in cattle [katļ]

17. 4 Presentation of the syllable

Metrical syllable tree

a) notional triangle

b)
 58

Lecture 18

Stress

18.1 The phonetic and phonological features of stress

An initiatory supra segmental feature of utterances that applies to whole syllables. It is

produced when a speaker pushes more air out of the lungs for one syllable than she does

for an adjacent one. This greater push of air has three results:

a) An increase in vowel length.

b) An increase in pitch.

c) An increase in loudness.

18.2 Stress in strings of words

18.2.1 Normal

On content words. John kicked the ball.

18.2.2 Emphatic

Overrules normal stress. For emphasis or focus on something. Used to give meanings that

the speaker wants to highlight. John kicked the ball.

18.3 Stress in words

Bi-syllabic, polysyllabic
 59

Used to differentiate words that are phonetically similar in terms of word classes. Project,

produce.

Stress placement in words depends on

1. word class

Verb nouns

2nd 1st syllable.

2. morphological shape of the word

`f∂u˛t∂u

`f∂ut∂˛gra:f

˛f∂ut∂΄gra:fik

f∂΄togr∂fi

3. Whether a word is bisyllabic or disyllabic. Disyllabic words have double stressed

syllables. E.g.

Fifteen pre paid

΄fif΄ti:n ΄pri:΄peid

Example: intellectual

Intellect

Intellectuality

Summary: stress placement depends on

1. sentence/word

2. Word – class, morphological shape, disyllabicity, number of syllables.

 60

Presentation of stress

2. The ΄above the stressed syllable or word. E.g. ΄John ΄kicked the ΄ball

3. Stress numerical numbers used to differentiate between content words that are all

stressed.

4. Binary branching – s, w.

Formulae for stress numbers.

a) If a terminal node t is labeled w, its stress number is equal to the number of nodes

that dominate the lowest w plus 1.

EXAMPLE a) the NARC government has to change.

b) The hungry boys ate quickly.

a)
 61

b)
 62

Lecture 19

Pitch

19.0 Introduction

Pitch can be low or high as in music. It is a phonatory prosody. It is an auditory property

that enables a listener to place a sound on a scale going from low to high. It refers to the

highness or lowness of voice, determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal

cords. Its utilization in speech includes tone and intonation.

The pitch of a sound depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal cords. In a sound with

a high pitch, there is higher frequency of vibration than in a sound with a low pitch.

Frequency is a technical term referring to the number of complete repetitions of

vibrations in air pressure occurring in a second. The unit of frequency measurement is

the hertz (Hz) e.g. if the vocal cords make 220 complete opening and closing movements

I a second, then the frequency of the sound is equal to 220 Hz/s. In practice, when a

speech sound goes up in frequency, it also goes up in pitch.

19.1 The phonetic and phonological features of pitch

A phonation prosodic features

Vocal cords vibrate at different frequencies and thus voice can be produced at different

pitches.

Pitch variation is caused by

a) Stretching and tensing the vocal chords – the more tense the higher the pitch.
 63

b) Change the pressure below the vocal cords – the higher the sub glottal pressure

the higher the pitch.

Example 1a – from low to high

Many kinds of information can be conveyed by variation in pitch i.e.

1. Personal characteristics of the speaker e.g. sex, age, emotional status.

2. To mark the boundaries of syntactic units. We use pitch to mark the completion of a

grammatical sentence. The last syllable is a lower pitch than it would have been if it had

been in a non-final position. Depending on how it is said, the sentence, “I am late” can

be a statement of fact or an expression of surprise. But generally, if the word “late”

comes at the end, it is rendered in a low pitch. But if in a medial position, it is higher.

Questions are marked with a higher pitch. Incomplete utterances also often have higher

pitches.

3. To teach the meaning of a word. In tonal languages, pitch varies meaning e.g.

Chinese Ma(mother) Ma (cold)

Dholuo Tho (death) Tho (dew) Tho (exclamation)

Kendo (fire place) Kendo (again) Kendo (to marry)

Mara (mine) Mara (mother in law)

Ora (brother in law) Ora (send me)

Speakers of language vary the pitch continuously when they talk. Pitch and pitch

changes are utilized in language in two distinct ways.

 64

Variation of pitch may be related to relatively long stretches of speech which may be

mainly syllables in length and which correspond to relatively large grammatical units

such as the sentence e.g.

What did you put in my drink, Jane? (unhappiness)

What did you put in my drink, Jane? (name of the drink)

Pitch variation used this way is called intonation i.e. it covers a whole sentence.

Intonation refers to the voice or pitch contour that can be utilized to change a sentence

e.g. from a statement to an interrogative. Intonation therefore is meaningful pitch

variations often characterizing long stretches of speech which may be many syllables in

length and usually large grammatical units such as a sentence and is often used to

distinguish statements from certain kinds of questions. Two sentences in English can be

exactly the same phonetically except for the overall pitch contour or intonation of the

utterance.

He left for you to follow (falling pitch means statement of fact)

He left direction for you to follow (rising pitch means surprise)

Forms of intonation

Particular speech patterns in sentences are refereed to as intonation groups. They are

also called tone units. In a stretch of words or syllables, the intonation group is marked

by different boundaries namely:

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Pause: This can be filled or unfilled. The unfilled pause is marked by silence. The

filled pause is marked by different sounds such as /a/ and /m/ in RP. These sounds are

usually used at the end of boundaries. If they are placed where there are no boundaries, it

symbolizes hesitation. The pause occurs as the speaker changes from one pitch pattern to

another. It is often very brief and is unfilled, it is hardly noticeable. The intonation

pauses occur at different places in an utterance.

• At major constituent boundaries e.g. between subject and predicate or between

two sentences. The more prominent the boundary is the longer the pause. Pauses

tend to be longer when constituent boundaries involve a new topic.

• Before words occurring to lexical content. The words preceded by a pause are

often difficult to guess in advance e.g. high lexical content words in nouns,

phrases, verb phrases or adverbial phrases. For instance, in “The boy went

home”, “boy”, “went” and “home” are the high content words.

The intonation boundary is marked by lengthening the final syllable of the intonation

contour. The lengthening acts as a pause substitute and carries a final pitch movement

e.g. on his way to the station, he saw a boy.

19.2 Utilization of pitch

Utilized in languages in two different ways.

19.2.1 Intonation
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Pitch variation that is related to relatively long stretches of speech. The stretches

correspond to sentences.

Gives intonation contrasts (contours) the intonation contours signal distinct kinds of

meaning. E.g.

i) I am informing you

ii) I am sure you do not know

iii) I am not pleased with this information

iv) Continue

v) I agree

vi) different functions of a string of words

Statement ¯˙˙ ..

Question _ .. ˙˙

Exclamation ___ .˙ ˙˙

19.2.2 Tone

Pitch variation that is related to short stretches of speech – syllable length, words

Gives tonal contrasts.

