Khayesi 2018-Rural Development Planning in Africa

RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
PLANNING
IN AFRICA
Edited by
Meleckidzedeck Khayesi
Rural Development Planning in Africa
“In the much talked about and documented worldwide rush to cities, the chal-
lenges of rural development, equity and efficiency are being ignored as experts and
institutions are by and large concentrating on the pressing needs of the people who
are crowding into the cities. And nowhere has this been more pronounced than in
the great, needy and inventive continent of Africa. For any individual or institution
who cares about development and democracy, this comprehensive synthesis of
research, experience and insights into rural development planning in Africa comes
at a time of great need, accelerated change, and an on-going explosion of new
tools and technologies. It is required reading. The future is already here. Open up
that window and let the fresh air of new thinking blow in from Africa.”
–Eric Britton
Professor of Sustainable Development, Economy and
Democracy, Institut Supérieur de Gestion, Paris, France
“Rural Africa has been a site of research and policy programmes on a wide range
of issues. I highly recommend this book for its thorough effort to synthesize the
evergrowing literature on rural development planning in Africa. The book chap-
ters provide details on methods, theories, conceptual models and empirical find-
ings of this growing literature.”
–Ruth K. Oniang’o
Editor-in-Chief, African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and
Development; Founder, Rural Outreach Program Africa
Editor
Rural Development
Planning in Africa
Editor
World Health Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
ISBN 978-1-349-95296-0 ISBN 978-1-349-95297-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951956
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A.
This book is dedicated to the memory of Wangari Maathai for her relentless
effort to conserve environmental resources in Kenya; to Michael Bernard
Kwesi Darkoh for his dedication as a teacher and researcher on
environment and development; and to Kingsley Lwanda, who was born to
Constance Ouko and Robert Ouko in June 2016.
Foreword
Rural development remains one of the most enduring challenges con-

fronting the African state, peasants and development practitioners in the
public and private sector. Some of these challenges are old (technology,
management and finance), while others are new, stemming from rapidly
changing regional and global contexts of development (how to harness
new technologies, cope with climate change and increase productivity in a
shrinking environmental space). However, these changing contexts and
challenges of development have also opened up new opportunities never
before available for rural Africa (better transport, marketing information
flows, and ICT-facilitated emarkets, efinance, ebanking and input delivery
systems).
The authors of this volume collectively turned their attention to a sub-
ject which has almost disappeared from the vocabulary of an African devel-
opment scholarship consumed by a manifest craving for an “Africa rising”
narrative based on industrialization and urbanization. Several voices, such
as those reflected in this volume, called for a return to the future by privi-
leging an integrated approach not only to rural development, but also to
an integrated agro-industrialization as part of African structural transfor-
mation policies.
Two decades ago, when planning was considered heresy, the title
Rural Development Planning in Africa would have been scorned. The
volume also reflects the “return to planning movement” sparked by the
2009 financial crisis and African government adoption of long-term stra-
tegic development plans, covering a period of two to three decades. The
authors seem to have parted with rather than affirming outdated
vii
viii FOREWORD
development models often narrowly associating rural development with

agriculture to the neglect of other sectors that are equally deserving for
attention. Not surprisingly, the new context of African rural development
planning is an all-encompassing activity situated within the realm of local
governance and inspired by emergent powerful networks, including the
state, international development partners, the private sector and rural
communities.
The authors of Rural Development Planning in Africa have adopted an
approach that expands conventional rural development planning trajecto-
ries by exploring the role of agriculture, finance and investment, rural-
urban linkages and markets, energy, health, and water. While each chapter
can be elaborated in a full-fledged volume, Meleckidzedeck Khayesi, the
editor, has crafted a seminal introduction which stitches into an integrative
whole what might seem from the outset to be a collection of disparate
chapters.
Two facts add authenticity to this book: it is written by academics and
professionals with hands-on, long-term experiences in the field of rural
development, and some of them are rural development practitioners in
their own right. In addition, all the authors, the majority of whom were
raised and have lived in rural Africa, are a unique and welcome addition to
an evolving African scholarship ushering in distinctive and context-specific
approaches to African development. This volume is an inspirational read
for those involved in the academic and policy debate on rural development
in Africa and beyond.
International Institute of Social Studies M.A. Mohamed Salih

Erasmus University Rotterdam,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Preface
Contributing to African rural development planning experience fulfils a

long passion I have had not only in research but also in wanting to improve
the living conditions in rural areas of Africa. I have not only read about
and carried out research on African rural development programmes, but
also experienced the African rural development landscape in a personal
way. I was born and raised in a rural district in Kenya. I have been involved
in the ordinary rural life in Kenya. I am always fascinated with the rising of
the sun, when my rural community wakes up; the development of the day,
when this community gets engaged in several activities; and the setting of
the sun, when the community settles down to evening meals and storytell-
ing, and then retires to sleep. I remember well how other boys and I
would be tending cattle in the afternoon and evening, while the girls
would be fetching water and preparing meals. I remember how we, the
young ones, would spend the day at school while our parents would be
working on their farms or doing other important life-sustaining activities.
My rural community has also changed in several ways. Numerous mem-
bers now own cell phones, radios and many modern gadgets. I have wit-
nessed a number of rural development initiatives being introduced and
implemented in my own local district and others parts of Kenya. Though
I moved away to study and work in Nairobi and abroad, I have maintained
links with my rural origins. I have been involved in discussions and initia-
tives seeking to support the development of African rural areas and Africa
in general. I cannot fully describe the joy and peace I always get when I am
in my rural community. Listening to cattle mooing, cocks crowing, chil-
dren making joyful sounds as they play, a mother calling her children to
ix
x PREFACE
come to the house to eat, and news about happy and sad events in the
community remind me a lot about the importance of the basics of life.
In addition to these personal experiences that I have just described, I
have also been involved in research and initiatives in rural development.
My master’s thesis was on rural transport and it helped me to apply scien-
tific analytical tools to rural household travel behaviour and its relationship
to the rural economy. The first book review I ever published was on a
book entitled Integrated Rural Development: The Ethiopian Experience
and Debate, written by J.M.O. Cohen in 1987. It was published in the
Journal of Eastern African Research and Development, 1992, Vol. 22,
pp. 157–159. I have individually and jointly conducted other research in
rural and urban areas.
African rural development planning is an interest not only of mine but
also of several other people and institutions, including researchers, policy-
makers, practitioners, the media, politicians, development partners,
humanitarian organizations and the public. The contributors to this vol-
ume have also experienced the African rural development reality as resi-
dents in African rural areas, researchers, decision-makers, implementers
and investors. The cumulative experience of the contributors to this book
brings life to the topics covered in different chapters. The authors are not
just summarizing evidence from which they are detached. They have actu-
ally also been part and parcel of the experience in which they acquired
knowledge, enabling them to synthesize the information gathered; knowl-
edge is intangible.
The main achievement of this book is in providing a synthesis of
research evidence on selected themes in African rural development plan-
ning experience. I look at this edition as the first step in a process that may
see the authors of this book and/or other researchers updating the chap-
ters and even adding new themes in the coming years.
Acknowledgements
Editing and writing a book involves networking with several people and
institutions. It is indeed a collective effort, and the editor is basically a
facilitator of this dynamic group of persons and institutions. I am grateful
to the dedicated authors, who spent several hours reading literature,
extracting information and preparing chapters for this book. I thank the
many scholars whose work on rural development planning provided the
information that has been synthesized in the chapters of this book.
I am also grateful for the editing support from Felicia Yieke. I thank the
staff of Palgrave Macmillan (Christina Brian, Renee Takken, Sarah Doskov,
Chris Robinson, Alina Yurova, Ben Bailey and Dana De Siena, along with
Sharon Rajkumar and Ganesh Ekambaram of SPi Global) for their collab-
orative approach when developing this book.
Last, but not least, I am grateful for the encouragement received from
my family and friends.
xi
Contents
1 Encountering African Rural Development Planning 1

Meleckidzedeck Khayesi, Peter Mala, and Joan Fairhurst
2 Natural Resource Management 17

Chris Allan Shisanya
3 Local Governance 53
Wossenyeleh Aregay
4 Agriculture 69
Joan Fairhurst
5 Financing Rural Development Programmes 93

Rodney Asilla and Anna Nyaoro Mala
6 Small Market and Urban Centres 107

Francis N. Wegulo
7 Energy 135
Paschalin Mbenge Basil and Robert Ouko
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
8 Water 153
Gladys Moraa Marie Nyachieo and Constance Anyango
Ouko
9 Health 173
Peter Mala
10 Physical Activity 199
Fletcher Njororai and Wycliffe W. Simiyu Njororai
Index 249
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Map of Kenya showing the location of Kajiado District and
Oloitokitok Division 39
Fig. 2.2 Map of Kajiado District showing location of Imbirikani within
Oloitokitok Division 40
Fig. 2.3 Land cover types in Imbirikani area 42
Fig. 2.4 Major land cover classes and land use in Imbirikani area 43
Plate 2.1 Use of natural resources in Imbirikani 46
xv
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Criteria for inclusion or exclusion of articles during

systematic review process 18
Table 2.2 Summary of empirical research on natural resources
management in Africa 19
Table 3.1 Summary of empirical research on local governance in Africa 55
Table 5.1 Summary of research on financing rural development
programmes in Africa 95
Table 6.1 Scope of research on market and small urban centres in
selected studies 109
Table 6.2 Study designs 112
Table 6.3 Dominant theories and conceptual models used in
sample studies 113
Table 6.4 A summary of strategies used to foster rural development
through markets and small towns in Africa 120
Table 6.5 Summary of views on the role of small towns on rural
development122
Table 7.1 Year of publication 136
Table 7.2 Geographical units 137
Table 7.3 Study types and data collection methods 138
Table 7.4 Theories and conceptual models 139
Table 7.5 Empirical findings 142
Table 8.1 Study design characteristics 155
Table 8.2 Geographical units 156
Table 8.3 Study types and data collection methods 158
Table 8.4 Theories and conceptual models 160
Table 8.5 Study focus and findings 164
Table 9.1 Summary of research on health care delivery in Africa 175
xvii
xviii LIST OF TABLES
Table 9.2 Design characteristics of studies reviewed 183

Table 10.1 Summary of research on physical activity 201
Table 10.2 Prevalence of physical inactivity for men in selected African
countries225
Table 10.3 Prevalence of physical inactivity for women in selected
African countries 225
CHAPTER 1
Encountering African Rural Development

Planning
Meleckidzedeck Khayesi, Peter Mala, and Joan Fairhurst
What Is This Chapter About?

This chapter begins by providing a brief overview of the African rural
development planning landscape. A definition of rural development fol-
lows as does a justification for the choice of themes presented. The
approach adopted to prepare this book is spelt out in detail and a brief
outline summary of the findings of each chapter is given.
What Characterizes the African Rural Development

Planning Landscape?
There are several policy contexts, theoretical models and strategic
approaches that have guided the planning of rural development in Africa.
To begin with, it is noted that Africa’s population of over 1.1 billion peo-
ple mostly live in rural areas (UN, 2013). Although remaining mostly
M. Khayesi (*)
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
P. Mala
University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
J. Fairhurst
Univerity of Pretoria, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa
© The Author(s) 2018 1

M. Khayesi (ed.), Rural Development Planning in Africa,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_1
2 M. KHAYESI ET AL.
rural, it is estimated that the number of people living in urban settlements

will increase from 40 per cent in 2010 to 62 per cent in 2050 (UN, 2010).
This is because it is expected that, in contrast to world population trends,
Africa’s rising rural population will eventually reach 0.8 billion by 2050
and two African countries out of only five countries in the world will actu-
ally have growing rural populations (UN, 2010). Moreover, Africa’s urban
population will become the second largest in the world (UN, 2010). This
is a sobering thought given that all these people, including those living in
rural and urban areas, have to be fed through agricultural activity, which is
essentially rural-based. Planning for this high concentration of people in
rural areas in Africa remains important even though considerable attention
still needs to be given to the ever-increasing urban population.
Development, without specifically incorporating rural development
planning, was for long looked at as having an economic growth dimension
(Seers, 1972). This situation no longer exists because the definition and
scope of the analysis of development have evolved over time following a
sustained critique of the then dominant economic perspective and propos-
als by scholars such as Rodney (1981), Frank (1966, 1967) and Sen (1999)
for alternative and complementary perspectives. In the case of rural devel-
opment planning, scholars such as Chambers (1983, 2005a) have been at
the forefront in challenging the dominant ivory tower approach by propos-
ing a participatory model to rural planning. It is largely due to these engag-
ing scholarly efforts that theorists and practitioners today concur that an
accurate description and interpretation should accommodate striving for
economic, social and ecological change in terms of better social standards
of life, human improvement and environmental protection rather than just
economic growth (Gabriel, 1991). It is a process that unfolds, thus leading
to improvement, use and redeployment of resources, and acknowledging
that political choices have to be made. Rural development planning there-
fore should integrate economic, social and ecological aspects to create bet-
ter and more secure livelihoods for rural and urban people.
Strategies to enhance rural development should acknowledge people as
the key factor. A model of the basic livelihoods framework (Ellis & Freeman,
2005, p. 4) captures the link between rural livelihoods, government and
donors as each focus on poverty reduction. It is based on empirical research
done in eastern and southern Africa. Acknowledging that the livelihoods
approach strives to be people-centred and holistic, it highlights the fact
that ‘people make a living within evolving social, institutional, political,
economic and environmental contexts’ (Ellis & Freeman, 2005, p. 5).
ENCOUNTERING AFRICAN RURAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 3
By applying this method, significant observations emerge that would

affect the growth and development of agriculture and other sectors of
rural areas. Attention is drawn to assets: including activities (near and
distant) and outcomes, as the core issue of investment; human capital
(skills, education and health) links to policies; and physical natural capital
(land, water, trees) links to land use, agricultural and environmental poli-
cies. Financial capital as the physical impetus to the economic arm of the
human organization in space (produced investment goods) and social
capital (networks and associations such as kinship ties and traditional cul-
ture practices) form the cornerstone of modern living. However, overrid-
ing influences come from policies, institutionalized laws and rights and
accommodating the ideals of democracy in a range of circumstances
worldwide. Equally significant is the risk factor involved in making a liv-
ing that stems from the flow of internal and external sources as shocks,
trends and the effects of seasonality. Livelihood outcomes relate to mate-
rial welfare (better or worse), reduced or increased vulnerability to food
security, and improving or degrading environmental resources. This
framework clearly demonstrates the complex and changing character of
rural livelihoods in a general context and acknowledges how people’s use
of both land and available resources are some form of agricultural
activity.
There are other approaches to rural development, especially agricul-
ture, that have been utilized. Systems approaches, decision-making mod-
els and structural-historical interpretation through participatory
investigations since the 1990s have drawn attention to a range of socio-
political and economic innuendos. Specifically identified concerns are
about equity with regard to poverty, gender and development, employ-
ment and income, food and health as well as access to public goods and
services. Studies chose to work at micro-level within the ambit of macro-
policy to find ways to promote human and environmental sustainability in
the long term. Foundational approaches, inter alia rapid rural appraisal
(Chambers, 2005b), participatory rural appraisal (Chambers, 2005b),
farming systems research, structural adjustment programmes, micro-
credit, free markets, stakeholder analysis and poverty reduction have
extended knowledge of the farmer on the small farm to a broader focus on
the community and its households. Asset-based community development
and its expansion into recognition of the spatial aspect used in community
asset mapping programmes (Nicolau, 2012) are bringing a wider perspec-
tive to the human dimension in rural development. Sustainable livelihoods
4 M. KHAYESI ET AL.
are to replace small farm dominance but the concept has been useful to
effect the change from top-down to bottom-up, a necessary d
evelopmental
move. Ellis and Biggs (2001, p. 445) made this prophetic assumption at
the turn of the century:
If a new paradigm of rural development is to emerge, it will be one in which

agriculture takes its place along with a host of other actual and potential
rural and non-rural activities that are important to the construction of viable
rural livelihoods… It is in this sense that cross-sectoral and multi-
occupational diversity of rural livelihoods may need to become the corner-
stone of rural development policy.
Considering Africa’s demographic dynamics regarding population dis-

tribution, composition, change and migration with its associated politico-
economic developments, and being mindful of environmental care, this
could well become a reality. As noted in the preceding paragraphs, rural
areas in Africa do not exist in isolation. There is a strong rural-urban link-
age through migration, financial flows, property ownership and informa-
tion sharing. A growing number of people in Africa live in urban areas.
Some of them are beginning to look at urban areas as their ‘natural’ home.
There are also African people who live outside their original countries in
Asian, European, Arab and other African countries. This group, often
referred to as the African diaspora, has maintained varied levels of links
with rural Africa. There are also a number of people from other continents
who have migrated to Africa, and live in both rural and urban Africa. Some
of them look to Africa as their home. The African rural development land-
scape thus has many people related to it by birth, migration, residence,
marriage, work and several other linkages.
What happens in African rural areas is not just an outcome of decisions
and actions taken by those who live in these areas. It is also influenced by
the decisions and actions of several people and institutions far away from
these rural areas. African rural areas exist within an intricate web of rela-
tionships at different social, administrative and spatial scales. It is this strik-
ing and beautiful, yet rich mosaic of the African development planning
landscape and relations within it that begs an invitation that we, together
with the other contributors to this book, have accepted. The written word
from diverse sources and thinking processes has been read and summarised
for enjoyment, and to extend the knowledge base about Africa’s rural
people.
Why Synthesize African Rural Development

Planning Knowledge?
Any reader would be justified to ask a question such as: ‘What does a book
based on a synthesis of African rural development planning knowledge
add to the existing development literature?’ As editor and contributors to
this book, we also had a similar question. We had assumed that several
studies that had been conducted on African rural development planning
had been summarized by someone and were readily available for use by
scholars and decision-makers. Following a conversation with a colleague
that Meleckidzedeck has already referred to, we conducted a thorough
search of major publishers on development and politics and, to our sur-
prise, we found none with a book offering a synthesis of the evidence on
African rural development planning experience. Indeed, substantial knowl-
edge has been produced on several aspects of African rural development
planning. This knowledge exists in form of dissertations, research reports,
journal papers, consultancy reports and databases. The information is
located in several institutions, both inside and outside Africa. We won-
dered how so many institutions and individuals could go on advising
Africa when the existing knowledge on African rural development plan-
ning has not been fully synthesized to provide a key reference to policy
makers, practitioners and researchers to use in planning and future
research. We also wondered whether we should devote most of our
research efforts to new primary research or get a few of us to stop for a
while to process what already exists into one volume for readers. After
consultation, we chose to prepare this book to fill the gap. To address this
dearth, we offer this volume that synthesizes in-depth and current infor-
mation on development planning and life in rural Africa. This book there-
fore answers a key research question: Where are we in African rural
development planning knowledge and practice?
Instead of focusing mainly on continuing to conduct new research and
to publish papers on but a few singular aspects, a reasonable starting point
would be to find available literature on key issues relevant to African rural
development planning. Sometimes it is necessary to stop for a while and
take stock of what exists. A synthesis of evidence concerning research
designs, theories, conceptual models and empirical findings has resulted.
Such a reflective pause may contribute to identifying gaps in knowledge
and planning strategies to use to engage with the emerging future of
Africa.
6 M. KHAYESI ET AL.
This book will hopefully serve the information needs of several stake-
holders in African rural development planning. The first group comprises
researchers, who will be able to draw on previous research while avoiding
unnecessary duplication of research already done. Second, are the policy
makers who could use this research when formulating development poli-
cies for African countries. The third are practitioners and implementers,
who will have access to information about experiences concerning rural
development policy programmes, documentation that offers insights into
the successes and failures found in the practice of rural development plan-
ning in Africa. It is hoped that this rich information will provide insights
for current and future research, policy-making and intervention pro-
grammes in African rural development planning initiatives.
How Was This Book Prepared?

Discussion of ideas for this book started in 2011. The editor and a colleague
with whom he used to attend church services and chat afterwards found
themselves conversing about the need to synthesize existing knowledge on
African development. Inspired by the discussion, the editor went home,
conducted a quick search on the Internet and did not find any literature to
review. He prepared a brief concept note and shared it with his colleague
and others. On collating responses and fresh ideas from a variety of conver-
sations and sources of information, he felt the urge to take the lead and
address this identified gap in knowledge in the field of African rural develop-
ment. A summary of how the preparation of this book was done follows.
The Self-Organization and Mobilization Process

The contributors to this book established a self-organizing group that
utilized its own networks, resources and friendship to gather information
and summarize evidence on selected themes related to African rural devel-
opment planning. The group did not receive any funding to undertake
this book project but explored a model of mutual support to undertake
this assignment, which it felt was important. Several members of this
group have spent time together discussing African development. They
have challenged each other on various aspects, including the need to lead
by example. A specific challenge was to write about African development
using documented resources that would be available for present and future
generations to consult.
The group undertook the following steps to mobilize and organize

itself to write this book by:
• defining the research topic on which to focus that provide a synthesis

of knowledge on African rural development planning that covered
several topics;
• identifying and assigning selected topics to member authors, includ-
ing inviting other researchers to join in the project;
• preparing a book proposal and initially identifying three possible
publishers but to start off with a submission to Palgrave Macmillan
who accepted the proposal—this really motivated the writers greatly.
The process of gathering information and preparing chapters is

described in the next section.
Information Gathering, Processing and Analysis

A basic but flexible literature review approach was used for gathering and
selecting information for each chapter. While a strict systematic review was
not undertaken, the principle of identifying, synthesizing and assessing the
available evidence in an objective and transparent way was followed to
provide an answer to the specific research question (Hagen-Zanker et al.,
2012) as stated. The approach consisted of:
• defining the topic for which the literature would be reviewed;

• stating clearly the inclusion/exclusion criteria for each topic;
• defining key search terms;
• identifying and searching several electronic sources; for example,
Web of Science, Springer Verlag, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect,
Wiley InterScience, and Grey literature databases;
• running an initial/trail search using the key search terms to obtain
an overview of available literature;
• reviewing titles, abstracts and key words of literature retrieved from
the preliminary search conducted to identify appropriate search
terms;
• repeating the search with revised lists of search terms;
• conducting secondary searches based on references found in primary
studies;
• hand searches to minimize publication bias;
8 M. KHAYESI ET AL.
• selecting studies for review; and

• extracting information.
Each author answered the research question by recording information

on a separate results row manually or using endnotes software to identify
the topics emanating from the findings reported in each accepted study in
this publication.
The Main Themes

Although the authors followed a basic approach, flexibility and creativity
were accommodated. The authors matched their own identified detailed
information and presented their own chapter under the following
headings:
(a) Study design. Since each chapter not only highlights the research
design and techniques of analysis, relevant issues such as unit of
analysis, data collection methods, sampling frame and depth of
analysis are also provided.
(b) Theories and conceptual models. The appropriateness of the theo-
ries and conceptual models that have been used for the specific
topic is determined and the extent to which they relate to African
rural development experience is assessed.
(c) Empirical evidence. The evidence gathered to generate categories
is distilled and the findings are presented according to appropriate
sub-themes. Where possible, information from case studies or spe-
cific examples of policy response, programmes or interventions is
given.
(d) Conclusion. Each chapter presents a conclusion, indicating the key
findings and the contribution of the study as synthesized.
Details of how the agreed approach was executed are explained in each
chapter. We believe that the specific studies reviewed and other relevant
sources cited in this book form a rich resource for researchers and
practitioners.
High and Low Moments in Collaboration Experience

The preparation of this book had its high and low moments. The high
moments were the great support for the book idea, rapid identification of
contributors, acceptance of the book proposal by Palgrave Macmillan,

support among the authors during writing and firmly setting 1 May
2017 as the date for delivery of the final complete text to Palgrave
Macmillan. In addition, an opportunity for the editor to give a seminar
on systematic literature at the University of Nairobi on 2 June 2016
revealed a great interest in the subject from over 40 students and aca-
demic staff who attended. It generated considerable discussion on the
need for having similar seminars at other universities in East Africa. Two
contributors to this book attended this seminar and shared their experi-
ence of preparing a chapter for the book. Francis N. Wegulo introduced
his students to using the systematic literature review approach. At this
seminar, Paschalin Mbenge Basil presented a summary of a literature
review she read as a paper. She commented that she was beginning to
understand the value of this technique better and would share this
approach with her fellow graduate students. She even wanted to form a
literature review group.
There were low moments as well: failure to submit a complete manu-
script to Palgrave Macmillan in December 2014; slow progress in prepar-
ing some chapters; withdrawal or reluctance of a few authors who, for
some or other reason, felt the knowledge synthesis approach adopted was
too rigid; the death of a brother of the editor in August 2015; and the
death of Prof. Michael Bernard Kwesi Darkoh in July 2016, who was to
write the foreword for this book. All in all, we adjusted the pace of prepar-
ing the book and incorporated a strong capacity building component for
the team members who were not very familiar with writing a comprehen-
sive literature review.
The developmental approach of the editors and staff we worked with at
Palgrave Macmillan helped us a great deal in overcoming the low moments
and maximizing the high ones. The commissioning editors at Palgrave
Macmillan extended the dates for submission of the final manuscript twice
and showed supportive confidence in this group of writers. Towards the
end, Alina Yurova, our third editor at Palgrave Macmillan, became part of
the conversation to engage with the writers. She was included in our
e-mail conversations during the last phase of preparation and some indi-
vidual members wrote to her directly. Felicia Yieke, the technical editor,
too became an advisory member of our e-mail communication group
when discussing her comments with the individual writers. Thus, we
ended up with a writing group conversing electronically whilst involving
the authors, publisher representative, book editor and technical editor, as
10 M. KHAYESI ET AL.
part of our emergent collective leadership in our book manuscript prepa-

ration journey. Borrowing from Bourdieu (1990), we can say that we cre-
ated our own habitus or logic of practice for producing this book’s text.
Overall, it was a productive learning experience as reflected upon by
Joan Fairhurst, Gladys Moraa and Francis N. Wegulo, three of the con-
tributors to this book:
When I look back in time, and remember sitting with pen and paper in
hand, reading and rereading the initial outline for this edited volume, a
warm feeling comes over me as I realise that dreams do come true! There is
such a dearth of in-depth and current material on life in rural African com-
munities. Obviously, I started with Melecki’s challenge of ensuring that a
range of relevant sources of information accompany the text. Searching for
these yielded useful material. It wasn’t too long before my passion for geog-
raphy took over and I had to ask for permission for more words! I look
forward to working with Melecki and Peter to see how the final story unfolds
in the Introduction—it was getting close to the last time I worked with the
text. Especially important is the inclusion of authors and source material
from so many countries. (Joan Fairhurst, 10 March 2017)
Whereas Joan warmly grasped the book idea and started running with
it, Gladys was hesitant at the beginning:
Thanks for supporting me and pushing me on. I have learnt something very
new. You know what, when you first asked me to contribute a book chapter,
I was scared…but with your constant encouragement and support, here we
are. (Gladys Moraa, 18 March 2017)
Francis embraced the book as a great learning opportunity despite the

demanding approach:
When the editor invited me to join a team to develop a chapter for a book
on rural development in Africa, my initial reaction was one of excitement. I
had been involved in chapter and book writing before and I saw this as a
chance to extend my writing experience. But little did I know what I was
getting into! I soon discovered that my previous experience and writing
style was not going to be very useful in this exercise. The editor explained to
me that this book’s style would take on a new approach. The focus was on
treating each researcher’s findings as the raw material or primary data to be
sourced, analysed and consolidated with findings from other studies.
Moreover, the review was to have a structured methodology and a research
design, a defined population of studies from which a sample was to be drawn

and upon which analysis was to be conducted. All of these sounded new
and, to say the least, a little confusing. It took long to comprehend the
mechanics and logic behind the work. And to be sure, several e-mail interac-
tions and exchanges went on between the editor and chapter writers like
myself. It was a steep learning curve, one that on many occasions cast doubt
as to my academic standing in society. But you know what, I remained resil-
ient and patient, believing that one day this whole new approach would be
clear to me. And that happened eventually!
As we came to the end of the process I was delighted that the whole
project had been a great learning experience. It was revealing and engaging,
even if tedious, and at times frustrating. It gave me a rare opportunity to
delve into extensive reading on the subject of markets and small towns and
their respective roles in enhancing rural development in Africa. To this end,
my perspective of the subject matter became much broader and deeper than
it would have ever been. In view of this experience, my reading and future
research work will never be the same. In addition, reading and analysing
existing research revealed gaps in theories and inadequacies in empirical
rigour, both of which probably account for the lacklustre interest most
research has received from policy makers in government and private sector
practitioners (Francis N Wegulo, 25 April 2017).
What Do the Book Chapters Reveal?

Each chapter synthesizes evidence on a selected topic that is central to
African rural development planning. A summary of the key findings pre-
sented in each chapter is provided below.
Chapter 2 considers natural resource management. Most of the 12
studies reviewed relied on documentary data sources in which national
and continental geographical units were generally involved. The key natu-
ral resource management approaches utilized in these studies were regional
and community-based. They are referred to as the adaptive measurement
approach, integrated natural resource management, land management
and the ecosystem approach. The chapter pays attention to the community-
based natural resource management approach that is described as amongst
the most popular approach to participatory natural resource management
in Africa. The historical development, as well as strengths and limitations
of this approach are presented.
Chapter 3 presents evidence on local governance, showing that the
main designs in the studies reviewed are case studies. The theories and
conceptual models utilized centre around constitutional analysis. The

chapter shows how the modern history of post-colonial Africa is character-
ized by the evolving establishment of a strong state. It notes that the only
phase of ‘state weakness’ occurred during the 1980s and 1990s. Although
devolution is explored, it is more of a compromise to pacify the nation and
to maintain state legitimacy than a deliberate choice of political will. This
was the time when the purpose of local government was less about deliver-
ing results but was rather about ensuring processes that provide room for
the local community to actively participate in public affairs. As soon as the
central government regained its momentum, the purpose of local govern-
ment reverted to delivering results, thereby reducing popular participation
to mere formality that simply validated national policies. The chapter
points out that the concept and practice of local government has largely
served to construct a strong state, not by empowering local people but by
delivering results.
Chapter 4 illustrates the integral role that agriculture plays in rural and
national development in Africa. It examines a variety of qualitative and
quantitative techniques as well as theories and conceptual models, case
studies, household surveys, existing documents, a livelihood model, femi-
nist theory and development perspectives. Main trends in agriculture that
emerge from the information reviewed are highlighted. It reveals that,
although agriculture is the main livelihood among Africa’s rural inhabit-
ants, widespread poverty, hunger and undernourishment are rife on the
continent. The research focuses on regional and sub-regional priorities as
well as challenges facing agriculture in Africa. These reflect a concentra-
tion on staple food crops; conservation; enhancement of genetic resources;
integrated natural resource management; markets; institutions; informa-
tion and up-scaling challenges; improving livelihoods in high stressed
unstable environments; and capacity building especially where new skills in
science and technology are involved. Especially significant are biotechnol-
ogy and information communication technology; improved governance
structure which includes genuine decentralization; ensuring gender equity;
and giving voice to those who are marginalized in the rural communities.
Examples of policy programmes such as land reform, soil management and
water management are mentioned in the chapter.
Chapter 5 presents evidence on financing rural development pro-
grammes. Thirteen of the 21 studies reviewed focus on a single country,
one sub-Saharan Africa as a region, two on the African continent as a
whole, while six did not focus on any specific area. The studies reviewed
draw on three main theoretical and conceptual models: social capital,

infrastructure, and governance and policy-making. While the studies dem-
onstrated different ways in which rural finance is an essential component
of the African economy, the chapter draws specific attention to challenges
facing growth of rural finance, especially for agricultural activities.
Chapter 6 reflects on small market and urban centres. Studies with a
focus on the national level are in the majority, with the rest focusing on the
local and continental (African). The theories and conceptual models cen-
tre around rural-urban linkages, growth poles and service centres, and
decentration. While the studies reviewed generally show that the develop-
ment of both rural and market and small urban areas are intimately con-
nected, three distinct patterns are identified. The first is an optimistic
perspective that sees the growth of small urban centres as a necessary con-
dition and prerequisite for rural transformation. Small towns are perceived
as catalysts for rural improvement. The positive impact of small urban
centres on rural development and agricultural productivity is demon-
strated using data related to the provision of a great range of goods, agri-
cultural inputs, consumer items, and so on; urban cash flows and services,
agricultural extension, welfare services, including health and education
facilities; and the diffusion of innovation and ideas.
The second is the intermediate view that sees urban-led development in
the rural context approach as valid, logical and of value. However, more
studies need to be undertaken and more experience accumulated before
definite conclusions can be made. The third is a pessimistic perspective
that does not see much value in the urban-led development in the rural
context approach. While this approach is sound conceptually, and useful as
a theoretical construct, it is pointed out that empirically the results do not
provide adequate grounds for much optimism. The chapter has three case
studies that illustrate empirical analysis on the role of market and small
urban centres in rural development.
Chapter 7 provides supportive discussion on energy based mostly on 23
studies done at national level in the sub-Sahara region. Surveys were the
main technique of data collection used in these studies that employed
diverse theoretical frameworks and conceptual models that are identified
in this chapter. A supportive detailed exposition of the dominant energy
transition theory/energy ladder model institutional framework is given in
this chapter. An emerging finding from an analysis of these studies is the
fact that there still exists a big gap in the provision of energy in the rural
economies of many countries in Africa.
Chapter 8 presents evidence on water issues. Both qualitative and quan-

titative techniques were used in the 21 studies that this chapter reviewed.
The majority of them examined focused on South Africa. Different con-
ceptual and theoretical frameworks are used in an attempt to understand
rural water dynamics in Africa with the main ones being input orientated
data envelopment analysis; the output-based payment model; participa-
tory paradigms; risk management; and general management strategies.
These frameworks are applied to several themes in rural water planning,
including; water quality, water supply water security, water access, water
policy and community participation. Overall, the studies show that many
challenges in rural water development still exist and these need urgent
attention.
Chapter 9 investigates reporting on health care delivery, showing that a
significant amount of research has addressed this theme in Africa. Only
two studies specified explicit theoretical or conceptual models out of the
54 studies reviewed. Regarding areas of focus of these, health services
accounted for most of them, with health care delivery for increasing the
burden of chronic diseases in rural areas featuring most prominently.
Health financing was the second most researched followed by general
health planning. Other topics were health planning for human resources,
health systems and health information. Overall the studies lacked scientific
rigour as the majority lacked inclusion of debate of conceptual or theoreti-
cal models.
Chapter 10 focuses on physical activity. While four of the 20 studies
reviewed were at the global level, the rest were national and local studies
that used these conceptual models: physical activity transition;
ecological/socio-ecological model; Delphi method; human capital mode;
the social capital and community model; the wellness continuum; and the
descriptive paradigm. The chapter notes that rising global attention is
being given to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) through increasing
research worldwide with accompanying peer-reviewed publications on the
severity of the situation. However, there is still limited research that con-
centrates on the NCDs in Africa. Moreover, the lack of detailed analyses
on what interventions are being put in place to prevent the surge is dis-
tressing. The chapter points out that more research is definitely needed on
high-priority interventions related to physical activity and health promo-
tion as well as aspects of obesity and dietary patterns in Africa. Two exam-
ples are given, one from Mauritius and one from South Africa. The chapter
documents these countries’ national commitment to promoting physical
activity, advocating prevention initiatives to inform its citizens about the

consequences of falling prey to sedentary lifestyle diseases. It stresses that
the rest of Africa too needs to heed the warning and embark on pro-
grammes to sustain physical activity levels, promote health practices and
empower local communities and individuals to take charge of their own
health for their own good as well as that of their communities and the
countries of Africa as a whole.
The evidence presented in this book opens up a key question on where
to go from here with respect to research and possible use of this synthesis
in policy-making. We reflect on this question further. In concluding this
introductory chapter, we ask and answer our own question: ‘Is this book
as complete as it should be?’ Our answer is ‘no’. We see it as work in prog-
ress and look forward to updating it by ourselves or other researchers in
future. As pointed out by Joan Fairhurst in her conclusion to Chap. 4, we
too note that findings and discussions about programmes, interventions
and research presented in this book enhance appreciation and understand-
ing of the dynamic nature of rural development planning in Africa. Like
her, we are convinced that the continued process of planning and life in
the rural areas of Africa, including programmes that succeed and fail, offers
the raw material for further research and future revision of this book.
References
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The Logic of Practice (trans: Richard Nice). Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Essex: Pearson
Education Limited.
Chambers, R. (2005a). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the Last First. Warwickshire:
Intermediate Technology Development Group.
Chambers, R. (2005b). Ideas for Development. London: Earthscan.
Ellis, F., & Biggs, S. (2001). Evolving Themes in Rural Development 1950s–2000s.
Development Policy Review, 19(4), 437–448.
Ellis, F., & Freeman, H. A. (Eds.). (2005). Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction
Policies. London: Routledge.
Frank, A. G. (1967). Sociology of Development and Underdevelopment of
Sociology. Catalyst, 3, 20–73.
Frank, A. G. (1966). The Development of Underdevelopment. Monthly Review,
18(4), 17–31.
Gabriel, T. (1991). The Human Factor in Rural Development. London: Belhaven
Press.
Hagen-Zanker, J., Duvendack, M., Mallett, R., Slater, R., Carpenter, S., &
Tromme, M. (2012). Making Systematic Reviews Work for International
Development Research. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Nicolau, M. (2012). Community Asset Mapping as a Tool to Achieve Roots Driven
Change in the Rural Communities of the Bojanala Region, North West Province,
South Africa. South Africa: University of South Africa.
Rodney, W. (1981). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Washington, DC:
Howard University Press.
Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor Books.
Seers, D. (1972). What Are We Trying to Measure. Journal of Development Studies,
8, 21–36.
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Retrieved June 23, 2013, from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Documents/
WUP2009_Press-Release_Final_Rev1.pdf
United Nations. (2013). World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. Retrieved
June 23, 2013, from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Documentation/publi-
cations.htm
Meleckidzedeck Khayesi (PhD), a teacher by profession, conducts research in