Used to indicate different meaning of words. /

/ \ ∨ ∧ ___

Rise fall fall-rise rise – fall

Mandarin Chinese

1. ba __ - eight
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2. ba / - to uproot

3. ba ∨ - to hold

4. ba \ - a narrow

Kikuyu

One – yes, see

He – give, there is

Iria – those (near), those (of long ago), darken, sea

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Lecture 20

Sonority

20.1 The phonetic and phonological features of sonority is an articulatory prosodic

feature. It is a sound’s loudness relative to that of the other sounds with the same length

stress and pitch.

20.2 Calculating the degree of sonority

a) It is closely linked in articulatory terms with the degree of blockage of the air stream.

Vowels have the least blockage (open approximation) and therefore are the most

sonorous speech sounds. Stops are the least sonorous.

b) Voicing is also a determining factor of the degree of sonority. Voiced sounds are

therefore more sonorous than their voiceless counterparts.

It is therefore possible to postulate a sonority hierarchy among segments using the >

(greater than) more sonorous than symbol.

E.g. a.∂.i the more open vowel has the highest degree of sonority a is greater than ∂ and ∂

is greater than i, a>ə>i. dsl, l>s>d.

Example l, m, u, t, b, n, a, z, i, з, e. a>e>i,u>z,з>š>m,n,b>t

20.3 Sonority hierarchy

Most sonorous vowels low, mid , high

Glides

Liquids

Nasals
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Obstruents

Fricatives

Affricatives

Stops

- least sonorous
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Lecture 21

Articulatory process beyond the single segment

21.1 Why beyond the single segment

b) the relationship of a segment to a stressed vowel – choc ‘late

c) When the sound is combined with others and it is word initial, medial or final.

d) when morphemes are added to a root e.g. electric, electricity /k/ - /s/

e) When words are put together in phrase or sentence e.g. r in a car is the parking, a

car park. Or good night but good orange.

21.2 The bases of the processes

The processes can be explained as

1. Articulatory phenomena they involve – place, manner e.g. lateral release, labialization.

State of the glottis (voice) devoicing of /l/ or /r/

2. Perceptual phenomena – they involve the perceptibility of the sound segments. Some

segments are more perceptually opposed than others and therefore more stable than those

that are less differentiated e.g. in word, stressed vowels are more perceptually opposed

than the unstressed ones. For this reason the stressed ones are normally diphthongized

and more perceptible.

3. Syllable structure processes- because they affect segments that are

- in combinations/ syllables

- the processes also affect the syllable structure. e.g.

[saikl] Instead of [saikəl]

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- the processes are determined by the stress

patterning in the syllable. E.g. chocolate – choc’ late

21.3 Types of processes

Two broad divisions/ types.

21.3.1 Assimilatory processes

ASSIMILATION

This refers to the modification of a sound in order to make it more similar to some sound

in the neighbourhood. It is the influence that is exercised by one sound segment upon

articulation of another so that the sounds become ore alike or identical e.g. ten bikes

(tembikes). In this case {n} is nasalized and bilabialised in assimilation with {b} which

is oral. In ten mice (temice), thee is total assimilation because {n} and {m} are fully

merged. In other words, assimilation can be partial or total. In total assimilation, the two

sounds become identical. In partial assimilation, one sound is influenced by the other but

not completely.

Another classification of assimilation is in terms of whether the change of sound involved

is the result of the influence of an adjacent sound or of one further away. Where the

immediate sound segment causes the change, it is called contact or contagious

assimilation. Where there is influence of a later sound, it is called distance or non-

contagious assimilation. For instance, “rehe” (bring) but “rehaga” (be bringing) where

the last vowel in the second word influences the medial vowel from {e} to {a}.

A further classification of assimilation is in terms of the direction in which the

assimilation works. There are three possibilities.

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a) Regressive or anticipatory assimilation. In this, the sound changes because the

influence of the following sound e.g. ten mice.

b) Progressive assimilation. First sound influences the next e.g. big head

c) Reciprocal or coalescent assimilation. There is mutual influence or fusion of

the sounds e.g. don’t you.

Vowels may take features of consonantal sounds e.g. there can be nasalization of oral

vowels when they occur before nasal constants. In nasalized vowels, the air escapes

through the nose and mouth simultaneously. The vowels are transcribed with a diacritic

mark to show nasalization e.g. in articulating “man”, the vowel is influenced by the {n}.

It is thus transcribed [mæn].

English has not distinct vowels but nasalization if often heard in English vowels when

they display the articulatory influence of an adjacent nasal consonant. One consonant

inside the mouth is not heavily compressed. The combination of the air in the glottis

leads to some vibration and implosive sounds are produced. They are transcribed with a

right facing hook attached to the consonant symbol e.g.

In assimilation, sounds become more similar e.g.

a) labialization

b) nasalization

c) velarisation e.g. ka ki

d) devoicing/ voicing r/
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e) Umlauting – vowels in one syllable affecting those in

another syllable e.g. kol arm kolum my arm /u/ similar

in backness and roundness to /o/, diš tooth dišim my

tooth coalescence, wa uka – woka, a and o – ‫כ‬

Kikuyu [rIkia] [rIkagia]

[rεhε] [rεhagε]

[oka] [okaga]

f) Dentalisation in teeth length.

21.3.2 Non – assimilatory

Where the segments become less similar e.g.

1. Breaking/ diphthongization of long vowels so that they become diphthongs, egg ε:g,

ei, hang height = two shorter vowels

2. Metathesis – two segments interchange positions in a word. E.g. in Haminoo – spoken

in the Philippines. A sequence of a glottal stop plus a consonant becomes a consonant | t |.

The glottal stop.

?usa one kas?a once

?upat four kap?at four times

3. Major class change – when a sound segment changes class membership electric –

electricity, permit – permission.

4. Neutralization

This involves the suspension of the phonological contrast between sound segments

in particular word positions or contexts. This can happen after the addition of a

morpheme. In some language dialects (e.g. American English), there is neutralisaion

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of /t/ and /d/ as in “waiting” and “wading” which are pronounced similarly with the

arch-phoneme /D/. In writing, the words are different but in articulation and

transcription they are the same.

ARTICULATION: LOCATIONS

We should remember various articulatory stricture types, representing the ‘vertical’ and

‘time’ (prolongable/non-prolongable) dimensions of articulation, and the location of the

oral air-path, representing the “transverse’ dimension of articulation (median/lateral).

Now we turn to the very important quasi-longitudinal dimension of articulation, namely,

the location of articulatory strictures within the vocal tract. For the purpose of describing

articulatory locations the vocal tract is divided into three areas: nasal, oral, and

pharyngeo-laryngeal.

There is a clear natural division between the nasal area and the others constituted by the

orifice at the back of the nose, which can be closed by raising the velum or soft palate.

For phonetic purposes, the oral area consists of mouth cavity, bounded by the whole of

the under surface of the roof of the mouth, back to the uvula, and by the whole of the

surface of the tongue back to the tip of the epiglottis. The pharyngeo-laryngeal area

consists of the pharynx, the space behind the mouth and down to the larynx, and the

larynx itself.
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1. The Nasal Area

The nasal area consists of the nasal cavity, which is for the most part a complex but

immobile chamber coated with mucous membrane which may swell pathologically, as

when we have a cold, but is not capable of voluntary movement. Some voluntary control,

and hence some variety of articulation, is possible only at the two ends of the nasal

cavity, the nostrils and the pharyngeo-nasal orifice-the ‘nasal port’, as it is sometimes

called.