Human Geography, with a focus on transport. He holds a PhD in Transport
Geography. He is currently serving as a member of the editorial board of the
Journal of Transport Geography. He loves a transformative approach to
development.
Peter Mala (MPH) is a medical doctor and a PhD Candidate in the Institute of
Social and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Université de
Lausanne, Switzerland. He has several years of experience working as a medical
doctor and public health expert.
Joan Fairhurst (DPhil), Professor Emeritus from the University of Pretoria, is a

practising geographer following a long career in school teaching, teacher training
and higher education. Her doctoral study was on Geography and gender in a
South African urban context, covering fields that influenced the research of her
post-graduate students. Her special interest in distance education and her disci-
pline continues. More recently, community development engagement has become
a strong focus in her academic work. She is actively involved in the promotion of
professional English language editing, and participates in mentoring programmes
in a range of social and environmental sciences.
CHAPTER 2
Natural Resource Management
Chris Allan Shisanya
Introduction
Viable and sustainable natural resource management is key to availing bio-
logical and other physical resources for use in rural development in Africa.
Natural resource management involves efforts by different institutions to
formulate and implement laws, policies and legislation to ensure viable use
of natural resources. Natural resources, mainly found in rural areas, are
not only important as a source of food and other domestic products but
also form the basis for social and cultural functions. This chapter presents
the evidence on natural resource management in Africa.
Methods
Information for this chapter was collected through a review of literature
related to natural resource management (NRM) with a focus on Africa.
Two data sources were used. The first source is peer-reviewed journal
papers, while the second one is grey literature, which includes working
This chapter was prepared while the author was in residence (July–September,
2016) as a Fellow at the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies (STIAS),
Wallenberg Research Centre at Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600.
C.A. Shisanya (*)

Department of Geography, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_2
18 C.A. SHISANYA
papers, theses, meetings, organizational and project reports as well as

case studies. The bibliographic databases searched included Web of
Science, Scopus, IDRC library, UCT library, Google Scholar and Google
search engine. The search was conducted in two stages. Stage one
involved searching for literature on natural resource management in
Africa. A keyword search was performed within the ISI Web of Knowledge
electronic database using the keywords (in all fields): ‘natural resource
management’ AND ‘Africa’. Stage two involved searching for literature
relevant to best practices in natural resources management in Africa.
These two stages yielded 115 publications. Applying the inclusion and
exclusion criteria summarized in Table 2.1, yielded 12 articles for final
review (Table 2.2).
Table 2.1 Criteria for inclusion or exclusion of articles during systematic review
process
Criteria Excluded Included Justification
Date of Articles published Articles published It is assumed that attention

publication prior to 1980 between January on NRM in Africa,
1980 and December particularly community-
2015 based natural resource
management started gaining
momentum in 1980
Language of Articles published Articles published in To facilitate understanding
publications in languages other English of published articles
than English
Main theme Articles that did not Articles that had the The chapter focuses on
of publication pay particular words NRM in natural resource
attention to NRM Africa in title or management in Africa
in Africa abstract
Availability Articles that were Articles that are The Web of Science
of article not available on the available in the Web provides an authoritative
Web of Science of Science source for filtering literature
from published sources
Country or Articles that did not Articles that have Publication has to focus on
region of focus on Africa NRM in Africa as Africa
study major focus of study
Type of Grey literature such Only peer-reviewed To avoid grey literature and
article as conference articles were arbitrariness in the selection
proceedings were included of research articles
not included
Table 2.2 Summary of empirical research on natural resources management in Africa
Author Sample Geographical Theoretical Study design Data Study focus Key findings
characteristics unit framework/ collection
model method
Adams None Africa and Historiography Documentary Secondary How can the diversity Driving force for
(2004) India review sources of life be maintained wildlife conservation at
as human demands the start of the
on earth expand twentieth century in
seemingly without both Africa and India
limit? were the European
How can preservation hunters
be recruited with Colonial hunters were
human rights and in a position to launch
development needs of international meetings
the poor? and organizations
Is conservation supporting the course of
something that can be nature conservation
imposed by the
knowledgeable elite,
or is it something that
should emerge
naturally from people’s
free choices?
(continued )
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
19
Table 2.2 (continued)
20
model method
Appiah- N = 115; Talensi- Problem Qualitative Primary data: What are the There is a shift in
Opoku Probability Nabdan assurance and interviews, indigenous NRM management role by
C.A. SHISANYA
and Hyma and District of theory Quantitative questionnaire, systems and to what chiefs and elders,
(1999) non- Ghana (Hardin’s, observation extent can Traditionalparticularly in water
probability 1968) Secondary Institutions still play in
resources.
sampling ‘Tragedy of data: the sustainable Male dominance is
techniques the Commons’ documentary management of natural evident at various
employed review resources in institutional levels
contemporary times? Ownership and control
of forest and wildlife
resources are perceived
as vested in government.
Communities have
limited access to
resources because of
government policies
that restrain them.
Batterbury Not Bam Impact Qualitative Primary data: Evaluation of gestion Landscapes in the study
(1998) applicable Province, assessment and interviews, des terroirs villageois area have been
Central model quantitative questionnaire, (GTV) approach to transformed by
Plateau of observation community continued investment
Burkina Faso Secondary management of natural by farmers in
data: resources environmental projects.
documentary
review
(continued )
model method
Hardin Not Global Problem Documentary Not Herders sharing a The population problem
(1968) applicable assurance review applicable common pasture are has no technical
theory led by the inexorable solution; it requires a
(Hardin’s, logic of individually fundamental extension
1968)’ rational decisions for in morality.
‘Tragedy of optimizing personal
the Commons’ gain, to ultimately
overstock their herds
and destroy their
shared resource
Hutton Not Southern Community- Documentary Not Draws on the Changes in narratives
et al. applicable Africa based natural review applicable experience in southern have had profound
(2005) resource Africa to examine the impacts upon
management growth of the conservation and natural
approaches community narrative resources management,
and the subsequent livelihood strategies and
revival of the fortress political process.
conservation narrative
(continued )
21
22
model method
Nelson Not Mexico, None Case study Review of How local forest REDD payments are
and applicable Nepal, approach empirical governance can be as, likely to create
C.A. SHISANYA
Agrawal Tanzania research on if not more, effective incentives for forest

(2008) local forest as centralized managers to return to
governance state-based regimes past centralized models
of forest conservation.
In governance contexts
characterized by weak
rule of law and low
levels of public
accountability, REDD
payments are likely to
increase corruption and
elite capture around
forest governance
institutions and forest
product harvests.
(continued )
model method
Norton- Not Kenya’s None Case study Review of Wildlife carrying Land sub-division has
Griffiths applicable rangelands approach secondary capacity of the Kenyan far-reaching impacts on
(2007) documents rangelands wildlife.
The uncompetitive
returns from wildlife
compared with other
production systems
encapsulate the entire
dynamics of change
observed on the
rangelands of Kenya
Ribot Not Sub-Saharan None Documentary Review of Is decentralization of To date, local actors
(2003) applicable Africa review empirical natural resources based receiving environmental
literature on, or support powers are rarely
institutional representative or
arrangement that downwardly
enfranchises local accountable.
populations? The general failure of
African governments to
establish democratic
decentralization of
natural resources appears
to reflect a larger
resistance to establishing
local democracy.
23
(continued )
24
model method
Nelson Not Africa None Documentary Comparative Institutional factors High financial wildlife
and applicable review Regional that account for the values captured by state
C.A. SHISANYA
Agrawal reviews of outcome of efforts to agents, especially when

(2008) community- decentralize control coupled with high levels
based natural over natural resources of corruption, create
resource to local communities strong disincentives for
management in Sub-Saharan Africa central managers to
(CBNRM) devolve authority over
reforms wildlife to local
communities
(continued )
model method
Roe et al. Not Africa None Documentary Regional Different experiences Transfer of authority
(2009) applicable review reviews of of CBNRM in from central government
CBNRM different regions of to a diverse range of
experiences Africa co-management
arrangements has had
both success and many
challenges in Africa.
Developing strong and
resilient community
organizations for the
management of land
and natural resources
will take generations to
accomplish.
The challenges to a
successful devolution
include elite capture of
opportunities and
benefits, corruption and
mismanagement. In
some cases, these
problems have been used
by central governments
as reason to abort
devolution and reclaim

25
rights over land and

resource management.
(continued)
26
model method
Roe Not Global None Documentary Review What commonalities Activities and
(2008) applicable perspective review are emerging from accountability of big
C.A. SHISANYA
research exploring the international NGOs are

social and livelihood now in focus.
impacts of Increasing protectionist
conservation focus of conservation
initiatives? policy and the
implications for
communities residing in
and around protected
areas.
Lack of attention to
biodiversity
conservation on the
development agenda
with current focus on
poverty reduction.
Dyer et al. Not South Africa None Process-based Case studies To assess the factors Community access to,
(2014) applicable evaluation affecting community and regular
engagement within communications with
externally initiated the project initiator
CBNRM projects throughout the project
alongside is important for
stakeholder achieving the outcomes
experiences in three
participatory case
studies from
southern Africa
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 27
Results and Discussion
Table 2.2 further down shows a summary of the key aspects extracted
from the 11 reviewed publications. These include the author(s), sample
characteristics or nature of study, title of the article, conceptual approach,
study type, data collection method, study focus, findings and conclusions
and/or recommendations. Of the 12 studies reviewed, all were based on
desk reviews with the exception of Dyer et al. (2014) and Appiah-Opoku
and Hyma (1999) that were based on empirical work in Southern Africa
and Ghana, respectively. Another important aspect to note is that these
studies do not demonstrate any theoretical orientation underpinning the
respective research, with the exception of Appiah-Opoku and Hyma
(1999) and Batterbury (1998).
Study Designs and Approaches

The 12 articles reviewed utilized four study designs. The first design was
documentary review (58%), which included Roe, Nelson, and Sandbrook
(2009), Roe (2008), Nelson and Agrawal (2008), Hutton, Adams, and
Murombedzi (2005), Adams (2004), Ribot (2003), Hardin (1968). The
second design was qualitative and quantitative (17%). It included Appiah-
Opoku and Hyma (1999), Batterbury (1998). The third design was case
study (17%). This included Nelson and Agrawal (2008), Norton-Griffiths
(2007). The fourth and final design was process-based evaluation (8%),
which included Dyer et al. (2014). As seen from these statistics, most of
the publications adapted the documentary review design in elucidating
natural resource management in Africa. This approach refers to the analysis
of documents that contain information about the phenomenon we wish to
study (Bailey, 1994). Payne and Payne (2004) describe the documentary
method as the technique used to categorize, investigate, interpret and
identify the limitations of physical sources, most commonly written docu-
ments whether in the private or public domain. This study design has been
viewed in other quarters as being more cost-effective than social surveys,
in-depth interviews or participant observation (Mogalakwe, 2006).
The units of analysis in these studies have been regional (Adams, 2004;
Dyer et al., 2014; Hutton et al., 2005; Nelson & Agrawal, 2008; Ribot,
2003; Roe et al., 2009) and also country specific (Appiah-Opoku &
Hyma, 1999; Batterbury, 1998; Hutton et al., 2005; Nelson & Agrawal,
2008; Norton-Griffiths, 2007). It is very clear from the above studies that
28 C.A. SHISANYA
not much has changed as far as methodology is concerned in elucidating

natural resource management in Africa.
Theories and Conceptual Models

The majority of the studies (8) reviewed did not have any theoretical or
conceptual underpinnings. One of the studies (Batterbury, 1998) utilized
the impact assessment model to inform the study, while Hutton et al.
(2005) adopted the community-based natural resources management
approaches to inform their study. Impact assessment models seek to
understand the linkages and feedbacks among complex systems associated
with natural resource management (Shiferaw, Freeman, & Woldemariam,
2003). Conversely, approaches applied in natural resource management
include (Hutton et al., 2005):
• Regional/community-based natural resource management. This

approach combines conservation objectives with the generation of
economic benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions
being that: local people are better placed to conserve natural resource;
people will conserve a resource only if its benefits exceed the cost of
conservation and people will conserve a resource that is linked
directly to their quality of life. When local people’s quality of life is
enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the future well
being of the resource are also enhanced. Regional and community-
based natural resource management is also based on the principal of
subsidiarity, which suggests that management should take place at
the lowest appropriate governance level.
• Adaptive measurement approach. This approach includes recogni-
tion that adaption occurs through a process of plan do—review—act.
It also recognizes seven key components that should be considered
for quality natural resource management practice as follows: deter-
mination of scale, collection and use of knowledge, information
management, monitoring and evaluation, risk management, com-
munity engagement, and opportunities for collaboration.
• Integrated natural resource management. This approach is a pro-
cess of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes
multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political
and economic), meeting production goals of producers and other
direct users (food security, profitability) as well as goals of the wider
community (poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, envi-

ronmental conservation). It focuses on sustainability.
• Land management approach. Emphasis of this approach is on the
following strategies: (a) comprehending the process of nature includ-
ing ecosystem, water and soils; (b) using appropriate and adapting
management system in local situation; and (c) cooperation between
scientists who have knowledge and resources and local people who
have knowledge and skills.
• An ecosystem approach. This is a focal approach that examines and
understands the interdependent relationships of plants, animals and
ecological processes that link them with physical environment and
the needs of the people.
In addition to the above, one of the theories utilized in the studies

reviewed is Hardin’s (1968) ‘Tragedy of the Commons’, which argues
that users of common property cannot be left to decide how to use them
and that their use has to be controlled to avoid over exploitation. It is with
the objective of preventing the Hardian Tragedy of the Commons that
governments in Africa, and other parts of the world have, until recently,
assumed the direct control and management of natural resources, such as
forest, water bodies, game and wild life. Hence, this guided government
policies in their design of codes, and laws in the management of common
property resources. The suitability of governments’ direct control of what
should properly be locally managed for the livelihood sustainability of the
poor is increasingly being questioned. Fairhead and Leach (2004: 13)
argue: ‘the alienation of local resource control to state structures …’,
among other factors, accounted for resource management failures in most
parts of the third world. Rules established by governments to manage
natural resources have most often been in conflict with the rights of local
residents. Available literature (Commons, 1970; Marsh, 2003; North,
1990) demonstrates that local communities and traditional institutions
have been able to establish and maintain organisational structures and
enforce mutually agreed rules on the use of natural resources.
Evidence (Adams & Anderson, 1988; Goodin, 1996) also points to the
fact that communities in the past had effective institutions to manage
resources and that these institutions are in some places still active and
effective today. Runge (1996) and Ostrom (1992) demonstrate that field
work and theory is converging to show that where traditional institutions
are given the opportunity and the resources to develop their own manage-
ment systems and tenure regimes, they are well able to do so.
30 C.A. SHISANYA
Contrary to the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ argument (premised on the

mainstream view that local people are responsible for causing natural
resource degradation), Runge (1996) formulated an ‘Assurance Problem’
theory as a means of understanding how rural communities evolve their
own management systems (see Appiah-Opoku & Hyma, 1999 in
Table 2.2). The theory is framed on the principle that natural resource
management policies, given the failure of the top-down (policies, codes
and laws on natural resource management designed by government agen-
cies) ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ approach, should seek to support tradi-
tional institutions where they are effective, and promote them where they
no longer exist in their efforts to manage natural resources. The theory
further argues that the assumptions of the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’
hypothesis are unrealistic; rural producers living in the same community
often do not practise the same livelihood, thus they neither share the same
interests in resources, nor act entirely independently of their fellow pro-
ducers. Hence, research using this approach argues that a learning process
takes place between competing but linked users of resources. Runge
(1996) therefore, argues that individual decisions are conditioned by the
expected decisions of others. Thus, if expectations, assurance and actions
can be coordinated, there is less necessity for people to pursue ‘free-rider’
strategies; indeed, co-operative behaviour might be a utility maximizing
strategy. For Runge, the institutions of traditional societies exist to co-
ordinate and predict behaviour.
Study Focus and Empirical Findings

The common theme flowing through the reviewed articles is the apparent
shift to community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) in
sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This shift is viewed as a catalyst for rural devel-
opment and conservation efforts (Fabricius, Koch, Magome, & Turner,
2004; Hulme & Murphee, 2001). The institutionalization of CBNRM
across SSA can be attributed to the following: growth in scholarship on
common property and in political ecology; the broader tenets of the neo-
liberal orthodoxy or market-based incentives, property rights, and decen-
tralization; donor interests in achieving synergies between rural
development and biodiversity conservation; and the intersection between
local demands for greater control over resources and political decision
makers’ interest in reducing expenditures (Agrawal, Chhatre, & Hardin,
2008; Batterbury & Fernando, 2006; Brosius, Tsing, & Zerner, 2005).
Developments in Natural Resource Management

in Africa
The present regime of natural resource management in most resource-

dependent countries in Africa is ‘state-centric’ to the extent that they
depict (over)centralized resource governance structure. The top-down
pattern of the resources regimes in the region is a mix of historical, cul-
tural, political, economic and transnational trends. First, the colonialist
came with predetermined objectives of political domination and trade
exploitation (Battiste & Henderson, 2001). The socio-economic and
political structures of the post-colonial era were patterned after the colo-
nial models, resulting in the emergence new cultural orientations. The
traditional resource management patterns hitherto in place were under-
mined, and many of them became structurally deformed, derailed and
disintegrative. The dysfunctional impacts of these were not immediately
felt until few decades after the colonialists had gone. A World Bank study
on Nigeria corroborates this assertion. The report succinctly points out
the extent of degradation brought about by colonial incidents vis-à-vis
traditional systems and indigenous institutions of resource and environ-
mental management in the country (World Bank, 2003).
A regime of economic-motivated colonization was entrenched in the
region through imperialists’ legal and socio-political governance struc-
tures. The Western idea of resource ownership and management was con-
ceived, developed and introduced. Colonization relegated indigenous
cultures and the natural world in which the local people had lived to the
status of commodities that could be taken and owned by non-indigenous
colonizers. The philosophy of colonization was anchored on the notion
of appropriation and control through individuals and corporate agencies
like the Royal Niger Company (Battiste & Henderson, 2001). African
territories were denominated as mere colonial goods to be traded for
commercial gains. The ‘commoditizers’ defined countries in terms of
mercantilist economic goods: the Ivory Coast (renamed Cote D’Ivoire),
the Gold Coast (renamed Ghana), and the Slave Coast (Liberia). The
name ‘Nigeria’ emerged from River Niger, a marine environment rich in
natural (aquatic and aquaculture) resources. The river served as the com-
mercial route for the British companies through which natural endow-
ments were plundered. Human resources were also shipped through the
avenues for commercial purposes, as slaves to the land of the colonial
overlords.
32 C.A. SHISANYA
Unlike the British ‘commoditizers’ and their ‘mercantilists’ supporters,

indigenous peoples of Africa do not view their heritage in terms of prop-
erty goods that have owners, or that which could be used for purposes of
extracting economic benefits alone. The traditional communities view
their natural heritage or resources in collective terms. Even where resources
are vested in individual managers, they are responsible to the larger com-
munity and future generations of community-owners. This is due to their
common ownership and communality systems of natural resource gover-
nance. The same model is reflected in the local formula for sharing accru-
ing benefits from natural resources among the communities. Testifying
before the West African Lands Commission in 1908, a Yoruba traditional
ruler, Chief Elesi of Odogbolu, expounded the traditional conception of
resource ownership and management in indigenous communities of
Nigeria thus: ‘I conceive that land (and by implication, resources beneath it)
belongs to a vast family of which many are dead, few are living and countless
members are still unborn’.1 These and other indigenous philosophical
assumptions underpin the natural resource management before the advent
of modern (now global) conception of sustainability.
Implementation of Community-Based Natural

Resource Management in Africa
CBNRM is, quite simply (and as its name suggests), a term to describe the
management of resources such as land, forests, wildlife and water by col-
lective local institutions for local benefit. CBNRM takes many different
forms in different locations and different socio-political and biophysical
contexts. CBNRM may be based on commercial uses of natural resources,
such as managing wildlife for local tourism or hunting enterprises, or it
may be based on primarily subsistence uses of resources such as Non-
Timber Forest Products (NTFP).
CBNRM is not a new phenomenon. Local groups of people have man-
aged the land on which they live and the natural resources with which they
are surrounded for millennia. Indigenous African communities often
developed elaborate resource management systems (Fabricius et al.,
2004), as have local communities throughout the world (Ostrom, 1990).
Today, local groups of pastoralists, farmers, and hunter-gatherers through-
out Africa maintain many traditional systems of collective natural resource
management which help to sustain the livelihoods and cultures of millions
of people.
In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the
importance of collective natural resource management practices and insti-
tutions, and recognition of the ways that historic forces have disrupted
local people’s ability to manage the lands and resources they depend upon.
A wide range of policy makers and development and conservation practi-
tioners have supported efforts to revive or bolster local natural resource
management institutions in response to various economic, social, environ-
mental and political pressures. Increasingly, debates over local communi-
ties’ ability to manage their lands and natural resources are a part of
broader struggles over political and economic power and authority in
African countries. This section briefly reviews the reasons for this return to
local level management and the way in which CBNRM has been initiated,
evolved, and ultimately constrained over time and from place to place.
Origin of CBNRM Paradigm

Natural resource management policies in the colonial era were a central
component of the project of extending European political control into
rural African landscapes (Neumann, 1998). Colonization by European
powers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the accompanying
spread of conservation practice, did not bring with it this respect for tradi-
tional rights. The model for nature conservation that was globally imposed
by European nations was based on the American approach of pristine wild
areas set aside for human enjoyment and fulfilment and was encouraged by
concerns about the depletion of wildlife, timber, and other valuable
resources (Adams, 2004). Ownership of land was gradually transferred
from traditional local authority to the state domain in order to enable
colonial authorities to exploit African lands, labour, and resources.
Ultimately, this shift in tenure became one of the key drivers of African
independence movements seeking to recover entitlements to land and
resources. Resources such as wildlife were progressively placed under cen-
tral regulatory authority, with the rights of local people to utilize resources
alienated over time.
The newly independent African nations that emerged starting in the
late 1950s inherited colonially derived political structures based on cen-
tralized control and exploitation (Mamdani, 1996). African states often
maintained heavily centralized political economic institutions, as a result
of socialist ideologies favouring state direction of the economy and owner-
ship of valuable resources and the desire of elites in many emerging nations
34 C.A. SHISANYA
to build patronage networks essential for their own authority and political
stability (Ake, 1996; Bates, 1981; van de Walle, 2001). As a result, for
example, colonial land tenure institutions were generally retained, and in
many instances central authority over lands and resources extended and
local rights further alienated (Wily, 2008).
In the 1980s, a community-based counter-narrative began to emerge as
a result of manifold trends, ideas, and crises which led to a broad rethink-
ing of both development and conservation fields. The influences that led
to the widespread support for CBNRM that emerged during the 1990s
were both internally and externally derived. The emergence of CBNRM in
southern and eastern Africa often had deep locally derived roots. In the
late 1960s, use rights over wildlife on freehold lands in Zimbabwe, South
Africa and Namibia—all then under the rule of contested white minority
regimes—was through a series of legislative reforms, devolved to land-
owners (Jones & Murphree, 2001). This dramatic shift away from strictly
centralized governance of wildlife effectively changed the status of wildlife
on private lands from an economic liability to an asset, and this led to
profound recoveries of wildlife on freehold lands and the growth of
wildlife-based industries in all three countries (Bond, 2004). The reforms
also laid the basis for extending the model of local management to com-
munal lands after the enactment of majority rule in those countries, result-
ing in Zimbabwe’s iconic Communal Areas Management Programme for
Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in the 1980s, and Namibia’s
Communal Conservancies in the 1990s (Jones & Murphree, 2001). These
local experiments in CBNRM provided new ideas and opportunities for
adaptive learning; CAMPFIRE, for example, played a key role in shaping
pilot initiatives in community-based wildlife management in neighbouring
countries including Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia.
Similar experiments were also occurring as early as the 1960s outside of
southern Africa. In Kenya, local communities were able to earn income
from lease fees paid by hunters in areas such as Kajiado District, where
efforts to integrate the management of Amboseli National Park with local
livelihood interests led to the crystallization of new ‘community-based’
conservation paradigms in the 1970s (Homewood, Kristjanson, & Trench,
2009; Western, 1994). In contrast, many countries in Central and West
Africa were gaining independence from French, English and Spanish colo-
nial rule in the early 1960s. After independence, tenure rights for many
countries became more, rather than less centralized (e.g. in Ghana
(Alhassan & Manuh, 2005), Mali (Hilhorst & Coulibaly, 1998) and Cote
d’Ivoire (Stamm, 2000)). This delayed the emergence of community-

based management models, which only started to appear in the 1980s and
1990s, with the introduction of decentralization policies in many coun-
tries (e.g. the Gestion de terriors approach of Burkina Faso; Batterbury,
1998).
By the late 1980s, there was a confluence of this type of local experi-
mentation, changing global discourses on rural development and conser-
vation, and changing political conditions across Africa. Development
theory in the 1980s particularly that oriented to rural development began
to emphasize decentralization and local empowerment (Chambers, 1983,
1987). In the natural resource management field, the emergence of an
array of new studies documenting sustainable forms of collective resource
management based on traditional rules and norms transformed thinking
about communal property rights and institutions (Berkes, 1989; Ostrom,
1990). This scholarship provided much of the conceptual basis for
CBNRM, and in many ways was convergent with ideas emerging indepen-
dently within Africa about local resource management regimes (for
instance, Murphree, 1993), as well as with parallel experiments with
Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in places like southern Asia.
Conservation efforts, meanwhile, were increasingly subject to concerns
regarding the negative impact of protectionist approaches based on exclu-
sion of local people. The Bali Action Plan, an outcome of the 3rd
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Parks
Congress in 1982, is seen by some as a turning point in conservation prac-
tice, through its encouragement of local participation and sustainable use
(Wilshusen, Brechin, Fortwangler, & West, 2002). Just after this, in 1985,
the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) launched its Wildlife and Human Needs
Programme comprising some 20 projects that sought to combine conser-
vation and development in developing countries.
Alongside the emergence of new ideas and narratives about rural devel-
opment and natural resource management were a range of shocks and
crises that overtook Africa during the 1980s, which often created new
political space for experiments with CBNRM. Africa’s share of global
GDP decreased from 2.5 per cent in 1980 to 1.1 per cent in 1996, and
African countries had a per capita Gross National Product in 1998 that
was only 91 per cent of what it was in 1970 (van de Walle, 2001). The
fiscal insolvency of many states led to increasing reliance on external rescue
packages and global financial institutions. By the 1980s, a range of bail-
outs led by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank were being
36 C.A. SHISANYA
adopted, based on the new global economic prescriptions of ‘structural

adjustment’ (Devarajan, Dollar, & Holmgren, 2001). These adjustment
policies called for market-based measures, reduced government budget
deficits, and decentralized political economic structures that would pro-
mote investment. CBNRM, with its focus on local management and
incentives and a reduced role of centralized state bureaucracies, fitted well
with the broader suite of economic policies being promoted by donors
across Africa during this period. For example, the World Bank published
Living with Wildlife (Kiss, 1990), while the UK Overseas Development
Administration (now Department for International Development) com-
missioned a review of participatory approaches to wildlife management in
order to inform its new African wildlife policy (IIED, 1994).
Finally, the end of the Cold War and collapse of communism in Eastern
Europe contributed to a sudden resurgence of democratic governance in
Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Bratton & van de Walle, 1997).
Culminating in the South African general elections in 1994 following the
end of Apartheid, this ‘second liberation’ seemed to usher in a new era of
popular participation in government decision-making. The promotion of
local participatory and accountable institutions with authority over lands
and resources seemed to be an essential component of such political
reforms. Indeed, throughout sub-Saharan Africa, reforms were adopted
during the 1990s which called for decentralization of natural resources
and land tenure institutions and greater participation by the public and
local communities (Ribot, 2003). However, the widespread adoption of
CBNRM in policy and legal reforms during the 1990s, as with the ‘second
liberation’ more broadly, did not necessarily translate into radical changes
in local rights or authority over natural resources in the years that followed
(Nelson & Agrawal, 2008).
Impacts and Limitations of CBNRM in Africa

The work by Roe et al. (2009) (Table 2.2) perhaps illustrates best the
impacts and limitations of CBNRM in Africa. Its objective was to review
different experiences of CBNRM in different regions of Africa. The review
identified the following as key themes: formal policy; institutional frame-
work; role of the private sector; role of donors; benefit sharing mecha-
nisms; taxation mechanisms; CBNRM contributions to environmental
improvements; and governance and policy reforms. The key findings of
this review are as follows:
• The transfer of authority from central government to a diverse range

of co-management arrangements has had both success and chal-
lenges in Africa.
• Developing strong and resilient community organizations for the
management of land and natural resources will take generations to
accomplish.
• The challenge to successful devolution includes elite capture of
opportunities and benefits, corruption and mismanagement. In
some cases, these problems have been used by central governments
as a reason to abort devolution and reclaim rights over land and
resource management.
The review of Roe et al. (2009) concludes that there is evidence of
improved wildlife numbers in specific locations that can be attributed to
contemporary CBNRM processes, but that conflicts between people and
wildlife have not been adequately resolved. Following in the same foot-
steps as Roe et al. (2009), Nelson and Agrawal (2008) (Table 2.2) exam-
ine the institutional factors that account for the outcome of efforts to
decentralize control over natural resources to local communities. They
focus on the political nature of institutional processes associated with
decentralization in sub-Saharan Africa through a comparative analysis of
wildlife management reforms in seven eastern and southern African coun-
tries. The key findings of this work (2008, p. 580) are:
• That high financial wildlife values captured by state agents, especially

when coupled with high levels of corruption, create strong disincen-
tives for central managers to devolve authority over wildlife to local
communities. Where CBNRM reforms have occurred, the
institutional context is distinguished by stronger public institutions,
notably lower levels of corruption, and relatively lower wildlife value
that state actors can capture. The conjunction of these latter factors
has been of basic importance in creating the enabling institutional
environment that favours innovation within state wildlife agencies.
• That neither donors nor local communities have played a determin-
ing role in the adoption of key institutional reforms related to wild-
life management in the studied countries.
A case study on CBNRM is presented in the next section.

38 C.A. SHISANYA
Case study 2.1 The Imbirikani Group Ranch Project Case Study,
Kenya
Imbirikani Ranch is wholly within Olotokitok Division of Kajiado
District (19,600 km2). The other divisions in the district are Magadi,
Ngong, Central, Namanga and Mashuru (Fig. 2.1).
Imbirikani area has two Sub-locations, Imbirikani and Oltiasika
(Fig. 2.2), which are each administratively managed by a Chief and
two Sub-Chiefs. The area is confined within latitudes S2.31° and
S2.46° and longitudes E37.44° and E37.87° and sits on the north-
ern plains at the foot of Kilimanjaro Mountain.
The northern boundary of the area is formed by the Kiboko river
while the southern boundary by the Kikarankot river. The area is
bordered to the east by Chyulu hills that rise to 2175 m. Chyulu hills
are within a game reserve. The Amboseli plains and Game Park form
the western boundary. The Imbirikani ranch is within the Amboseli
ecozone and is a wildlife migratory corridor between Amboseli and
Tsavo national parks. The lowest point in the area is at an altitude of
1050 m at Olngarua Leinkati swamp. The Chyulu hills form a rain
shadow for Imbirikani.
The volcanic geology of Chyulu hills has influenced the faunal and
floral resources in the area with most lava flow bearing a denser veg-
etation growth than the Precambrian metamorphic underlain areas.
The larger part of the area is under volcanic geology. There is no
drainage over the lava flow with the precipitation quickly disappear-
ing over the highly porous boulders of lava. Water resources of any
significance are located at Kikarankot River. Most of the drainage
over the Precambrian terrain to the west flows into the Mpakai
depression which in exceptional periods of rainfall turns into an
ephemeral lake. Apart from the low Precambrian hills on the western
parts of the area and the lava covered areas, most of the rest of the
terrain is a plain generally at 1200 m above sea level. There are some
interruptions from gneissic tors and volcanic hills.
The soils are of two characters, the sandy shallow soils (Regosols)
over the Precambrian terrain and occupying the non-dissected plains
to the west with a poor vegetation cover and grass biomass especially
around Imbirikani market centre, and clay soil at the foot of Chyulu
Hills. The Chyulu hills themselves are at various locations covered by
Fig. 2.1 Map of Kenya showing the location of Kajiado District and
Oloitokitok Division. Source: Shisanya et al. (2010, p. 1)
40 C.A. SHISANYA
Fig. 2.2 Map of Kajiado District showing location of Imbirikani within

Oloitokitok Division. Source: Shisanya et al. (2010, p. 2)
red volcanic soils (Nitisols) at the top and Andosols at the slopes.
Along the Kikarankot River and at the flood plains are poorly drained
moderately deep to deep clay soils (Greyzems). Pockets of Piedmont
plains of Andisols are located at various areas within the lava plains.
There is also badland of shallow soils (rendzines) located to the west
of Lowa (Exploratory Soil Map of Kenya, KSS, 1982).
The larger part of Imbirikani falls under Kenya’s climatic zones
V-2 and VI-2 which range from semi-arid to arid with a temperature
range of 22–24 °C and an average annual rainfall range of
300–900 mm that is suitable only for bush land and scrubland veg-
etation. The Chyulu hills area however falls in agro-climatic zones
II-4 (1500–1850 m) at the top of the hills, III-3 (1200–1500 m) at
mid altitude and IV-2 (900–1200 m) in the lower slopes with a tem-
perature range of 18–24 °C. The low lying areas are semi-arid to arid
whereas the Chyulu hills area are semi-humid to semi-arid with an
annual rainfall range of 600 mm at the western foot slopes to
1400 mm at the hilltops. The annual average potential evaporation
is high (1900–2400 mm) at the Imbirikani Plains. The dry season
usually lasts five to seven months.
The climatic factors affect the vegetation cover (see Fig. 2.3) and
the livestock-carrying capacity in Imbirikani and consequently
impacting on the livestock production economy.
The major elements of climate that affect herbage growth are the
intensity and duration of rainfall, the ratio between annual rainfall
and potential evaporation, and the year-to-year variation in rainfall
which in the last ten years has been erratic and unpredictable with a
most devastating drought in 2009. Wild herbivores also compete
with the livestock to forage leading to conflicts during the drought
periods. The most common herbivores are wildebeest, zebra, giraffe
and eland. The broad categories of land uses are shown in Fig. 2.4.
The only river in the area, River Kikarankot, runs westerly and
south-westerly along the southern boundary of Imbirikani. The river
is a source of water for irrigation at two major swamps; Leilerai
Kimana swamp and Olngarua Leinkati swamp.
The Maasai, who are the main community in Kajiado District, prac-
tise semi-nomadic pastoralism as their main mode of life. Land in
Kajiado is communally owned but it has been undergoing change over
42 C.A. SHISANYA
Fig. 2.3 Land cover types in Imbirikani area. Source: Shisanya et al. (2010,
p. 4)
the last two decades due to land adjunction and sub-division of group
ranches to smaller individually owned land. A group ranch is a livestock
production system where a group of people jointly own freehold title
to land, maintain agreed stocking levels and herd their livestock col-
lectively on the land. Selection of members to a particular group ranch
is based on kinship and traditional land rights (Shisanya et al., 2010).
The group ranches are designed by the government to meet the
following objectives:
• To increase the productivity of semi-arid and arid lands through

livestock support and off-take.
• To improve the earning capacity of pastoralists.
• To avoid possible landlessness among pastoralists in case of alloca-
tion of large tracts of land to individual ranchers.
• To avoid environmental degradation due to overstocking on
communal lands.
Fig. 2.4 Major land cover classes and land use in Imbirikani area. Source:
Shisanya et al. (2010, p. 5)
• To establish a livestock production system that allows moderniza-

tion of livestock husbandry and still preserves many of the tradi-
tional ways of life without causing social dysfunction from
degradation of environmental resources.
The Kajiado rangelands support a range of livestock production

systems because of the differences between the biophysical envi-
ronment from the rift floor through the escarpment and the plains
of Amboseli and Imbirikani, and the Chyulu Hills, population den-
sity, level of economic development and the market economy. The
main economic activity is therefore livestock keeping. 92 per cent
44 C.A. SHISANYA
of the land in the district is non-arable, while only 8 per cent can
support subsistence farming. The district is largely water deficit.
The ephemeral Athi, Eselenkei and Kajiado are the main rivers
draining the area. The alternative water sources are pans/dams and
boreholes.
The long-term carrying capacity of agro-climatic zones V and VI,
within which the Imbirikani group ranch is located, has been esti-
mated to be between 3 and 7 ha per 250 kg tropical livestock unit
(TLU). It is difficult to estimate the safe stocking rate for Imbirikani
because much of the ranch is too far from water sources. Areas within
reach of the water sources have been seriously overgrazed. While in
a good year a stocking rate of 6 ha/TLU may be safe, more than
10 ha/TLU may be needed after poor rains.
Small stock (sheep and goats) also form an important economic
component in the livestock industry in Imbirikani. There are higher
sheep numbers than goats. This is due to higher off-take of goats
compared with sheep. The presence of small stock has had a toll on
the forage and capacity of the land to regenerate.
Imbirikani Group Ranch is approximately 1300 km2
(320,000 acres), bordered on the eastern edge by the Chyulu Hills
National Park. Imbirikani is owned and run communally by about
4500 members of Ilkisongo Maasai. There are just over 10,000 peo-
ple living on the ranch, along with some 60–90,000 head of live-
stock. The vegetation on the ranch ranges from upland grasslands to
flat savannah grasslands to dense bush. The low rainfall regime makes
it difficult for the community to generate income for other means
besides pastoralism.
This area is referred to as the Chyulu West Game Conservation
Area; this is a proposed conservation area as none of this land is
legally protected. Ol Donyo Wuas, which is a lodge located on
Imbirikani Group Ranch, is working to secure approximately 25,000
with a lease, supported by income from the lodge. The proposed
carbon easement would cover the 40,000 acre lava forest. The major
threats to the forest include: logging for timber, for construction
poles, for firewood and for illegal charcoal production; harvesting of
honey using traditional harvesting methods that often cause fires;
overharvesting of medicinal herbs; and poaching for wild meat.
Imbirikani Group Ranch is home to a wide diversity of wildlife,

including the elephant, lion, cheetah, leopard, giraffe, buffalo,
impala, gazelle, hyena and jackal. The African Wildlife Foundation
(AWF) is working with partners to maintain a wildlife linkage, par-
ticularly for the elephant, extending from Amboseli National Park to
Chyulu and Tsavo National Parks. Wildlife seasonally disperses and
migrates from Amboseli to Imbirikani Group Ranch. Protecting this
area for wildlife is thus critical to a landscape-scale conservation
initiative.
The Imbirikani Maasai community is slowly embracing agriculture
within the wetlands located along Kikarankot River as an alternative
to livestock keeping. According to respondents during the Focus
Group Discussions (FGDs), this move is a response to the devastat-
ing drought of 2008/2009 that decimated close to 95 per cent of
their livestock. Respondents gave examples of a pastoralist who had
2000 heads of cattle and now left with 80 of them. Another had 500
heads of cattle before the drought and is now only left with 7 heads
of cattle! The effects of this drought were such that they shook the
social fabric and economic base of the community. One male respon-
dent summed up the effects as follows: ‘I lost my entire livestock
herd! This has made it very difficult for me to talk where men are
since I don’t own anything!’ The ‘new farmers’ converted from pas-
toralism need to be made aware that utilisation of wetlands must be
done in a sustainable manner. It is encouraging to note that the
farmers utilising these wetlands have left a few original vegetation of
mainly Acacia spp. The ‘new farmers’ expressed strong interest and
willingness to participate in tree planting activities along the river so
as to reduce river evaporation. This initiative needs to be encouraged
in all wetlands within Imbirikani to enhance carbon stocks. The only
limitation respondents cited in increasing riverine vegetation cover
was the lack of tree seedlings for planting. Plate 2.1 provides various
uses of resources in Imbirikani.
While the community is still actively engaged in livestock keeping,
emphasis now is on smaller herd sizes, which are fattened and later
on sold for cash. When responding to the question ‘Is the current
pasture enough for your present livestock herds?’, all were in agree-
ment that with present reduced herd size due to the previous
46 C.A. SHISANYA
Plate 2.1 Use of natural resources in Imbirikani. Source: Shisanya et al.