The nostrils can be narrowed, or widely opened (‘flared’), and can thus modulate airflow

out of the nose, but this potentially is not known to be exploited for articulation in any

language. It may be noted in passing, however, that when you devoice a nasal sound

such as [m] or [n] you can hear a slight hiss-noise of turbulent airflow through the

nostrils. Since these nasal sounds are quite free of turbulence when voiced, the airflow

becoming turbulent when voiceless, they are typical approximants, and might well be

called ‘nostril’ (or, better, using the Latinate term) ‘narial’ approximant’. All sounds

articulated with the velum lowered (the ‘nasal port’ open) so that air flows through the

nose are simply called nasal or nasalized.

In nasals, such as [m] [n] [ ŋ] as in mum, nun, and the final sound of lung, the velum or

soft palate is lowered, but there is a complete closure in the mouth (at the lips for [m],

between tongue-tip and teeth or teeth-ridge for [n], between tongue-back and soft palate

(velum) for [ŋ]). Consequently all the air used in their production is shunted through the

nose.
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In nasalized sounds, the nasal port is open (exactly as for nasals), but at the same time the

passageway through the mouth is also open, so that the air flows out through both mouth

and nose. Typical nasalized sounds are the nasalized vowels of French, as in un bon vin

blanc. These sometimes called, simply, ‘nasal’ vowels-but it is clear that they differ from

the nasal consonants [m] [n] etc. as indicated above. Experiment 49 explores the

differences between nasal consonants, nasalized vowels, and purely oral vowels.

Say a prolonged [m m m……] and note how air is flowing out of the nose. If you hold

your hand just below the nostrils you can faintly feel the warm air gently flowing out. If

you suddenly devoice {m} the nasal airflow becomes much more obvious: [m m m m

m].

To get the feel of raising and lowering the velum – closing and opening the nasal port –

say a prolonged [m] punctuated by inserted [b] stops. Keep the lips tightly closed

throughout the entire experiment merely flipping the nasal port momentarily shut for each

[b] then opening it again for the nasal [m]: [m m b m b m b m b m b m…….].

Do the same with [n] and [ŋ] (the nasal heard at the end of long): [n d n d n d n d…..]

[ŋ g ŋ g ŋ g ŋ g ŋ g ŋ], etc.
Finally, do the same sequence of experiments completely silently – that is, with no

initiatory air-stream. In this silent experiment you can feel, even more clearly, the

proprioceptive sensation of opening and closing the nasal port: [ ] (silent), etc.
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2. The Oral Area: Upper and Lower Articulators

We turn now the oral area. In purely oral sounds (that is, in the majority of all speech-

sounds) the velum is raised, closing the entrance to the nose, and the air flows solely

through the mouth. Articulations in the oral area are carried out by the juxtaposition of

lower and upper articulators. The lower articulators are those attached to the lower jaw-

the lower lip, lower teeth, and tongue. The upper articulators are the upper lip, the upper

teeth, and the whole of the roof of the mouth. We will examine all of these in some

detail, and get to know them by feel, tactilely and pro-prioceptively, but first the reader

should examine what he can see of his mouth in the mirror.

We now consider the upper and lower articulators and the zones where articulation can

take place within the mouth. It will be useful to have a quick look at Figs. , 24, and 25

before we carefully work through various articulations.

The upper articulatory area is subdivided, first into the natural distinction between a

labial and a tectal division, the latter embracing the entire roof of the mouth (from Latin

tecta ‘roof’ from the upper teeth back to the uvula. The labial division includes an outer

(exo-) and an inner (endo-) part of the lips. The tectal division breaks down naturally

into two regions: a dentalveolar region, which includes the upper teeth and the teeth-

ridge or alveolar ridge, and a domal region, which covers the whole remaining ‘domed’

part of the roof of the mouth.

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Each of these two regions (dentalveolar and domal) breaks down naturally into two

zones. The dentalveolar region includes the dental zone, consisting of the upper teeth,

and the alveolar zone, consisting of the whole alveolar ridge. The domal region breaks

down into hard palate (palatal zone). You can feel the division between these zones if

you run your finger back over the roof of your mouth. You will observe that the front

part is quite hard and unyielding, but when the finger reaches the end of the palatal and

the beginning of the velar zone, the roof of the mouth feels quite soft.

There are no visible divisions on the tongue surface, but it should not be difficult to

identify the tip or apex, and the rim. The blade (Latin lamina) is that part of the upper

surface of the tongue, extending about 1.0 to 1.5cm. back from the apex, that usually lies

just under the alveolar ridge when the tongue is at rest, and its rim touching the backs of

the lower teeth. The remainder of the upper surface of the tongue is the dorsum. The

front part of the dorsum (anterodorsum) practically always articulates against the roof of

the mouth in the palatal zone, while the posterodorsum articulates in the velar zone. It is

thus seldom necessary to specify antero- or postero-dorsum in describing sounds.

Returning to the front end of the tongue, if you turn the apex up and somewhat back a

certain amount of the underside of the tongue becomes visible. This underside of the

tongue, lying largely beneath the blade, is called the ‘underblade’ or sub-lamina part of

the tongue.
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In naming the lower articulators we use Latinate prefixes, labio-apico-, etc. attached to

the naemes of the upper articulatory zones or sub-zones. Thus, juxtaposition of the lower

lip and upper teeth is labiodental: juxtaposition of tongue surface and soft palate is

dorsovelar, and so on.

3. Labial Articulations: Bilabial and Labiodental

Labio-labial or bilabial. The bilabial stops p and b need no introduction, but now close

the lips as for p, start up pulmonic pressure and allow the lips to separate very slightly so

that a turbulent air-stream escapes through this narrow channel, generating a voiceless

bilabial fricative [ ]. Produce a long [ ], then voice it [ β β β β] taking

care to maintain turbulent flow. This is a voiced bilabial fricative [β].

Other bilabial sounds are the nasal [m], and the bilabial trill. We might also mention the

semivowel [w] obviously involves the lips, but it is not a pure bilabial. In the first place,

it requires some degree of rounding of the lips. Secondly, in addition to the bilabial

articulation [w] also has a dorso-velar component: the back of the tongue is raised up

towards the velum. It is thus a co-articulated sound and will be referred again below,

under co-articulation.

In Chapter 2 we discovered experimentally that the articulation of the fricatives [f] and

[v] requires the juxtaposition of the lower lip and upper teeth, and in Chapter 4 we

discovered the corresponding labiodental approximant [ ].

Now we must carefully contrast bilabial [ ] [β ] and [ ] with labiodental [f] [v] and [ υ].
 80

bilabial and labiodental: Alternate aloud and then, more importantly, silently, between

bilabial [ ] and labiodental [f]: [ ], and now between bilabial [β] and

labiodental [v], [βv βv βv βv……], and now between bilabial [ ] and labiodental [ υ ], [

].