(2010)
drought, the pasture was adequate. This is a pointer to their recent

realization that keeping large herd sizes is risky in the wake of climate
variability as manifested in the form of recurrent droughts that affect
the area.
Conclusion
This chapter has examined the trends and status of natural resource man-
agement in Africa. We emphasize on participatory approaches to natural
resources management as opposed to traditional top-down, centralized,
exclusionary approaches (see Hulme & Murphree, 1999; Kapoor, 2001;
Kumasi, Obiri-Danso, & Ephraim, 2010). The aim of participatory natu-
ral resources management as illustrated in this chapter, is to align with
co-generation of conservation and sustainable development outcomes
that are enabled through local actions, as emphasized by the Brundtland
Report (1987), Agenda 21 (Hutton et al., 2005) and the former
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). CBNRM is amongst the most
popular approaches to participatory natural resource management in
Africa as demonstrated in this chapter. Despite the challenges faced by
CBNRM, the chapter has argued that sustainable resource management
based on the integration of social and economic needs of the local people
offers better effectiveness in resource management for countries in the
region as illustrated by the Imbirikani project case study in Kenya.
Notes
1. See reports of the West African Lands Commission (1908) at 183 Para. 1048
(emphasis is by the author).
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Chris Allan Shisanya is Full Professor of Geography, specializing in the field of

Agroclimatology at Kenyatta University. He is a former Chairperson of the
Department of Geography, and currently Dean, School of Humanities and Social

Sciences at Kenyatta University. He has worked at the University for the last 29
years. His current areas of research interest include climate change and adaptation,
climate change and human development, climate change and security, integrated
soil fertility management, integrated watershed management and systems analysis.
Over the years, he has successfully supervised 20 PhD and 60 master’s students.
He is a prolific researcher who has won over 50 national and international research
grant awards in the last 20 years. He has over 60 peer-reviewed journal publica-
tions, 30 book chapters and 10 book titles to his credit. He serves on the Editorial
Boards of various high-impact academic scientific journals.
CHAPTER 3
Local Governance
Wossenyeleh Aregay
Introduction
Local governance in Africa is not a given. It is a design. Within the process
of nation-state building, African states faced similar realities. They had to
deal with issues that come up as a result of an ethnically diverse society,
technological backwardness, weak state institutions and limited state
capacities to extract and redistribute resources, as well as the state lacking
national coherence. The daunting task after achieving independence was
and still is the transformation of a once colonial dominion into a formi-
dable nation-state with the vision of a fast-paced development.
The idea of empowering rural people for self-administration was always
an appealing concept among the ruling African elites because it served to
incorporate the periphery within the institutional framework of the state.
The concept of introducing some sort of rural public participation within
a democratic, institutional framework was always regarded as an enhance-
ment of state legitimacy by the political elites. The fear of rural governance
as a slippery slope for anarchy is when real political power is delegated to
local governing bodies. Here, African experiences vary. Accordingly, there
is an abundant amount of research material on local governance in Africa.
However, it is compartmentalized to the experience of the single African
W. Aregay (*)
Institute of Federalism, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_3
54 W. AREGAY
nation held within a particular confinement of ideas, geographic and polit-

ical boundaries and time.
The academic debate seems to be less vigorous when it comes to a com-
parative approach within a Pan-African perspective. This chapter aims to
encourage an academic debate in this sense. As such, it focuses on experi-
ences within the Pan-African perspective. The time frame is the post-
Second World War period. The concept and practice of local governance
is seen from the constitutional angle, meaning the institutionalized power
relation between the centre and the periphery. Similar patterns of experi-
ences shall be outlined to have a better understanding of the Pan-African
evolution with regards to local governance.
Methods
The main research for this chapter is based on four key dissertations that
the author deems to be useful and full of insight for further research. For
this chapter, the author assembled various other publications. Some of
them will be discussed in the table below.
The author limited research on findings in the library of the Institute of
Federalism at the University of Fribourg and on the electronic database on
www.jstor.org. All in all, the author assembled seven books and more than
thirty journal articles (Table 3.1). The electronic search for publication
was selected by keywords as; Africa, local government, devolution, federal-
ism. In terms of language, publications written in the English language
were consideration.
The table above gives an overview of the seven key books. The books are
presented by title, author and date, key characteristics, geographical scale,
methodology, study focus, key findings and (my personal) conclusion.
All of the works cited above are constitutional studies within a distinc-
tive African context. All of them are case studies. The first two books in the
table assemble various case studies to give an evaluation within the Pan-
African context. The other books are entirely single case studies. However,
they include a comparative approach where other African experiences were
taken into account. It has to be noted that these (single case study) books
are dissertation theses. As a result, broad and varied methodological
approaches to tackle the topic local governance can, and must be expected.
Table 3.1 Summary of empirical research on local governance in Africa
Author Characteristics Geographical Method Study focus Key findings Conclusions
scale
Mawhood, Collection of Sudan, Multiple case Local Local government was Evaluation of local
Phillip (Ed.) publications Tanzania, studies followed government as meant to compete government as an
Local Kenya, by a comparative an agent to against the traditional indicator to a
Governance in Botswana, evaluation promote the establishment within certain degree of
the Third World Cameroon, Constitutional modern the periphery in order political
(1983) Ghana, Nigeria study post-colonial to rally the people for decentralization.
Historical state apparatus.
the central state. From Cohesive case
approach the constitutions studies
perspective, local
government was an
executive body of the
central government.
Oluwu et al. Collection of South Africa, Multiple case Evaluation of Local autonomy, Legal framework is
Local publications Botswana, studies followed local level adequate resources, not enough.
Governance in Nigeria, Ghana, by a comparative prerequisites for local institutions of External factors
Africa (2004) Chad, Uganda, evaluation local governance. collective actions and such as the
Kenya, Constitutional accountability to the inclusion of
study public are the key traditional
Political intervening factors for establishment can
approach effective local enhance the
government. effectiveness of
local government.
(continued)
LOCAL GOVERNANCE
55
56

scale
Ayele, Zemelak Dissertation Ethiopia Single case study Effective local Local government is a Devolution of
W. AREGAY
Ayitenew. Local Thesis Comparative government can political design. It is power depends on
Governance in analyses with be a trigger for vaguely formulated by the political will.
Ethiopia (2014) other African sustainable the constitution.
nations. development Hence, there is a lack
Constitutional of adequate
study constitutional
Socio-economic protection.
approach
Chanie, Paulos. Dissertation Ethiopia Single case study Fiscal Resource management Resource
What one Hand Thesis Constitutional decentralization determines the management in a
giveth, the other study effectiveness of local neo-patrimonial
taketh away Economic and government. system is designed
(2007) legal approach to change the rural
periphery into a
dependant unit
fully accountable to
the central
government.
Ayee, Jospeh Dissertation Ghana Single case study Discussing and Political will that is Implementation
R.A. Anatomy of Constitutional analyzing the not interested in policies are as
Public Policy study various methods power allocation to important as the
Implementation Political of the local level political design
(1994) approach Implementation facilitates itself.
of a political implementation
design failures.
(continued)

scale
Assefa, Fisseha, Dissertation Ethiopia Single case study Institutional Decentralization is The political will
Federalism and Constitutional set-up of ethnic mainly a tool to behind
the study federalism in enhance state decentralization is
Accommodation Legal and Ethiopia legitimacy and a better about
of Diversity in political form of institutional democratization of
Ethiopia (2005) approach incorporation of the the rural
periphery to the population rather
centre. than devolution.
Crawford, Collection of Uganda, Multiple Case Decentralization Dependency of local Developmental
Gordon/ publications Malawi, studies followed as a tool to government on deconcentration is
Hartmann, Tanzania, by an evolution poverty personal and financial in fact
Christof (eds.) Ghana, reduction and resources from the centralization in
Decentralization Namibia, South conflict central state. disguise.
in Africa: A Africa, Rwanda management
Pathway out of
Poverty and
Conflict? (2008)
LOCAL GOVERNANCE
57
58 W. AREGAY
All works apart from being constitutional studies do also have an interdis-
ciplinary emphasis either on history, politics, law or socio-economics.
Approaches to Local Governance

Post-colonialism, in a way, aligned African nations along their common
past; namely, colonialism, and also by a common outlook; namely, the
establishment of the modern nation-state. Consequently, constitutional
concepts that were tested on the ground of realities in various African
countries were introduced. In this regard, post-colonial African history
can be roughly categorized in three waves. The first wave, roughly occur-
ring in the 1960s and the 1970s, linked local government with the estab-
lished local structure in favour of people’s participation at a local level.
The objective was to emancipate the periphery from traditional rule. The
second wave, occurring roughly in the 1980s up to the 2000s, emphasized
the idea of devolution as a prerequisite for local government. Local gov-
ernment had the role of a facilitator to pacify and restore legitimacy for the
nation-state. Since 2000, one can observe a third wave where local gov-
ernment is seen as a stimulant of rapid and sustainable development. Each
of the three waves, namely the democratic wave, the devolution wave and
the development wave, are discussed in the sections that follow. Each sec-
tion will be illustrated by a brief summary of the Ghanaian, Tanzanian and
Ethiopian experiences.
The Democratic Wave

Colonial administration in various African countries was practised through
indirect rule by which the traditional local authorities were used as inter-
mediaries and executors of the colonial administration. As long as tradi-
tional authorities played the game of their masters, they enjoyed a certain
range of autonomy within their sphere of rule (Firmin-Sellers, 2001).
Traditional rule enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy as long as they exe-
cuted tasks given by the central colonial administration. In this regard, the
centre-periphery relation is qualified as a deconcentration. The authority
to local autonomy is delegated by the central state and it comes with the
mandate to execute certain tasks defined by the central state. Furthermore,
the extent of local autonomy is shaped and defined by the degree of loyalty
of the traditional entity towards the central state. Relations between the
centre and the periphery were entirely political by nature.
LOCAL GOVERNANCE 59
National struggle for independence targeted the status quo in the cen-
tre (colonial administration) as well as in the periphery (traditional author-
ities). Traditional rule was seen as a remnant of a backward and reactionary
system blocking national cohesion and the desire for sustainable develop-
ment (Olowu & Wunsch, 2004).
Some African countries opted for the appointment of a sole district
administrator by the central government. District administration became
part of a centralized governance system. Other African countries subordi-
nated traditional institutions to formerly elected local councils (Egwurube,
1988; Olowu & Erero, 1996; Wynne, 1989). These district councils were
confronted with an increase of tasks without the power to generate necessary
resources. Often the representatives themselves lacked the necessary skills,
which resulted in a poor provision of public services (Chanie, 2007). Besides,
traditional leaders found their way, as people’s representatives, in the district
councils. Over time, it became clear that the district councils were ineffec-
tive. Some countries provided external advisors to assist the district councils
to enhance their efficiency. Needless to say, this was in no way a concession
towards any kind of decentralization. Other countries introduced the system
of mixed councils with part of the representatives being officers from the
central government. This system led to a power shift within the local govern-
ment in favour of the local executive body (and not the local legislative
body) because the latter brought in the necessary skills as well as on top
guarantee back-up funding from the central government (Chanie, 2007).
These mixed district councils quickly became an extended executive body
for the central government (Mawhood, 1983). The early stages of modern
nation-state building were not marked by decentralization but rather by
deconcentration, which was about the delegation of responsibilities without
the necessary transfer of authority, resources and accountability.
The Ghanaian Case

In the early stages of independence, Ghana embraced the mixed district
approach in order to merge the needs of providing proper public services
and to invest in local development (Olowu & Wunsch, 2004). Districts
were therefore composed of candidates from the rural population as well
as those from the central state.
The rural population appoints its candidates via local committees. The
selection of candidates does not hold short to traditional rulers. The
Ghanaian approach thus seeks to integrate traditional rule in the framework
60 W. AREGAY
of the modern state while at the same time exploiting the traditional legiti-
macy for its own benefit.
The central state appoints candidates that have been party cadres of the
incumbent regime to ensure an informal cohesion of the relations between
the centre and the periphery. In other words, from the very beginning,
local governance was designed and limited by the central state authority
(Mawhood, 1983).
The result of a regime change in the 1960s put an emphasis on central-
ization. The mixed district approach was put to an end. It was replaced by
management committees composed of three civil servants and one public
servant. The committee was presided by a district administrative officer
(Olowu & Wunsch, 2004). The centre provided all the necessary resources
and monitored the districts. Districts had the role of executing bodies to
the central state authority. The rationale behind that move was entirely
political; districts were seen as a stronghold of the former regime as they
had control via the informal network of party cadres still operating in the
districts. By depriving the districts of their autonomy, oppositional forces
are expected to lose their power base to mobilize the periphery against the
centre. The weakening of districts is, in fact, the consequence of a power
struggle in the centre (Mawhood, 1983).
The Tanzanian Case

Attempts to restrict local autonomy in the aftermath of the Second World
War led to an enhanced national struggle. The concept of regional bodies
of a multi-racial set-up superseding the native authorities was immediately
dismantled after independence. Still, the idea of centralization by limiting
the extent of local autonomy was still a major issue for the new Tanzanian
nation-state.
The Municipality Act of 1947 gave cities and towns corporate status.
This meant that they were able to generate their own funds by levying
personal taxes. They were represented by urban councils that were com-
posed of local representatives and experts appointed by the central state.
Urban councils were designed to be agents for accelerated local develop-
ment, and thus, were in direct competition with native authorities. In
1961, native authorities were replaced by district councils. The latter had
a mixed set-up of representatives elected by local committees and experts
appointed by the central state. Central government provided personal and
LOCAL GOVERNANCE 61
financial support. District councils, cities and towns were supervised by

the Ministry of Local Government.
Next to the formal institutional framework, there was the informal net-
work system of appointed party cadres that linked the periphery with the
centre. Political commissioners at district and regional level became party
secretaries of the respected areas. The party district chairman became ex-
officio chairman of the district or the urban council (Mawhood, 1983).
The Ujamaa villagization scheme of the 1970s was actually a settle-
ment programme of the periphery in order to set up an administration at
the village level. Constituting bodies of the ujamaa village is the village
assembly and a village council (25 members). The purpose is the collectiv-
ization of generating and sharing resources. Party chairman and secretary
of the village branch were ex-officio chairman and secretary of the village
council (Mawhood, 1983).
The Ethiopian Case

After the brief stint of Italian occupation from 1936 to 1940, the Ethiopian
imperial government began to radically modernize the state apparatus
with the aim of consolidating absolute power for the emperor.
With the Provincial and Local Reform Act of 1942, regional and local
borders were redrawn. The spheres of influence were reshaped which
weakened the nobility. The emperor had the power to appoint officers on
all levels of peripheral administration (province, district and sub-district).
The fact that the emperor appointed the nobility in their own areas of
influence made them salaried employees of the emperor. All administrative
matters were supervised by the Ministry of Interior. All financial matters
were supervised by the Ministry of Finance.
The Urban Administration Reform Act of 1945 foresaw the establish-
ment of municipalities and towns with a mixed representation system.
Urban councils are composed of candidates elected by urban property
owners and appointed central state officers. They lacked local autonomy as
well as democratic representation. Furthermore, all decisions had to be
approved by the Ministry of Interior.
The revolution of 1974 produced two peripheral bodies at the local
level. One is the peasant association (or cooperative) for the rural popula-
tion, and the other is the urban dweller association for the urban
population. In the early days of the revolution, these local bodies were
supposed to be autonomous and democratic in the sense of providing
62 W. AREGAY
space for public participation. They quickly evolved into a stronghold of

the party in power (Ayele, 2014).
The Devolution Wave

Negative economic growth, indebtedness, systemic fiscal imbalances and
dependency on foreign donor countries were inherent traits of several
African countries from the 1980s up to 2000. Internal and external pres-
sure led to a policy towards liberalization and devolution of state respon-
sibilities towards lower level of state bodies and domestic private actors
(Bratton & van de Walle, 1997). Despite devolution and privatization, the
desired results of effective local government and economic growth did not
materialize. According to Olowu & Wunsch (2004) providing the legal
framework and implementing decentralization per se is not enough to
prevent low performance of the local government.
Prior to the establishment of the nation-state, European states wit-
nessed an absolute concentration of state power in the central government
with a firm control of political, social and economic life in the nation
(Mazrui, 1983). Without this prerequisite, decentralizing means giving
space for extra-constitutional actors that eventually have to be confronted
by force. Under these circumstances, decentralization bears the risk of
political instability. Moreover, political culture in several African states is
impregnated by neo-patrimonialism (Bratton & van de Walle, 1997;
Chanie, 2007; Hydén, Olowu, Okoth-Ogendo, & Opinya, 2000;
Mamdani, 1996). This has a deep impact on a local level, where scarcity of
public goods and services is being corrupted in favour of patron-client
relationships. In view of the ethnic heterogeneity of African society, cor-
ruption goes along ethnic affiliation, weakening the fabric of national
cohesion and enhancing unchecked rule at the local level. National segre-
gation and local despotism are possible outcomes that compromise the
quintessence of the nation-state.
Effective local government requires more than devolution (Clarke,
2001). There are other factors that have to be considered as well. One
major factor is accountability. The executive body of the local government
has to be held accountable to the legislative body. The latter shall have the
power to provide funding and to appoint executive officers (Crook &
Manor, 1998; Olowu & Wunsch, 2004). Training of representatives of the
legislative body will improve their capacity to formulate and implement
LOCAL GOVERNANCE 63
policies. They shall be held accountable to their constituency through

election, recalls, referenda, and so on. As to performance of the local gov-
ernment, public surveys on delivery of public goods and services are seen
as an effective tool (Adedeji, 1997; Barkan, 1994; Dia, 1996; Olowu &
Erero, 1996; Ribot, 2000). Other propositions go as far as to suggesting
having smaller units as local governments. Due to the smaller size, fewer
resources would have to be managed and even the inner working of the
institution is more accessible to the constituency; this would in turn
encourage popular participation. Feedback on low performance would be
imminent. The individual would have more incentives to participate
actively and in meaningful ways also achieve tangible results (Ayele, 2014).
The focus of smaller units of governance may come with less performance
in form of quantity of public goods and services but it also gives space and
incentive for grassroots development of real self-administration where
local people take public matters in their hands.
The Ghanaian Case

The economic recession of the 1980s resulted in a change of policies.
Prior to that, the socialist experiment of democratic centralism resulted in
the establishment of peripheral administration that was centre focused.
The regime in power shifted back to the model of 1974; meaning that
traditional rule was considerably represented in district councils. The
regional body approved the selected candidates as well as the district man-
ager (Mawhood, 1983). The devolution era was in fact a deconcentration.
It was about a delegation of tasks from the centre to the periphery
(Crawford & Hartmann, 2008).
The Tanzanian Case

Due to the reform of 1982, the principle of representation was introduced
at the district level. The governing principle that the party chairman and
the party secretary of the respective area were supposed to be ex-officio
chairman and secretary of the district council was abandoned. Urban and
district council do have the power to levy taxes and take loans from third
parties. The purpose of devolution was to enhance equitable and broad-
based development (Mawhood, 1983).
64 W. AREGAY
The Ethiopian Case

The purpose of devolution is linked with the national (ethnical) question.
It is a direct revision of the past constitutions where the Ethiopian nation-
building went hand in hand with cultural marginalization. Since 1991, the
trend was to put an emphasis on local governance in order to provide
national (ethnical) equality. A distinctive feature was the establishment of
regular districts and ethnical districts. The latter was to provide the insti-
tutional framework for ethnic minorities to constitute themselves in the
rural areas. Apart from that, districts were part of the executive body of
the regional government. The local bodies inherited by the previous
regime, which were the peasants’ association and the urban dwellers’ asso-
ciation were kept intact since they were the instruments of implementa-
tion of national policies at the lowest level. Devolution according to the
current constitution is dual federalism. Hence, separation of powers is a
matter between the centre and the regions (Ayele, 2014).
The Development Wave

In the new millennium, discourse on development has been shifting. Prior
to that, economic growth was tantamount to development. Likewise, pov-
erty was associated with low income and consumption. The discourses on
development have a more wholesome approach in the sense that other
factors such as human welfare and participation in public affairs are
included as well. In other words, the purpose of development is the con-
stant betterment of human well-being by providing better access to basic
needs (e.g. health, education, sanitation, and so on.) and by providing the
space for free, active and meaningful participation in public life (Olowu &
Wunsch, 2004).
Contemporary discourse links decentralization to development because
of the possibility of participation and exercising accountability on govern-
ment authorities. On a local level, people have the space to impact their
local government if given the necessary autonomy to administer them-
selves. Public policy must not be a one-size-fits-all concept. It can be
adjusted according to the specific needs of the local units that self-
formulate them. The local population knows best what it needs. Direct
participation gives the community the space to articulate its needs and
allocate the necessary resources. In case of incongruence of the latter, poli-
cies can adapt pragmatically to changing circumstances. New policies can
LOCAL GOVERNANCE 65
be tested on a trial and error basis at a local level before introducing them
nationwide. Local entities have their own unique public life that is distin-
guishable from other local units even from the central government. This
can enhance a healthy and innovative competition among the local units
to achieve better performance on welfare, participation and economy
(Ayele, 2014).
Empirical studies have shown that this theory is not fully applicable to
the realities on the ground (UNDP, 2010). Ethnic bonding or other spe-
cial interests can corrupt accountability. Hence, the elected representatives
do not necessarily act in the interest of the community. Bad performance
is neither a reason to change policies nor an obstacle for re-election. Ethnic
and class minorities are vulnerable to local discrimination which dimin-
ishes their influence at a local level (Ayele, 2014). Unchecked local auton-
omy might transform into local despotism without the desired effects of
development. Conversely, one can observe that development is achievable
without local autonomy. Due to scarcity of resources, local governments
struggle to provide even the most basic needs. The central government
can provide funding, personnel and policies in order to give assurance of a
certain living standard on the ground and level the gap of inequality within
the nation (Ayele, 2014).
The Ghanaian Case

According to the constitution of 1992, the local government is the high-
est political and administrative body in a district. Therefore, the district
enjoys local autonomy to a large extent. Legally, it is a corporate body with
the power to levy taxes, to sue and be sued, to borrow and to award con-
tracts up to 100,000 dollars. Personnel and staff is coordinated at the
centre. Functions of the districts are monitored and coordinated by the
Regional Coordinating Council. Districts budget are submitted to the lat-
ter, and are eventually approved by the Ministry of Finance (Olowu &
Wunsch, 2004).
The Tanzanian Case

The Local Government Reform Programme of 1992 is a shift of policies
defining local authorities as primary agents for the allocation of public
goods and services. This, in effect, means the reduction of central state
presence within the periphery. This was explicitly confirmed in the
66 W. AREGAY
Regional Administration Act Number 19 of 1997. In areas that concerned

the districts, the decision-making processes were delegated to them.
Coordination and management of local government is effectuated by the
Ministry of State. Districts are corporate bodies. They have the power to
collect taxes. Due to insufficient funding, the central state still provides
funds (Crawford & Hartmann, 2008).
The Ethiopian Case

The current constitution of 1995 has a wholesome approach to develop-
ment. In that sense, emphasis is given on the universal access of basic ser-
vices (health, education, sanitation, water and so on). The District Level
Decentralization Programme of 2000 defined decentralization as a pov-
erty reduction strategy. The decision-making process concerning local
matters shifted from the regions to the districts. In 2001, the Ministry of
Capacity Building was established to staff and to consult local authorities
at the district level. Furthermore, a grant system was established for dis-
tricts. This change of policies was the result of an internal party crisis at the
Centre (in the aftermath of the Ethiopian-Eritrean Border War of 1999).
It resulted in a mutual estrangement vertical power relation between the
Centre and some regions. Since then, districts have become tipping points
in the vertical balance of power between the Central state and the regions
(Ayele, 2014).
Conclusion
The break-up of the traditional past and the incorporation of the periph-
ery to the modern institutionalized rule of the Central state distinguish
the African nation-state. In essence, African nation-building is about
maintaining and widening the momentum of centralized state power.
Having said that, the concept of local government is incorporated within
the institutional framework of the central state. It is a top-down initiative,
and is thus dependant on political will. In other words, the system of local
government is highly political and consequently vulnerable to the political
climate at the Centre. Devolution cannot be seen as anything else, other
than a tactical manoeuvre in order to maintain political control over the
periphery (Olowu & Wunsch, 2004).
Linking devolution with development is, in fact, a shift of state legiti-
macy from ideology to public management. As long as the incumbent
LOCAL GOVERNANCE 67
regime can provide (developmental) results, it remains on the seat of

power. The state of local government depends on the regime in power. On
the contrary, the regime in power also depends on local government since
they are capable of delivering results. There is therefore hope that local
government has a future in African Constitutionalism.
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Wossenyeleh Aregay is a legal scholar. He holds a PhD in constitutional law from

the University of Fribourg, Switzerland. He works as a lawyer in a trade union. He
is keenly interested in constitutional law, labour law, migration law and data pro-
tection law.
CHAPTER 4
Agriculture
Joan Fairhurst
Introduction
From time immemorial, agriculture has been the lifeblood of Africa.
Agriculture is, in essence, a part of rural community living, spontaneous and
integrated. Planning is integral to agrarian development that in itself too is
driven by socio-cultural, political and economic organisation within different
environmental settings. This recognition highlights the diversity inherent in
agriculture as a vital aspect of rural life. The role of agriculture in rural devel-
opment planning in Africa is dealt with in this chapter. It presents findings
from selected studies on designs used in research on agriculture on the con-
tinent referring to theories and conceptual models, the main trends in agri-
cultural production and policy programmes. Case illustrations are provided.
Method
A methodology for a review of the literature on the status of agriculture in
Africa requires recognition of the regional environmental and socio-cultural
variations found in the prevailing political economies. Selected studies are
reviewed to represent major geographical regions and states that fall within
them. Today, agriculture is clearly the responsibility of the country’s govern-
ment in power, both as a major economic sector to meet its economic needs,
J. Fairhurst (*)
University of Pretoria, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_4
70 J. FAIRHURST
as well as providing necessities from agricultural resources for its citizens. It

is this very responsibility that has drawn attention to a range of agrarian
issues. People themselves, politicians, economists, philanthropists and
donors, international and national, environmentalists, social and natural sci-
entists have not only become aware of these, but have also expressed their
concerns about them. It is these sources of information that appear as
reports, discussion papers, research endeavours, media news items and com-
ments that align with the discourse documented in this chapter. Significantly
they represent popular, academic and political opinion.
By virtue of the nature of the role of agriculture in rural development
that clearly neither stands alone nor is dealt with in isolation, literature
sources were prolific and scattered. Scholars from a variety of academic
disciplines and institutions that are organisational and philanthropic
address relevant aspects, covering an extensive range of items from the
microscopic to the macroscopic; a cursory glance of the bibliography at
the end of the chapter will reveal this.
Sources used in this chapter came from the Internet using book titles from
the University of South Africa library catalogue, Sabinet, Proquest, ebsco-
host, Wiley, JStor, ISI, ScienceDirect, Gale Cengage, SpringerLink, ebary,
Emerald databases and websites. A range of keywords enabled access espe-
cially for confirmation and extension purposes. Bibliographic details (the
title,content and abstract where available) of the sources were recorded. Care
was taken to cover a range of sources especially official reports prepared by
policymakers, donors and researchers. The general and the specific were pur-
posively accommodated at various spatial scales and units of analysis. Selected
sources were coded by author, date, title, key idea, theme, geographical scale,
region, country, main issue, study population/unit, objective, research
methods, source and observation to produce reference tables to inform an
overview of the topic. As past scholars have done, and future work will do,
the focus on agriculture here is on particular aspects of agriculture in relation
to rural development planning either in relative, macro or micro context.
Research Designs
The methodology used by Holcombe (1994, 2012) is an example of a
frequently used approach for gathering information. Her stated purpose
was to concentrate on innovation as a change agent in development, a
AGRICULTURE 71
challenge that would increase agricultural and rural incomes and well-
being. The topic is introduced by describing the background, the merit
and the vision of work done that focused on ‘linking small farmers to
markets; improving access to land and land tenure for communities living
in poverty; and promoting the contribution of agriculture to environmen-
tal services that mitigate climate change and support biodiversity conser-
vation’ (Holcombe, 2012, p. 13). Explanation of the methodology was
done, terms used were defined and study limitations were specified.
Findings from a review of existing literature, desk studies of 22 innovative
projects (done in 2008), three field case studies (Mongolia, India and
Nigeria) and a survey of selected stakeholders in the innovations, were
synthesised and revisited. Recommendations offered and a bibliography
containing relevant references is attached. Conclusions endorse the reality
that practitioners of innovations have to correct the mindset required for
the scaling up process which can be represented as a simple model
(Holcombe, 2012, p. 149). It is an iterative process that has to be simple
enough to deal with the complex realities of the development context
(Holcombe, 2012, p. 5). ‘Scaling up means the expansion, adaptation,
replication and sustaining of desired policy, programme and practice
changes’ (Holcombe, 2012, p. 9). Hence it is a significant aspect for con-
temporary progress in development undertakings.
From a development perspective, a structured basic agricultural house-
hold model on which most case studies are based, provide the theory,
empirical results, policy conclusions and methodological issues to examine
the effects of governmental interventions. In their work, Singh, Squire,
and Strauss (1986) felt that the decisions of agricultural households would
take price policies and public investments on the production, consump-
tion and labour allocation into account. In their study, they use seven cases
to expand this approach to analyse the effects of governmental policy on
crop composition, nutritional status, health, savings, borrowing and
investment. Data for Africa came from Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone
whereas data for Asia was from China, India, Indonesia and Korea. The
methodology in all cases was seen to be useful.
Researchers have theorised about their methods in a similar vein when
dealing a range of issues. Adato and Meinzen-Dick (2002) point out that
the sustainable livelihoods approach lends itself to accommodating ‘the
multi-layered interactions between technologies and the vulnerability con-
text of households, their asset base, intervening institutions, and liveli-
hood strategies’, and finds it particularly applicable to agricultural research
72 J. FAIRHURST
that seeks to address poverty. The integrated model that guides the
method will perforce not neglect to include aspects of culture, power, his-
tory and all forms of social differentiation. They aver that ‘this approach is
more difficult for research than conventional single-disciplinary analyses,
[but] it leads to a more complete understanding that can help develop
technologies that better fit in with complex livelihood strategies, especially
[those] of the poor’ (Adato & Meinzen-Dick, 2002).
Covering the period 1981 to 2008, Banya (2012) uses sources of infor-
mation from the World Bank and provides a theoretical analysis about
what causes poverty and its alleviation. This is then applied to Sierra Leone
and Togo to anticipate the situation that could arise within the entire sub-
Saharan Africa region. From documented quantitative data, despite its
limitations, he identifies the challenges that a viable and stable macro-
economic framework should adopt as a basis for an appropriate develop-
ment model. He points out that the previous structural adjustment model
was successful in the region. Banya also advocates that the delivery of
quality services to civil society and accountable, transparent governance
with investment in the poor is beneficial whereas dependence on handouts
from external sources should be discouraged. The multi-dimensional
characteristic of poverty has to be addressed by strong state capacity, stable
regulatory structures and improved levels of human capacity that is
adversely affected by a high disease burden, government corruption and
internal conflict.
Empirical evidence from case studies that are multi-, trans- and inter-
disciplinary enriches the understanding of agriculture in present-day
development context. Besides, it has supported finding effective solutions
to the problems faced in local settings within countries. Due to variations
within and between countries, the importance of country studies is advo-
cated. The typology of all African countries in terms of their ‘stage of
development, agricultural conditions, natural resources, and geographic
location’ (Diao, Hazell, Resnick, & Thurlow, 2006) shows that the growth
of agriculture and poverty reduction potential varies substantially across
the continent. For an in-depth analysis of agriculture and growth-poverty
linkages economy-wide, macro-micro linkages models were used in five
African countries, Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, Uganda and Zambia (Diao
et al., 2006).
The South African government initiated a detailed, intensive scientifi-
cally designed investigation into the prevalence and impact of poverty
(Mbonga, 2010, pp. 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 27). Findings were that only 5 per
AGRICULTURE 73
cent of the household members had farming skills with 58 per cent of the
adults having no skills at all. Agricultural assets, drinking water, soil and
water works and psycho-social support were necessary deliverables
(Mbonga, 2010, p. 29). Targeting poor individuals, households, commu-
nities, wards and organisations (Mbonga, 2010, p. 5), the need to enhance
capacity is clear. Emphasis is to be placed on ensuring knowledgeable co-
operation between national, provincial, metropolitan and local municipali-
ties (Mbonga, 2010, p. 44).
In Kenya, Adato and Meinzen-Dick (2002) focused on soil fertility
management practices and in Zimbabwe on hybrid maize conceptualising
the topic applying the sustainable livelihoods approach, using both quan-
titative and qualitative methods. Their findings endorse the trends that the
goals of international agricultural research should, and are moving beyond
increasing food production to the broader aims of reducing poverty. They
reiterate the complexity of both the topic and its impact. Poverty is seen as
going ‘beyond income or consumption-based headcounts or severity mea-
sures, to consider many other factors that poor people in different con-
texts define as contributing to their vulnerability, poverty and well-being’
(ibid).
To demystify the point that contract farming could ease the ill-effects of
poverty warrants intensive further research. Its structural operation justi-
fies this assertion since it purports to enable farmers to gain access to
credit, better equipment and agricultural inputs, technical assistance and
marketing especially regarding price, Freguingresh and Anseeuw (2010,
p. 3) confirm that empirical evidence from case studies and data are
needed. However, they stress that this is not easy to effect. The methodol-
ogy used in a comprehensive study on this issue (Freguingresh & Anseeuw,
2010) demonstrates the necessity to incorporate consideration of all rele-
vant aspects. A general failing of case studies is that they tend to focus only
on one single aspect. This is a feature of the use of the livelihoods approach
hence the recent tendency to bear this in mind.
Vermeulen, Kirsten, and Sartorius (2008) draw attention to the fact
that the volume of agricultural production in various forms is considerable
in the South African context. This trend too appears to be increasingly
encouraged to happen throughout the continent. However, and under-
standably, the type of crops in the value chain, the number of contract
producers and the total percentage number of farms in different countries
varies quite markedly. Freguingresh and Anseeuw (2010, p. 5) give data
for South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar and Zambia to support the
74 J. FAIRHURST
growth of this tendency. They select both a rural and a peri-urban site to
investigate the agro-ecological conditions and the importance of farming,
the land characteristics, the type of holding, the proximity to markets and
presence of contracts. These are all significant issues in African agricultural
development. Applying quantitative and qualitative methods, these
researchers record the small farmers’ characteristics, the nature of their
activities and constraints, as well as their land tenure status. They produce
an interesting model showing the historical implications for the farming
households from pre-1950 to 2010. Findings (Freguingresh & Anseeuw,
2010, p. 5) support current thinking that asset endowments for those who
receive them are beneficial, constraints are multi-faceted and agriculture is
not and cannot be the only major livelihood; a range of support measures
should reach more farmers. Other studies too touch on several of these
aspects.
Traditionally, pastoral farming is inseparable from African culture and
way of life. However, with the passing of time and changing environmen-
tal, economic and political circumstances, particularly in low-income
countries, pastoralists themselves, their communities, governments and
international organisations are voicing a range of concerns. To address
them, working groups, under the auspices of the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Livestock
Research Institute (ILTI), went into the field to investigate the constraints
and opportunities for increasing livestock’s contribution as an indispens-
able production system (Wilson, Ehui, & Mack, 1995). Working groups
were convened in sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa; thus Africa was
well represented and useful documented findings and recommendations
became available (Wilson et al., 1995). Subsequently, suggested strategies
were tried and tested in the field and research endeavours continued in
many localities.
The importance of observation over time and identifying the trajectory
of change based on empirical evidence is an essential element of a gricultural
research. It can even lead to changing existing theory that could have been
based unwittingly on a wrong assumption. A case in point is that of the
relationship between desertification and climate change that affects pasto-
ral farming in Africa’s widespread savannah lands. Allan Savory did inten-
sive research (Savory, 2009, 2010). He soon began to advocate and
promulgate with determination of the importance of holistic management
in the field of agriculture, ensuring that pastoral farming received promi-
nent attention. His research is well-positioned, sound and appropriately
AGRICULTURE 75
presented. It is widely disseminated to ensure that all stakeholders in the

field of agriculture are aware of changing existing approaches and meth-
ods. It is noteworthy that close study of farming practices in the grassland
biomes has been intense for several decades.
Teller-Elsberg (2010, point 10) shares his succinct model, Brittleness
Scale and Tendency Tools that clarifies the impact of human-environment
interaction to explain that humidity distribution not total rainfall is impor-
tant, an issue to which pastoral farmers should respond. A successful and
sustainable project in dry rural areas in South Africa uses climatic condi-
tions to good effect in that nets have been constructed to catch water
vapour that condenses to water that people collect for drinking and home
garden use purposes—children at school too (Kotze, 2012). Valuable
research comes from methodologies that integrate theory, models and
practice in the real world and ensure that reliable information reaches
practitioners in all fields of agriculture.
Literature analysis is common practice in both rural development and
agricultural science. Ojha (2010), in reflecting on the merit of using adap-
tive collaborative approaches to enhance empirical studies, points out that
research is only one aspect of innovation. However, communication
between practitioners and researchers, acknowledgement of social systems
and power relations that are very real, too should be considered when
dealing with innovation in local contexts. In an explicit manner, Warren
and Cashman (1998, p. 3) plead the case for deliberate action that does
not overlook the vital role indigenous knowledge can play in designing
sustainable agricultural systems. It is well known that rural people have a
great deal to offer and should be given a voice in decision making associ-
ated with interventions and programmes, as their knowledge has come
from a long history of their society and its culture and technological
expertise. They know their environment intimately. The expression of
local culture is part of their world of yesteryear and today.

Theorising about development is dominant in agriculture-related litera-
ture sources although opinions differ. Several authors (Diao et al., 2006;
Mokwunye, 2010; Theriault & Tschirley, 2014) specifically contend that
conventional theory on the role of agriculture in the early stage of devel-
opment remains relevant to Africa. In global context, historically, African
countries experienced the post-independence era differently. Most of them
76 J. FAIRHURST
are now finding it necessary to focus on agricultural development to

reduce poverty significantly, increase per capita incomes and transform
land areas into modern economies (Diao et al., 2006). This is not the case
in some Asian and Latin American countries. In general discourse, the
traditional theoretical literature on agriculture’s role is fused with a devel-
opment process bias. More recent views appear unconvinced about agri-
culture’s development potential for Africa.
Theories that offer more scope for conceptualising agriculture as inte-
gral to creating a sustainable outlook for the people of rural Africa, have
taken livelihood analyses as a point of departure—appropriately to repre-
sent a form of human endeavour. Since the idea was first mooted in house-
hold studies in the 1970s, the concept was interpreted in a more restrictive
sense and it became lost in the era of the dominance of modernisation
theory. In this idiom, industrialisation was regarded as the trigger for eco-
nomic growth, an outcome of the historical and geographical. However,
considerable research is currently taking place and the concept is becom-
ing firmly entrenched in contemporary development thinking (Morse,
McNamara, & Acholo, 2009). A valuable and constructive result is an
expanded vision of the potential small farmer participation at both com-
munity and country level.
Although very different geographically and historically, as well as socio-
culturally and politically, China’s model for achievement in agriculture can
be widely applied to the African situation. Africa has more arable land and
water and, although comprising 53 countries with many different tribes,
ethnic groups and languages, it has a smaller but very fast-growing popu-
lation (Davis & Woetzel, 2011). With its assets and specific perceptive,
under strong leadership, Africa as a continent should focus on appropriate
agricultural reform to promote food security at household level. However,
at the same time, it should be generating surplus income to establish rural
stability with support for managing research, finance, irrigation and mar-
ket integration at micro-level. Using the China model will mitigate the
African tendency to underrate the role of technologies and extension ser-
vices (Davis & Woetzel, 2011). Yet adaptations would do well to purpose-
fully avoid the negative consequences of the Chinese experience by
cultivating cultures of accountability and entrepreneurship, and avoiding
further environmental degradation, labour exploitation and social inequi-
ties (Davis & Woetzel, 2011).
Across the continent there is evidence that this is happening. Research
on diversifying rural livelihoods and income generation (Ndhleve, 2009),
AGRICULTURE 77
and encouraging and training small farm holders to maximise their assets,
are steps in the right direction. Developing research capacity particularly
at national level is seen as important in both the developed and, increas-
ingly so, the developing world (Lele & Goldsmith, 1989). It has to accom-
modate the uniqueness of each country’s situation to inform policy, and
ensure that valid and useful information filters through to the commercial
and smallholder farms. This is dynamic and focuses on process. Moreover,
it is appearing to be successfully on-going in Africa too (Adato & Meinzen-
Dick, 2002; Everson et al., 2011; Freeman & Ellis, 2005a, 2005b; Mahati,
2010; Mokwunye, 2010; Ojha, 2010; Van Zyl, 2006; Wilson et al., 1995).
Sound research needs to fulfil its responsibility to be of utility value and
inform training programmes to enhance agricultural output, environmen-
tal care and farming practices.
Since agriculture depends on scientific management of its praxis and
natural resources to effectively contend with both poverty and environ-
mental degradation, Ojha (2010) points to the merit of collaborative
approaches that are evolving in the light of having to move away from
technology-dominant thinking characteristic of the development industry
of the 1960s. He points out that knowledge and problem solving need to
be drawn into practice in the light of changing contexts. Combining the
theories of social learning, adaptive management, participatory research
and innovation systems can cover and enhance the input and output of the
industry socially and psychologically, politically and environmentally.
Feminist theory (Crossman, 2012) is inevitably closely linked to liveli-
hood, and development thinking has very specific gender role differences,
inequities and oppressions that are socially and structurally clearly recogni-
sable. The central role of women as producers, farmers and traders in agri-
culture is well documented, and numerous case studies show how
development organisations and private entrepreneurs are working to
improve the general challenges and the position of small-scale women farm-
ers and primary processors in agricultural value chains (KIT, 2006, 2012).
Gender is acknowledged as relevant and significant in developing strategies
(Crossman, 2012). They address a range of issues such as working with the
so-called women’s products such as shea, poultry; opening up opportuni-
ties for women to work on what are traditionally ‘men’s commodities’ or in
men’s domains; supporting women and men in organising for change by
building capacity, organisation sensitisation and access to finance; using
standards and certification to promote gender equity; and promoting gen-
der-responsible business (KIT, 2012). In a current i nternational
78 J. FAIRHURST
research programme focusing on managing soil fertility that includes sites

in Africa (ASHC, 2010; CAB, 2010), drafting a gender strategy is seen as
an imperative and vital part of the project.
A sustained and focused researcher in women and agriculture in theory
and practice, Holcombe (1987) draws attention to the fact that migration
has increased the level and nature of women’s responsibilities. This is a
prevalent situation throughout African history and has been intensifying
in recent times. Findings from her research in Western Sudan, led her to
endorse, inter alia, support for more recognition of the traditional cultiva-
tion practices and women producers in subsistence farming. Gender-
related constraints are identified (Holcombe, 1987, p. 22). However,
breaking entrenched patterns in development that ‘exclude women will
require leadership, advocacy, communication and training’ (Holcombe,
1987, p. 27). These ideas are taken further in subsequent work.
Development theories devoid of concern for social justice will not stand
the test of time.
Main Trends
Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of Africa’s rural inhabitants,
yet evidence shows that undeniable and widespread poverty, hunger and
undernourishment is rife on the continent. Data from the generally better
environmentally resourced sub-Saharan region reveals clear underperfor-
mance of this important sector with the number of chronically undernour-
ished people rising from 173 million in 1990 to 250 million a decade later
(Mokwunye, 2010). Moreover, Africa as a whole is spending incredibly
large sums of money on importing food, resources that could be chan-
nelled to improving people’s quality of life. It is against this background
that Africa’s heads of state and government adopted the Comprehensive
Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP). It has become
the key platform for food and agricultural development in Africa based on
the premise that ‘agriculture-led development is fundamental to cutting
hunger, reducing poverty, generating economic growth, reducing the
burden of food imports and opening the way to the expansion of exports’
(Mokwunye, 2010). Domestic agricultural mobilisation, by concentrating
on smallholder farmers in potentially productive areas especially with
access to markets, together with timely, supportive and significant invest-
ment by Africa’s development partners, would promote effective
agriculture-led growth (Mokwunye, 2010). However, this is a contentious
AGRICULTURE 79
issue (Collier & Dercon, 2014). The coordination, monitoring and imple-
mentation of CAADP are the responsibilities assigned to Africa’s Regional
Economic Commissions (RECs) (Mokwunye, 2010).
Evidence from existing research reflects response to the regional and
sub-regional priorities identified by CAADP (Mokwunye, 2010): concen-
trating on staple food crops (Cleaver & Schreiber, 1994); conservation;
enhancement of genetic resources; integrated natural resource manage-
ment; markets; institutions; information and up-scaling challenges;
improving livelihoods in high stress/unstable environments; capacity
building especially new skills in science and technology especially biotech-
nology and information communication technology (ICT); improved
governance structure which includes genuine decentralisation; ensuring
gender equity; and giving voice to those who are marginalised in the rural
communities.
Many scholars draw attention to the common problems confronting
agriculture in Africa’s different regions today. The need to devise strate-
gies to address them has to take modern thinking and interventions and
human endeavour over time and space into account. After thorough inves-
tigation, although focusing on sub-Saharan Africa, Cleaver and Schreiber
(1994) suggest as imperatives: the need to intensify agriculture; to pro-
mote smaller families; to reform land tenure practices; to conserve the
environment; and to address the special problems of women. The inter-
related effects of rapid population growth, poor agricultural performance
and increasing environmental degradation should be addressed. Key links
are being found between traditional crop and livestock production meth-
ods, land tenure systems, women’s responsibilities, traditional family plan-
ning mechanisms and methods of forest resource utilisation. Traditional
systems and practices, well-suited to people’s survival needs when popula-
tion densities were low, were only able to evolve in response to slow popu-
lation growth. With the acceleration of population growth in the 1950s,
traditional ways came under increasing strain resulting in the triad of prob-
lems addressed (Cleaver & Schreiber, 1994).
Programmes, Interventions and Specific Cases

The multi-faceted nature of agriculture is represented and analysed from
the smallest micro- to the largest macro-level of scale in spatio-cultural
context. This is reflected in designed programmes and implemented inter-
ventions in specific localities. It captures both its importance as an
80 J. FAIRHURST
e conomic sector, locally, nationally and globally, and its significance as an

element in many a survival strategy. Intervention should take place system-
atically according to specified processes in logically programmed phases.
The South African example is a case in point (Mbonga, 2010, p. 17).
The effectiveness of development intervention to enhance rural liveli-
hoods sustainably requires a holistic perspective normatively and opera-
tionally (FAO, 2000–2015). It is common knowledge that rural men and
women, especially in poor households, engage in farm and non-farm activ-
ities as they strive to improve their health, education, living environment,
income and material provision status that Mbonga (2010, p. 11) describes
as deprivation. To achieve this, they need the necessary knowledge, skills
and wherewithal to lighten the burden of being vulnerable and at risk. A
supportive development environment is required in which they can access
and control their asset base, carry out their productive and reproductive
roles responsibly, refine their capabilities and develop macro- and micro-
linkages with other rural and urban actors (FAO, 2000–2015). Developing
policies, interventions and projects should be done against this back-
ground, although both success and failure (Holcombe, 1987) are
possibilities.
The historical and geographical dimension is clear in land reform as a
strategy. It is an example of political intervention that illustrates the way in
which both the history and geographical characteristics of an essentially
agricultural setting have affected people. The South African situation is a
good example. Patterns of human endeavour were radically changed
through the legally enforced implementation of racial segregation restrict-
ing appropriate development in the homelands irrespective of their politi-
cal status. This affected farming practice and land use negatively. With the
legal repeal of apartheid, policies were put in place to redistribute land and
to restructure the agricultural sector. In his paper, Anseeuw (2005) points
out that ‘the farming sector remains extremely dual’ and ‘the implemented
market-oriented reforms, which are not complemented by regulation
measures, do not represent the capacities of transformation of the racial
configuration of South Africa’s territory and agricultural sector’.
Agricultural invention programmes in Africa in the present century,
according to Akiri (2011, p. 8) should appreciate that smallholder farmers
should be able to contribute commodity value chains to compete in global
markets. The spread of invasive species and their impact on agriculture,
trade and the environment should be reduced. It is important that knowl-
edge for development should build capacity to use specific knowledge
AGRICULTURE 81
from research done and respond to emerging problems through enhanced

innovation capacity. Furthermore, smallholder farmers specially have the
skills to manage knowledge through available products and processes
based on information communication. Evidence of the realisation that this
opinion is valid is found in the literature in a range of activities and
discourses.
Reporting on a recent international conference, Chulu (2013) is able
to conclude that agriculture is the best way to reduce poverty by ‘unlock-
ing Africa’s potential’ since for too long, the agricultural sector has been
neglected by African governments. An appeal too was made for the
involvement of non-state stakeholders such as farmers, the private sector
and civil society in the design, implementation and monitoring of plans.
More emphasis should be placed on women farmers and nutritional out-
comes (Chulu, 2013). Nepad (2003), set up by the African Union (AU),
established the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development
Programme (CAADP) to address key issues concerning land and water
management; market access; food supply and hunger; and agricultural
research with the aim of improving and promoting agriculture across
Africa (Nepad, 2003), already noted as a significant trend (cf p. 14) in the
field of agricultural development. Particularly significant is the determina-
tion to bring key players together as continental, regional and national
levels to achieve its goals to encourage and share knowledge and
experiences.
Soil has a vital role in agricultural production. The CABI (Centre for
Agricultural Bioscience International, formerly Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux (CAB) founded in 1910) soil fertility project illus-
trates international concern about an identified and seriously invasive agri-
cultural problem its members were experiencing. A strategy was devised to
explore the situation and to find a remedy. CABI is a not-for-profit inter-
national organisation and offers service in agricultural information, pest
identification and biological control. It strives to improve people’s lives by
providing information and applying scientific expertise to solve problems
in agriculture and the environment (CABI home page).
With substantive donor support, an ambitious collaborative project, the
Africa Soil Health Consortium (ASHC) will contribute towards radical
change in the understanding and use of Integrated Soil Fertility Management
(ISFM) techniques in sub-Saharan Africa. This will enable smallholder
farmers to grow more and better crops. Everyone is involved in farming
systems development—from policymakers, researchers and u niversity
82 J. FAIRHURST
lecturers to extension workers, input suppliers and the farmers themselves

(AHS; CABI, 2010). The problem is summed up in the words of the
Regional Director of CABI Africa: ‘Soil fertility degradation has been
described as the second most serious constraint to food security in Africa.
After decades of reliance on biological approaches to soil fertility improve-
ment, partly because fertilizer has not been easily available, agriculture
experts now agree on the need to integrate fertilizer use with other aspects
of soil fertility management. However, there is a desperate lack of knowl-
edge, not only amongst farmers but amongst service-providers and deci-
sion-makers too. This project will address that knowledge gap.’
Well-conceived criteria were applied to choose field sites in countries in
each major macro- region of sub-Saharan Africa: Ghana and Mali in West
Africa, Mozambique in southern Africa and Tanzania in East Africa where
similar initiatives are already in place. The main common cropping systems
were identified in sub-humid and savannah zones: maize-legumes, irri-
gated rice, sorghum-millet-cowpeas, highland banana, coffee, and cassava.
A three-pronged strategy focuses on monitoring and evaluation that
includes output mapping, tabulated indicators, feedback sessions (com-
pleted in 2012) and reports; drafting a gender strategy (completed 2011);
and communications with an emphasis on making useful extension materi-
als (AHS; CABI). ‘The project will work to combine the most up-to-date
research information and, using participatory approaches, adapt it in a
variety of formats so that it is suitable for use by the different groups of
people involved in soil management. It will engage with high-level stake-
holders and policymakers; build the capacity of country level information
providers; and support local project development teams to work with
existing initiatives’ (CABI, 2010). The principals acknowledge that knowl-
edge of communication products and tried and tested processes that be
applied provides the ‘key to bringing about sustainable change in develop-
ing countries that are experiencing many and complex difficulties. This
project is ultimately about expanding the choices and tools small farmers
have, to improve their incomes and to build better lives’ with a long-term
vision that ‘millions of small farmers in the developing world [will have]
tolls and opportunities to boost their yields, increase their incomes and
build better lives for themselves and their families … to strengthen the
entire agricultural value chain form seeds and soil to farm management
and market access—so that progress against hunger and poverty is sustain-
able over the long term’ (CABI, 2010). A decade ago, a similar multi-
country study of the poverty impact of research programmes was done
AGRICULTURE 83
under the auspices of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural

Research (CGIAR) (Adato & Meinzen-Dick, 2002).
Water is an issue in African agriculture with far-reaching implications.
Its management is a continuum from rainfall to irrigation that accommo-
dates conservation farming, water harvesting, supplemental irrigation,
surface and ground water irrigation, drainage, wetlands and inland valley
bottoms (AgWA, 2010b). Suffice to say, endeavours are afoot to focus on
agriculture and food production as a major water issue although it is capi-
tal intensive. AgWA launched its collaborative programme with AfDB,
IFAD, FAO, NEPAD, ICID, IMAWESA, IWMI, WB and others during
2008 to counter the agricultural sector’s tendency to be fragmented
(AgWA, 2010a). Its overarching mission is to manage agricultural water
that is socially equitable, profitable at the farm level, economically viable,
environmentally sound and sustainable with ‘five priority components for
action: advocacy, resource mobilisation, knowledge sharing, donor har-
monisation and capacity development’.
The titles of scientific water research projects in South Africa, based on
empirical evidence, reveal the application of a range of theories, models,
programmes and interventions associated with various water related issues:
The long-term impact of Acacia mearnsii trees on evaporation, stream flow
and groundwater resources (Clulow, Everson, & Gush, 2011); Impact of a
ceramic pot point-of-use water treatment device on rural people living with
HIV and AIDS (Potgieter, 2011); Sustainable techniques and practices for
water harvesting and conservation and their effective application in resource-
poor agricultural production through participatory adaptive research
(Everson et al., 2011); Rapid enzymatic detection of organophosphorus and
carbamate pesticides in water (Pletschke et al., 2011); Implementation of
ecological hazard assessment of industrial waste discharge: A comparison of
toxicity test methods (Griffin, Muller, & Gordon, 2011); Development of an
indicator methodology to estimate the relative exposure and risk of pesticides
in South African surface waters (Dabrowski, Schachtschneider, Ross,
Bollmohr, & Thwala, 2011); A framework for the classification of drainage
networks in savannah landscapes (Cullum & Rogers, 2011); Nitrate
removal for groundwater supply to rural communities (Israel et al., 2011);
Water related microbial disease guidelines Volume 5: What we and our chil-
dren need to know—Health and hygiene awareness (Potgieter, 2011;
Potgieter, Barnard, Bown, & Sobsey, 2011); Water quality data and
information: A communicator’s manual (Murray et al., 2010).
84 J. FAIRHURST
Across the continent, communities are being encouraged to actively

engage in all aspects of daily life, including agriculture as a particularly
significant component of rural development planning (Fairhurst &
Mashaba, 1997). Although asset mapping is a useful methodology in these
fields, the concept is now being extended by applying community asset
mapping techniques since it involves human endeavour (Nicolau, 2013 cf.
p. 6). The Community Asset Mapping Programme (CAMP) contends
that, for sustainability and personal development, communities need sup-
port from supportive partners like NGOs, government, civil society, busi-
ness and academe for viable roots-driven change (Nicolau, 2013).
Long-term gain will only materialise with access to funds, acquiring men-
torship skills and continuous monitoring (Nicolau, 2012). In an empirical
process of critically analysing their real experiences with the local govern-
ment’s tender process in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, Illing and
Gibson (2004) designed and tested their operational model with collabo-
ration between municipalities, community-based organisations (CBOs)
and the private sector. Their findings stress that CBOs should gradually
take on more and more responsibility and ensure an appropriate and cost-
effective level of service provision throughout the process. Although their
study related to water provision, the principles and theoretical assump-
tions they used support current development thinking concerning com-
munity participation.
Organic farming is becoming increasingly recognised in the world
today. Supporting ‘successful organic farming systems and organic mar-
keting initiatives and offer guidelines for the main subsistence and cash
crops of the tropics’ (Willer & Kilcher, 2009) is the availability of training
manuals support and prepared by the International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and their partners.
The Green Revolution (GR) Programme dates back to the early 1940s
(Kolewane, 2012) and continues to be regularly drawn into agricultural
research endeavours. This is not surprising as it advocates agricultural
intensification and the development of high-yielding and disease resistant
seed varieties as a means of securing efficient and dependable food pro-
duction. In 2008 at the Salzburg Global Seminar (SGS) conference, the
question of having a uniquely African GR as a pro-poor development
strategy was on the table. Since technology and knowledge management
were gaining ground in scientific thinking in agricultural practice and
research, this development is not surprising. Kolewane (2012) uses critical
discourse analysis and Nigeria’s political economy as a case study to anal-
AGRICULTURE 85
yse the political and bureaucratic lapses associated with the introduction
and implementation of GR reform to reshape the agricultural sector on
the continent. From his findings, he suggests that a uniquely African GR
could benefit African agrarian economies and the poor majority. The pro-
viso is that the socio-political and environmental issues surround the pro-
duction of genetically-modified organism (GMOs) and high external
inputs (HEIs) would have to be accommodated (Kolewane, 2012). The
historical, the geographical, human endeavour, development and technol-
ogy converge as a reiterative cycle here as illustrated in this chapter and in
other contemporary and forward-looking papers (e.g., Holcombe, 2012).
The concept of food sovereignty is a framework that offers a solution to
the food crisis based on principles of local empowerment, equity and agro-
ecology (Curtis & Hilary, 2012; Fairhurst & Mashaba, 1997) and it
appears to capture the holistic approach adopted in contemporary thinking
about agriculture. It serves as a framework to address the global food crisis
that is very real in Africa. Its ethos embodies several ideologies significant
for social relations and care of the environment. Patel (2009) points out
that acknowledging rights implies ensuring that ‘those rights are met across
a range of geographies, by everyone, in substantive and meaningful ways’.
In the context of viewing the home as a locus of social relations, he points
out that food sovereignty requires respect for women’s rights that would
supersede patriarchal traditions in the household with culture undergoing
transformation; that relations between farmers and farm workers should
not be subjected to structural inequalities in power; and suggests that food
sovereignty is simultaneously about farming technology, democratic policy
making, public health, the environment and gender. His view clarifies
IAASTD’s simple definition that food sovereignty concerns ‘the right of
peoples and sovereign states to democratically determine their own agri-
cultural and food policies’ (IAASTD, 2009, p. 5).
In essence, the call is for food-related initiatives to uphold the ideals of
food sovereignty by action: to strengthen farmers’ organisations; to
support the small-scale farm sector; to recognise local and indigenous
knowledge; to value integrating formal and informal scientific processes;
to increase investments in agro-ecological farming; to create more equi-
table and transparent trade agreements; and to encourage local participa-
tion in policy formation and decision-making processes—particularly by
women, indigenous peoples, community groups, farmers and their organ-
isations (Ishii-Eiteman, 2009, p. 698). These are significant contemporary
concerns captured in this chapter.
86 J. FAIRHURST
Conclusion
Conclusions documented from selected information about programmes,
interventions and research endeavours further enhance appreciation and
understanding of the integral part played by agriculture in rural develop-
ment planning. It is, however, inevitable that some interventions succeed
and some fail. However, virtually without exception, irrespective of the
theoretical basis applied to the conceptualisation and analysis of the prob-
lem or the methods used to get information, assumptions, perceptions or
ideas, observations or dreams recorded in this chapter have hopefully stim-
ulated and enlightened the reader. May this chapter inspire to keep the
wheel spinning, not attempting to reinvent it—it is the wheel of human-
environment interaction and intervention in African agriculture that
allows it to uplift its people’s well-being and quality of life in many ways.
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Joan Fairhurst (DPhil), Professor Emeritus from the University of Pretoria, is a

practising geographer whose teaching career flowed via teacher training to higher
education interests. Her special interest in distance education and her discipline
continues and community engagement has become a strong focus in her recent
work. She participates actively in the promotion of professional English language
use and editing and in mentoring programmes in a range of social and environ-
mental sciences.
CHAPTER 5
Financing Rural Development Programmes
Rodney Asilla and Anna Nyaoro Mala
Introduction
Mobilising and allocating finances to rural development programmes is
important to realise their implementation. Of course, other inputs such as
human resources and sustained implementation are also important.
Finance for rural development planning encompasses savings, lending,
financing and risk minimising opportunities, as well as related norms and
institutions in rural areas (Department for International Development
[DFID], 2004).
Both agricultural and non-agricultural activities taking place in rural areas
involve financial transactions (International Fund for Agricultural
Development [IFAD], 2009). Thus, rural finance is not only characterised
by credit facilities, but also other services such as savings and insur-
ance (Demirguc-Kunt and Levine, 2004; World Bank, 2003). Rural finance
affects many areas of rural socio-economic development and not just the
routine agricultural aspects. This chapter presents results of a review on
financing rural development programmes in Africa.
R. Asilla (*)
Department of Curriculum Instruction & Educational Management, Egerton
University, Njoro, Nakuru, Kenya
A.N. Mala
Geneva, Switzerland

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_5
94 R. ASILLA AND A.N. MALA
Methods
Peer reviewed articles on rural financing were accessed from electronic
databases including Elsevier and Pergamon. Articles from academic insti-
tutions, such as the University of Helsinki, University of Free State,
Bloemfontein, and the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, were also included.
Additionally, the study also included literature from organisational data-
bases, such as the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Finmark
Trust, the International Institute for Environment and Development, the
African Monitor, and the Economic and Social Research Foundation.
Key words used during the search for literature were rural finance in
Africa, microfinance in rural Africa, and financial development in rural
Africa. The search yielded a large number of publications. Twenty-one
publications were found appropriate for the topic at hand. Information
was extracted and processed for presentation and discussion. Each selected
study was examined and information extracted with regard to its design,
theories and conceptual models, and empirical findings.
Study Designs
As shown in Table 5.1, majority of the studies (13) focused on a single
country (Basaza, Criel, & Van der Stuyft, 2008; Gilson et al., 2001;
Haselip, Desgain, & Mackenzie, 2013; Ilskog, Kjellstroma, Gullberg,
Katyegac, & Chambala, 2004; Lyon, 2000; Macintyre & Hotchkiss,
1999; Mariam, 2003; Mills et al., 2012; Murphy, 1999; Nishimura &
Yamano, 2012; Palmer, 2007; Porter, 2002; Schicks, 2013). One focused
on the region of Sub-Saharan Africa (Mladovsky & Mossialos, 2007).
Two studies focused on the African continent as a whole (Gujba, Thorne,
Mulugetta, Rai, & Sokona, 2012; Skinner, 2008), and six of the studies
did not focus on any specific region (Eberhard & Shkaratan, 2009; Eckart
& Henshaw, 2012; Ensor & Ronoh, 2005; Leighton, 1996; Platteau,
2009; Van, Stewart, & de Wet, 2012).
In relation to study type, three of the studies were reports (Basaza et al.,
2008; Ilskog et al., 2004; Macintyre & Hotchkiss, 1999). Six of them were
comparative studies (Gilson et al., 2001; Leighton, 1996; Mills et al., 2012),
and seven were documentary reviews (Eckart & Henshaw, 2012; Ensor &
Table 5.1 Summary of research on financing rural development programmes in Africa
Author, date Geographical Data collection Theoretical Study focus Key findings
unit method framework
Macintyre Country Review of Social capital Emergency transport in A reliable emergency transport system
and (Kenya, documents rural health care increases the efficiency of a health
Hotchkiss Samburu referral system
(1999) District)
Gilson et al. Country Document Equitability Creating equity in health All the three countries failed to
(2001) (Kenya, Zambia, review, policy through pro-poor provide adequate pro-poor health
Benin) authoritative health reform agendas reforms
opinion
Mladovsky N/A Documentary Social capital Role of social capital in Application of a social capital
and Mossialos review promoting economic approach in Community-Based
(2007) development through Health Initiatives could facilitate
enhancing the success of universal healthcare coverage in
Community-Based Health low-income countries
Initiatives
Ilskog et al. Townships and Observation Social capital Role of electrification Rural electrification cooperatives
(2004) villages (Monitoring cooperative to bringing played a major role in bringing
(Tanzania) and electricity to rural areas electricity to rural communities in
evaluation) Tanzania
Eckart and Village Review of Sustainable Viability of use of Jatropha Jatropha can be successfully used as a
Henshaw documents development curcas as fuel towards tool for sustainable development
(2012) management of a through production of fuel for
multifunctional platform multifunctional platforms (MFPs)
project
(continued)
FINANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
95
96
Mills et al. Country Survey Universal Equity in financing and Health care financing is progressive in
(2012) (Ghana, South coverage use of healthcare by all three countries, but distribution of
Africa, people outside formal healthcare benefits has a pro-rich
Tanzania) employment in Ghana, inclination
South Africa and Tanzania
Haselip et al. Countries Semi- Demonstration Role of financing towards Financing SMEs in Africa can be key
R. ASILLA AND A.N. MALA
(2013) (Ghana, structured effect growth of energy SMEs in to alleviating energy and fuel
Senegal) interviews rural areas of Africa problems in rural Africa, if reluctance
of internal investors can be overcome
Gujba et al. Africa (no Review of Availability of financing of There are various ways to address the
(2012) specific country) documents low carbon energy issue of funding for low carbon
production and access in energy production and access in
Africa Africa
Ensor and Country Review of Social capital Effective financing of There is a general failure by African
Ronoh documents maternal health services governments to provide sufficient
(2005) for poor people financial support for poor people
seeking maternal healthcare
Palmer Country Review of Pro-poor policies focusing Ghana lacks an effective skills
(2007) (Ghana) documents on skills development in development policy that specifically
Ghana addresses a pro-poor youth agenda
Van Rooyen Sub-Saharan Review of The impact of Microfinance can have a negative
et al. (2012) Africa documents microfinance on impact on growth and development
development in Sub- targeted at poverty reduction,
Saharan Africa through increased possibilities of debt
(continued)
Mariam Village/ Interviews Social capital Looking at the Indigenous social insurance is an
(2003) neighbourhood effectiveness of indigenous effective way of financing access to
social insurance in health services in rural areas
financing access to health
services in Ethiopia
Nishimura Primary schools Interviews Universal Issues of school choice, Most parents would opt to send their
and Yamano in Kenya primary progress and transfers children to private schools due to the
(2012) education under Free Primary deteriorating standards of education
Education in rural areas in after the introduction of Free Primary
Kenya Education
Murphy Countries Expert Developmental Limitations to successful Energy technology leapfrogging
(1999) (Kenya, opinion leapfrogging energy-based cannot be isolated from other aspect
Uganda, developmental of socio-economic development
Tanzania) leapfrogging in East Africa
Platteau Not specified Review of Institutionalism Institutional obstacle to Some of Africa’s greatest obstacles to
(2009) documents Sub-Saharan African growth and development are
economic development ethnicity, religious beliefs and lack of
(state, ethnicity, tradition) strong social and governance
structures
Basaza et al. Uganda Focus group Social capital Factors that hinder Financial challenges, poor health care
(2008) discussions registration into benefits and rigidity of the
Community Health institutions hinder registration to
Insurance schemes in Community Health Schemes
Uganda
FINANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
(continued)
97
98
Schicks Ghana Questionnaire Customer Factors related to Overdependence on microfinance

(2013) protection over-indebtedness in and lack of adequate information on
African microfinance loan microfinance systems are a major
systems cause of over-indebtedness
Eberhard and Sub-Saharan Review of Socio- Challenges to power Low investment, inefficiencies and
Shkaratan Africa documents economic generation in Sub-Saharan lack of robust governance structures
R. ASILLA AND A.N. MALA
(2012) development Africa and how to affect power production in Africa

overcome them
Porter (2002) Country Cross- equity Equitability in rural Low level of transport and
(Ghana) sectional transport and communication infrastructure in rural
studies communication sector in Sub-Saharan Africa hinders socio-
rural Sub-Saharan Africa economic growth
Skinner Country Review of Social exclusion Trends in social inclusion Street trading is a source of income
(2008) documents and exclusion of street for many urban residents in Africa,
traders in Africa and cannot be done away with
Lyon (2000) Country Interviews Social capital Social capital building Trust is an essential component of
(Ghana) through trust networks social capital building for success of
micro-enterprises in rural areas
Leighton Africa Review of Policy reform Strategic and Most African countries face common
(1996) documents implementation issues in issues in health reform such as time
health financing in Africa, constraints, political, economic and
and strategies to overcome technical challenges
them
FINANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 99
Ronoh, 2015; Mladovsky & Mossialos, 2007; Murphy, 1999; Palmer, 2007;
Platteau, 2009; Skinner, 2008). One study was an interview (Haselip et al.,
2013), while another one was a systematic review (Van Rooyen et al., 2012).
One other study took the form of an authoritative opinion (Eberhard &
Shkaratan, 2012), while another one was a cross-sectional study (Porter,
2002). Four of the studies were surveys (Lyon, 2000; Mariam, 2003;
Nishimura & Yamano, 2012; Schicks, 2013).

Various theories and conceptual models were used in the different studies.
Seven of the studies used the social capital theory (Basaza et al., 2008; Ensor
& Ronoh, 2005; Ilskog et al., 2004; Macintyre & Hotchkiss, 1999; Mariam,
2003; Mladovsky & Mossialos, 2007; Lyon, 2000). One study was based
on policy reform (Leighton, 1996), and another was on social exclusion
(Skinner, 2008). One other study was based on socio-economic develop-
ment (Eberhard & Shkaratan, 2012), and two others were on equity (Gilson
et al., 2001; Porter, 2002). One study looked at on customer protection
(Schicks, 2013) while another was based on institutionalism (Platteau,
2009), and yet another one dealt with developmental leapfrogging (Murphy,
1999). One study was grounded on the principle of universal primary edu-
cation (Nishimura & Yamano, 2012), and yet another was anchored on the
theory of the demonstration effect (Haselip et al., 2013). A further study
was founded on the concept of universal coverage (Mills et al., 2012), and
another one based on sustainable development (Eckart & Henshaw, 2012).
Finally, three studies did not have a clear theory or conceptual model guid-
ing them (Gujba et al., 2012; Palmer, 2007; Van et al., 2012).
Overall, the studies identified and reviewed drew on three main theo-
retical and conceptual models. These are social capital (Basaza et al., 2008;
Ensor & Ronoh, 2005; Ilskog et al., 2004; Lyon, 2012; Mariam, 2003;
Mills et al., 2012; Mladovsky & Mossialos, 2007; Skinner, 2008), infra-
structure (Leighton, 1996; Macintyre & Hotchkiss, 1999; Porter, 2002),
and governance and policymaking (Eberhard & Shkaratan, 2002; Eckart
& Henshaw, 2012; Gilson et al., 2001; Gujba et al., 2012; Haselip et al.,
2013; Murphy, 1999; Nishimura & Yamano, 2012; Palmer, 2007; Schicks,
2013; Van Rooyen et al., 2012). While these studies contributed to an
understanding of the respective theories used, they did not seem to con-
tribute to the further development of these theories by critiquing existing
ones and even elaborating new ones.