You must by now be very clear about the distinction between bilabial and labiodental

articulation. Before leaving bilabial and labiodental articulations (for both of which the general

cover term labial can often be used) we must take note of the distinction between outer (exo-) and

inner (endo-) labial articulations.

Observe that it is possible to make the labial closure for [p] and [b] in two different ways. [i]

Tense the lips somewhat, adopting a kind of severe, tight-lipped, posture so that the parts of the

lips that come together are near their outer edges, and what you see in the mirror is a very thin

line of lip. This type of bilabial articulation, bringing together the outer surfaces of the lips is

exolabial (bi-exolabial, to be precise).

(ii) Let the lips relax and push them forward somewhat, while keeping them flat (not rounded)

and let the soft inner surfaces of the lips come together. Now you can see relatively thick lips in

the mirror. This type of bilabial articulation, juxtaposing the inner surfaces of the lips is

endolabial (bi-endolabial, to be precise)

In those few languages that have a bilabial trill it is of a lax endolabial type. There is also a

linguistically relevant contrast between bi-exolabial and bi-endolabial [p] and [b] in at least some

varieties of Irish Gaelic.

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The [f] and [v] of English (and of French, Russian, etc.) are usually endolabio-dental, and this is

an important point to note in teaching these sounds to speakers of languages (such as Japanese)

with no labiodentals. Learners must be explicitly told to place the inner part of the lower lip

against the edges and outer surface of the upper teeth (otherwise they are liable to place the outer

surface of the lower lip against the inner surface of the upper teeth, with bizarre results).

It is difficult to produce an airtight closure between the lip and the teeth, since the air tends to

escape through the interstices between the teeth. Probably for this reason labiodental stops

apparently do not occur in languages and the IPA provides no symbols for them, though it does

provide a symbol, [ ], for labiodental nasal. This occurs as a variant, or allophone (see Chapter

10) of [m] in such English words as triumph and nymph. It is probably realized most frequently

as a nasalized approximant rather than the usual type of nasal, which requires an airtight oral

closure.

Passing further into the mouth we must take note briefly of articulations that involve the lower

teeth, that is denti-labial and denti-dental (or bidental).

Silently bring the lower teeth into contact with the upper lip and then start up voiceless pulmonic

pressure initiation. The result is a kind of [f] - like fricative, but a dentilabial one, not a

labiodental one. There is no phonetic symbol for this dentilabial fricative, which is not know to

occur regularly in any language. Note, however, that in the phonetic literature (particularly in

French) one sometimes finds the term ‘dentalabial’ meaning what is properly called labiodental,

used by persons who do not adhere to the convention that we strictly follow, namely, that the

prefix (e.g. labio-) always refers to the lower articulator, while the rest of the term (e.g. –dental)

always refers to the upper articulator.

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Bidental articulation hardly warrants a special experimental approach: You simply bring the

upper and lower teeth together (‘clench the teeth’) and blow noisily through them. This is a

bidental fricative – a sound that is practically unknown in languages though it does occur (as a

variant of the dorso-velar fricative [x]) in one sub-dialect of the Shapsug dialect of Adyghe

(Circassian) of the north-west Caucasus.

4. Dentoalveolar Articulations

We come now to a part of the mouth where we must spend a good deal of time, since a

considerable variety of articulations can be produced there. This is the dentalveolar region.

Both the tip, or apex, and the blade of the tongue can articulate in various ways against the upper

teeth, and against the front and back subzones of the teeth ridge – the alveolar ridge. We thus

have the possibility of both apico- and lamino- articulations against the dental zone, and against

two parts (front and back) of the alveolar zone. These are what we most now explore.

Silently place the apex and rim of the tongue against the backs of the upper teeth. Slowly and

introspectively draw the tongue backwards, feeling the alveolar ridge, just behind the upper teeth.

As the tongue slides very slowly backwards over the surface of the alveolar ridge you should get

an impression of the shape of the ridge. Immediately behind the teeth it is relatively flat, then, as

the tongue slowly slides further back, you can feel the ridge is no longer flat and more or less

horizontal, but is beginning to curve upwards. If you keep on sliding the tongue-tip slowly

backwards you will feel it passing the most ‘ridge-like’ – the most convex – part of the alveolar

ridge, and then moving on to the more concave arching front part of the hard palate. You have

now gone beyond the alveolar ridge and have entered the front-palatal, or prepalatal, subzone of

the hard palate.

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Some people have a more prominent alveolar ridge than others. Fig. 26 shows, schematically,

two extremes of this kind. If you run your tongue over your alveolar ridge, as you look at Fig 26

you will be able to estimate the degree of prominence of your own alveolar ridge. The front edge

of the alveolar ridge is at the place where the upper teeth recede into the gums, but there is no

sharp division between the rear rend of the alveolar ridge and the beginning of the hard palate.

The alveolar ridge may be taken to end beyond its most convex part, at the point where the

convexity of the ridge gives way to the concavity of the hard palate. Thus, as you can feel with

your tongue, the alveolar ridge may be considered to have two parts – a rather flat front part, and

a curved, convex, back part. These tow parts of the alveolar ridge are what we call the alveolar

subzone (the front part), and the postalveolar subzone (the back part, which might more

appropriately be called the ‘posterior alveolar’ subzone).

Silently place the tip (and rim) of the tongue against the backs of the upper teeth and make a stop

in this position. This apico-dental [ ], the small tooth-like diacritic mark under the [ ] means that

it is dental rather than alveolar. (Fig 27a)

Now, very slowly, carefully, and introspectively draw the tip of the tongue backwards. As soon

as the tongue-tip is completely free of the teeth, but is still in contact with the relatively flat part

of the alveolar ridge, hold that position, and then make a voiceless stop from there. This is apico-

alveolar {t}. (Fig. 27b)

After producing two or three apico-alvoelar [t]s, and being quite clear about the tactile and

proprioceptive differences between alveolar [t] and dental [ ], slide the tongue-tip very slowly

back keeping contact with the ridge till you can feel it touching the extreme back of the ridge, at

its most convex point, just before it begins to merge with the concave palate.
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Make a voiceless stop from this point. This is an apico-postalveolar [v], the subscript line (minus

sign) means that it is retracted from the alveolar position (Fig. 27c)

You should now have acquired a clear understanding of the dental, alveolar and postalveolar

places of articulation. The three stops pronounced in Experiment 56 were all apical. But it is

possible to articulate stops at these same locations using the blade of the tongue, that is, the part

of the upper surface of the tongue lying immediately behind the tip, and extending back from the

tip along, the centre-line about 1 to 1.5cm. Articulations made with the blade are called laminal,

or in the prefixed form, lamino-. (See Fig. 28)

Place the tip of the tongue lightly against the backs of the lower teeth, or better, the lower gums.