From Table 5.1, it can be noted that the studies fall into two related but
distinct categories within rural finance: infrastructural and socio-economic
aspects of rural finance. Some of the studies fit into both categories.
However, in an attempt to achieve clarity of distinction within the review,
they were categorised as one of either of the two main categories.
Rural Finance and Infrastructure

A number of the studies within the corpus highlighted the essence of
enhancing the link between rural finance and infrastructure. The infra-
structure needs not to be considered only as physical infrastructure but
also as political infrastructure. Studies noted that rural finance and infra-
structure are in a continuous cause-and-effect cycle, where they impact on
each other. In these cause-and-effect cycles, for instance, it was observed
that investing in energy infrastructure and production, both mainstream
and alternative sources, was going to positively impact on productivity,
and subsequently, would contribute to the growth of rural finance
(Eberhard & Shkaratan, 2012; Ilskog et al., 2004). Similarly, financing
production of alternative energy would result in growth of rural econo-
mies with the long-term objective of improving rural economies (Gujba
et al., 2012; Haselip et al., 2013; Murphy, 1999).
Other areas of infrastructural investment in rural areas include health.
Gilson et al. (2001), Leighton (1996) and Mills et al. (2012) pointed out that
there was need to invest in a policy infrastructure that ensured the creation of
proper, pro-poor health policies that would ease the burden of access to health
care by poor people, as well as those who were outside the formal employ-
ment sector in Africa. However, such policy infrastructure may present unin-
tended challenges. These are presented by Nishimura and Yamano (2012)
who observe that while seeking to attain universal education through the free
primary education programme, the initiative resulted in lower education qual-
ity in government schools, forcing parents to seek private alternatives to edu-
cation. Platteau (2008) also challenges the institutionalism that characterises
African governance as a major hindrance to growth and development.
Socio-Economic Aspect of Rural Finance

While rural finance has a lot to do with monetary circulation and manage-
ment, a significant part of its success is linked to the social facet of its
operations. Rural societies in Africa are noted for their strong, distinct
social framework. The role of such social frameworks has consequently

been brought into the scope of rural finance in a variety of ways, especially
through social capital. This has been identified in a number of the selected
studies in this review.
Macintyre and Hotchkiss (1999) identify the role of social capital in
enhancing infrastructure by investing in emergency transport for ease of
access to health care. Mladovsky and Mossialos (2007) also note that the use
of the social capital approach through Community-Based Healthcare
Initiatives would improve attainment of universal health care objectives.
This has also been argued for by Ensor and Ronoh (2005) who asserted that
social capital can help improve access to maternal health care, as community-
based initiatives will reach those who cannot yet access government health
services in Africa. Mariam (2003) and Basaza et al. (2008) also argued for
the importance of social capital in rural communal health initiatives.
Lyon (2000) has argued that social capital has been of great importance
for economic growth in rural areas, where social networks have contrib-
uted to the increased supply and demand of goods and services. Skinner
(2008) has noted that there is a need to mitigate social exclusion of street
traders in Africa because they equally contribute to adequate economic
growth. Still on this part, Schicks (2013) and Van et al. (2012) have
argued against microfinance as a development strategy, since lack of ade-
quate information and a tendency for over-indebtedness can result in
more negative than positive outcomes while fighting poverty.
Growth and State of Rural Finance in Africa

Results presented in Table 5.1 show rural financing is needed for socio-
economic and infrastructural investment. The results also reveal that inad-
equate financial resources remain a problem in rural development efforts.
In the 1960s and the 1970s, rural finance took mainly the form of agricul-
tural credit loans, with an aim towards increasing incomes and reducing
poverty levels among rural populations, while at the same time increasing
agricultural productivity, since most rural people who were adversely
affected by high poverty levels were in economies which were mainly
dependent on agriculture (Yaron, Benjamin, & Piprek, 1997). Funds for
these programmes were provided by the respective governments, and were
also sourced from donor corporations (Marr, 2012). These programmes,
however, were unsustainable as well as ineffective, and they negatively
impacted on financial markets in most developing countries (Yaron et al.,
1997).
The failure of these programmes led to the development of alternative

rural finance strategies; the most prevalent being the microfinance institu-
tions (Marr, 2012). Microfinance has been defined by Robinson (2001) as
the small-scale financial services provided to people who run petty busi-
nesses in both rural and urban communities. Over time, the microfinance
sector has steadily risen to be an influential player in the growth of rural
finance in Africa, and subsequently, has contributed towards African rural
development. This growth has mainly been attributed to the emergence of
the concept of financial inclusion (Meyer, 2015). There has been an
increase in rural finance projects that also operate along equitability prin-
ciples, by targeting the vulnerable in society such as women, and even
those suffering from HIV/AIDS (World Bank, 2001).
Rural finance in Africa has taken various forms over the years. These
forms have included:
• intermediation, which focuses on mobilisation and transfer of sav-

ings from surplus to deficit units. It also provides savings facilities
and access to credit facilities that respond to the specific needs of the
rural setup (World Bank, 2004);
• savings facilities, which maintain value preservation, liquidity and
accessibility of wealth (DFID, 2004);
• credit for consumption smoothing and investment in agricultural
production, marketing, processing and input supplies (Gonzalez-
Vega, 2003);
• effective payments and remittance transfer systems (Orozco, 2003;
Sanders, 2003); and
• general insurance and cover against variability in output (especially as
agriculture is largely weather-dependent), price and marketing
uncertainty (Skees, 2003; Von Pischke, 2003).
Conclusion
Three main conclusions are derived from the presentation and discussion
of the findings in this chapter. The first is that rural finance is considered
an essential component of the African economy. This is supported by the
fact that majority of Africa’s population is based in the rural areas. It there-
fore lends strength to the argument for African governments to invest
more in improving the financial atmosphere of rural areas; or at the very
least, create a suitable environment in which rural finance thrives. This also
involves infrastructural investments in accessibility and communication.
The second is that with the majority of Africa’s economies being char-
acterised by a significant dependence on agriculture in the rural areas, it is
imperative that rural areas attain financial and subsequently, economic
growth. As observed in most of the cases, investing in the financial growth
of these agriculturally productive areas will spur economic growth, and
consequently contribute to aggregate economic growth of African coun-
tries. While admittedly, in recent times, there has been a trend among
many African countries looking to turn away from agriculture-based econ-
omies mainly as a result of new discoveries of mineral wealth, agriculture
still remains a significant contributor to African economies.
The third conclusion is that the role of the community in growth and
development of rural finance cannot be ignored. One way this has been
brought out is through the concept of social capital. The networks and
relationships in African rural communities are an important part of rural
African society. This manifests in close familial, friendship and kinship con-
nections going back in time. This characteristic of African society has
equally been incorporated into rural finance.
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Rodney Asilla (B Ed.) is a trained teacher by profession. He did his undergradu-

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French Language and Literature in English. He is currently completing a Master
of Research and Public Policy degree at Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya.
Anna Nyaoro Mala (B A) holds a Bachelor of Commerce degree from the

University of Nairobi. She is a certified public accountant and internal auditor with
over 20 years of work experience in auditing, tax consultancy and accounting in
the private and public sector.
CHAPTER 6
Small Market and Urban Centres
Francis N. Wegulo
Introduction
Market centres and small urban settlements, which form lower-order cen-
tres in the urban rank size hierarchy, and their roles and functions in rural
and regional development remain an important subject of interest and
debate among planners, decision-makers and researchers. This chapter
presents and discusses evidence on the role that markets and small urban
centres play in rural and regional development in Africa. The chapter
examines research designs, theories, conceptual models and role of these
centres in selected studies.
Methods
Literature related to markets and small towns and their role in rural and
regional development in Africa between about the mid-1990s and the
present were reviewed. The benchmark of the mid-1990s was considered
appropriate in view of the various external and internal events that influ-
enced the economies of sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, including
socio-economic impacts associated with the neoliberal economic push
F.N. Wegulo (*)

Department of Geography, Egerton University, Njoro, Nakuru, Kenya

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_6
108 F.N. WEGULO
from western countries and the Bretton Wood institutions to make struc-
tural adjustments in their economies as a way of making them resilient and
efficient. Internally, the decade preceding the 1990s witnessed frantic
efforts by various governments in most African countries to grapple with
the issue of rural and regional development, and the measures that could
facilitate equitable spatial development.
In the process of searching for the relevant literature on the study sub-
ject, I came across a variety of interesting perspectives contributed from
within and outside Africa. The sources of these studies were published
books, book chapters, journal papers, dissertations, working papers, policy
briefs, and conference papers. The search for the literature was guided by
the following key terms: market and small towns in rural development,
rural–urban links, rural–urban dynamics, rural–urban development, rural
development, decentralization and rural development, and integrated
rural–urban development. The search yielded a substantial number of
studies. The universe of studies that address issues of market centres and
small towns and their place and role in rural and regional development in
Africa is varied, extensive and, in all probability, still growing. Hence the
58 selected studies (Table 6.1) are by all intents and purposes non-
exhaustive; they are tentative, and therefore only serve as an indication of
the broad picture with respect to the theme under review. Nevertheless,
this selection serves to capture various dimensions and perspectives of the
role of market centres and small urban centres in rural and regional devel-
opment in Africa.
From the selected studies, information was extracted and processed to
discuss specific aspects indicated in the questions in the introduction.
These aspects are presented in the sections that follow. I begin with an
examination of research designs used by various authors, followed by the-
ories and conceptual models, and the role played by market centres and
small towns in rural development in African countries.
Study Designs
Table 6.2 provides details of the distribution of studies by geographical
location, sources of data, and type of data used in the sample study. It is
noted from Table 6.2 that the studies with a focus at the national level
were the majority (13 of them equivalent of 42%), followed by 7 (23%) at
SMALL MARKET AND URBAN CENTRES 109
Table 6.1 Scope of research on market and small urban centres in selected
studies
Author, year Focus
Akkoyunlu (2015) Influence of infrastructure, institutions and trade on linkages

between rural and urban regions in the context of rural
empowerment and economic development
Alaci (2010) Need for governments across SSA countries to identify growth
inducing agents, build capacity of professional planners, and
managers; as well as establish economic settlement clusters to
re-invigorate the development of small and medium size towns
Baker (1990) Theoretical and conceptual contributions on the role of small
towns in rural development in SSA
Baker and Pedersen Overview of theoretical approaches, rural–urban linkages,
(1992) entrepreneurship, living conditions and labour markets, and
urban agriculture
Corwin (1977) Rural town and minimal urban centre
Darkoh (1994) Tanzania’s growth and industrial decentralisation strategy in
the post-independence period focusing on industrial and urban
development policies
Dorosh and Thurlow Capacity of cities or towns to drive African development: a
(2012) focused analysis of Ethiopia and Uganda
Dorosh et al. (2011) Growth and distributional impacts of alternative regional
investment options in Ethiopia
Dunham (1991) Link between agricultural growth, non-farm expansion and
poverty
Egunjobi (1990) The development potentials of local central places in Nigeria
Engel (1997) Concept of ‘regional rural development’ and its development
in Southern Africa
Evans (1992) Rural–urban relations and household income diversification
Gaile (1992) Basic aspects of a small town programme in market-based
development contexts, and the criteria and guidelines for
choosing the small towns
Gete et al. (2007) Regional development planning in Ethiopia and mutual
relations between rural and urban areas
Gilbert and Gugler Broad appraisal of urbanisation in the Third World
(1992)
Gooneratne (1996) Prospects for alternative urban futures in Sub-Saharan Africa
Hinderink and Titus Paradigms of regional development & role of small centres
(1988)
Hinderink and Titus Role of small towns in regional development
(2002)
Hussein (2004) Decentralization and its role in promoting participatory
development in Malawi
(continued)
110 F.N. WEGULO
Author, year Focus
Kabwegere (1978) A historical–political economy analysis and review of

urbanization in Kenya.
Kamete (1998) Links and interactions between farm and town settlements in
north-west Zimbabwe
Manyanhaire, Rwafa, Growth centre concept and a critique of the constraints to the
and Mutangadura development of growth centres
(2011)
Mason (1989) Role of urbanization in developing countries—focus on Kutus,
Kenya
Maro (1990) Decentralization and villagization policies and impacts in
reducing spatial inequalities and promoting rural development
in Tanzania
Mehretu (1989) Socio-spatial constraints to development in Sub-Saharan Africa
Mitchell-Weaver (1991) Review of urban systems theory and Third World development
Seraje (2007) Ways in which different households rely on varying
combinations of activities, the factors affecting each strategy
and their implications for rural–urban linkages
Mulongo, Erute, and Rural–urban interlink and sustainability of urban centres in
Kerre (2012) Kenya
Mushi (2003) Regional development through rural–urban linkages
Muzzini and Urban-related empirical questions associated with the urban
Lindeboom (2008) transition in mainland Tanzania
Mwanamtwa (2012) Examination of the role of urbanization in rural development,
case of Tanzania
Mylott (n.d.) Public policies, urban and regional plans and their role in
spurring economic growth in a sustainable manner
Ngau (1989) Rural–urban relations in Kutus town of Kirinyaga County,
Kenya
Nhede (2013) Examination of potential of growth points and implication on
public service
Nicchia (2011) The study reviews theoretical issues, and presents case studies
to facilitate analysis of two towns—Caia and Sena
(Mozambique) in the context of town planning.
Obudho and Aduwo Urban approaches to regional and rural development (Kenya)
(1990)
Obudho, Akatch, and Urbanization and regional planning in Africa in the context of
Aduwo (1988) socio-economic change
Ojeh and Thaddeus An empirical validation of the growth pole concept with a
(2012) focus on Delta State University in Abraka in Nigeria
Okpala (2003) Study seeks to review strategies for promoting the positive
aspects of rural–urban linkages
(continued)
Author, year Focus
Otiso (2005) Study examines the current state of Kenya’s secondary cities in
the context of its urban and regional development strategies
Otiso and Owusu Study reviews the comparative spatial and temporal analysis of
(2008) urbanization in Ghana and Kenya
Oucho (2004) Reviews case studies that examine rural–urban Linkages in SSA
Owusu (2005a) Role of District Capitals in Regional Development in Ghana
Owusu (2005b) Promotion of small towns under Ghana’s decentralization
programme
Pedersen (1990) Role of small towns in organizing enterprise in space
Pedersen (1991) The role of Small & Intermediate Urban Centres in Planning
in Africa
Potts (2012) Evaluation of urbanization in SSA, and its impact on rural
development
Rondinelli (1983) An examination of applied methods of regional planning
Rondinelli (1986) Explication of relationships among urbanization, agricultural
development and employment generation in developing
counties and their implications for international assistance to
Third World Countries
Satterrthwaite and Role of small & intermediate urban centres in rural & regional
Tacoli (2003) development & poverty reduction
Southall (1988) Role of small towns in rural/regional development
Southall (1979) Subject matter is centred on the place and role of
Tacoli (1998) Literature review on the subject rural–urban interactions
Gooneratne (1996) Role of Cities in regional development
United Nations Regional urban policy in Africa
Development
Programme (2016)
Mason (1989) Role of urbanization in developing countries
Veron (2010) Examination of a conceptual framework and agenda for the
study of small cities in the Global South, their environmental
dynamics, governance, and politics in the current neoliberal
context
Wafula (2011) Planning and managing urbanization in Kenya following the
new Constitution
Wakwete (1988) Rural Growth Points—future prospects
Wakwete (1990) A historical analysis of urbanization focusing on the colonial
and post-independence spatial strategies meant to service rural
hinterland populations
Wegulo (1993) Farm-non-farm activities and their impact on rural
development
Wegulo and Obulinji Link between sugarcane farming and investment patterns
(2001)
112 F.N. WEGULO
Table 6.2 Study designs

Aspect Geographical focus
Geographical Local National Continental Other Total

unit (Developing
country/global)
Frequency 07 13 06 05 31
Data sources Survey/ Secondary Review Other (mixed
primary sources)
Frequency 10 07 09 05 31
Data analysis Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative/ Other
qualitative
Frequency 09 12 10 01 32
local level and 6 (19%) at continental (African) level. Of the total, 5 studies
(16%) focused on other developing countries/global level. Overall, it is
clear that the studies covered wide geographical units.
With regard to analysis, 12 studies (38.7%) relied on qualitative, 10
(32.25%) on a combination of quantitative and qualitative, and 9 (29%)
on quantitative designs. One study (1%) relied on meta-analysis. As for
data sources, 10 studies or 32 per cent relied upon primary sources espe-
cially surveys. This was closely followed by reviews (9 or 29%). Secondary
and mixed sources accounted for 7 (22.5%) and 5 (16%) studies, respec-
tively. It can be observed that the studies under review sourced their data
from a wide base.

Table 6.3 presents data on the concepts, and theories as employed in the
sample studies. From this table, two important features emerge. The first
is the diversity of theories and concepts that have been used in the various
studies. The second is that nearly all the studies reviewed have been
anchored in one or a combination of concepts, models and theories. It is
noted that a few of the studies have employed a historical perspective.
A question one may ask is as follows: ‘Why is it that different studies have
used a combination of theories and conceptual models?’ The question
could be handled in different ways but perhaps the most rational answer
would be that the studies under review addressed unique problems in
varied geographical, socio-economic and political situations. Moreover,
the studies were conducted at different periods in time. This suggests that
Table 6.3 Dominant theories and conceptual models used in sample studies
Theory and conceptual Authors Frequency
model
Rural–urban Tacoli (1998), Satterthwaite and Tacoli (2003), 12

linkages/rural–urban Oucho (2004), Mushi (2003), Mulongo et al.
interactions (2012), Hinderink and Titus (2002), Gete et al.
(2007), Trutmann and Aster (2007), Evans
(1992), Oucho (2004), Wegulo and Obulinji
(2001), Gaile (1992)
Growth pole & service Darkoh (1994), Gantsho (2008), Mulongo, 4
centre, growth points, Erute, and Kerre (2012), Manyanhaire et al.
urban functions in rural (2011)
development
Decentralization concept Darkoh (1994), Owusu (2005a) 3
Network analysis Uchendu (2013), Pedersen (1990) 2
Multi-spatial livelihoods Owuor (2006) 1
analysis model
Central place theory Egunjobi (1990) 1
Functional integration Hinderink and Titus (2002) 1
Rural growth linkages Dunham (1991) 1
Agropolitan development Darkoh (1994) 1
strategies
Economic settlement Alaci (2010) 1
cluster
Territorial development Darkoh (1994), Rondinelli (1983) 1
the spatial and temporal contexts are of paramount importance in our

interrogation of the different theories and models adopted to guide the
different studies. It may also be argued that different authors were per-
suaded in theoretically and intellectually different ways, partly because of
hegemonic influence of the reigning theories at the time of their contribu-
tion, as well as their own philosophical and ideological inclinations.
Overall, the theories and conceptual models used in the sample studies
include: the family of theories linking rural areas and urban centres; the
family of theories that focus on concentrated development—growth pole/
growth centre, and growth points; decentralization–related development
theories. Others are: network analysis; central place theory; multi-spatial
livelihoods analysis model; functional integration; rural growth linkages;
agropolitan development strategies; and economic settlement cluster
(Table 6.3). A discussion of the predominant and commonly used spatial
theories of rural/regional development is presented in the section that
114 F.N. WEGULO
follows. The discussion focuses on three key groups of spatial theories:

rural–urban linkages; growth pole/growth centre; and decentralization.
Rural–Urban Linkages (RUL)

This group of theories takes several names such as rural–urban interactions,
rural–urban relations, rural–urban development, rural–urban dynamics
model and rural–urban balance. From the studies reviewed, this group of
theories has attracted the highest number of researchers including but not
limited to Tacoli (1998), Satterthwaite and Tacoli (2003), Oucho (2004),
Mushi (2003), Mulongo et al. (2012), Hinderink and Titus (2002), Gete
et al. (2007), Trutmann and Aster (2007), Evans (1992), Oucho (2004),
Wegulo and Obulinji (2001), and Gaile (1992).
The main argument in this model is that there are close and practical
relations between urban and rural areas. Rural areas depend on urban
areas for secondary schools, post and telephone, credit, agricultural expan-
sion services, farm equipment, hospitals and government services. Rural
areas on the other hand supply towns with food needed to satisfy the
growing consumption, raw materials for manufacturing and processing
industries, and human labour among other flows. These relations have
over the time been greatly expanded in view of greater access to informa-
tion technology, better roads, improved education and changing eco-
nomic realities. All these have served to increase the movement of people,
goods and services.
Scholars are, however, divided as to whether towns play parasitic or
generative roles in their relations with their rural hinterlands. Some schol-
ars vouch for mutual and synergetic flows; the markets centres and towns
being seen to support the development of their rural hinterlands
(Rondinelli, 1988). Several others led by Southall (1988) argue to the
contrary, suggesting that towns exploit their rural hinterlands.
A question that may arise is as follows: ‘To what extent do these theo-
ries illustrate the efficacy of the linkages between urban centres and devel-
opment of their rural hinterlands?’ This question is best answered by
looking at selected studies with empirical verifications (Karaska, 1999;
Mason, 1989; Mushi, 2003; Wegulo & Obulinji, 2001). These studies
demonstrate the existence of fairly dynamic relations between rural areas,
and the small towns. The study of the impact region of Dar es Salaam by
Mushi (2003) for example, unveils the latent potentials of rural–urban
linkages (in terms of livelihood enhancement) between the rural and
urban sectors. The study, however, underscores the weak linkages existing
between the rural agricultural hinterland and Dar es Salaam. The weak-
nesses are attributed to several factors including limited local institutional
development, and its interplay, inadequate provision of social, physical and
economic infrastructure, and ineffective regional planning machinery in
the impact region (Mushi, 2003).
Results from studies conducted in Kutus in Kirinyaga in Kenya and
reported variously by Mason (1989) and Karaska (1999) equally demon-
strate the potential benefits of linkage between towns and their rural hin-
terlands. It is observed that the Kutus exchange system has several key
ingredients briefly described as income multiplication, production and
marketing generated revenue, and consumption expenditure. These flows
benefit both the agricultural sector (rural) and town. However, like in the
case of Dar es Salaam impact study area, the agricultural sector and by
extension the farm households remain the most critical factor in driving
the Kutus regional economy.
The study by Wegulo and Obulinji (2001) provides further elaboration
of the links between the rural-based agricultural sector (sugarcane produc-
tion), and market centre and small-town-based activities (trading, artisanal
and provision of a wide range of services). It is evident from the study
results that the rural economy and its development are largely dependent
upon the agricultural sector.
Growth Poles and Service Centre

Growth points (GPs), growth poles (GPs), small towns (STs) or growth
centres (GCs) as they are variously named in literature are defined as cen-
tres with strong resource base that can initiate a cumulative causation pro-
cess that culminate in continuous and sustainable development
(Manyanhaire et al., 2011). The growth pole/growth centre strategy is
justified on the grounds that for an economy to grow to higher income
levels, it must of necessity develop one or several regional centres or
growth poles (Hirschman, 1958: cited in Darkoh, 1994). This argument
has been supported on the probability grounds that rather than starting
from everywhere in a country, development will focus in a select number
of centres (Obudho & Aduwo, 1990). Such centres would then attract
external economies increasingly, and with time impact on the outlying
areas through its demand for the products of the outlying areas. The out-
lying areas would later then benefit as sources supply for the faster
116 F.N. WEGULO
eveloping regions, and in time cause growth and development in the

d
centre and its outlying areas. Thus, once a centre has been established,
there should be an observable change in the spatial structure and pattern;
the spatio-temporal expansion is tantamount to development, and not just
growth (Ojeh & Thaddeus, 2012).
The perception of cities as growth poles in the urbanization process was
received with excitement and expectations as a means to re-energize eco-
nomic growth in developing and industrializing countries in the 1960s
and 1970s, especially those in Latin America and Southeast Asia. The
prime mover of this process was seen to be the growth pole strategy.
Against this backdrop, planners and development economists keenly set
about to identify locations, which they believed, could act as growth poles
or growth centres in the national urban system (see for example, Darkoh,
1994; Wakwete, 1988). In nearly all cases, established cities were assigned
the function of growth poles and strategically located points in a region
were artificially induced as growth poles. These poles tended to be second-
ary cities within the national urban hierarchy; places that could grow to fill
the gap between the primary city and smaller places (Mitchell-Weaver,
1991). Well-planned and efficiently managed cities were presumed to have
the ability to relieve pressures on surrounding rural areas by concentrating
populations for productive ventures, achieving economies of scale in such
areas as energy, housing, transportation, and promoting land use connec-
tivity. In a similar way, successful rural development would stimulate and
support urban development; and urban development serving as key impe-
tus to rural development. In this way, it can be seen that the process of
urbanization is closely tied with the rural fringes. It is largely from this
perspective that Gantsho (2008) perceives cities as part of a larger ecologi-
cal system than the city limits administratively. In this context, an argu-
ment is made to the effect that as remote rural areas are penetrated via
advanced technology and the global economy, urban and rural areas
become more linked and interdependent.
The question we need to seriously consider is: To what extent is the
Growth Pole Strategy an Economic Growth Option for African Countries?
In response to this question, Gantsho (2008, p. 18) suggests that the use
of the growth pole concept as growth diffusion theory does not work for
African nations. Mabogunje (1971), Mitchell-Weaver (1991) and Kessides
(2007) reach similar conclusions on this matter. Mitchell-Weaver (1991)
puts it more succinctly, arguing that ‘development models based on hypo-
thetical relationships posited to exist in a mature capitalist urban economic
system is inappropriate in most third world countries’. A case study of the

use of growth centre strategy in national development is presented below
(see Case Study 6.1).
Case Study 6.1 Growth Centre Strategy as a National Planning

Model
Like many governments in sub-Saharan Africa, Tanzania inherited a
distorted spatial structure at independence in 1961. In an effort to
re-structure its national space economy, the country embarked on
the use of the Growth Centre strategy. The growth pole/growth
centre theory suggests that by concentrating investment and innova-
tion in a few carefully selected centres, development would either
spontaneously or by inducement ‘trickle down’ throughout the
region (Hansen, 1981).
Darkoh (1994) vividly describes attempts by the Tanzanian
Government (using the growth centre/growth pole strategy) to dis-
tribute industry and allied growth/development from the Dar es
Salaam core into the newly identified growth centres. In the first two
years of its implementation, thirty major industries were allocated,
and of these, only ten went to the growth centres and the remainder
to Dar es Salaam. Of the ten that were allocated to the growth cen-
tres, seven went to Arusha-Moshi. It is therefore evident that Dar es
Salaam continued to exercise dominance through retaining the larg-
est share of the major industries (Darkoh, 1994, p. 89).
After a few years of implementation of this strategy, the Government
of Tanzania acknowledged the ineffectiveness of the growth centre
strategy giving three reasons as follows: firstly, in most cases, location
decisions had been made before the start of the plan; secondly, no
government agency was given formal and direct responsibility for
implementing the policy; and finally, many of the towns designated
as growth centres did not have high enough levels of urban infra-
structure to sustain major industries (United Republic of Tanzania,
1971, p. 103, cited in Darkoh, 1994, p. 90).
Having recognized the failure of the growth centre strategy, the
Tanzania Government sought to engage a major policy reform under
the framework of decentralization. This in effect was a planned
departure from the previous focus on growth centre as a strategy
118 F.N. WEGULO
towards dispersing industry away from Dar es Salaam, as well as

equitably distributing employment incomes and development pros-
pects across the rest of the country.
Evidence from other countries such as Zambia and Kenya suggest
disappointment vis-à-vis the high expectations placed on the growth
centre strategy (Obudho & Aduwo, 1990; Wakwete, 1988). The
‘trickle down’ effects which were supposed to follow after the estab-
lishment of several growth centres in several regions in the respective
countries, did not yield the anticipated results and spin-offs. In any-
thing, it is the large component of suppliers and contractors located
in the large centres that seemed to benefit. It has been observed (for
example, Hansen, 1981) that the spread effects from urban centres
to the immediate rural hinterlands have remained very minimal in
comparison to the linkages that connect these centres with numer-
ous distant places.
This case demonstrates among other things the futility of develop-
ing countries’ engagement in theories and strategies supplemented
from the western world where economic and social systems run very
different paradigms. The lesson is that a thorough interrogation of
theories and models against relevance and appropriateness is an
important requirement by planners in developing countries, prior to
adopting ideologies, models and theories from foreign countries.
Decentralization Concept in Rural Development

Development of small and medium-sized towns has been seen by a number
of Third World countries as a way of mitigating the rapid urban growth of
large cities. It has been argued that the size of towns has the potential to
contribute towards a balanced and dispersed urbanization. One of the key
drivers of this process is decentralization, which is perceived to facilitate the
development of centres (including small towns) within the lower echelons
of the urban hierarchy; leading to uniform distribution of the urban popu-
lation, and avoiding concentrations in a few large cities with their attendant
development challenges (Obudho & Aduwo, 1990; Owusu, 2004, 2005a).
Proponents of decentralization argue that it facilitates both urban and
rural development. In view of this, it is expected that transfer of authority
and resources from the central government under decentralization
enhances the growth of small towns. Small town development programmes

in this sense aim at the development of these centres while also strength-
ening rural–urban linkages. All these enhance both rural and urban liveli-
hoods leading, among other benefits, to poverty reduction.
In his studies of the link between decentralization and the growth of
small towns in Ghana, Owusu (2005a, 2008) shows that contrary to
expectation, there is an increasing degree of centralization and concentra-
tion of the urban spatial hierarchy. This pattern is attributed among other
factors to:
• Unfavourable decentralized policies;

• Policies that favour spatial concentration;
• Irresistible processes of global forces (market liberalization and glo-
balization). These are contributing to new concentration of activities
in metropolitan;
• Inherent weaknesses of small towns in Ghana, the majority of which
are associated with functional structures that are dominated by com-
merce and services activities, and not adequately adapted to the
needs of their rural agricultural hinterland population.
Moreover, these small towns are not well linked to their rural hinterlands
because of poor road infrastructure, poor market infrastructure and the
fragmented, unregulated and inefficient nature of the trade relations result
in small towns ‘by-passed’ by more efficient traders operating from high-
order centres. These structural weaknesses are characteristic of several
Third World countries as the work of Wakwete (1988) in Tanzania; Mushi
(2003) in Tanzania; and Bendavid-Val and Karaska (1987) in Kenya show.
The theories and conceptual models discussed in this section have been
operationalized and used as strategies for rural and regional development
in Africa. A summary of the strategies, their viability, challenges and policy
options is presented in Table 6.4.
Role and Impact of Market and Small Urban Centres on Rural

Development
The impact of markets and small towns on rural development in SSA has
been perceived in the light of the theories and related strategies which
have been used by various researchers on the subject. The pattern and
trend observed in Table 6.5 underscore the observation that different
120
Table 6.4 A summary of strategies used to foster rural development through markets and small towns in Africa
F.N. WEGULO
Strategy Viability to planning rural development in Challenges Policy options

Africa
Rural–urban Inter-industry production linkages between Subsistence nature of Improve road infrastructure for successful
relations the rural sector (agriculture) and urban agriculture, the private RUL, promotion of value addition in
(industry) exist but are weak, resulting in sector not effectively agricultural and micro small scale
constrained viability of rural–urban relations engaged in input enterprises in order to strengthen the
(Gete et al, 2007; Mushi, 2003) distribution, disinterest of rural–urban linkages, address the poor/
Small towns poorly connected to their rural formal banks to finance inadequate infrastructure
hinterlands (Nacchia, 2011). Trade relations rural people. Other factors Raise the competencies of local
between market centres (Dunkwa in Ghana) include limited local administrators and planners
and its rural hinterland are fragmented and institutional development, Promote effective working of markets/
regulated. Market is therefore by-passed by inadequate provision of small towns and their hinterlands through
more efficient towns (Kumasi, Obuasi, social, physical and improvement of infrastructure
Takoradi) economic infrastructure
Owusu (2005a) Poor road conditions, lack
of local capacity in
planning
(continued)
Strategy Viability to planning rural development in Challenges Policy options

Africa
Urban-led Provision of markets and services by urban The social, economic, Rural development planning matrix should
rural centres not enough to bring about expansion geographical, and cultural include social, economic, geographical,
development of nonfarm employment and increased context may be the and cultural elements
demand for agricultural goods and services limiting factors Planners should exercise flexibility in
(2003) Inadequate access to basic designing interventions that target rural
Urban centres operate in diverse and infrastructure—limiting areas for growth and development
complex social, historical and economic expansion of non-farm For rural development efforts to succeed,
systems (Baker & Pedersen, 1992; Obudho activities planners should exploit the prevailing (and
& Aduwo, 1990). Promotion of urban potential) synergies between rural and
centres necessary but not a sufficient urban areas within specific regions
condition to generate and sustain economic Infrastructure and market access should be
growth in rural areas carefully considered in planning for
Urbanization and industrialization foster markets and small towns
positive externalities, nourish innovation,
provide a hub for trade, and thus attract
population
Urban areas have comparative advantage over
rural areas in facilitating rural development
(Muzzini & Linderboom, 2008)
Growth pole Strategies are not appropriate for resolving Underlying assumptions Caution should be exercised by planners
and growth urban imbalance and facilitating rural and not applicable in Third in the Third World in adopting western-
centre regional development in Tanzania and in any World countries based models in planning development in
developing country (Darkoh, 1994) Distance separating Africa
Expected spin-off effects of growth centres substantial proportions of Lower level centres should be facilitated
SMALL MARKET AND URBAN CENTRES
on rural hinterlands have been minimal the hinterland from state and supported to empower local
(Egunjobi, 1990) capitals communities to participate in rural
121
development
122 F.N. WEGULO
Table 6.5 Summary of views on the role of small towns on rural development
View Brief description
Optimistic view A commonly held view by protagonists in this optimistic group is that
urban-led development in the rural context is conceptually and
empirically attractive and should therefore be pursued (Baker &
Claeson, 1990). Given this logic, the growth of small urban centres is
considered a necessary condition and prerequisite for rural
transformation. Researchers in this group therefore perceive small
towns as catalysts for rural improvement. Analysis of relations between
the urban and rural areas, however, goes further than the
conceptualisation of a one-way process of rural development. In the
formulation of the present research programme, the concept of
integrated and mutual development of urban and rural societies is
therefore considered to be of vital concern. Perceived from this
viewpoint, the role of small urban centres may have a very positive
influence on rural development and agricultural productivity through
the provision of a great range of goods (agricultural inputs, consumer
items, and so on), urban cash flows, and services (agricultural
extension, welfare services, including health and education facilities,
and the diffusion of innovation and ideas). A leading voice in this
persuasion are Rondinelli (1986, 1988), Gaile (1992), Kamete
(1998), Durham (1991), Satterwaite and Tacoli (2003).
Intermediate This group of researchers/authors subscribe to an intermediate
view position and feel that the urban-led development in the rural context
approach is valid, logical and of value but that more studies need to be
undertaken and more experience accumulated before definite
conclusions can be made. Hardoy, Mitlin and Satterthwaite (2001)
provide the leading voices in this thinking. Others are Bah et al.
(2003), Baker and Claesen (1990), Pedersen (1992), Gantsho (2008),
Muzzini and Lindeboom (2008), Mason (2008), Mulongo et al.
(2012), Wegulo and Obulinji (2001), and Uchendu (2013).
Pessimistic view Those who do not see much value in the urban-led development in
the rural context approach argue that while this approach is sound
conceptually and useful as a theoretical construct, empirically the
results do not provide adequate grounds for much optimism. The
main proponents of this view include Southall (1988), Darkoh
(1994), Dorosh and Thurlow (2012), Egunjobi (1990), Nicchia
(2011), Mushi (2003), Otiso and Owusu (2008), Southhall (1979),
Tegegne (2001), Otiso (2005), Owusu (2005b).
researchers/authors have attached varying importance to various concepts

and theories proposed as guides to understanding of the spatial aspects of
rural/regional development in various parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The
key points to be observed on the emerging pattern include: first, that
many authors consider the development of both rural and urban areas to
be intimately connected; and second, that given the wisdom implied in the
above statement, previous compartmentalization between the rural and
urban sectors in planning and implementing development was/is inap-
propriate, and harmful to the prospects and development potential of
both rural and urban areas.
Two case studies are presented in the section that follows to illustrate
the empirical analysis on the role of market centres in rural development.
Case Study 6.2 Market Centres in Rural Development in Isuikwuato,

Abia State, Nigeria
Markets very much like small towns may in several ways influence
development within their surrounding areas. Many studies have
been carried out to examine relations of this nature. The study under
review by Uchendu (2013) seeks to demonstrate the existence of
networks between the rural and urban economies in Isuikwuato
(Abia State—Nigeria). The study shows that networks encourage
concentration of activities and functions around the urban nodes,
while for the rural centres the networks go further beyond their sur-
rounding villages. It is observed that this linkage appears mutual
between the urban and rural centres since these settlements exchange
urban functions. However, Akpaka, which is a relatively larger town
within the study area, supplies urban functions to Hopeville and
Ukwunwangwu (which are urban nodes, but with much less urban
amenities compared to Akpaka). The market centres at Hopeville
and Ukwunwangwu share mutual relationships, but supply to sur-
rounding villages in the northern part of the territory. Mbalano,
another town in the study area, supplies urban functions to sur-
rounding areas in the south. However, besides the political role, it
(Mbalano) serves no significant urban function to settlements in the
northern part of the territory.
From this study, a number of observations can be made: First, the
study shows that there is nesting of relations between and among
124 F.N. WEGULO
markets in the rural setting (study area), thus suggesting the some-
what complex and dynamics that need to be considered in planning
for rural development; Second, the study underscores the impor-
tance of markets’ capacity to facilitate the development of rural areas.
It is noted for example that although Hopeville, Ukwunwangwu and
Mbalano are urban nodes, they have far less urban amenities in com-
parison to Akpaka; Third, we observe the importance of an urban
spatial planning policy which among other things specifies the hier-
archical structure of markets, towns and urban centres with desig-
nated economic, social and political functions in the spirit of Walter
Chrystal’s Place Theory (CPT) (1933). It is noted that CPT attempts
to explain the logic and rationale of spatial arrangement and distri-
bution of human settlements and their numbers based on popula-
tion and distance from another human settlement.
It can be observed from the above case illustration that it is not
enough that market centres and/or small towns exist in a spatial unit.
What is more important is the capacity of each market centre or small
town to facilitate development of the hinterlands within which they
are located. Uchendu’s work focuses on explaining the infrastruc-
tural amenities in the chosen study area, and how these affect the
functionality of Hopeville, Ukwunwangwu, Mbalano and Akpaka. It
is clear that the first three market centres are structurally weak and
therefore not capable of fostering the development of the rural areas
in their hinterlands. These are important lessons as we continue to
examine potential for the development of rural areas in Africa.
Case Study 6.3 Rural–Urban Relations in the Kutus Area of Kenya

Studies on the rural–urban linkages and their impacts on rural devel-
opment have focused on a variety of geographical scales—global,
continental, national, and local levels (Table 6.2). This case study
examines rural–urban relations at the local level, the case of Kutus
town and its hinterland, in Kirinyaga County, Kenya. This town and
area has attracted a number of studies (Karaska, 1988; Mason,
2008), which have sought to highlight Kutus’ exchange system with
a focus on the following key components: income multiplication in

production and consumption in Kutus town and its hinterland; the
spatial distribution of gross revenue from the production and mar-
keting of the main commodities between the Kutus area and areas
external to it, and between Kutus town and farm households; distri-
bution of consumption expenditure between farm and town house-
holds. With regard to the marketing exchange, it has been shown
that Kutus town and its rural hinterland retain four-fifths of the value
of final coffee, maize, and tomato production (Karaska, 1988). This
revenue generates income for farm households, which spend over 40
per cent of the income on consumption items purchased in Kutus
town. Further, a significant portion of spending in Kutus accrues in
turn to area farm households that market produce or those that have
members working in Kutus town. It is clear from this observation
that farm households drive the local economy resulting in income
multiplier effects for both farm and town residents.
In a sample survey of the same town of Kutus, Evans (1992) found
that on average 59 per cent of the total spending by farm families
accrued to Kutus town and its surrounding region. However, this
spending was largely for food, services and purchase of goods pro-
duced elsewhere. The remaining leaked out of the region, mainly to
Nairobi and the rest of the world.
From this study, we observe that whereas there are intimate rela-
tions existing between farm and town activities, it is not obvious that
urban centres necessarily positively impact rural areas. Also, urban
areas themselves may fail to benefit in a meaningful way from the
resource flows emanating from the rural areas. This suggests that the
nature of relations between rural and urban areas should be carefully
examined to provide clear policy guidelines for purposes of situating
markets and small towns in the rural development matrix (Evans,
1992). In his work in the same area, Mason (1989) makes similar
observations concerning the exchange of resources between Kutus
and its hinterland.
Overall, it is noted from the different views and case illustrations
examined in this chapter, that markets and small towns are the hub
through which resources between the two sectors flow. It is clear,
however, that a number of constraints hinder the mutual flow of
126 F.N. WEGULO
such resources. These constraints in different ways affect both the

urban and the rural sector. Key among the urban-related constraints
include poor basic infrastructure, and lack of institutional and human
capital. For rural areas, the constraints include poor connectivity
between the rural sector and urban centres, scarce financial and
human capital, biased planning priorities, to name a few. The sum
total of these is that the two sectors are disconnected, with a dys-
functional socioeconomic environment in majority of markets and
small towns. These have discouraged and undermined rural
development.
Conclusion
This chapter has examined research with a focus on the role of market and
small urban centres in rural development in Africa. The chapter has unrav-
elled not only a plethora of research on the theme of market and small
urban centres and their role in enhancing rural development of their hin-
terlands, but also the fact that the studies have been anchored in a diversity
of theories and models. Two of the theoretical frameworks relied upon by
the majority of the researchers/reviewers are those that seek to link the
development of rural and urban areas (the rural–urban linkages), and the
growth pole/growth centre strategies. The study has also revealed inter-
esting aspects concerning the geographical focus of the sample studies as
well as the research designs applied in each study. It is clear that the major-
ity of studies have been focused at the national level, and followed in that
order by those at local level, continental (African) level, and on other
developing countries/global level. This demonstrates that the sample
studies reviewed in this exercise have captured a wide coverage
geographically.
It is also evident that a significant number of the studies relied upon
primary sources; especially empirical surveys, followed by reviews,
secondary and mixed data sources. This is another indication that the
studies under review sourced their data from a wide base. With regard to
analysis, majority of studies relied on qualitative, a combination of quanti-
tative and qualitative mixed designs, and quantitative designs.
Finally, back to the study question: To what extent do markets and
small towns facilitate rural development in Africa? The emerging evidence
is not unanimous and outright. However, the evidence points to the sug-
gestion that the extent to which markets and small towns impact the
development of rural areas within their hinterlands depends on the unique
socio-economic, cultural and political environments within which they are
located. Besides, the amenities present in each market centre or small town
do exercise tremendous influence on what a town/market centre can do
to influence development in their hinterland. Broadly, therefore, the evi-
dence for effective functioning of market centres and small towns to bring
about rural development is scarce.
The review has also variously identified in the literature, several weak-
nesses which may explain the tenuous relations between markets and small
towns on the one hand, and the development of rural areas on the other.
These are summarized as poor infrastructure, especially roads, inade-
quately equipped manpower, ill-equipped institutions, and poor access to
finance. In addition, emerging from the analysis is the view that in examin-
ing their capacity for facilitating rural development, each and every market
centre and small town must be evaluated from a specific context. The
tendency to make generalizations about markets and small towns with
respect to their ability to foster rural development is futile given the unique
characteristics associated with these human settlements.
Whereas this scenario presents formidable challenges to planning devel-
opment in rural Africa, there are nevertheless ways of addressing the
shortcomings. More focused studies of markets and small towns, a better
understanding of the rural hinterlands with regard to their socio-economic,
cultural and political characteristics are examples of what can be done.
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134 F.N. WEGULO
Francis Nyongesa Wegulo is presently Full Professor of Human Geography at

Egerton University, Kenya. He holds a PhD in Economic Geography from the
Graduate School of Geography at Clark University, Massachusetts, USA. For the
past 30 years, he has been engaged in scientific research, university teaching espe-
cially in the area of human geography, as well as mentoring of students. He serves
as a member on editorial boards of several journals such as The African
Environmental Review Journal Egerton University Journal of Environment Natural
Resources Management and Society, and Egerton Journal of Humanities, Social
Sciences and Education.
CHAPTER 7
Energy
Paschalin Mbenge Basil and Robert Ouko
Introduction
Access to and utilization of different forms of energy is important for rural
development in Africa. While achieving universal access to electricity is one
of the most important goals set for the energy sector by governments in
the developing world, approximately 1.4 billion people around the world
lack access to electricity, of which 85 per cent are rural dwellers, mostly
living in sub-Saharan Africa (Longe, Ouahada, Ferreira, & Chinnappen,
2014). Other forms of energy are also used in rural Africa. This chapter
presents results of a review of research on energy in rural Africa.
Methods
The literature was located by performing keyword searches using the
Google Scholar Advanced Search function and electronic journals. The
keywords and phrases used in the literature search included rural energy,
rural electrification, energy access, energy policy, energy supply, rural
household, rural poor, renewable energy technologies, renewable energy
P.M. Basil (*)

Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
R. Ouko
Geneva, Switzerland

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_7
136 P.M. BASIL AND R. OUKO
Table 7.1 Year of
Year of publication Frequency
publication
1998 1
2001 1
2002 6
2006 1
2010 2
2011 5
2012 2
2014 3
2015 2
Total 23
resources, Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, and developing countries. The

search strategy included published papers in peer-reviewed journals and
conducted within the journals area. In addition, academic presentations at
international conferences were also incorporated in the search.
Results were limited to those articles published between 1998 and
2015. Once downloaded, the abstracts of articles were read; those deemed
relevant (to use for inclusion in the study) were classified according to
their theme of interest (rural energy in Africa, rural electrification, renew-
able energy, among other themes). Papers which could not be excluded on
the basis of the title and abstract were obtained in full and reviewed for
suitability for inclusion. The search found a large pool of evidence which
resulted in over 100 hits, which were then scanned for relevance and nar-
rowed down to 40 ‘probably relevant’ reports. The articles were further
screened to 23 publications (see Table 7.1) which were found to elicit a
high degree of relevance. The studies are presented below.
Results are presented and discussed according to the year of publication,
geographical unit, study type, theory and conceptual model used, and
findings.
Study Designs
Table 7.1 shows that all the studies were published after 1998, with the latest
studies being published in 2015. One study was done in 1998, and the rest
appear as from 2000 onwards. Only one study was done in 2001, with the
ENERGY 137
majority of studies having been published in 2002, which gave a total of six
studies. In 2006, only one study was published. The year 2010 had two
studies. The year 2011 had the second-highest number of articles captured
in the study (five studies). The year 2012 had two studies, 2014 had three
studies, and 2015 had two studies. In terms of geographical coverage, as
shown in Table 7.2, the studies were widely spread across a number of coun-
tries in Africa. However, South Africa led with four studies (Davis, 1998;
Longe et al., 2014; Madubansi & Shackleton, 2006; Mudziwepasi & Scott,
2014). Nigeria had two studies (Adewuyi, 2012; Shaaban & Petinrin, 2014);
Kenya had two (Harries, 2002; Mariita, 2002); Ethiopia had three (Howell,
2011; Teferra, 2002; Wolde-Ghiorgis, 2002); Eritrea had one (Habtetsiona
& Tsighe, 2002); subequatorial Africa—Cameroon had one (Bogno, Salia,
& Aillerie, 2015); Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania had one (Murphy, 2001);
and sub-Saharan Africa had three (Karekezi & Kithyoma, 2002; Okou,
Sebitosi, & Pillay, 2011; Szabo, Bodis, Huld, & Moner-Girona, 2011).
Table 7.2 Geographical units

Geographical unit Author and year Frequency
South Africa Longe et al. (2014), Mudziwepasi and 4

Scott (2014), Madubansi and
Shackleton (2006), Davis (1998)
Ethiopia Wolde-Ghiorgis (2002), Teferra 3
(2002), Howell (2011)
Nigeria Adewuyi (2012), Shaaban and 2
Petinrin (2014)
Kenya Mariita (2002), Harries (2002) 2
Eritrea Habtetsiona and Tsighe (2002) 1
East Africa: Kenya, Uganda, and Murphy (2001) 1
Tanzania
Subequatorial Africa—Cameroon Bogno et al. (2015) 1
Sub-Saharan Africa Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002), Okou 3
et al. (2011), Szabo et al. (2011)
Africa (Ghana, Senegal, Malawi, Adkins et al. (2012) 1
Kenya, Togo, Nigeria, Rwanda,
Tanzania, Uganda, and Mali)
West Africa: Mali and Burkina Faso Nygaard (2010) 1
Burkina Faso Azoumah et al. (2011) 1
Ethiopia, Ghana, and Kenya Deichmann et al. (2011) 1
Ethiopia, Ghana, and Kenya Deichmann et al. (2010) 1
Not indicated Papageorgasa et al. (2015) 1
Total 23
Adkins, Oppelstrup, and Modi (2012) focused on a number of countries in

Africa (Ghana, Senegal, Malawi, Kenya, Togo, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania,
Uganda, and Mali). Nygaard (2010) covered Mali and Burkina Faso in West
Africa. Azoumah, Yamegueu, Ginies, Coulibaly, and Girard (2011) looked
at Burkina Faso, while Deichmann, Meisner, Murray, and Wheeler (2011)
covered three countries: Ethiopia, Ghana, and Kenya. Additionally,
Deichmann, Meisner, Murray, and Wheeler (2010) also covered Ethiopia,
Ghana, and Kenya. However, one study by Papageorgasa et al. (2015) did
not indicate its area of study.
It can be seen from Table 7.3 that the main study types adopted were
meta-analysis (nine studies), comparative study (seven studies), longitudi-
nal study (two studies), and case study (two studies), while three studies
were conference reports/papers. In terms of data collection methods, sur-
veys were widely employed in 15 studies, while the rest of the studies
adopted experiments/field testing.
Table 7.3 Study types and data collection methods

Author (year) Study type Data collection method
Davis (1998) Comparative Survey

Wolde-Ghiorgis (2002) Meta-analysis Survey
Teferra (2002) Meta-analysis Survey
Nygaard (2010) Comparative study Survey
Harries (2002) Case study Field testing
Deichmann et al. (2011) Longitudinal study Survey
Habtetsiona and Tsighe (2002) Meta-analysis Survey
Azoumah et al. (2011) Comparative Survey
Mariita (2002) Meta-analysis Survey
Madubansi and Shackleton (2006) Longitudinal study Survey
Adkins et al. (2012) Comparative study Baseline energy survey
Szabo et al. (2011) Report Evidence-based report
Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002) Meta-analysis Survey
Okou et al. (2011) Meta-analysis Survey
Murphy (2001) Meta-analysis Survey
Papageorgasa et al. (2015) Comparative study Experiments
Mudziwepasi and Scott (2014) Conference paper Experiments
Longe et al. (2014) Comparative study Conference report
Adewuyi (2012) Conference report Experiments
Shaaban and Petinrin (2014) Meta-analysis Survey
Bogno et al. (2015) Comparative study Field experiments
Deichmann et al. (2010) Case study Survey
Howell (2011) Meta-analysis Case study
ENERGY 139

Table 7.4 shows a summary of the theories and conceptual models used in
the studies. It can be seen that the authors have employed different theo-
retical/conceptual frameworks. However, a few theories appear to domi-
nate the studies. Energy transition theory/energy ladder model was the
most dominant model, with four articles adopting the model (Adkins
et al., 2012; Davis, 1998; Deichmann et al., 2011; Madubansi &
Shackleton, 2006). Institutional framework was used in Wolde-Ghiorgis
(2002), Teferra (2002), and Habtetsiona and Tsighe (2002). The rest of
the articles have adopted a variety of concepts or models, ranging from the
multifunctional platform, historical analysis, energy ladder hypothesis/
Table 7.4 Theories and conceptual models

Author (year) Theory and conceptual model
Davis (1998) Energy transition theory

Wolde-Ghiorgis (2002) Institutional framework
Teferra (2002) Institutional framework
Nygaard (2010) Multifunctional platform
Harries (2002) Historical reviews
Deichmann et al. (2011) Energy ladder hypothesis
Habtetsiona and Tsighe (2002) Institutional framework
Azoumah et al. (2011) The flexy energy concept
Mariita (2002) Environmental/Socio-economic model
Madubansi and Shackleton Energy ladder model
(2006)
Adkins et al. (2012) Energy transition model
Szabo et al. (2011) Spatial electricity cost model
Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002) Photovoltaic-led approach
Okou et al. (2011) Life cycle cost analytical model
Murphy (2001) Leapfrogging
Papageorgasa et al. (2015) Open-source hardware approach
Mudziwepasi and Scott (2014) An empirical model for grid extension
Longe et al. (2014) Hybrid optimization model for electric renewable
(HOMER) software
Adewuyi (2012) Not indicated
Shaaban and Petinrin (2014) The integrated rural village energy supply (IRVES)
concept
Bogno et al. (2015) Down approach dimensioning method
Deichmann et al. (2010) Spatial modelling and cost estimates
Howell (2011) Spatial analysis of institutions
model, flexy energy concept, spatial electricity cost model, life cycle cost
analytical model, leapfrogging, open-source hardware approach, down
approach dimensioning method, and hybrid optimization model for elec-
tric renewable (HOMER) software to spatial modelling and cost esti-
mates. It can therefore be concluded that there were diverse theoretical
frameworks and concepts that investigated rural energy in Africa. A brief
description of the energy ladder hypothesis is presented next.
Energy Ladder Hypothesis/Energy Transition Theory

The energy transition theory proposes that there is a ladder of fuel prefer-
ences from low-quality traditional forms of energy to high-quality modern
forms of energy (Leach, 1987). Other authors, such as Foley (1995),
argued that the energy transition theory is a ladder of energy demand,
rather than of fuel preferences, that determines fuel choice. Using spatial
modelling and cost estimates, Deichmann et al. (2010) found that the
lowest-cost option will be the preferred choice for a minority of house-
holds in Africa, even when likely cost reductions for a long time are
considered.
Madubansi and Shackleton (2006) used the leapfrogging concept,
which denotes a transition from traditional forms of energy (e.g., fuel
wood and charcoal) to modern sources (e.g., electricity) without passing
through the conventional path of energy development. The authors
argue that the concept of leapfrogging contrasts the energy ladder
hypothesis, as advanced by Leach (1987), as a shift from low-quality
fuels, such as biomass, to more convenient, versatile, and cleaner mod-
ern fuels, such as paraffin, gas, and electricity. Murphy (2001) argues
that by adopting highly efficient and renewable technologies, the region
can rapidly bypass the conventional path of energy development and skip
directly into the use of more efficient and environmentally friendly
technologies.
The adoption of the energy transition theory/energy ladder model to
study rural energy in the many developing economies in Africa has been
due to the fact that provision of energy in the rural areas undergoes a pro-
cess as people move from the traditional forms of fuel consumption to the
modern forms. Azoumah et al. (2011) used the flexy energy concept of
hybrid solar photovoltaic (PV)/diesel/biofuel power plants without bat-
tery storage and argue that it not only makes access to energy possible for
ENERGY 141
rural and peri-urban populations in Africa (by reducing the electricity gen-
eration cost) but also makes electricity production sustainable in these
areas. Nonetheless, it is important that the discussion of rural energy in
Africa adopts a variety of theoretical concepts.
Empirical Findings
Out of the 23 studies reviewed, 15 studies focused on renewable energy
sources/strategies (Adewuyi, Oderinde, Rao, Prasad, & Anjaneyulu,
2012; Azoumah et al., 2011; Bogno et al., 2011; Deichmann et al., 2010,
2011; Howell, 2011; Karekezi & Kithyoma, 2002; Longe et al., 2014;
Madubansi & Shackleton, 2006; Mariita, 2002; Mudziwepasi & Scott,
2014; Okou et al., 2011; Papageorgasa et al., 2015; Shaaban & Petinrin,
2014; Szabo et al., 2011). Five studies focused on institutions and energy
policy (Habtetsiona & Tsighe, 2002; Murphy, 2001; Nygaard, 2010;
Teferra, 2002; Wolde-Ghiorgis, 2002). Two studies covered rural house-
hold consumption (Adkins et al., 2012; Davis, 1998), and one study
focused on the usage of wind pumps for rural water needs (Harries, 2002).
Table 7.5 illustrates the focus and findings of the studies. Two broad
themes (renewable energy and energy policy) emerged from the studies
reviewed.
Renewable Energy Sources and Strategies

The majority of the studies that focused on household consumption
found that there is heavy reliance on biomass as cooking fuel, the domi-
nant use of kerosene for household lighting, and the very low rate of
household connections to the electricity grid in many rural parts of sub-
Saharan Africa. Results from other studies indicate a changing pattern
of energy use for lighting and powering entertainment appliances, more
specifically from dry-cell batteries and paraffin to electricity (Madubansi
& Shackleton, 2006). Thus, it would be desirable to move towards
more modern, more efficient, and cleaner sources of energy (Adkins
et al., 2012). The studies suggest that the economics of decentralized
renewable power may be compelling for large regions of rural Africa
and that energy planners in sub-Saharan Africa should pay careful atten-
tion to opportunities for the expansion of renewable power in the
region.
Table 7.5 Empirical findings

Author Study focus Findings
Davis (1998) Access to electricity, Energy transition in rural households is

how it has displaced mainly driven by income
other fuels, and its endAccess to electricity can accelerate the
uses transition process
Wolde-Ghiorgis Renewable energy for Energy policy does not address energy
(2002) rural development requirements for subsistence and
development, especially energy requirements
in rural areas for modern productive
activities
Teferra (2002) Power sector reforms Private investment in rural electrification can
and attraction of private be enhanced with some improvement in
investment in rural legal and regulatory provisions
electrification
Nygaard (2010) The concept of the The main argument in the paper is that
multifunctional platform while preconceived concepts that are
for rural energy access innovative and address various donor
concerns may be successful in mobilizing
funding, they are difficult to implement on
the ground, where they conflict with a
complex reality
Harries (2002) Challenges on Scepticism from people, corruption, failure
dissemination of wind to realize the benefits of local manufacture
pumps in Africa and the of wind pumps, few policy-makers would
benefits of wind pumps want to take the ‘risk’ of suggesting the
to rural and remote installation of a wind pump that ‘might’ fail,
areas a number of amateur initiatives and
well-publicized failures
This has damaged the reputation of the
whole technology
Deichmann Cost-effectiveness of Decentralized renewable power expansion in
et al. (2011) stand-alone renewable sub-Saharan countries cannot be a universal
energy generation solution to universal access, but will likely be
compared with an important component of any significant
centralized grid supply expansion in electricity access
Habtetsiona and Institutional and policy Eritrea has general energy policies pertaining
Tsighe (2002) options for improving to the development of electricity, oil, and
rural energy services renewable energy subsectors. The absence of
a sharply focused, pro-rural energy policy
and/or policy instruments has been
observed. The key problem is, however, the
weakness in the implementation of rural
energy projects and programmes
(continued)
ENERGY 143
Azoumah et al. The flexy energy The flexy energy concept will allow to
(2011) concept of hybrid solar propose a cost of electricity less subject to
PV/diesel/biofuel fluctuations of world prices of raw materials
power plants (hydrocarbon)
Mariita (2002) Local environmental The socio-economic impact of geothermal
and socio-economic energy development is likely to be the main
impacts of geothermal source of conflict
power plants on poor
rural community
Madubansi and Patterns of household Households in the sample settlements have
Shackleton energy use in five rural witnessed pronounced changes in their
(2006) settlements patterns of energy use in the past 11 years.
The introduction of electricity has played a
role in spurring the shift
However, the number and diversity of
energies used by the rural households have
not declined following the introduction of
electricity
Adkins et al. Household energy use Households’ reliance on biomass and other
(2012) in ten rural agro- traditional fuels across all project sites. The
ecological locations in two most commonly used fuels for cooking
sub-Saharan Africa were fuel wood and farm residue,
representing 74 per cent and 12 per cent of
all cooking fuels, respectively. Fuel wood was
used primarily for cooking, and mostly
acquired through collection by women on
foot. Eighty-six per cent of household cooks
reported using kerosene, and 80 per cent of
this use was for lighting
Szabo et al. Whether diesel There exists a good potential for PV and
(2011) generators, PV systems, diesel decentralized rural electrification
or extension of the grid options
is the least-cost option
in off-grid areas
Karekezi and Renewable energy Rural energy policies that emphasize a
Kithyoma strategies for rural Africa broader range of renewables and target
(2002) income-generating activities are likely to
yield greater benefits to the rural poor than
the current policies that rely on the solar PV
option
(continued)
Okou et al. Flywheel rotor Small-scale flywheel energy storage has the
(2011) manufacture for rural potential to improve rural electrification
energy storage in problems in sub-Saharan Africa
sub-Saharan Africa
Murphy (2001) Potential for energy Energy transitions in rural areas are
leapfrogging in rural incremental processes, not leaps dependent
households in East upon household and regional accumulations
Africa: conventional of technological capabilities. These
grid expansion, capabilities have technical, organizational,
renewable energy and institutional components, and are
technologies supplying manifest in individuals’ capacity to adapt to
electricity, and improved
new technologies, their ability to take
coo stoves economic risks, and their desire to modify
their behaviour
Papageorgasa A low-cost and fast PV There exists the potential for realization of a
et al. (2015) I-V curve tracer based on low-cost I-V curve tracer especially designed
an open-source platform for solar panels
with machine-to-
machine communication
capabilities for preventive
monitoring
Adewuyi (2012) Blighia unijugata and Oil of B. unijugata and L. cylindrica with
Luffa cylindrica seed high free fatty acid content can be reduced
oils: renewable sources in a one-step pre-treatment (esterification)
of energy for sustainable using H2SO4 as catalyst. This one-step
development in rural pre-treatment reduces the problem of soap
Africa formation normally encountered when using
oil with high free fatty acid content for the
production of biodiesel
Longe et al. Renewable Energy Renewable Energy Technology (RET)
(2014) Sources Microgrid microgrid is a local solution to electricity access
Design for rural areas in in rural unelectrified areas of South Africa and
South Africa most developing countries of the world
Bogno et al. Possible technical and A hybrid generator can fully support 59 per
(2015) economical optimization cent of total demand and costs nearly half as
of electricity production much as a stand-alone PV generator, and
using autonomous even much cheaper than a stand-alone wind
hybrid power generators generator
from renewable sources
by integrating an
electrochemical storage
system
(continued)
ENERGY 145
Mudziwepasi Alternative to grid Use of either wind generators or solar PVs is

and Scott extension for rural economically feasible in rural villages and
(2014) electrification remote areas of South Africa
Shaaban and A review of renewable Dissemination of decentralized renewable
Petinrin (2014) energy potential in energy resources will not only improve the
Nigeria to be tapped for well-being of rural Nigerian communities,
useful and but also enhance Nigeria’s energy and
uninterrupted electric economic prospects for potential global
energy supply investment
Deichmann How essential economic Decentralized renewable energy will most
et al. (2010) development might be likely play an important role in expanding
reconciled with the rural energy access. But it will be the
need to keep carbon lowest-cost option for a minority of
emissions in check households in Africa, even when likely cost
reductions over the next 20 years are
considered
Howell (2011) What renewable energy There is a disparity between rural and urban
resources and energy use in Ethiopia, as rural areas are
technologies are available largely left out of the central electrical grid
in Ethiopia that can
lessen the negative
environmental impacts
of current energy use,
specifically in rural areas
Another study by Okou et al. (2011) found that flywheel was more
cost-effective in the long run than the traditional lead battery; thus,
small-scale flywheel energy storage has the potential to improve rural elec-
trification problems in sub-Saharan Africa. A flywheel system consists of a
flywheel rotor, an electrical machine, power electronics, bearings, and a
containment system. The flywheel rotor is crucial in high-speed flywheel
systems (for long-time energy storage), as these systems require special
considerations on profile design and manufacture due to the high stresses
exerted. The author also found that the use of electromechanical flywheel
battery storage would mitigate the environmental problems associated
with lead acid battery disposal.
Bogno et al. (2015) proposed a top-down method for the optimization
of electricity production by an autonomous hybrid power generator from
renewable sources, which abound in subequatorial Africa, mainly solar and
wind. This method involves adjusting the electrochemical storage system

size to the most essential needs in energy requirement and then hybridiz-
ing an autonomous generator, allowing improvement in the reliability and
reduction in the global cost of the system.
Analysis of studies that examined the renewable energy potential found
that stand-alone renewable energy technology will be the lowest-cost
option for a significant minority of households in African countries
(Deichmann et al., 2011). The same authors also concluded that decen-
tralized renewable power expansion in sub-Saharan countries cannot be a
universal solution to universal access, but that it will most likely be an
important component of any significant expansion in electricity access.
Longe et al. (2014) argued that for an unelectrified locality in Africa, a
stand-alone microgrid is an optimum solution to bring electricity access to
rural areas.
Mudziwepasi and Scott (2014) found that the use of either wind gen-
erators or solar PVs is economically feasible in rural villages and remote
areas of sub-Saharan Africa. These technologies are clean and can be con-
structed even in the remotest corners of the region within a short period
of time. However, there should be policies for the development of this
sector due to the high initial investment cost of these technologies.
Murphy (2001) further proposes that in designing technology dissemina-
tion or energy supply projects, planners must thoroughly account for the
capabilities existing in rural areas.
Energy Policy
Studies that focused on institutional reforms argued that a comprehensive
and coherent energy policy is essential in guiding a country towards the
efficient utilization of its energy resources, and that even though the exis-
tence of an energy policy is crucial, it does not guarantee the prudent
responsibility management of a country’s energy resources (Shaaban &
Petinrin, 2014). Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002) argue that rural energy
policies that emphasize a broader range of renewables and target income-
generating activities are likely to yield greater benefits to the rural poor
than the current policies that rely on the solar PV option. There is need for
commitment from concerned authorities to the use of renewables for
spurring rural development (Wolde-Ghiorgis, 2002).
Teferra (2002) also argued that private investment in rural electrifica-
tion can be enhanced with some improvement in legal and regulatory
ENERGY 147
provisions. This could be done through increasing the budget allocation

to rural energy, the modification of existing institutional frameworks for
rural energy delivery, and the design and implementation of appropriate
rural energy initiatives suitable for productive activities and sustainable
development (see Case Study 7.1).
Case Study 7.1 Effects of Rural Electrification on Employment in

South Africa
Rural electrification is a common policy objective in several African
countries. This case study is based on research published by
Dinkelman (2010). The study assessed the impact of electrification
on employment growth by analysing South Africa’s mass roll-out of
electricity to rural households in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The study
used several new data sources and two different identification strate-
gies (an instrumental variables strategy and a fixed effects approach).
The findings of the study were that electrification significantly raises
female employment within five years. Electrification was also found
to increase hours of work for men and women, while reducing female
wages and increasing male earnings. Several pieces of evidence sug-
gest that household electrification raises employment by releasing
women from home production and enabling microenterprises.
Electrification was also found to affect migration behaviour of
communities.
To evaluate the impact of the programme on employment, data
were collected from ten districts in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The key
sources of data were the South African census data (1996 and 2001),
spatial data collected on the location of electrification infrastructure
in KwaZulu at baseline (1996), administrative data on project place-
ment across the province between 1990 and 2007, and individual-
level data on employment, hours of work, wages, earnings,
demographics, and households’ fuel sources from four cross-sectional
household surveys. Analysis revealed that household electrification
increased employment in rural communities. Specifically, the study
found that electrification significantly raised female employment
within five years. Further, the study also revealed that rural electrifi-
cation appeared to increase hours of work for both men and women,
while reducing female wages and increasing male earnings. It is

insightful when the study shows that household electrification raised
employment by releasing women from home production and
enabling microenterprises. This project and assessment provides
important lessons for many African countries, as well as for research-
ers, given the continued policy goals for rural electrification in these
countries.
Habtetsiona and Tsighe (2002) found that Africa lacks sharply
focused, pro-poor energy policies and that there were weaknesses in
the implementation of rural energy projects and programmes.
Mariita (2002) proposed the need for policy and institutional mea-
sures that would ensure that the local community enjoys a wider
range of socio-economic benefits, as well as mitigate long-term
adverse environmental impacts associated with geothermal energy
development. Nygaard (2010) says that ‘in the struggle for donor
resources in the international development arena, it is tempting to
market concepts that are innovative and that meet the major donor
concerns of the time in order to obtain the funding’. Thus, an argu-
ment for building development aid on existing structures, instead of
inventing new complicated concepts and approaches, is proposed.
Murphy (2001) further argues that energy planners and policy-
makers must understand local knowledge, capacities, and skills, and
determine how these factors will influence the uptake of any given
new technology.
Conclusion
Energy is a key issue for not only poverty reduction but also poverty eradi-
cation. Sub-Saharan Africa is endowed with natural energy resources that
could help elevate its access to energy, which can transform the region’s
economic development. The studies that were used in the chapter covered
different countries to investigate rural energy within the African conti-
nent. There was no dominant research design employed in the reviewed
studies. The research designs ranged from comparative study, longitudinal
study, conference reports, and meta-analysis to case study approaches. In
terms of the theories and conceptual models utilized, again the studies
used diverse theoretical models and thus no single theory dominated
across the studies. However, it appeared that the energy ladder hypothesis,
ENERGY 149
also referred to as energy transition theory, was preferred by four authors

(Adkins et al., 2012; Davis, 1998; Deichmann et al., 2011; Madubansi &
Shackleton, 2006). Regarding methods of data collection, surveys were
widely used in many studies; thus, they dominated as a method of collect-
ing data. It can therefore be concluded that it is a more viable method, as
it was the most preferred one. Nonetheless, there is still room for adoption
of other methods of data collection.
In terms of study focus, the majority of the 23 studies examined in this
chapter focused on South Africa, with the rest of the studies spread across
the sub-Saharan region. The studies had one common finding: that there
still exists a big gap in the provision of energy, particularly renewable
energy sources, in the urban and rural economies of many countries in
Africa. The energy policy therefore needs to address energy requirements
in rural areas for modern productive activities. The findings have indicated
that more research is still needed to investigate rural energy provisions
across the African continent to ensure sustainable energy solutions for all.
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Paschalin Basil is a teacher by profession and holds a Master of Arts in

Development Studies from the University of Nairobi. She has a passion for the
multidimensional field of development and has been involved in research projects
at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi. Her current
research interests are in transport and development.
Robert Ouko holds an advanced diploma in Business Administration and

Management, focusing on economics and marketing management. He has worked
in the banking industry, as well as in a leading dairy company in Kenya. He brings
a practical and realistic approach to rural development.
CHAPTER 8
Water
Gladys Moraa Marie Nyachieo
and Constance Anyango Ouko
Introduction
Water is essential for life. Water has a myriad of uses and hence is very
important for existence or survival of all life on earth. Water and its plan-
ning and management are therefore key to African rural development.
Without clean water, it will be impossible to keep away water related dis-
eases among rural families. There are other related problems associated
with the lack of clean potable water for the rural population. Water as a
basic service plays a significant role in providing livelihood opportunities
and supporting the health and well-being of rural families in Africa and the
world over. About 23 per cent of the rural population of Africa had access
to proper sanitation and 41 per cent had access to clean water in 2010
(WHO/UNESCO, 2010). How water is sourced, where it is sourced
from, how it is transported and how it is stored, all contribute to water
quality. This chapter presents evidence on research and policy on water in
rural Africa.
G.M.M. Nyachieo (*)

Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
C.A. Ouko
Geneva, Switzerland

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_8
154 G.M.M. NYACHIEO AND C.A. OUKO
Methods
Electronic databases, including ScienceDirect, as well as titles and abstracts
from peer-reviewed journals and articles, were identified. The focus was
on Africa; therefore, the titles and abstracts were predominantly from
Africa. The keywords used in the literature search included water, rural
and Africa. The review of literature was not limited to a specific time in
history but also included studies published in English.
The titles and abstracts identified from the electronic searches were
thoroughly screened and those that did meet the criteria of the study were
excluded on the basis of relevance. A further review of the 91 abstracts and
titles of articles that were initially identified was done. This further screen-
ing resulted in selection of 30 items. These 30 items were printed, orga-
nized and subjected to further review. Eventually, 21 publications were
found appropriate, based mainly on the topic of interest, which was rural
water in Africa. These are the articles that were finally used for extracting
and processing information for this chapter.
Results from the 21 studies reviewed are presented thematically according
to key aspects that were examined: research designs, theories and concep-
tual models, as well as study focus and empirical findings. Two case illus-
trations are also presented.
Study Designs
Research designs are discussed for eight studies because some studies did
not explicitly indicate the design employed (Table 8.1). Most studies were
done after 2000 (Table 8.1). The latest study was done in 2016. One
study was conducted in 2015. Four were carried out in 2014. The year
2012 had six studies. The year 2012 registered most studies analysed in
this review. The years 2010 and 2011 each had two studies captured in the
study. The rest—2009, 2008, 2006, 2003 and 2000—had one study each.
Table 8.2 gives a summary of the geographical units of the 21 studies.
Two studies focused on sub-Saharan Africa as a region (MacDonald &
Calow, 2008; MacDonald & Davies, 2000). Within sub-Saharan Africa,
the majority of the studies came from South Africa (Brettenny & Sharp,
2016; Fosso-Kankeu, Preez, & Jagals, 2010; Hemson & Buccus, 2009;
Table 8.1 Study design characteristics
Year Number Study type
published of studies
Case Survey Review Experimental/ Comparative Meta-analysis Report Longitudinal
study Quasi-experimental
2000 1 1
2003 1 1
2006 1 1
2008 1 1
2009 1 1
2010 2 1 1
2011 2 1 1 1
2012 6 1 1 1 1 1
2014 4 1 1 1
2015 1 1
2016 1 1
Total 21 5 3 3 2 2 1 3 1
WATER
155
Table 8.2 Geographical units

Geographical unit Author and year
South Africa Brettenny and Sharp (2016)

Kenya (Kyuso) Koehler, Thomson, and Hope (2015)
Semi-arid Africa (Namibia) Sarma and Xu (2014)
South Africa (Tshaanda) Molelekwa et al. (2014)
South Africa Sinyolo et al. (2014)
South Kemerink et al. (2012)
Africa
(Thukela River Basin—KwaZulu-Natal)
Tanzania (East Africa) Arvai and Post (2012)
South Africa (Limpopo) Thwala (2010)
South Africa Fosso-Kankeu et al. (2010)
South Africa Hemson and Buccus (2009)
Sub-Saharan Africa (Tanzania, South Africa, van Koppen, van der Zaag, Manzungu, and
Ghana, Mozambique) Tapela (2014)
Ghana (Northern Ghana) Engelaer, Koopman, van Bodegom,
Eriksson, and Westendorp (2014)
Sub-Saharan Africa MacDonald and Calow (2008)
South Africa Mwabi et al. (2013)
South Africa Odiyo and Makungo (2012)
South Africa Majuru et al. (2012)
Global World Health Organization and UNICEF
(2006)
Africa region Harvey and Reed (2003)
Sub-Saharan Africa MacDonald and Davies (2000)
Africa (Kenya and Uganda used as Hope, Foster, and Thomson (2012)
examples)
Sub-Saharan Africa (Togo) Nkem, Munang, and Jallow (2011)
Kemerink, Méndez, Ahlers, Wester, & van der Zaag, 2012; Majuru, Jagals,
& Hunter, 2012; Molelekwa, Mukhola, van der Bruggen, & Luis, 2014;
Mwabi, Mamba, & Momba, 2013; Odiyo & Makungo, 2012; Sinyolo,
Mudhara, & Wale, 2014; Thwala, 2010).
Within South Africa, studies focused on particular rural areas. Brettenny
and Sharp (2016) focused on the following rural municipalities:
Renosterberg, Camdeboo, Ndlambe, Maluti-a-Phofung and Moretele.
Molelekwa et al. (2014) focused on the Tshaanda area in rural South
Africa. Sinyolo et al. (2014) had the study site at the Tugela Ferry situated
in Msinga Local Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal province. Kemerink et al.
(2012) focused on the Thukela River Basin located in KwaZulu-Natal
province. In all, four studies were carried out in Limpopo province.
WATER 157
Thwala (2010) and Fosso-Kankeu et al. (2010) did their study on Limpopo
province. Majuru et al. (2012) also carried out their study in Vhembe
district of Limpopo province, where they focused on two communities.
Further, Odiyo and Makungo (2012) also carried out their research in
Limpopo. Hemson and Buccus (2009) looked at rural Mbizana in the
Eastern Cape. Mwabi et al. (2013) did not specify a particular area, but
their focus was on rural communities in South Africa.
Another area of study, not in South Africa but in the southern region,
was Namibi. Sarma and Xu (2014) studied rural semi-arid Namibia. Other
studies were from elsewhere in Africa, including Eastern Africa as well as
Western Africa. From Eastern Africa, there were studies from Kenya (Hope
et al., 2012; Koehler et al., 2015), Tanzania (Arvai & Post, 2012; van
Koppen et al., 2014) and Uganda (Hope et al., 2012). In the western part
of Africa, there were studies from Togo (Nkem et al., 2011) and Ghana
(Engelaer et al., 2014). Ghana is also cited in a study in sub-Saharan Africa
(Van Koppen et al., 2014). There were therefore different geographical
units explored in rural water research in Africa as a region.
With regard to data collection, different studies utilized different meth-
ods for data collection (Table 8.3). In some cases, a combination of meth-
ods was used, and yet in other cases, multiple data sources were used, as in
the case of Brettenny and Sharp (2016), who utilized secondary data col-
lected from the StatsSA—P9115 Financial Census of Municipalities docu-
ment (StatsSA, 2011a) and the WRC TT522/12 report, StatsSA—P9114
Non-Financial Audit of Municipalities document (StatsSA, 2011b).
Koehler et al. (2015) used a baseline survey and hand-pump monitoring
using mobile transmitters. In addition, they also utilized focus group dis-
cussions (FGDs).
In a study by Sarma and Xu (2014) on sustainable rural water supply,
geology maps, hydrocensus data, geophysical surveys, and drilling and
hydraulic testing data were used. Molelekwa et al. (2014) also used a base-
line survey to collect data on the quality of drinking water. Sinyolo et al.
(2014) utilized household surveys for the study on water security.
Kemerink et al. (2012) used in-depth semi-structured interviews for the
study on water policy. Arvai and Post (2012) conducted field tests of water
quality before and after the use of each point-of-use (POU) system at two
study sites, in addition to workshops and group discussions. Thwala
(2010) used questionnaires and informal interviews, together with field
observation, in the study on community participation. Fosso-Kankeu et al.
(2010) utilized an experimental study in which water samples were
Table 8.3 Study types and data collection methods

Study type Data collection method
Comparative Secondary data collected from Financial Census of

Non-Financial Audit Municipalities documents
Case study Baseline survey, hand-pump monitoring (using mobile
transmitters)
Focus group discussions
Case study Geology maps, hydrocensus data, geophysical surveys,
drilling and hydraulic testing data
Case study Baseline data of the quality of drinking water
Case study Household survey
Case study In-depth semi-structured interviews
Comparative Field tests of water quality before and after the use of
each POU system at two study sites
Workshops and group discussions
Case study Formal (questionnaires) and informal interviews
(individual and group interviews), field observation
Experimental case study Water samples collected from source points and
households in two poor village groups
Case study Community appraisal fulfilled through a simple
scorecard. Tools for participatory research, for example,
community and water mapping, use of ‘diarrhoea diary’
and distances children carry water.
Meta-analysis Survey and review of literature
Longitudinal study Household interviews
Review of literature Thematic systematic review
Extensive study literature Experimental study, evaluation of devices for household
water treatment systems (HWTS)
Meta-analysis Review of literature and photography
Quasi-experimental Structured interviews, observations and measurement
Report Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple
Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), Living Standards
Measurement Study (LSMS) and World Health Surveys
(WHS)
Conference report Review of literature
Technical report Review of literature
Department for International
Development (DFID), World
Bank
Output from Smart Water Review of literature
Systems project (DFID)
Case study Review of literature
WATER 159
collected from domestic storage tins and tested for lipopolysaccharide

endotoxins.
Hemson and Buccus (2009) collected the study data through commu-
nity appraisal using a simple scorecard. Other tools used for participatory
research were, for example, community and water mapping, ‘diarrhoea
diary’ and measurement of distances children carry water. Van Koppen
et al. (2014) used surveys and review of literature. Engelaer et al. (2014)
utilized household interviews in a study on water quality. Mwabi et al.
(2013) used experiments and evaluation of devices for household water
treatment systems (HWTS), together with an extensive literature review.
Odiyo and Makungo (2012) used review of literature and photography.
Majuru et al. (2012) used structured interviews, observations and mea-
surement for data collection. World Health Organization and UNICEF
(2006) in a study on water access used Demographic and Health Surveys
(DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), Living Standards
Measurement Studies (LSMS) and World Health Surveys (WHS) for data.
A good number of authors utilized literature review: Harvey and Reed
(2003) in a study on sustainable rural water supply in Africa, MacDonald
and Davies (2000) and Hope et al. (2012) in a study on rural water secu-
rity, Nkem et al. (2011) in looking for solutions to rural water supply and
MacDonald and Calow (2008) to collect secondary data for their study.
It can be seen from the preceding discussion that different methods of
data collection were used in the 21 studies. Most studies used combina-
tion methods in data collection. It is also important to note that most
studies utilized the case study design, which allows one to use a number of
data collection methods for the study. It is also evident that the different
case studies employed different methods of data collection.