Keep it anchored there, out of the way, while you silently bring the blade of the tongue into

contact with the backs of the upper teeth. This is a lamino-dental contact, and you can make a

lamino-dental [ ] at this location (Fig. 28a)

Now while keeping the tongue-tip anchored to the lower teeth, and thus out of the way, silently

bring the blade into contact with the alveolar ridge. Perhaps the best way to do this is to start

from the lamino-dental position (blade against backs of upper teeth) and slide the blade back very

slightly till it is just clear of the upper teeth. This is lamino-alveolar, and you can make a lamino-

alveolar stop [t] at this location. If you carefully compare apico-alveolar [t] with lamino-alveolar

[t] you may notice that the release sound – the little burst of noise – heard as the tongue breaks

away from the ridge tends to be less lean-cut, a little more ‘sloppy’ in the case of laminal [t]. In

fact, it may sound a little like [ts] rather than simple [t] (Fig. 28b).

Now, in order to shift back to make a lamino-postalveolar stop articulation you will probably

have to remove the tongue-tip from the lower teeth. Nevertheless, you must contrive to make

contact between the blade (not the apex) and the postalveolar subzone – the most convex part of
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the ridge. (Fig. 28c) Make a lamino-postalveolar stop from this place of articulation [ ]. You

may find that the articulatory location of this lamino-postalveolar stop is about that of the starting

point (the stop segment) of the English affricate [t ∫] as in church. (On affricates see Chap. 6.)

You will have observed that the IPA supplies no special symbols or diacritics for the laminoal

[t]s. This is not a serious disadvantage, since distinction between apical and laminal [t] – sounds

is rare in languages.

Now we must experiment with a series of fricatives in the dentalveolar region.

Silently raise the point of the tongue, and let its apex and rim just touch the cutting edges of the

upper teeth. Holding this articulation start up pulmonic pressure initiation, and resultant

egressive air-stream, and the result should be an apico-dental fricative [θ], exactly or very nearly

the English th of thin. Note that typically the English [θ] is a rather wide channel fricative, the

blade of the tongue is relaxed and rather flat, and the rim of the tongue either touches or is just

behind the edges of the upper teeth – the tongue does not normally protrude between the teeth for

this sound. (Fig. 29a)

Now silently retract the tongue-tip a very little and turn it up a little so that the edges of the

tongue-rim make contact with the alveolar ridge, leaving a very narrow central channel. This is

the position for an apico-alveolar fricative: if you now produce an egressive air-stream you will

hear a rather ‘whistling’ kind of [s]- sound. (Fig 29b) Retracting the tongue-tip still further, till it

is at the maximally convex extreme back of the alveolar ridge you can feel an apico-post-alveolar

fricative type of articulation. An egressive air-stream will now generate a [ ∫ ] – sound, like a

kind of sh as in English shop, but by no means the commonest variety of this (which is laminal):
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the sch sound of the North German, and the Russian sh w are rather typically of this apico-

postalveolar type. (Fig. 29c.)

The main things achieved in 58 will be a further familiarity with the three major dentalveolar

zones of articulation: dental, alveolar, and postalveolar. Experiment 59 investigates laminal

articulation at two of these locations.

Let the apex and rim of the tongue lie lightly against the backs of the lower teeth. Press the sides

of the tongue-blade up against the alveolar ridge, leaving a very narrow channel in the centre. An

egressive air-stream through this narrow channel generates a typical lamino-alveolar [s]- type

fricative. (Fig. 30a)

Now retract the tongue a little detaching the tip from the lower teeth, and form a narrow

articulatory channel between the blade and the most convex back part of the ridge – a lamino-

polstalveolar fricative, a kind of [ ∫ ]. (Fig. 30b)

Silently, and slowly, alternate [s]/ [ ∫ ] till you are sure you can feel the difference between them.

We have now covered the major types of stop and fricative articulation in the dentalveolar region.

You can use the knowledge acquired from Experiments 58-9 to make a silent, introspective,

analysis of some sounds of your own language: for example, are your [t] [d] [n] [I] apical, or

laminal, dental, or alveolar? And if your language has a trilled or tapped [r] or [ ] where is it

articulated? If you have [s] – and/or [∫] – sounds – in your language, are they apico- or lamino-,

dental, alveolar, or postalveolar, etc.? If your native language is Polish, what are the articulatory

differences between s, sz, s’? If your language is Russian, how does the primary articulation of

[t] and [d] in [tot] ‘that’, [da] ‘yes’ compare with tht of palatalized [tj] in [tj o tj ə ] ‘aunt’ and

[djadjə ] ‘uncle’? (On palatilization see Chapter 6.) If your language is Arabic compare the

dentalveolar articulations of plain [t] and [s] as in [ti:n ]’fig’, [si:n ]’the letters’, and of ‘emphatic’
 87

[ ] and [ ]as in [ ] ‘mud’ and [ ] ‘China’. You may find the dentalveolar articulations much the

same, the difference between the plain and emphatic consonants depending chiefly on the back of

the tongue (see Chap. 6 Sect. 2).

If your language is English, silently compare the [t] and [d] – sounds in (a) eight wide, (b) eighth

width, (c) try dry. Can you observe differences between them? And if you use a tap in the middle

of better (American), or in the middle of very (British) is it apico- or lamino-, dental, alveolar, or

postalveolar? How do you articulate the r in red? In British types of English it is likely to be a

variety of apico-postaveolar approximant (or, more rarely, fricative) [ ]. In American types of

English you may find that the tongue-tip is rather far behind the postalveolar location and that the

whole body of the tongue is bunched up, coming rather near the velar articulatory zone. There is

a considerable amount of variation – both regional and personal – in the pronunciation of English

rs, so your own r may not exactly correspond to any described here. By silently isolating your r

and introspecting about it see if you can discover how it is articulated.

We can now review the principal types of dentalveolar articulation and the IPA symbols used to

represent them:

stops: (apico- or lamino-) dental [ ] [ ], alveolar [t] [d], post-alveolar [ ] [ ].

fricatives: apico-dental (wide channel), [θ ] [ ð]

alveolar (normally lamino-), [s] [z]

Postalveolar (apico- or lamion-), [ ∫ ] [ ]

approximants: no special symbols, except for apico-postalveolar [ ], which is most commonly

approximant, but may also be fricative. There is not much difference between the fricative apico-

postalveolar [ ], as in Polish [ ] Russian [ ] ‘(he) lived’ and the apico-postalveolar fricative [ ]

(as often in British English dry [ ]): but there is some difference. In [ ], but not in [ ], there is a

slight spoon-shaped hollow in the centre of the tongue, just behind the blade, which is absent in

[ ].
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Approximants of other dentaleolar types can be represented by using the ‘opening’ diacritic: thus

[ ] [ ] represent apico-dental and lamino-alveolar approximants.

trill and tap: [r] and [ ]

Lateral approximants: (dental, alveolar, or postalveolar) [ l ].

lateral fricatives: (dental, alveolar, or postalveolar) [ l ], [ l ].

nasals: (dental, alveolar, or postalveolar) [ n ].

5. Retroflex and Palatal Articulations

Having explored the dentalveolar region of articulation we now proceed further back into the

mouth.