Theories and conceptual models used in the 21 studies varied (Table 8.4).
There was no one main theoretical or conceptual framework that domi-
nated. Some of the conceptual and theoretical frameworks used are as
follows:
• Input-oriented data envelopment analysis (DEA) model: This model

was used to evaluate efficiency (Brettenny & Sharp, 2016).
• Output-based payment model: Koehler et al. (2015) used this model
to examine sustainable water user payment in rural areas in Kenya.
Table 8.4 Theories and conceptual models

Theory and conceptual Appropriateness
model
Input-oriented data The model is appropriate. DEA is a linear programming

envelopment analysis technique used mainly for estimating efficiency, and in this case,
(DEA) model it is estimating the efficiency of municipal water services
Public goods theory The model is appropriate for community water management
and output-based structures because goods that are collectively consumed are
payment model non-rival and non-excludable. The theory assisted in examining
new ways of ensuring financial sustainability by the use of the
output payment model to act as an incentive to pay for pump
water services for community members
Participatory approach A participatory approach aims at incorporating the knowledge
and opinions of rural people in the planning and management
of development projects and/or programmes. This is therefore
appropriate for this study because it looks at the issues of
inclusion and representation in Water User Associations
(WUAs) in rural south Africa
Action research Action research is a research approach set off to solve an
immediate community problem, led by individuals working with
others as part of a community to improve the way they address
issues and solve problems. This approach is appropriate because
the study focus is community participation in solving rural water
supply problems
Risk management Risk management is the process of identifying risk, assessing it
and taking steps to reduce it to an acceptable level. This
deliberative risk management framework was appropriate; it was
effected through the structured decision-making (SDM) model.
This approach was used to determine the processes, techniques,
tools, and team roles and responsibilities for reducing the risk of
consuming unsafe water by treating the water to improve its
quality
Management strategies This approach is appropriate for the study. Management involves
the formulation and implementation of the goals and initiatives
taken by those charged with that responsibility on behalf of
owners. If there is lack of management due to a lack of technical
capacity as a result of inadequate finances, efficient
implementation will not be possible
Human rights A human rights–based approach is a conceptual framework for
approach the process of human development that is normatively based on
international human rights standards and operationally directed
to promoting and protecting human rights. This approach is
therefore appropriate for this study and fits the African rural
development experience. This is because international human
rights standards also apply to the rural people in Africa
(continued)
WATER 161
Theory and conceptual Appropriateness
model
Institutional and Institutional and legislative approach has to do with having the
legislative approach power to make laws that touch on social structure. This
approach is appropriate for this study because the study is
looking at issues that deal with Roman water law in rural Africa:
dispossession, discrimination and weakening state regulation
Epidemiology of The epidemiological transition deals with the changing patterns
population change of mortality and fertility. This study looked at the determinants
approach of epidemiological transition and the role of the socio-economic
status and the drinking water source. This framework was used
to show that the epidemiology of population change does not
depend on the socio-economic status or the drinking water
source. Since this was a longitudinal study, the approach was
appropriate
World Health Benchmarking is a way of discovering what is the best
Organization (WHO) performance being achieved. WHO has basic requirements for
guidelines as a different issues. By using the WHO guidelines, it is evident that
benchmark water in rural households of South Africa was not fit for human
consumption. This framework is appropriate for the study
Defined substrate The DST method is a reagent system designed to enumerate
technology (DST) specific target microbes(s) from a mixture of bacteria. The
system simultaneously enumerates total coliforms and
Escherichia coli directly from a water sample. Since the study was
looking at water quality, DST was appropriate
Smart approach Smart approach involves the use of technology in development
initiatives. There was a suggestion to use mobile technologies
that capture and transmit water user data. This water user data
could be utilized in dealing with hydroclimatic risks. Due to
social changes and the adoption of new and better technologies,
smart approach is appropriate
Multi-level linear Multi-level linear regression models are statistical models of
regression models parameters that vary at more than one level. This model was
appropriate because it looked at the three indicators of water
service: access, availability and potability. This helped in finding
out which of the three indicators had shown some
improvements after the interventions
• Participatory paradigms: Kemerink et al. (2012) used a participatory

approach to ensure user participation and inclusion in water manage-
ment in rural areas. The other participatory approach used was par-
ticipatory action research (PAR) in Thwala (2010). This approach
was used to encourage learning ‘by doing’. Learning by doing is a
situation where a small number of people identify a problem and
come up with creative ways of solving it. This was applied in dealing
with challenging water issues. Action research was also utilized by
Hemson and Buccus (2009) in ensuring that all stakeholders in rural
water were able to work together to come up with a scorecard for
community assessment of services and eventually point to key areas
of action.
• Risk management: Arvai and Post (2012) used this approach to
involve the affected stakeholders in decisions on POU water treat-
ment systems.
• Management strategies: Odiyo and Makungo (2012) used manage-
ment strategies to help in water management.
Other models were used as well. The human rights approach was used
by Hope et al. (2012) to examine the human right to water. van Koppen
et al. (2014) explored institutional and legislative approaches where the
Roman law is seen to benefit both nationals and foreigners who can pay
for water as a commodity. Engelaer et al. (2014) used the epidemiology of
population change approach to show the effects of the socio-economic
status and the drinking water source on transition. Fosso-Kankeu et al.
(2010) used World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines as a bench-
mark. There was also the use of numerical modelling to enable monitoring
and sustainably managing water resources. Defined substrate technology
(DST) was used for the bacteriological analysis of water samples for quality
(Molelekwa et al., 2014). Smart approach was utilized by Nkem et al.
(2011) to deal with water needs of a warming continent, and multi-level
linear regression models were used by Majuru et al. (2012) to find out
whether upgrading water supply systems in small rural communities
improved access, availability and potability of water.

Although the general study focus was rural water in Africa, different areas
presented different issues, mostly depending on the pressing problems
about water in the area. The areas of concern were:
WATER 163
• Efficiency of water services (Brettenny & Sharp, 2016)

• Payments (Koehler et al., 2015)
• Water supply (Harvey & Reed, 2003; MacDonald & Calow, 2008;
MacDonald & Davies, 2000; Majuru et al., 2012; Nkem et al., 2011;
Sarma & Xu, 2014)
• Water quality (Engelaer et al., 2014; Fosso-Kankeu et al., 2010;
Molelekwa et al., 2014; Mwabi et al., 2013; Odiyo & Makungo,
2012)
• Water security (Hope et al., 2012; Sinyolo et al., 2014)
• Community participation (Hemson & Buccus, 2009; Thwala, 2010)
• Risk management (Arvai & Post, 2012)
• Water policy (Kemerink et al., 2012)
• Water law (van Koppen et al., 2014)
• Water access (World Health Organization & UNICEF, 2006)
It is evident that a variety of issues were examined by the authors of the

21 studies. The study findings are briefly presented and discussed below
according to the study focus. Table 8.5 provides a summary of the indi-
vidual study focus and findings.
Water Supply
Six studies focused on water supply and the findings are discussed in this
section. Inflow rates into aquifers were found to be generally low in
Namibia (Sarma & Xu, 2014). In addition, there was lack of data, which
made it difficult to appraise parallel rural water supply schemes. In yet
another study on water supply, the findings showed that groundwater
resources need to be well understood hydrogeologically for long-term
availability for rural people (MacDonald & Calow, 2008). In a study
focusing on sustainable rural water supply in Africa, it was found that a
number of African nations had adopted hand-pump standardization poli-
cies, mostly advised by external donors, but it was noted that this could be
working against the local people in rural areas (Harvey & Reed, 2003).
In a technical report on groundwater for rural water supply, the find-
ings indicated that devolution and demand-responsive approaches to the
provision of rural water supplies led to lack of coordination in groundwa-
ter research and data collection (MacDonald & Davies, 2000). Another
study on assessing rural small-community water supply found that there
were overall improvements in the three main indicators of water services:
access, availability and potability (Majuru et al., 2012). In a study that
Table 8.5 Study focus and findings

Study focus Findings
Efficiency evaluation of urban The rural municipality exhibited decreasing returns to

and rural municipal water scale in all cases of scale inefficiency
service authorities (Brettenny
& Sharp, 2016)
Pump-priming payments for Payments are contingent on service delivery. The
sustainable water services in most-valued aspects of service delivery for water users
rural Africa (Koehler et al., were the speed of the service, the quality of the service
2015) and the knowledge that the service was guaranteed
Sustainable rural water supply Inflow rates into aquifers are generally low. The tested
in semi-arid Africa (Sarma & conceptual aquifer model indicated that limited resource
Xu, 2014) was available and that it relied on the episodic recharge
events
Water quality in rural South The microbiological quality of the permeate was within
Africa (Molelekwa et al., recommended and acceptable limits of the WHO and
2014) South African standards for drinking water quality
On the successful removal of Escherichia coli, the
membrane system was able to produce safe drinking
water
Water security and rural Strengthening farmer organizational capacity and local
household food security institutions could enhance the water security status of
(Sinyolo et al., 2014) farmers in smallholder irrigation schemes
Farmer’s age, off-farm income, farmer association
membership, use of pumps, location on the upper end of
the canal and training increase household water security
Water policy: inclusion and Establishment of new institutions (for WUAs) has been
representation in Water User unsuccessful in contributing to transformation in the
Associations (WUAs) case-study area. Existing structures were chosen as a line
(Kemerink et al., 2012) of thought for the implementation of the Water Act, as
they have further reinforced existing inequities
Risk management in a WaterGuard was selected as the preferred method
developing country context through the structured decision-making (SDM) model
(Arvai & Post, 2012) WaterGuard was more likely to be used by most people
Community participation The majority of the interviewees (90 per cent) confirmed
(Thwala, 2010) that the supply of community tap water had improved
their lives
Less than half of the interviewees had never been
involved in water projects previously
Water quality; health Endotoxins were detected in river water only, and in
implications (Fosso-Kankeu widely varying concentrations. The level of endotoxins
et al., 2010) was higher in summer than in winter. Endotoxins were
detected in all water samples from household containers,
and the concentrations varied within the range
(continued)
WATER 165
Study focus Findings
Community participation Water service delivery levels were extremely low. People
(Hemson & Buccus, 2009) were not satisfied because of the lack of service delivery
Roman water law in rural Africa Roman water law vested ownership of water resources in
(van Koppen et al., 2014) colonial rulers
Determinants of Mortality and fertility transitions were not dependent on
epidemiological transition and the socio-economic status or the drinking water source
drinking water source
(Engelaer et al., 2014)
Developing groundwater for The quality of the water must be known (avoid
secure rural water supplies in contamination). Community participation in the
Africa (MacDonald & Calow, long-term management of the water source is important
2008) in enabling benefit of all
Removal of waterborne The only filter that produced safe drinking water, with
bacteria from surface water <1 NTU for turbidity level and 0 CFU/100 mL for
and groundwater (Mwabi pathogenic bacteria, was the silver-impregnated porous
et al., 2013) pot
Water quality problems and The water contains nitrates, fluorides, chlorides, total
management (Odiyo & dissolved solids and microbes
Makungo, 2012)
Assessing rural small- There was an overall improvement in the three main
community water supply indicators: access, availability and potability
(Majuru et al., 2012)
Water access (WHO & About 84 per cent of the population without access to an
UNICEF, 2006) improved source of drinking water lives in rural areas
Sustainable rural water supply A number of African governments have adopted
in Africa (Harvey & Reed, hand-pump standardization policies, mostly advised by
2003) external donors
Groundwater for rural water Decentralization and demand-responsive approaches to
supply (MacDonald & Davies, the provision of rural water supplies lead to a lack of
2000) coordination in groundwater research and makes
collection of data more complex in sub-Saharan Africa
Rural water security (Hope Water services can be improved by good governance of
et al., 2012) groundwater resources and hand-pumps
Africa’s new mobile network architecture can be used to
link human development and natural development by
reducing risks
Decentralizing solutions for Rehabilitation of small dams in rural areas for adaptation
rural water supply under to climate change will ripple over time and bring
climate change (Nkem et al., development in different areas and to the nation in
2011) general
NTU: nephelometric turbidity unit

CFU: colony forming unit
focused on decentralizing solutions for rural water supply under climate

change, the findings suggested that rehabilitation of small dams in rural
areas for adaptation to climate change would ripple over time and bring
development in different areas and to the nation in general in Togo (Nkem
et al., 2011).
Water Quality
Studies focusing on water quality were five in total. In a study carried out
in Tshaada in rural South Africa, the findings indicate that the microbio-
logical quality of the permeate was within recommended and acceptable
limits of the WHO and South African standards for drinking water quality
(Molelekwa et al., 2014). Still on water quality, a study conducted in
South Africa indicated that endotoxins were detected only in river water,
and at widely varying concentrations (Fosso-Kankeu et al., 2010). In
another study with the same focus in Northern Ghana, study findings
showed that mortality and fertility transitions were not dependent on the
socio-economic status or the drinking water source (Engelaer et al.,
2014). Another study conducted in South Africa on water quality proved
that the only filter that produced safe drinking water was the silver-
impregnated porous pot (Mwabi et al., 2013). In a study on water quality
problems and management, findings showed that up to 27 per cent of
boreholes in the study area had poor or marginal water quality (Odiyo &
Makungo, 2012).
A first indicator of the quality of water supply services is the continuity
of service. In rural areas, continuity is expressed by the ratio of water
points out of order, or by the average time per year or per month that a
water point is unusable. In low-income sub-Saharan countries, analytically,
over one-third of the rural water supply infrastructure is neglected. A sec-
ond indicator of quality is the compliance with microbiological water
norms. WHO and UNESCO recently developed a Rapid Assessment of
Drinking-Water Quality (RADWQ) survey method. On average, in devel-
oping countries, compliance with the WHO norms is close to 90 per cent
for piped water, and between 40 per cent and 70 per cent for other
improved sources. No national or regional data have been published yet
(WHO/UNESCO, 2010).
Water Security
Studies focusing on water security also featured in the review. These stud-
ies were two in total. In a study on water security and food security in
WATER 167
South Africa, perceptions on water security were observed to have a posi-

tive impact on household food consumption per adult equivalent (Sinyolo
et al., 2014). In another study with examples from Kenya, findings indi-
cated that water services could be improved by good governance of
groundwater resources and hand-pumps (Hope et al., 2012).
Water Access
In the reviewed literature, there was only one global study conducted on
water access in Africa. This was done by WHO and UNICEF. The results
indicated that about 84 per cent of the populations without access to an
improved source of drinking water live in rural areas. Although 73 per
cent of rural dwellers have access to an improved source of drinking water,
only 30 per cent have access to piped water in the home. In addition, sub-
Saharan Africa had a challenge in water accessibility (WHO & UNICEF,
2006).
Water Policy
A study conducted in South Africa’s Thukela River Basin in KwaZulu-
Natal province focused on inclusion and representation issues in Water
User Associations (WUAs). It found that the newly established WUAs
institutions had not been successful in contributing to transformation in
the Thukela River Basin and had instead increased inequality in inclusion
and representation in WUAs (Kemerink et al., 2012). A case study is pre-
sented below to show the opportunities and challenges of rural water
policy and management.
Case Study 8.1 Managing Water Supply in Rural Areas of Oyo State,
Nigeria
This study was published by Gbadegesin and Olorunfemi (2012).
The aim of the study was to determine the extent to which stake-
holders were willing and able to adopt and implement sustainable,
cost-effective and environmentally friendly management options for
water resources in selected rural areas of Oyo State, Nigeria. The
study was conducted in three local government areas of Ibarapa,
Afijio and Lagelu. Data was collected using focus group discussions,
in-depth interviews, questionnaire survey and review of literature.
The questionnaire was administered to 200 respondents.
The key finding of the study was that water supply management
in Oyo State was facing a lot of problems, leading to slow develop-
ment. The challenges included a lack of a vibrant policy in the
water supply sector; political challenges related to appropriate
pricing and equitable allocation of water; and low knowledge base
of the different stakeholder groups about the technological, socio-
economic and ecological dimensions of water resources manage-
ment. Given these challenges, the study concluded that the existing
policy to supply water through boreholes, especially in situations
where there was no regular electricity supply to power the machines
in the rural areas studied, was counterproductive. Though the
study indicated that rain water was a major source of water in all
the rural communities studied, it can be seen from the findings
that the policy context to bring about changes to improve the sup-
ply and distribution of water through technology is not yet in
place.
The results of this study indicate that a lot needs be done in rural
Nigeria in order to ensure stakeholder participation and also to have
policies that support water supply instead of being counterproduc-
tive. Rural Nigeria is representative of most rural areas in Africa, and
therefore, we can use this case study to understand issues of water
supply management in rural Africa. An issue that emerges from this
study deals with capacity building and management of water
resources. Another very crucial issue in rural water management is
the knowledge base in relation to the socio-economic, technological
and ecological dimensions of water resources management.
Community Participation
The review identified two areas whose focus was community participation.
The first one was on community participation during project planning and
implementation, where the findings confirmed that less than half of the
interviewees had never been involved in water projects before (Thwala,
2010). In another study, called the Citizen Voice Project, water service
delivery levels were found to be extremely low (Hemson and Buccus,
2009). In addition, the said project, ‘Citizen Voice’, did not bring about
an immediate improvement in people’s lives.
WATER 169
thers Areas of Focus

O
Other areas of research focus are summarized as follows:
• There was one study on water law where the study revealed that
the Roman water law vested ownership of water resources in colo-
nial rulers. The colonial legacy was still hidden in the reforms
strengthening the permit system. In addition, African govern-
ments needed to recognize all plural water laws (van Koppen et al.,
2014).
• In a study conducted in Tanzania on risk management, WaterGuard
was selected as the preferred method through SDM model (Arvai &
Post, 2012).
• The study focusing on the efficiency evaluation of urban and rural
municipal water services was a comparative study whose findings
indicate that the rural municipality exhibits decreasing returns to
scale in all cases of scale inefficiency. In the study focusing on pump-
priming payments, the findings suggest that the payments are depen-
dent on service delivery (Brettenny & Sharp, 2016).
It is evident that the three major areas of focus in the studies were water
supply, water quality and community participation in rural water manage-
ment. Water supply was a focus in six studies, water quality in five studies
and community participation in two studies.
Conclusion
A number of studies on rural water have been done in Africa. Although
most of them are based in sub-Saharan Africa, the majority of the 21 stud-
ies examined in this chapter focused on South Africa. The findings have
indicated that there are many areas of research in rural water planning,
including water quality, water supply, water security, water access, as well
as water policy and community participation. Different conceptual and
theoretical frameworks have been used in an attempt to understand rural
water dynamics in Africa. A variety of methods have also been employed in
these studies for data collection. Overall, the studies show that there still
exist many challenges in rural water development that need urgent
attention.
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singer.
CHAPTER 9
Health
Peter Mala
Introduction
Health care delivery in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has evolved from tradi-
tional approaches to modern Western approach to health services.
Hundreds of years before the arrival of Western colonial governments,
health care in SSA was organized around traditional health care providers
(Waite, 2000). At the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the onset
of colonialism, the introduction and expansion of modern health services
to the local population was driven by the establishment of health facilities
in rural areas by Christian missionaries. This expansion was aided at a later
stage by the expansion of the health workforce through the introduction
of local African health workers who had returned from the Second World
War; these African soldiers were trained in basic medical skills as part of the
war effort (Bruchhausen, 2003; Dube, 2009). Since gaining indepen-
dence, local leadership in SSA countries has prioritized health; the sector
has received increased budgetary allocations, more health facilities have
been constructed, and medical training institutions have been established
to address health workforce needs of the countries in the region (Wamai,
2009).
P. Mala (*)
Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_9
174 P. MALA
In more recent times, the SSA health service delivery landscape has
evolved considerably. The changes have been driven mainly by prolonged
pressure of poorly performing local economies and budgetary constraints;
increased demand for health services from expanding populations;
increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) with the
growth of the middle class, changing lifestyles, and dietary habits; and
mismanagement of limited local revenue by the political class. The region
has witnessed multiple health care delivery solutions and policy initiatives;
most of the initiatives have been external in origin as part of the broader
global health initiatives or donor requirements for financial assistance.
They include global declarations such as Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and universal access to
health care. Further new funding arrangements have emerged to comple-
ment traditional funding mechanisms, such as bilateral arrangements with
traditional high-income donor nations, and funding from the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund. These new global actors in SSA
health financing include the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Gavi
Alliance, and Global Fund. In this chapter, results of a synthesis of a com-
prehensive review of health care delivery research in SSA are presented.
The chapter also presents evidence on health care delivery in rural Africa.
Methods
A comprehensive literate review was conducted. A total of 367 publica-
tions that satisfied search criteria were retrieved and reviewed. The studies
are drawn from diverse sources: journal papers, working papers, reports,
book chapters, and conference papers. In selecting these studies, only
those with the main focus on at least one or more of the SSA countries or
a subregion of SSA were included in the final analysis. Studies that inter-
rogated health care delivery issues relevant to SSA but lacked specific focus
on SSA or on at least one of the SSA countries were excluded from the
analysis. Only journal publications and book chapters were included in the
final analysis; commentaries and letters to the editors were excluded. A
total of 54 publications were included in the final analysis.
Once all the relevant studies were retrieved in hard copies, each study
was scrutinized and relevant information was extracted and summarized in
a data extraction matrix (Table 9.1). Variables extracted included: author(s)
and publication date; type of article, whether empirical study or review;
theoretical or conceptual model used in the study; main objective of the
Table 9.1 Summary of research on health care delivery in Africa
Author Theory Method Scope Main argument/finding
Abdulraheem, – Literature review Health planning Training, information sharing, and continuous
Olapipo, and Amodu dialogue are some of the interventions that could
(2012) enhance the utilization of primary health facilities by
rural communities
Adedini, Odimegwu, – Cross-sectional Health planning Health care access barriers increase childhood
Bamiwuye, Fadeyibi, study mortality
and De (2014)
Adwok, Hope, and – Review Health planning Declining health indicators in African countries can
Kearns (2013) be attributed to the neglect of public health systems
through underfunding and loss of health care workers
to better-funded donor projects and migration to
developed countries
Ayernor (2012) – Qualitative study Health services Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) will have
significant health and economic implications for the
individual, family, and country
Carapinha, Ross- – Cross-sectional Health financing There is a need for government commitment and
Degnan, Desta, and study donor support to expand medicines coverage through
Wagner (2011) insurance systems
Chimezie (2015) – Review Health planning Failure of primary health care (PHC) shows that
African countries need to adopt health delivery
models that are responsive to local and emerging
health needs
Chuma, Musimbi, – Cross-sectional Health financing Failure to fully implement user fee policy in Kenya is
Okungu, Goodman, study evident
and Molyneux (2009)
HEALTH
(continued)
175
176
Daniels, Sanders, – Qualitative Human resource Staff costs and retention challenges are limitations for
Daviaud, and Doherty deployment of community health workers (CHWs) to
P. MALA
(2015) deliver integrated community case management

(ICCM)
de-Graft Aikins et al. – Literature review Health services There is an urgent need for primary and secondary
(2010) intervention and for African health policy-makers and
governments to prioritize the development and
implementation of chronic diseases policies
de Maeseneer and – Lecture Health workforce The need to link medical education to practice should
Flinkenflogel (2010) be a key feature of a socially accountable faculty,
especially in Africa, where the main focus is on
specialty practice in central hospitals in big cities
Doherty et al. (2010) – Quantitative and Health planning There is a need to gradually integrate vertical
qualitative interventions within routine PHC through broader
health system strengthening
Ejughemre (2013) – Literature review Health financing Gradual exit from donor funding can avoid crippling
countries’ ability to be self-sufficient and self-reliant
Essomba, Bryant, and – Literature review Health planning Health planning reforms must be based on analysis of
Bodart (1993) existing health services and respond to broad issues,
such as the economy
Etyang et al. (2014) – Cross-sectional Health services Adults in rural Kenya face a combined burden of
study infectious diseases and NCDs
Fink, Robyn, Sie, and – Cluster Health financing The insurance scheme did not have any effect on
Sauerborn (2013) randomized health outcomes for children and adults, but
design increased mortality among individuals aged 65 and
older
(continued)
Galukande and – Review Health services There is a need to investigate the efficacy of
Kiguli-Malwadde ultrasound in breast cancer screening and a proposal
(2010) to lower the cut-off age for mammography to
improve access in resource-limited settings
Goudge, Gilson, – Cross-sectional Health financing Free primary care and hospital exemptions provide
Russell, Gumede, and study financial protection
Mills (2009)
Hanlon, – Literature review Health services The need and demand for community mental health
Wondimagegn, and services are escalating, and access barriers include
Alem (2010) underfunding, negative attitude towards mental
health, and competing priorities
Hendriks et al. (2012) – Cross-sectional Health services Hypertension was the most frequently observed risk
study factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in both
urban and rural populations
Hoque, Hoque, and – Cross-sectional Health services There is low uptake of pap smear and low knowledge
Kader (2008) study of cervical cancer prevention and risk factors
Jeppsson, Birungi, Embedding Qualitative study Health planning The author argues that the increasing disengagement
Stergren, and Hagstr and of the central levels of the Ministry of Health from
(2005) disembedding the local community can undermine effective and
theory equitable health service delivery
Kabatereine et al. – Review Health planning Successful establishment and running of an integrated
(2010) neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) control
programme hinges on effective partnership and
implementation of a stepwise and evidence-based
approach
HEALTH
(continued)
177
178
Kevany et al. (2012) – Cross-sectional Health financing Utilization of health services is strongly associated
study with the socio-economic status (SES) and the
P. MALA
employment status
Kironde & – Prospective Health planning Community-based directly observed treatment
Kahirimbanyi (2002) study (DOT) produces outcomes that are equivalent to the
other treatment options for new patients and is
superior to self-administration of drugs
Leighton (1996) – Review Health financing The author presents a number of strategies that
African Ministries of Health have used to overcome
the principal obstacles to achieving health financing
reforms
Mafuva & – Literature review Health services South Africa has made significant process towards
Marima-matarira professionalization of traditional medicine compared
(2014) with Zimbabwe
Makaula et al. (2012) – Qualitative study Health planning Community participation based on the community-
directed intervention (CDI) approach is a realistic
means for increasing accessibility to vital health
interventions at community level
Mamo, Seid, Adams, – Review Health services Community-based care and education, primarily
Gardiner, and Parry driven by health officers or nurses, is an effective and
(2007) cost-efficient method for managing chronic diseases
Marschall and Flessa Data envelope Cross-sectional Health Decision-makers should improve the demand-side
(2011) analysis (DEA) study governance barriers in access to health care
model
Mashego and Peltzer – Qualitative Health services People’s own experiences have the potential to bring
(2005) into focus problems that can influence their
satisfaction with health care
(continued)
Mayosi et al. (2009) – Qualitative Health services Morbidity and mortality from NCDs are rising in all
strata of South African society, and similar
observations have been made in East and West Africa
McCord, Liu, and – Cost analysis Human resource Countries wishing to develop CHW strategy should
Singh (2013) undertake a costing exercise to determine the budget
for deployment of CHWs
McPake (2013) – Qualitative Health workforce Investment needs to be made in pay and recruitment,
and the government also needs to ensure that
conditions of employment do not worsen for rural
areas
McPake (1996) – Qualitative Health planning The policy of granting autonomy to national-level
hospitals as part of health reforms is guided neither
by systematic conceptual rationalization nor by
published implementation experience
Mladovsky, Ndiaye, – Qualitative Health financing Interconnected social values of voluntarism, trust,
and Criel (2015) and solidarity were employed by stakeholders to
expand community-based health insurance (CBHI)
population coverage in Senegal
Mutale, Ayles, Bond, – Cross-sectional Health workforce Determinants of motivation vary by gender, type of
Mwanamwenge, and study health worker, and time in post
Balabanova (2013)
Oyaya & Rifkin – Qualitative Health system Health service delivery will continue to deteriorate
(2003) unless a combination of neoliberal market approaches
of the health system and poor governance are
addressed
HEALTH
(continued)
179
180
Pillay (2011) – Cross-sectional Health workforce There is a lack of management capacity within the
study public health sector
P. MALA
Ridde (2011) – Review Health financing With most funding agencies in favour of abolishing
user fees, the relevance of user fees policy is being
reconsidered in West Africa
Sahn and Bernier – Qualitative Health financing The structural adjustment programme in Africa did
(1995) not reduce public health expenditure
Schreuder and – Qualitative Health planning The study makes a case for integrated vertical and
Kostermans (2001) and financing horizontal PHC planning and financing as the best
option
Scrubb (2011) – Review Health system The study shows how a combination of lingering
apartheid policies and neoliberal ideology led to the
growth of the private sector and limited access for
majority blacks, who rely on the public health services,
and the need for redistribution of health workers, and
increased funding of the public health servicies
Somdyala, Bradshaw, – Cross-sectional Health The study identified difficulties in maintaining a
Gelderblom, and study information cancer registry in a rural setting and determining the
Parkin (2010) true incidence of cancer in rural areas
Tanser and Le Sueur – Literature review Health Application of geographical information system (GIS)
(2002) information is relevant to monitoring diseases with strong
environmental links, such as vector-borne diseases
Van Damme, Kober, – Review Health system There is a need for novel systems to support chronic
and Laga (2006) care and large-scale prevention, as ART (antiretroviral
treatment) transforms HIV into a chronic disease
requiring lifelong follow-up
(continued)
van der Hoeven, – Cross-sectional Health services Urban participants were more likely to prefer a
Kruger, and Greeff study private doctor, while rural participants were more
(2012) likely to prefer a health clinic
van Dijk et al. (2009) – Cross-sectional Health system Even though rural children are responding well to
study HIV treatment, access and nutrition should be
improved to ensure optimal and long-term outcomes
Versteeg, Toit, and – Qualitative Health system In order to improve rural health care, there is a need
Couper (2013) for equitable financing for rural health care provision,
management of health workers’ appointments based
on appropriate skills and experience, and
transformation of the organizational culture
Wamai (2009) – Literature review Health system Strengthening the health system will determine
Kenya’s progress in disease control and improvement
in health care
Wang et al. (2015) – Quantitative Health financing Even in a context where essential care for chronic
non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) is supposedly
free of charge at the point of use, out-of-pocket
(OOP) expenditure imposes a considerable financial
burden on rural households
Wiseman (2005) – Qualitative Health financing The introduction of user fees at community level was
the Bamako initiative’s most problematic proposition
HEALTH
181
182 P. MALA
study; methodology used; focus of the study; and main argument or find-
ing of the study. The main focus of each of the studies was derived from
analysis of the main objectives, main arguments, and key findings of each of
the studies. These were then examined for commonalities. Studies on plan-
ning approaches such as primary health care (PHC) and vertical selective
programmes were grouped under one thematic area, referred to as health
planning, while those studies on how health care is paid for or funded were
grouped under health financing. Studies on specific health service delivery
types or issues (e.g. chronic diseases) were placed under health services.
An iterative process was followed whereby some thematic areas were
sometimes merged, new ones created, and studies reclassified until a satis-
factory level emerged from the process. The emergent themes therefore
are not a result of p redetermined classification criteria; they represent a
level of satisfaction with the iterative process followed to allow these
themes to emerge from the studies reviewed.
Study Designs
Among the 54 studies reviewed (Table 9.2), 26 (37 per cent) had lead
authors from SSA, with South Africa accounting for most studies (eight
studies) compared with other SSA countries. The rest of the studies (63
per cent) had lead researchers of non-SSA origin. Contribution of the
research community in other SSA countries is still low.
Among the 54 studies included in the review (Table 9.2), 37 (68 per
cent) of the studies were reviews, 15 (28 per cent) were cross-sectional
studies, one study used cluster randomized design, and one was a cost
analysis study. Majority of the studies were reviews; this perhaps represents
a significant research gap. Given that SSA has been at the forefront of the
introduction of many types of new approaches to health care delivery,
these initiatives and their outcomes have presented opportunities for rig-
orous research, which the research designs among most of the studies
reviewed found to be inadequate so far.