First, immediately behind the postalveolar subzone we come to the sublamino-prepalatal

articulation, otherwise known as retroflex.

Silently place the tip of the tongue against the postalveolar part of the alveolar ridge. Now slide it

back beyond the postalveolar subzone, to where the hard palate ceases to be convex. As your

tongue enters this concave zone it is pointing almost straight up, and the underblade, or

sublamina, begins to make contact with the prepalatal arch. This is sublamino-prepalatal

articulation, or since the apex of the tongue is virtually curled backwards, retroflex.

Produce a series of retroflex sounds from this place of articulation:

Stops [ ] [ ], fricatives [ ] [ ], approximant [ ], lateral approximant [ ], and nasal [ ]. (See Fig.

31a)
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There is also a flap articulated in the retroflex zone, symbol [ ]. To produce this, start with the

tongue-tip curled well back, then let it shoot forwards and downwards, lightly striking the

prepalatal arch, just behind the alveolar ridge, on the way down. (See Fig. 31b.)

Retroflex consonants are particularly characteristic of languages of India. They are often quite

strongly retroflex in the Dravidian languages, but tend to be somewhat less so in the Indic

languages of Northern India. In Hindi, for example [ ] and [ ], as in [ ] ‘tin’ and [ ] ‘bucket’,

may not be much further back than apico-postalveolar [ ] [ ]. However, they contrast with

apico-dental stops [ ] [ ] as in [ ] ‘three’ [ ] ‘two’, and the more retracted stops are normally

called ‘retroflex’ and written [ ] and [ ]. Hindi [ ], however, occurring in such words as [ ]

‘horse’ [ ] ‘boy’, is a truly retroflex flab.

Next, we must examine dorsal articulations in the prepalatal zone – that is non-retroflex

articulations involving juxtaposition of the dorsal surface of the tongue and the hard palate. The

hard palate is divided into a front half – the upward-backwards sloping prepalatal arch – and a

rear half – the high vault of the hard palate back to the line of division between the hard and soft

palate: this is the palatal subzone proper (see Fig 22). We start with dorso-palatal (not

prepalatal) articulation (see Fig. 32).

Silently form and hold the articulation for a vowel [i] as in see. Introspecting about the tactile

and proprioceptive sensations of silent [i] not how the tongue is bunched up in the front of the

mouth. The vowel [i], of course, is a dorso-palatal approximant.

Now push the central part of the tongue upwards, narrowing the articulation channel of silent [i]

until it disappears altogether as the centre of the tongue makes contact with the highest part of the

hard palate. (See Fig. 31.)

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From this position make a voiceless dorso-palatal stop [c] and a voiced dorso-palatal stop [ ].

Form and hold the stop of [c], i.e. hold the tongue dorsum in firm contact with the hard palate, but

nothing else: there must be absolutely no contact between the anterodorsum and the prepalatal

subzone, or between the blade and the postalveolar subzone. Now, release the centre of the

tongue very slightly, so that you form a very narrow dorso-palatal articulation channel: initiate an

egressive air-stream which ought to become strongly turbulent as it flows through this narrow

channel, forming a dorso-palatal voiceless fricative [ ]. We already reached a sound very much

like [ ] by devoicing [ i ] in Exp. 29. This [ ] is the sound of ch in German ich.

Now add voice, but be sure that you have a really narrow fricative type chanel, so that when you

voice [ ] it becomes a voiced dorso-palatal fricative [ J ], and not the approximant [i]. The

symbol [J ] for a voiced dorso-palatal fricative is not an official IPA symbol, but it is useful, in

order to distinguish between the fricative [ J ] and the approximant or semivowel [j] –

exemplified by the y in English yes.

Since it is normally the dorsal part of the tongue (and, specifically, the anterodorsal part) that

articulates the hard palate, we commonly drop the prefix and talk simply of palatal articulation.

The palatal stops [c] and [ ] are not very common in languages, but they are sometimes

exemplified by the ty and gy of Hungarian [ ] ‘veil’ and [ ] ‘Hungarian’ though they are

perhaps more often pronounced as prepalatal affricates [ ] [ ]. In addition to the palatal stops [c]

and [ ], the fricatives [ ] and [ ], the approximant [i], and the semivowel [ j] we can have a

palatal nasal [ ] and lateral [ ].

The palatal nasal [ ] is traditionally said to be the pronunciation of the French gn in campagne,

the Italian gn in ogni, the Spanish n in manana. However, in these languages the [ ] is not
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always pronounced as a genuine platal nasal. It may, instead, be pronounced as an apico-

alveolar, lamino-postalveolar, or lamino-prepalatal nasal followed by a palatal semivowel [nj].

Palatal [ ] is traditionally said to be the pronunciation of Italian gl in egli, Castilian Spanish ll in

pollo. Again, however, it is not always pronounced as a genuine palatal [ ] in these languages,

but rather as [ lj ]. In Latin-American Spanish ll is virtually never pronounced as [ ], but as a

semivowel [ j ] or a fricative [ ], or even as an affricate [dz].

As a matter of principle, the student of phonetics should experiment with producing genuine

dorso-palatal [ ] and [ ], with contact only between the dorsal surface of the tongue and the high

vault of the hard palate, but obsolutely no contact between the apex or blade of the tongue and the

alveolar ridge or prepalatal arch.

It may be useful to compare genuine [ ] and [ ] with the sequences [nj] and [lj] that occur in

English. Thus compare English onion [ ] with French agneau [ ] Italian agnello [ ] ‘lamb’,

Spanish ano [ ] ‘year’; English billiards [biljə(r)dz ], Italian bigletto [ ] ‘ticket’, Spanish billar

[ ] ‘billards’, etc.

Before leaving the palatal zone we must mention the possibility of articulation in the fron part of

the zone – the prepalatal subzone. Experiment 62 introduces this subzone.

Produce a voiceless palatal fricative [ ] – if necessary, develop it from [i] by devoicing and

narrowing the channel somewhat. Now, while maintaining a prolonged [ ], raise the apex and

blade of the tongue somewhat so that the anterodorsal surface of the tongue comes close to the

prepalatal arch, doing, in fact, what you were explicitly told not to do in producing genuine

palatal [ ] and [ J ].

Once you get some kind of dorso- or lamino-prepalatal fricative noise into the sound, try to

slacken off the prepalatal constriction somewhat. The result should be a lamino-prepalatal
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fricative [ ] or voiced [ ]. The same result can be arrived at by starting with a a lamino-

postalveolar type of [ ] and then contriving to get more palatal constriction into it: saying

lamino-postalveolar [∫ ] while ‘thinking [ ] or [ i ]’.

This kind of lamino- or dorso-prepalatal fricative is the Polish s’, which is sometimes called,

quite reasonably, a ‘palatalized [ ∫ ]’.

One can also articulate a stop in the prepalatal subzone, or an affricate (stop released into

homorganic fricative – see Chap. 6) which may be represented as [ ] [ ] or [ ] [ ].

Figure 33 indicates the difference between tongue-positions for an apico-postalveolar [ ∫ ] (33a),

a lamino-postalveolar [ ∫ ] (33b), a lamino-prepalatal [ ] (33c), and a dorso-palatal [ ] (33d). It

may be useful for the reader to produce these four types of fricative, silently and aloud, while

looking at the figure. It should be noted that in the terminology of IPA apico- or lamino-

postalveolar fricatives of the type [ ∫ ] [ ] are called ‘palato-alveolar’, while lamino- or dorso-

prepalatal fricatives of type [ ] [ ] are called ‘alveolo-palatal.’ This terminology is not

recommended, since it is inconsistent with the strict principle of using the prefixed term to

designate the lower articulator (as in labio-dental, apico-alveolar).

6. Velar and Uvular Articulations

We go on now to dorso-velar articulation – that is, articulation between the back of the tongue

and the soft palate. This is the place of articulation of typical [k] and [g] sounds. So in 63 we

begin with those.

Form the articulation for a [k] as in English car; hold it silently for a moment, then silently

release it. Repeat this several times, introspecting about what it feels like. Contrast this dorso-

velar stop [k] with a dorso-palatal stop [c], so that contact can be made with the highest part of
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the hard palate. For [k], however, the body of the tongue, though clearly further back than for [c],

doesn’t feel particularly strongly drawn back.

Once you are satisfied you can feel the midvelar (mid-soft palate) contact for [k] hold the tongue

in that [k] – position and, while taking care not to shift the tongue either forward or back, open up

a very small channel between the tongue and the soft palate. If you propel an egressive air-stream

(i.e. blow) through that narrow dorso-velar channel you should hear the sound of the voiceless

dorso-velar fricative [x]. Make sure it is velar. Some people tend to let the tongue slip back and

make a uvular fricative [ ]. We will come to that in Exp. 64, but for the moment what is

required is a purely dorso-velar [x].

Make a prolonged [x x x x x……], then do it again, switching on voice, but making no other

change: {x x x …..}, is the symbol for a voiced dorso-velar fricative.

Starting from the voiced velar fricative [ ] develop a velar approximant [ ]. Say a prolonged

[ ], nothing that is truly fricative, i.e. there is a fricative hiss-noise superimposed upon the

smooth sound of voice. Now while saying prolonged [ ….], very slowly, and very slightly,

open up the articulatory channel, just to the point where the hiss-noise of turbulent airflow ceases:

[ ]. This is the velar approximant, [ ].

Now that you are clear about dorso-velar (or simply velar, as we often call it) articulation you can

note that there is also a velar nasal [ ]. This is the nasal that occurs at the end of lung [ ] in

English. However, if you isolate [ ] you will find it quite easy to put a vowel after it, and say [ ]

[ ], etc.

In English, and many other languages (it is very noticeable in French, for example), [k] and [g]

are purely velar only before such vowels as [ ] and [u], as in English car, guard, and cool, goo.

Before front, or palatal, vowels like [i] as in key, geese, however, the articulation of [k] [g] is

shifted forward a little. If you articulate these words silently, then isolate the [k]/ [g] of each and

compare the ones that occur before [ i ] with others, the forward shift of tongue-position before [i
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] will be obvious. But note that even though the tongue is somewhat advanced in key and geese,

it does not go nearly as far forwad as the palatal position of [c] and [ ]. The English velar stops

are somewhat ‘fronted’ or ‘palatilized’ before [ i ]: but they do not become palatals.

The next, and the last, articulatory location in the oral area is dorso-uvular, or simply uvular. We

investigate sounds made at this location in Experiment 64.

Make a [k] – closure and then, silently, or almost silently, make a prolonged series of faint [k]-

type sounds [kh kh kh….], etc. While slowly sliding the tongue back and down as far as you can.

You will end up making a stop at the very furthest back part of the soft palate. The extreme back

of the tongue is in contact with the uvula and the extreme back of the velum (soft palate). If you

let a little pressure build up behind this extreme back closure, then release the closure, you will

hear a uvular stop [q ]. If you repeat this experiment – a series of faint stops of the [kh kh kh….]

type steadily moving back from the velar to the uvular positions – you will observe that the sound

of the little burst of noise occurring on the release of each stop goes down in pitch by about an

octave over the whole range.

Another observation you may make is that the release of velar [k] is relatively ‘clean’, while that

of [q] is more ‘sloppy’. This is because the convex tongue-surface can break away from the

whole contact area of the concave velar surface almost instantaneously but separation from the

more flexible and irregular surface of the extreme back of the velum, including the uvula, is less

instantaneous, less clean-cut.

Having produced the voiceless uvular stop [q] (not a difficult sound) and having repeated it

several times, you might try to produce the corresponding voiced sound – the voiced uvular top

[ G ]. This is much more difficult, because the tongue is so far back in the articulation of a

uvular, that the space between the oral closure and the glottis is very small: Consequently as the
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air used in generating voice flows upwards through the glottis the essential pressure-difference

across the glottis is abolished almost immediately, and voicing ceases.

Other uvular articulations are the fricatives [ χ ] and [ ], the approximant [ ], the nasal [N], and

the trill [R]. They are investigated in Experiment 65.

Form the closure for a uvular stop [ ] and hold it. Now, while holding that uvular articulation

posture, open up a small central channel, and propel an egressive air-stream through it. The result

should be the voiceless uvular fricative [ χ ].

Another way of approaching [χ ] is to start with the velar [x] and then move progressively

backwards, as you did with the [k……q] in Exp. 64. In this case, make a velar fricative [x], and

while keeping the fricative noise going, slowly slide your tongue back and down, till you have

arrived as far back as you can go, at [χ ]. Once again, notice as you do this that the pitch of the

fricative hiss goes down by nearly an octave.

Having produced [χ], prolong it and then switch on voice [χ χ χ χ ]. The result is the voiced

uvular fricative [ ]. If you now make a prolonged [ ] then, while keeping the voice going and

the same general tongue-posture, very slightly widen the articulatory channel and you will

convert the uvular fricative [ ] to the uvular approximant [ ].

The uvular nasal [N] should not give no trouble, since it can easily be reached, like [q] and [χ], by

sliding back from the corresponding velar, [ ŋ ]. There remains the uvular trill [R]. If you can

gargle, and most people can, then you can produce a uvular trill. It is only necessary to reduce

the amount of water used in gargling, finally using only saliva, to pas from gargle to [R]. In

addition, as we pointed out in the last chapter, it is easier to produce all trills with a powerful

voiceless air-stream, so you might try that.

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As you experiment with uvular sounds you may notice that the uvular fricatives [χ ] and [ ] tend

to develop something of a trilled quality. This is normal – it happens all the time in languages

that use uvular fricatives, simply because the uvula, being small and flexible tends to be thrown

into vibration by the air-stream of the fricative. You may be able to avoid it by trying to get a

strong feeling of tenseness into the rear of your soft palate and the back of the tongue as you

produce [χ ] and [ ]. An important difference between uvular fricative [ ] and trill [R] is that

whereas the tongue back is relatively flat or convex for [ ], a deep longitudinal groove is formed

in the back of the tongue for the trill [R], and the uvula vibrates in the groove.

We have now covered all the major articulatory locations within the oral area. You might find it

useful to run through them again. In particular, it would be useful to compare the three major

tectal articulatory locations: palatal, velar, uvular. By contrasting series of sounds such as [c],

[k], [q], [ ] [ ] [x] [χ ] [ ] [ ŋ ] [N] one becomes more clearly aware of the differences between

palata, velar, and uvular articulations. Finally, we must turn our attention to articulations in the

pharyngeo-laryngeal area: these are articulations in the pharynx and larynx.

7. Pharyngal and Glottal Articulations

Articulations in the pharynx are called pharyngeal, or pharyngal: those performed in the larynx

are glottal (not to be confused with ‘glottalic’, which is the name of a type of initiation).

The pharynx is the cavity behind the mouth, running from the back of the nose and the ‘nasal

part’ down to the larynx. Pharyngal articulations can be made both in the part of the pharynx just

behind the mouth (the oropharynx) and in the lower part of the pharynx, immediately above the

larynx and merging with it (the laryngopharynx).

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Here we deal with only two types of articulation in the pharynx: one a rather generalized

sphincteric compression of the oropharynx – which we shall call pharyngal: the other involving

the epiglottis, which we shall call epiglottal. These are dealt with in Experiments 66 and 67

respectively.

The best way to induce the pharyngeal compression that we want to achieve is to activate what is

called the ‘gag’ reflex. Unless the reader is exceptionally insensitive he can do this by sticking a

finger into his mouth so that it touches, or merely approaches, the uvula. The extreme convulvise

contraction of the pharynx that this induces is the starting point from which to develop a milder,

less intense, contraction of the pharynx. If you send a voiceless and then a voiced air-stream

through the contracted pharynx you will produce the pharyngeal sounds, voicesless [ ] and

voiced [ ].

These are very common variety of the sounds of the Arabic letters (ha) and ( ‘ain). They are

often described in the literature as ‘pharyngeal fricatives’, but in reality they are more often

approximants. Note that the voiced sound [ ] has not turbulent, fricative-like, hiss although a

noticeable hiss sound is heard in [ h].

The pharyngeal approximants [ ] and [ ] are very characteristic of most varieties of Arabic and

of a few other languages, including Somali, Berber, and some varieties of Oriental Hebrew (in

modern Israeli Hebrew, the ancient Hebrew [ h] is replaced by a velar or uvular [x] or [χ ], and

the [ ] by a glottal stop [ ?]).

In a few varieties of Arabic and Oriental Hebrew the ‘ain ( ) appears to be pronounced, not as a

simple pharyngeal constriction, but as a complete closure, formed by folding the epiglottis back ,

as in the act of swallowing. This epiglottal stop may be represented by [ ]. Which is not a

regular IPA symbol.

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Start by swallowing several times, and introspecting about what is going on. In the middle of the

process of swallowing there is a feeling of complete closure when the epiglottis folds down over

the larynx to proven food from entering it. Hold that stop position for a moment. Do that several

times, then try to flank that moment of closure by a vowel, for example [a], thus saying [a a]

fairly easily, compare it with simple glottal stop: [a a] [a ]. Notice how glottal stop [a a] is just a

simple momentary ‘holding of breath’, a simple hiatus between the flanking vowels that hardly

affects their quality.

The epiglottal stop, however, in [a a] is not only a very strong stop, but it also affects the quality

of flanking vowels, which acquire a peculiar ‘squeezed’ quality (pharyngalization).

Epiglottal stop [ ] seems to occur not only in varieties of Arabic and Hebrew as indicated above,

but also in several languages of the Caucasus, for example in Chechen, where epiglottal

[ ] contrasts with glottal [ ]. The existence of epiglottal stop in Arabic and Hebrew was

demonstrated instrumentally by Laufer and Condax (1979).

Glottal articulation occurs, of course, in the larynx, by the juxtaposition of the vocal cords. We

have already seen many examples of glottal stop [ ], articulated by making a complete closure

between the vocal cords – closing the glottis. Glottal stop is sometimes used in English before a

strongly stressed initial vowel as in ‘Ah!’ [a]. It may accompany final voiceless stops, producing

co-articulated glottal + oral stops, in many types of English, though more frequently in the USA

than in Britain, perhaps as in cap, hat, hack, etc., pronounced [ ] [ ] [ ], where the ligature [ ]

indicates the glottal stop and oral stop are simultaneous. In some English and Scottish dialects

glottal stop may totally replace an intervocalic {t}, thus Cockney [ ], Glasgow [

] for ‘butter’.
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The sound [h], as in hot, is often described as a voiceless glottal fricative, since like other

consonants it occupies the marginal (initial) position in the syllable, rather than the central

position in the syllable appropriate to a vowel. In terms of its articulation, however, it might also

be regarded as a voiceless vowel of about the same quality as the voice vowel that follows. The

corresponding voiced glottal fricative, [ ] is essentially a brief span of breathy voice or whispery

voice functioning as a consonant. Voiced [ ] may occur intervocalically in English in such words

as Aha! and perhaps.

At the end of Chapters 2 and 3 we mentioned that prosodic features that relate to initiation and to

phonation respectively, namely stress and pitch phenomena. The prosodic feature that is related

to articulation is the duration, or length (also known as quantity) of sounds. Clearly all

maintainable articulations can be held for a shorter or longer time. We will deal with the duration

of sounds in Chapter 9, ‘Prosodic Features’.

CO-ARTICULATION AND SEQUENCES

We completed our survey of articulatory stricture types (stop, trill, fricative, etc.) and articulatory

locations (bilabial, labio-dental, apico-dental, etc.) in Chapter 5. However, there are still some

things that remain to be said about articulation, and we discuss them here under the headings co-

articulation and sequences.

Co-articulation. All the sounds we have dealt with so far (with one exception, [w]) have a single

place of articulation: thus, [p] is bilabial, [c]is dorsopalatal, [h] is pharyngal, etc. But it is

perfectly possible for articulation to occur at two different places simultaneously. As we saw in

Chapter 5, the semivowel [w] involves an approximation and rounding of the lips, and
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consequently is bilabial; but, at the same time, the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum,

so that there is a simultaneous dorso-velar articulation.

We call such simultaneous articulation at two different locations co-articulation. Co-articulation

is an essential feature of some sounds, such as [w], but it also occurs ‘accidentally’ as it were in

the close transition from one consonant to another. In the English word play for example, as

usually pronounced, a little introspection will show that the tongue-tip makes contact with the

alveolar ridge for the apico-alveolar lateral approximant [I] while the lips are still closed for the

bilabial stop [p]. There is thus a short period of overlapping articulation – and this is a period of

transitory co-articulation.

On the other hand, some consonants, like the [w] already mentioned, are co-articulated in their

own right, as it were, and these are the subject of the present section.

There are two types of co-articulation: (i) co-ordinate, or double articulation, and (ii) secondary

articulation.