Only two studies had an explicit theoretical or conceptual model specified
out of the 54 studies reviewed. One of the studies used Giddens’ theoretical
HEALTH 183
Table 9.2 Design characteristics of studies reviewed

Study focus Study type Conceptual/theoretical Total
model specified
Cross-sectional Review Others Yes No

study
Health planning 2 7 – – 9 9
Health financing 4 8 1 1 12 13
Health system – 5 – 1 4 5
Health services 6 12 – 1 17 18
Human resource 3 4 1 – 8 8
Health – 1 – 1 1
information
Total 15 37 2 3 51 54
concepts of disembedding and embedding (Giddens, 1990) to analyse how

the Ministry of Health of Uganda has performed in delivery of health ser-
vices to local communities. Jeppsson et al. (2005) argue that while the
Uganda Ministry of Health endeavours to technically engage with local
communities, it has to simultaneously overcome disembedding forces
exerted upon it by attempts to strengthen relationships with expert global
health partners. The net effect, according to Jeppsson et al. (2005), is that
most post-colonial ministries of health in SSA are not effectively embedded
in local communities, with negative consequences on health service delivery.
The second model used in the studies’ reviews is the data envelop analysis
(DEA) model to determine the efficiency of delivery of PHC services in
Burkina Faso (Marschall & Flessa, 2011). The model measures the degree
of success with which an organization uses its inputs and resources to pro-
duce a given outcome in order to improve the ratios of inputs and outputs.
Considering the fact that some of the solutions that have been intro-
duced in the region have never been tried elsewhere, the dearth of theo-
retical conceptualization in SSA health research studies represents a major
gap in scientific rigour in SSA health research. There is a need to identify
where translation and implementation issues of the many solutions really
are, as well as their relevance to the needs of the region.
Service Delivery Focal Areas in Empirical Research

The review identified six broad research themes in the 54 studies reviewed:
these included health planning, health financing, health services, health
184 P. MALA
system, human resource, and health information. These themes are pre-
sented in this section.
Health Planning
The review identified comprehensive and vertical approaches as the domi-
nant health service delivery models in SSA research studies. Within a
month, 11 articles were retrieved on the subject. Five of them focused on
comprehensive PHC approaches, four articles addressed vertical selective
interventions and the need for integration, and two addressed limitations
of selective approaches. However, none of the studies specified any con-
ceptual models or theoretical frameworks in their analyses.
Among the five articles on PHC experiences in SSA, none of the studies
specified either a conceptual model or a theoretical framework. All of the
five articles reviewed addressed contributing factors to failure or successful
implementation of PHC. According to Chimezie (2015), PHC failed in
Africa due to a lack of leadership and poor management, poor funding,
shortage of drugs, inadequate health workforce, and a lack of health-
promoting amenities in rural areas. Chimezie also argues for an alternative
health services delivery model that is better suited to the local context and
emerging health needs in Africa, without going into specifics of how to do
this.
Essomba et al. (1993) examine challenges of PHC implementation in
Cameroon and successful implementation through decentralization of
decision-making to the districts and the communities. Similarly,
Abdulraheem et al. (2012) describe Nigeria’s failure to implement PHC
due to a lack of management structures at district level, a lack of involve-
ment of community members, and limited health infrastructure in rural
communities. Coovadia, Jewes, Barron, Sanders, and McIntyre (2009)
credit post-apartheid government with the successful implementation of
PHC, which had been largely ignored by previous governments. While
Schaay and Sanders (2008) highlight the dominance of the private sector,
Pillay (1993) points out the distrust between the state and most rural
black communities as one of the key challenges encountered in the local
context of South Africa.
Six publications have highlighted shortcomings of selective approaches
and potential benefits of the integration of horizontal PHC approaches
and vertical disease-specific approaches. The experience of six SSA coun-
tries (e.g. Ethiopia, Madagascar, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe) with child health days (Doherty et al., 2010) illustrates
HEALTH 185
istortions and disruptions caused to the broader health service delivery

d
by vertical interventions, leading to a reduction in the performance of
other priority health interventions and diversion of critical health staff.
Adwok et al. (2013) examine the negative impact of selective approaches
on equally important health service delivery priorities; they argue that
declining health indicators in African countries can be attributed to the
neglect of public health systems, though underfunding and loss of health
care workers to better-funded donor projects are also part of the reasons
for this decline.
Doherty et al. (2010) argue that the downside of vertical interventions
can be addressed through integration within the broader PHC. Similarly,
Schreuder and Kostermans (2001) argue for the need for both sides of the
vertical–horizontal divide to get together and weave the horizontal and
vertical fibres into a sustainable web of an integrated approach because
each approach contributes in its own way towards improving health.
According to Makaula et al. (2012), vertical programmes have a better
chance of success if beneficiary communities are engaged in them right
from their inception. Kabatereine et al. (2010) examine challenges of inte-
grating a vertical programme within existing health structures, such as
difficulties in assigning leadership and handling resentment often associ-
ated with restructuring.
The review findings show that a comprehensive PHC and selective ver-
tical approaches have dominated the SSA planning discourse and practice
for more than three decades, with mixed results. However, only a limited
number of studies on comprehensive PHC and selective vertical approaches
identified specifically focused on SSA. Further, the studies identified were
largely descriptive in nature, and most of them lacked depth and rigour in
theoretical conceptualization necessary for reshaping health planning dis-
course and practice in the SSA context. With the persistent debate about
which approach is better, whether none of them is good for the SSA con-
text, or a more integrated approach is needed, and that there have been
nearly 30 years of experimentation with mixed results, the lack of sound
scientific evidence to inform the discourse and practice is a glaring omis-
sion on the part of the research community, especially those in SSA
research institutions.
Health Financing
The literature shows how approaches to health financing have evolved in
SSA. According to Mwabu (1998), the question of how to pay for health
186 P. MALA
care was particularly controversial in the 1980s and early 1990s. Multiple
financing models have been attempted with mixed results. The review
identified cost sharing, free market, and public-funded health financing as
some of the main health financing mechanisms that have been imple-
mented to varying degrees in SSA.
User Fees
Free health care policy of post-independence Africa was largely aban-
doned with the economic crisis of the 1970s and 1980s. Gilson and Mills
(1995) examined the SSA experience with the introduction of user fees.
They described the contribution of the economic crisis of the 1980s and
early 1990s, economic stagnation, coupled with sustained population
growth, to the erosion of the ability of governments to allocate adequate
funding for the health sector. Wiseman (2005) describes the donor-driven
inception of the Bamako initiative of 1987 and the introduction of user
fees for sustainability of PHC; he argues that the prominent role given to
user fees at community level was the initiative’s most problematic propo-
sition. Sahn and Bernier (1995), on the contrary, argue that structural
adjustment did not reduce public health expenditure, and that equity
concerns about the poor regarding out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are
often overstated. Leighton (1996) described obstacles to the successful
implementation of cost recovery, and strategies to overcome them; the
obstacles include reforming civil service, building political consensus on
priorities, strengthening management capacity, and overcoming bureau-
cratic constraints.
Goudge et al. (2009) examined the effect of free primary care services
and fee exemptions on financial protection of households and access; the
findings showed that these measures alone are not enough to improve
access, as getting exemptions was difficult and distances from health facili-
ties were long; more exemptions and outreach services may be necessary
to improve access. Similarly, in Zimbabwe, Kevany et al. (2012) found
that poorer members of society in rural areas very rarely utilized health
facilities due fees for the service and associated cost of transportation.
McPake (1996) examines the aspect of the health sector reform that
aimed at cutting public health spending by granting large university teach-
ing hospitals greater autonomy from the Ministries of Health and respon-
sibility for the generation of their own finances. Hanson et al. (2002) also
examine the impact of granting financial autonomy to hospitals in Uganda
and Zambia.
HEALTH 187
User Fees Reduction and Removal

Ridde (2011) argues that one of the key failures of the Bamako initiative
user fee model was the fact that equity for the worse-off was neglected in
its interpretation and implementation; he points out the importance of
removing cost barriers in order to expand access to health care in SSA. A
study on Kenya’s experience showed that the policy was yet to be fully
implemented in practice, demonstrating the need for careful planning
when deciding on how to reduce or abolish user fees (Chuma et al., 2009).
Similarly, in Malawi, with free health care policy, difficulties are encountered
by rural households, which incur large OOP payments for their health care
(Wang et al., 2015). A study by McPake et al. (2013) attempted to dem-
onstrate a relationship between the elimination of user fees and the impact
on health workers; the authors caution about possible negative conse-
quences of user fees removal, including increased workloads for health
staff, loss of user fee revenue for allowances for health workers, and inter-
ruption of supplies of health care inputs due to the increased demand, and
the need for careful consideration and inclusion of human resource needs
in cost removal polices.
Ejughemre (2013), while acknowledging that the SSA countries wit-
nessed a large influx of donor funds, particularly in response to the MDGs
initiative, argues that a gradual exit from donor funding for health is
needed to enable countries to achieve self-reliance when the donor funds
come to an end.
Insurance
One study in Burkina Faso found that a community-based insurance
scheme had some positive impact on catastrophic health expenditure,
but lacked any positive impact on health outcomes; it led to higher mor-
tality among the ‘65 years and older’ age groups due to a number of
factors. These factors included unaffordability by households and avoid-
ance of chronic diseases by health providers, who were receiving capita-
tion funds of the scheme (Fink et al., 2013). Carapinha et al. (2011)
focused on the scope of medicine coverage in private and public insur-
ance schemes in selected countries in SSA; the study found that the cov-
erage is limited and fraud is a major problem in medicine coverage
design. Mladovsky et al. (2015) examine the uptake of a community-
based health insurance scheme in Senegal; the main reasons for low cov-
erage included a lack of subsidy for staff salaries, weak governance
188 P. MALA
structures, respect for community norms and values, clear national poli-
cies, and engagement of care providers.
Health Services
Bangdiwala, Fonn, Okoye, and Stephen Tollman (2010) highlight chal-
lenges involved in coping with emergences of NCDs in SSA while the
unfinished agenda of infection, malnutrition, and maternal complications
persists. According to Ayernor (2012), NCDs are two times higher among
the rural population compared with the urban population in SSA. Despite
growing evidence that urban and rural populations suffer from the same
diseases, and in some instances, the rural population is more affected, the
majority of rural health services consist of basic health services, which
include immunization, antenatal clinics, postnatal clinics for children, and
treatments for basic health conditions and injuries. Chronic diseases are
not actually being addressed and diagnostic services are inadequate. de-
Graft Aikins et al. (2010) stress the growing burden of chronic
infections/diseases in rural Africa and the lack of appropriate services.
These include HIV-related diseases, pregnancy-related disorders, and the
increasing incidence of NCDs and injuries (de-Graft Aikins et al., 2010;
Etyang et al., 2014).
Other leading NCDs among rural populations in Africa include
hypertension and diabetes (Hendriks et al., 2012; Mayosi et al., 2009),
oral health problems and arthritis among older adults in rural areas
(Ayernor, 2012), and cancer, the incidence of which is rising (Somdyala
et al., 2010). Given limited access to mammograms in SSA, Galukande
and Kiguli-Malwadde (2010) propose the use of ultrasound in breast
cancer screening in resource-limited settings and a lower cut-off age for
mammography screening. de-Graft Aikins et al. (2010) note that African
health policy-makers and governments should prioritize chronic diseases
policies; these should include strategies for community participation in
the prevention of NCDs, such as community volunteer groups, commu-
nity advocacy groups, mass media, and institutions (e.g. churches,
schools).
Mamo et al. (2007) describe a successful community-based care for
chronic diseases in Ethiopia. According to their study, community-based
care and education, which is primarily driven by health officers or nurses,
is an effective and cost-efficient method for managing chronic diseases in
rural areas. Hanlon et al. (2010) carried out a study that focused on
community-based mental health care delivery mechanisms in South Africa.
HEALTH 189
It consisted of a combination of specialist outreach teams and the integra-

tion of mental health care into PHC. The findings showed an increasing
need and demand for community mental health services. In his proposi-
tion of community participation in delivery of tuberculosis treatment,
Kironde and Kahirimbanyi (2002) argue that this can serve to address
inadequate health infrastructure, insufficient level of decentralization,
paucity of health workers, and financial resources. According to Mashego
et al., (2005), other factors that affect the utilization of health services
include drugs availability and perceived quality of health service delivery.
Two studies further highlight the challenge of sustaining community
participation in health service delivery while balancing cost, especially
when incentives are involved (Kironde & Kahirimbanyi, 2002; McCord
et al., 2013).
A study in rural southern Zambia (van Dijk et al., 2009) examined dis-
tant health facilities and found poor roads as the main obstacle in accessing
these facilities, especially during rainy seasons; 90 per cent of HIV-infected
children travelled more than one hour to reach the clinic and more than
one-quarter travelled more for than five hours. In South Africa, the gov-
ernment has addressed the challenge of distant health services by provid-
ing transport to cancer centres, since some of the patients travel 200–700
kilometres to reach the specialist care facility (Somdyala et al., 2010). Van
der Hoeven et al. (2012) highlight differences in rural and urban health
experiences, and according to their findings, rural populations are more
likely to experience cost barriers to health services.
Culture and Health
Three articles that were reviewed examined the influence of traditions and
culture on rural health planning. Cultural and ethnic diversities influence
community participation in health care because of the relationship between
culture, health, and development (Takim, Gever, & Pefun Joshua, 2013).
Culture also affects health outcomes; Adedini et al. (2014) found increased
infant mortality with wife seclusion cultural practices widely practised
among the Hausa community in Nigeria.
According to Marschall and Flessa (2011), conservative rural commu-
nities may not patronize health facilities that are not sensitive to their
cultural values. For example, Haile and Guerny (2000) observed that cul-
tural views such as the one that considers human reproduction as a natural
process that should not be interfered with using artificial methods and also
a lack of involvement of men who are responsible for making reproductive
190 P. MALA
health decisions constitute a significant barrier to effective delivery of fam-

ily planning in rural areas of Africa. Hoque et al. (2008) discuss the lack of
culturally appropriate health information, especially on more sensitive
rural health issues such as reproductive health as a barrier to the uptake of
pap smear test for cervical cancer.
Health System
Travis et al. (2004) accurately predicted that the MDGs would not be met
by 2015 by developing countries because of the focus on vertical pro-
grammes and the neglect of investment in health systems. He argued that
if the health system is lacking in capabilities such as health workforce, drug
supply, health information, and health financing, it may not respond to
opportunities presented by selective programmes. Some of these sub-
themes were identified in the literature reviewed.
Oyaya and Rifkin (2003) describe the gaps between policy formulation
and implementation and identify a number of obstacles that should be
addressed in order to close the gaps. These gaps included identifying and
managing critical policy processes, and building institutional capacity to
undertake the associated tasks. According to Versteeg et al. (2013), rural
health care is understaffed and poorly managed in South Africa. In order
to improve rural health care, therefore, there is a need for equitable financ-
ing for rural health care provision and management appointments based
on appropriate skills. Scrubb (2011) highlights the effect of political ideol-
ogy on health systems. According to him, the inability to adequately
address the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa may be explained by the
still-existing apartheid ideologies in the local health system.
Health Information
Health information tools such as geographical information system (GIS)
for spatial modelling of disease epidemiology can address current disease
burden estimation gaps in SSA (Tanser & Le Sueur, 2002). One study
based on South Africa’s experience highlights how the lack of appropriate
information technology to capture and process the cancer cases in rural
settings is affecting the quality of cancer registries in rural areas (Somdyala
et al., 2010).
Health Workforce
Africa comprises some 11 per cent of the world population and 25 per cent
of the global burden of disease, but hosts just 4 per cent of the global
HEALTH 191
health workforce to address this burden (Bangdiwala et al., 2010).

According to de Maeseneer and Flinkenflogel (2010), training of medical
doctors should focus on those most in need. They argue that linking edu-
cation to practice should be a key feature of a socially accountable faculty.
Van Damme et al. (2006) cite the lack of human resources as having ham-
pered progress in HIVAIDS prevention and treatment in SSA. Bangdiwala
et al. (2010) suggest that emphasis should be placed on mid-level and
low-level health care workers, as they are unlikely to migrate. McCord
et al. (2013) also propose deployment of CHWs in SSA on a national scale.
Daniels et al. (2015) illustrate how staff costs and retention challenges
pose limitations for deployment of CHWs for delivery of community
intervention. Three studies examined factors that affect the retention of
health workers in rural areas (Erasmus & Blaaw, 2011; Grobler et al.,
2009; Mutale et al., 2013). The factors they identified included a lack of
equipment in health facilities, poor quality of life, and a lack of housing as
some of the disincentives among doctors and nurses. Pillay’s study (2011)
on the analysis of management capacity in the public health sector in
South Africa identified significant skill gaps among nurses in management
position.
Conclusion
The chapter has shown that a significant amount of research has addressed
health delivery in SSA. However, researchers of SSA origin accounted for
only 37 per cent of the studies reviewed. External researchers from outside
SSA accounted for the research activities in SSA. This is consistent with
observations from previous studies (Sall, Lebeau, & Kassimir, 2003;
Tijssen, 2007), which have shown very low contribution of SSA to global
scientific research. This should be a cause for concern; it appears that the
owner of the proverbial pinching shoes who should know best where the
shoe hurts has not shouted loud enough in the realm of scientific research.
Perhaps the marginal place of the SSA researcher and the fact that external
sources of the often unsuitable health solutions are also the dominant
player in the SSA research arena could explain why health delivery solu-
tions introduced in SSA have not been subjected to the desirable level of
critical, theoretical, and conceptual scrutiny, as these findings have shown.
A number of reasons have been advanced for the low contribution of
SSA to global scientific research; these include poor investment in inno-
vation and development by SSA countries and deinstitutionalization of
192 P. MALA
PhD studies in the region (Quintana & Calvet, 2012). The research space
in the region is characterized by poor working environment, low pay, a
lack of equipment, and poor retention of researchers (Tijssen, 2007).
These findings underscore an urgent need for a paradigm shift among
SSA leaders and policy-makers. There is a need to recognize that the
region’s health delivery challenges stand a better chance of being solved
through innovative solutions generated by local researchers with better
appreciation of the context. Furthermore, unless SSA health care delivery
is anchored on research and innovation, desired levels of development in
health care delivery in the region will not be realized. This calls for delib-
erate and sustained investment of local resources in research by SSA
countries.
Regarding areas of focus of the research studies reviewed, health ser-
vices accounted for most of the studies, with health care delivery for the
increasing burden of chronic diseases in rural areas featuring most promi-
nently. The findings reflect the increasing global focus on chronic diseases
in the region (de-Graft Aikins et al., 2010) and the increasing gap between
the burden of chronic diseases among rural populations and the lack of
relevant services (Kane, Landes, Carroll, Nolen, & Sodhi, 2017).
Historically, health services for chronic diseases have been provided in sec-
ondary and tertiary facilities in urban centres, which are not readily acces-
sible to rural communities. Most rural communities in SSA lack doctors
and largely depend on primary care facilities for basic care and preventive
services, such as immunization and antenatal care.
Health financing was the second most researched area, followed by
health planning. Even though participation of researchers from other dis-
ciplines, such as economics, may explain the large amount of health financ-
ing research, attention given to health financing in SSA research is
understandable, given the sustained dependency of the region on donor
funding for health. Further, since the disruptive effect of the structural
adjustment of late 1980s and the end of public-funded health care deliv-
ery, and subsequent experiments with various funding models in the
region, the findings show that an ideal funding model for SSA is far from
being realized. Regarding research on health planning in SSA, despite the
large interest generated by vertical and horizontal health planning models
over the past two decades, the findings showed that very little empirical
research has addressed these subjects in the context of SSA. Perhaps as a
result, a repetitive pattern of old planning and financing solutions being
replaced by old approaches that were considered to have failed in past was
HEALTH 193
observed. This represents a significant research gap and poses the risk of
perpetuation of failure in health service delivery propositions for SSA.
Overall, the studies lacked scientific rigour; the majority did not include
any conceptual or theoretical models. This level of research was missing in
the studies reviewed, whether at the level of design or at the inception
stage of the health care delivery and financing models proposed, or at the
operational research level during implementation in the diverse socio-
economic contexts of SSA countries. Underlying assumptions of these
propositions require rigorous empirical validation. This level of research
rigour is needed to avoid the perpetual circle of introduction and
reintroduction of ill-proven health delivery and financing solutions often
observed in SSA.
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CHAPTER 10
Physical Activity
Fletcher Njororai and Wycliffe W. Simiyu Njororai
Introduction
Physical activity (PA) is a health-enhancing behaviour with many benefits to
an individual. Regular PA has been shown to reduce the risk for a range of
chronic diseases (Amusa, Toriola, & Goon, 2012; Dvorak, Fuller, & Junge,
2012; Ferreira et al., 2006; Strydom, 2013). Among the young people, PA
offers prospects for building strong bones, healthy joints, a strong heart,
and a good mental health and prevents today’s major public health con-
cern—obesity (Amusa et al., 2012; Kohn & Booth, 2003). Despite these
health benefits, many people, especially the young ones, are not engaging in
recommended levels of PA so as to maximize these benefits.
Physical inactivity has been associated with the Western, affluent, and
industrialized societies (Aarts, Schuit, Van de Goor, & van Oers, 2011;
Dvorak et al., 2012), with serious problems and several unfavourable
health consequences. However, similar negative consequences are reported
to be on the increase in Africa. There is increasing evidence showing that
high levels of physical inactivity is becoming a major lifestyle among adults
and children throughout Africa (April, Kolbe-Alexander, Draper, &
Lambert, n.d.; Dumith, Hallal, Reis, & Kohl, 2011; Dvorak et al., 2012;
Guthold, Ono, Strong, Chatterji, & Morabia, 2008, 2011; Strydom,
2013). This chapter summarizes the evidence on PA in Africa and related
F. Njororai (*) • W.W.S. Njororai

University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7_10
200 F. NJORORAI AND W.W.S. NJORORAI
aspects of health promotion through intervention strategies to promote

PA at national and community levels.
Methods
Peer-reviewed published articles on PA interventions around the world,
and particularly pertaining to Africa, were searched in electronic databases.
These included Medline, CINAHL, Sport Discus, Health Source, Health
Reference Centre, and Academic Consumer Health. The keywords used
in the literature search included physical activity, African countries, health
promotion, and empowerment. The search strategy was restricted to
English-language papers published in peer-reviewed journals between
2003 and 2013. In addition, a review of the official documents from UN
organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) were also sought to obtain a broader range of information on
African countries, as well as academic presentations at conferences.
Initially, titles and abstracts of studies uncovered by the electronic
searches via databases were examined on the screen. Papers which could
not be excluded on the basis of the title and abstract were obtained in full
and reviewed by the two authors for suitability for inclusion. Over 1569
titles showed up, out of which the titles and abstracts of 120 articles were
initially reviewed, yielding 50 that were printed and examined further.
Twenty publications (see Table 10.1) were found appropriate, based on
sample characteristics or nature of study, conceptual approach, study type,
data collection method, study focus, findings, and conclusions/recommen-
dations, for deeper conceptual, methodological, and contextual analysis.
Table 10.1 shows a summary of the reviewed publications, including the
author(s), sample characteristics or nature of study, title of the article,
conceptual approach, study type, data collection method, study focus,
findings, and conclusions/recommendations.
Study Designs
Out of the 20 studies reviewed, four focused on the worldwide PA trends
(Dumith et al., 2011; Guthold et al., 2008; Micheli et al., 2011; Wang &
Lobstein, 2006); two (Heroux et al., 2013; Onywera et al., 2013) dealt
Table 10.1 Summary of research on physical activity
Author Sample Geographical Theoretical Study type Data Study focus Findings Conclusions and
(year) characteristics unit framework/ collection recommendations
model method
Wang and Publications Worldwide World Meta-analysis Survey Obesity Childhood obesity/Overweight on the Effective programmes and
Lobstein between (15 African Health prevalence increase worldwide; exceptions found policies needed at global,
(2006) 1980 and countries Survey worldwide in infants and preschool children in regional, and national levels
2005 covered in lower-income countries
the study)
Heroux School aged Canada, Physical Comparative Survey Obesity Kenya had the lowest obesity levels Obesity levels vary as per
et al. (2013) children from Mexico, and activity (PA) study prevalence in (0.9 for boys and 2.8 for girls) transition stage of each
three Kenya transition Canada, Mexico, compared with Mexico and Canada; country
countries and Kenya Kenyans had highest aerobic levels
Ferreira Publications Not Ecological Meta-analysis Survey Environment and The home and the school key to PA Further research should aim
et al. (2006) between applicable model PA participation; support of significant at longitudinal and
1980 and others; low crime rate intervention studies and use
2005 more objective measures of
PA and its potential
(environmental)
determinants
(Continued )
Table 10.1 (Continued)
model method
Kerr, Publications Not Ecological Meta-analysis Survey Environment, The built environment is key in Planners should be
Rosenberg, up to 2010 indicated Model PA, and health promoting or inhibiting PA in older prepared to respond with
and Frank adults; creating and preserving design solutions that will
(2012) walkable communities is a means to make destinations safely
reduce the risk of chronic diseases and accessible on foot or by
maintain improved public health and transit for this rapidly
quality of life; design of the physical growing segment of the
environment in which older adults live population
and the level of access to transit service
determine the level of accessibility the
elderly have to important destinations
such as shops, services, and places to
recreate. When supportive features are
prominent in places where older adults
live, they can remain active and
independent
(Continued )
model method
Sinnett, Evidence- United Socio- Report Evidence- Walking The benefit of investments in the Makes the case for
Williams, based report Kingdom ecological based report environment and walking environment is improved investment in the walking
Chatterjee, investment health from increased PA; evidence environment. It has set out
and Cavill from UK and international studies the evidence on the benefits
(2011) report significant potential health of walking-friendly places,
benefits from relatively minor and identified their
investments; the improved travel cost-effectiveness. It has
experience of users of a walking also presented a number of
environment; all the evidence reviewed case studies of successful
of evaluations of walking environments schemes which have been
showed positive cost–benefit ratios, of tested and evaluated
up to 37.6; the highest value for
money transport projects are smarter
choices, cycle and pedestrian schemes,
local safety schemes, and some bus
schemes. This suggests that investment
in the walking environment is likely to
be at least, if not better, value for
money than other transport projects
(Continued )
model method
April et al. Evidence- Africa Socio- Report Documentary Inactivity, obesity, The socio-ecological model illustrates Barriers to PA exist on all
(n.d.) based report ecological review initiatives, and the interrelationship between the levels of the social
Africa individual and their environment; the environment
social environment includes community In order to combat physical
norms and values, regulations, policies, inactivity, strategies and
and culture; some of the determinants initiatives need to be
and barriers to healthy behaviours are implemented on all levels
shared by the community as a whole; Policy/Environmental
there is a need to approach health interventions; workplace
promotion on all levels in order to interventions; community
increase effectiveness; evidence shows interventions
high levels of physical inactivity among
adults and children throughout Africa;
high levels of obesity exist, and
non-communicable diseases (NCDs)
prevalence shows signs of increase due
to competing agendas and barriers of
PA which exist at each level of the social
environment; high levels of physical
inactivity can only be addressed by
targeting interventions at each level of
social environment; for this to be
effective, it will require custodians at
community, workplace, and policy level
to promote PA and not just medical
practitioners; a network involving
custodians at all levels would further
improve the efficiency of PA promotion
throughout the social environment
(Continued )
model method
Aarts et al. Four The Delphi Interview Survey Activity-friendly Cultural/Community acceptability, The Delphi technique can
(2011) medium-sized Netherlands method environments for political feasibility, and cost feasibility be a useful tool in reaching
Dutch children, policy were considered the most important consensus about feasible
municipalities feasibility aspects; Delphi studies multi-sector policy
yielded 16 feasible policy measures measures. The study yielded
aimed at physical and social several feasible policy
environmental correlates of PA among measures aimed at physical
children; less drastic policy measures and social environmental
were considered more feasible, whereas correlates of PA among
environmental policy measures were children and can assist local
considered less feasible @@policy-makers in
designing multi-sector
policies aimed at an
activity-friendly
environment for children
(Continued )
model method
Dvorak et al. Evidence- Mauritius Community Intervention Outcome Delivery of health The pilot study produced an 18 per The strategy used to
(2012) based report education programme report education and PA cent absolute increase in post- implement the ‘11 for
intervention health knowledge across Health’ programme in
the health messages, which was Mauritius has already been
equivalent to a 26 per cent relative transferred to three other
increase against the children’s baseline African countries
knowledge level; while the nationwide (Botswana, Malawi, and
study produced a 14 per cent absolute Namibia), namely, a
increase in the post-intervention health tripartite collaboration
knowledge across the health messages, between FIFA/F-MARC
equivalent to a 22 per cent relative (FIFA Medical Assessment
increase against the baseline and Research Centre), the
knowledge level. The implementation country’s football
of the ‘11 for Health’ programme was association, and the
considered to have met the objectives government’s Departments
set out at the beginning of the project of Health, Education, and
Sport, with the country’s
media used to increase the
public’s awareness of the
programme
(Continued )
model method
Micheli Experts’ Worldwide Educational/ Document Policy PA and fitness in International Olympic Committee It is incumbent on these
et al. (2011) viewpoint Ecological review overview children and (IOC) also acknowledges the need to entities to pursue the goal
youth care for possible health problems of of improving and
active individuals; international sports protecting the health of
federations should be encouraged to children and youth through
more actively participate in providing PA. The international
solutions to the serious health risks and policy framework exists to
societal costs of inactivity; the Olympic guide action, and now it is
Movement will continue to serve upon organisations and
athletes, the world’s youth, and society governments to ensure that
at large for decades to come; all sectors PA receives adequate
and all levels within governments, attention and resources to
international partners, civil society, meet the great challenges
non-governmental organizations identified
(NGOs), and the private sector have
vital roles to play in shaping healthy
environments and contributing to the
promotion of PA; ecological approaches
that integrate interaction across all levels
of government, schools, the
community, individuals, and the settings
in which they (the individuals) spend
their time may be key to successful and
sustained implementation
(Continued )
model method
World Evidence- Developing World Systematic Policy PA interventions PA interventions carried out in Important factors which
Health based report countries Health review overview developing countries include strategies contributed to good
Organization from Asia, Survey to raise awareness of the importance programmes included
(2008) Africa, and and benefits of PA; educate the whole high-level political
South population and/or specific population commitment/guiding
America groups; conduct local PA programmes national policy, funding,
(African and initiatives; build capacity among support from stakeholders,
region had individuals implementing local PA and a coordinating team.
Mauritius programmes through training of Other important factors are
and South potential programme coordinators; clear programme objectives,
Africa) create supportive environments that integration of PA within
facilitate participation in PA; and give other related interventions,
recognition/awards multiple intervention
strategies, targeting of the
whole population as well as
specific population groups,
clear identity for the
programme,
implementation at different
levels, implementation
within the ‘local reality’,
leadership, dissemination of
the intervention, evaluation
and monitoring, and
national PA guidelines
(Continued )
model method
Bailey, Experts’ Not Human Report Authoritative Conceptualization Human development next was The HCM makes clear the
Hillman, viewpoint applicable capital model opinion of PA, personal conceptualized according to six beneficial outcomes of PA
Arent, and (HCM) and social change different domains of ‘capital’: (1) arising from investment in
Petitpas physical, (2) emotional, (3) individual, terms of both quality and
(2012) (4) social, (5) intellectual, and (6) quantity of life; the scope of
financial, based on extended iterative this investment (across six
quantitative and qualitative methods. capital domains) is much
Each of these six domains defines a set broader than what is
of resources that underpin human normally considered with
well-being and success regard to PA promotion for
all. Ultimately, the HCM is
a call to consider
investments in PA as
powerful catalysts for
personal and social change
(Continued )
model method
Chau Review of Australia Social capital Report Survey PA, community Community-based PA programmes Engage people from the
(2007) community and and social capital have the potential to make positive community and build
programmes community impacts on participants, as well on the partnerships between
communities in which they live. businesses, councils,
Elements of social capital may be built government and NGOs to
through PA initiatives and PA collaborate and cooperate to
participation to strengthen promote and participate in
communities; findings indicate that PA PA; recognise different
interventions are effective in building interests and abilities in the
social capital and community strength; community and provide
sport and recreation activities in opportunities for different
communities are associated with types of involvement in
numerous social benefits, including programmes, including
improved self-esteem, greater physical, social, and cultural
community identity, increased activities; empower
community cohesion, and support community members to
among players and non-players. Sport manage programmes to
and recreation programmes have also encourage ownership and
been linked with reductions in sustainability; target
antisocial behaviour and crime community groups that are
more disadvantaged and less
likely to be active; ensure
that programmes are
culturally specific and
sensitive; provide local
facilities as gathering places
for activities; conduct
periodic surveys for feedback
(Continued )
model method
Bloemhoff University South Descriptive Self- Survey PA levels Results revealed that 33 per cent of Further research focusing
(2010) students African paradigm administered students are inactive, irrespective of on environmental
questionnaire race and gender. Gender is a consistent determinants and the role
and strong correlate of overall of PA specialists in higher
PA. Males are highly significantly (p < education, as well as
0.01) more physically active than intervention studies rather
females and this difference becomes than descriptive studies,
more evident in vigorous exercise. In were recommended
contrast to previous studies, this
research found that black students
demonstrate significantly higher (p <
0.05) levels of PA than white students,
and that black males have significantly
higher (p < 0.05) PA levels than their
white counterparts. White female
students demonstrated the lowest PA
(42.4 per cent)
(Continued )
model method
Hoehner, Conceptual Not Ecological Conceptual Qualitative Approaches to As the fields achieve greater In light of the unacceptable
Brennan, frameworks applicable Model analysis study promote active collaboration, cross-sectional designs levels of inactivity and
Brownson, community will appear, particularly limited in their associated health and
Handy, and environments ability to assess the interrelationships economic consequences,
Killingsworth among the built environment, reducing latency period
(2003) residential choices, travel behaviour, should be a top priority for
and PA behaviour; working with city public health officials,
agencies, transit agencies, and others urban planners, and
to identify planned ‘interventions’ may transportation engineers in
assist researchers in implementing their pursuit of enhanced
alternative study designs; encouraging community environments
funders to support qualitative studies and quality of life
may help to expand data collection
techniques; moving beyond
cross-sectional studies will be crucial
for advancing the research so as to
build more convincing evidence about
the community and/or environment’s
role in influencing active living
(Continued )
model method
Onywera School-aged Canada, PA transition Comparative Survey Childhood Findings showed that 25.6 per cent of This inter-country
et al. (2013) children from Mexico, and study obesity Canadian children were overweight or comparison shows that
three Kenya prevalence in obese, compared with 35.7 per cent childhood overweight and
countries Canada, Mexico, and 5.6 per cent of Mexican and obesity levels are lowest and
and Kenya Kenyan children, respectively. Results PA levels are high in Kenya,
indicated that 41.2 per cent of the a country at an early stage
Kenyan children were underweight of the PA transition.
compared with 10.9 per cent and 6.4 Further research using
per cent of Mexican and Canadian more representative samples
children, respectively. Mexican and is recommended
Kenyan children were more physically
active than Canadian children,
accumulating an average of
15,757 ± 5565, 15,605 ± 5963, and
10,730 ± 3969 steps per day,
respectively
(Continued )
model method
Dumith Prevalence of Worldwide World Comparative Survey Worldwide The crude worldwide prevalence of One out of five adults
et al. (2011) physical (had 19 Health study prevalence of physical inactivity was 21.4 per cent around the world is
inactivity African Survey physical inactivity (95% confidence interval [CI] physically inactive. Physical
countries) 18.4–24.3), being higher among inactivity was more
women (mean = 23.7 per cent, 95% CI prevalent among wealthier
20.4–27.1) than among men and urban countries, and
(mean = 18.9 per cent, 95% CI among women and elderly
16.2–21.7). It ranged from 2.6 per individuals
cent (in Comoros) to 62.3 per cent (in
Mauritania), with a median equal to
18 per cent. After weighting for the
total population of each country, the
worldwide prevalence of physical
inactivity was 17.4 per cent (95% CI
15.1–19.7)
There was a positive association
between the Human Development
Index (HDI) and the prevalence of
physical inactivity (rho = 0.27). Less
developed countries showed the lowest
prevalence of physical inactivity (18.7
per cent), while physical inactivity was
more prevalent among the most
developed countries (27.8 per cent)
(Continued )
model method
Guthold Worldwide Worldwide World Comparative Survey Data on the Country prevalence of physical Overall, about 15 per cent
et al. (2008) variability in Health study prevalence of inactivity ranged from 1.6 per cent of men and 20 per cent of
physical Survey (19 physical inactivity (Comoros) to 51.7 per cent women from the 51
inactivity African (Mauritania) for men and from 3.8 per countries analysed here
countries) cent (Comoros) to 71.2 per cent (most of which are
(Mauritania) for women. Physical developing countries) are at
inactivity was generally high for older risk for chronic diseases due
age groups and lower in rural as to physical inactivity. There
compared with urban areas were substantial variations
across countries and
settings. The baseline
information on the
magnitude of the problem
of physical inactivity
provided by this study can
help countries and health
policy-makers to set up
interventions addressing
the global chronic disease
epidemic
(Continued )
model method
Guthold 22 African Africa World Comparative Survey Chronic disease Overall, 83.8 per cent of men and 75.7 PA levels varied greatly
et al. (2011) countries Health study risk factor per cent of women met WHO PA across African countries and
Survey surveillance recommendations (at least 150 minutes population subgroups.
of moderate activity per week or Leisure-time activity was
equivalent). Country prevalence ranged consistently low. These data
from 46.8 per cent (Mali) to 96.0 per will be useful to inform
cent (Mozambique). PA, both at work policy-makers and to guide
and for transport, including walking, interventions to promote
had large contributions to overall PA, PA
while PA during leisure time was rare in
the @@analyzed countries
Onywera Rural and Kenya PA transition Cross- Survey Childhood Rural Kenya (RKEN) children were Results of this study are
et al. (2012) urban kids in sectional obesity and more physically active than their urban indicative of a PA transition
Kenya study physical inactivity Kenya (UKEN) counterparts, with a in Kenya. Further research
mean average steps per day (± SE) of is needed to gather national
14,700 ± 521 vs. 11,717 ± 561 data on the PA patterns of
(p < 0.0001) for RKEN vs. UKEN Kenyan children to
children, respectively. Around 62.5 per minimize the likelihood of
cent of the UKEN children spent a public health problem due
0 hours per week playing screen games to physical inactivity
compared with 13.1 per cent of
UKEN children who spent more than
11 hours per week playing screen
games. Seventy percent of UKEN and
34 percent of RKEN parents reported
being more active during childhood
than their children
(Continued )
model method
Strydom Review of South Africa Wellness Review of Analytical PA, health, and Results indicated that in 2006, 74.6 In conclusion, therefore, it
(2013) journals on continuum literature study well-being per cent of individuals over all ethnic is clear that physical
South Africa groups did not participate in PA, the inactivity poses a major
most inactive groups being the health risk to the South
Coloured (84.8 per cent), followed by African population, and
the Asian (75.6 per cent), black (75.0 with the projected increase
per cent) and white (74.6 per cent) in the older age category,
groups. When the age pyramid for the which is more prone to
South Africa population is analysed various health risks, this
with projections to 2050, the large scenario asks for timely
portion of elderly people becomes intervention at various
evident. The fastest-growing segment levels, starting from
of the population will be the age group children to the elderly
of 80+ years, which will grow at an
estimated rate of 77 per cent and 79
per cent for the male and female
groups, respectively. This significant
number of elderly people may lead to
major escalation in health care cost,
which may cripple the health care
budget
with three countries, Canada, Mexico, and Kenya; one was based in the
United Kingdom (Sinnett et al., 2011); one in Kenya (Onywera et al.,
2012); two in South Africa (Bloemhoff, 2010; Strydom, 2013); two in
Africa (April et al., n.d.; Guthold et al., 2011); one in Australia (Chau,
2007); one in selected developing countries from Asia, Africa, and South
America (WHO, 2008); one in Mauritius (Dvorak et al., 2012); one in the
Netherlands (Aarts et al., 2011); and four did not apply to a specific geo-
graphical region (Bailey et al., 2012; Ferreira et al., 2006; Hoehner et al.,
2003; Kerr et al., 2012).
In terms of study type, three used meta-analysis (Ferreira et al., 2006;
Kerr et al., 2012; Wang & Lobstein, 2006), four were commissioned
reports (April et al., n.d.; Bailey et al., 2012; Chau, 2007; Sinnett et al.,
2011), five were comparative studies (Dumith et al., 2011; Guthold et al.,
2008, 2011; Heroux et al., 2013; Onywera et al., 2013), and one study
each using the following: interviews (Aarts et al., 2011), intervention pro-
gramme (Dvorak et al., 2012), systematic review (WHO, 2008), docu-
ment review (Micheli et al., 2011), self-administered questionnaire
(Bloemhoff, 2010), conceptual analysis (Hoehner et al., 2003), cross-
sectional study (Onywera et al., 2012), and review of literature (Strydom,
2013). Twelve of the 20 reviewed works derived their data from surveys:
Aarts et al. (2011), Bloemhoff (2010), Chau (2007), Dumith et al.
(2011), Ferreira et al. (2006), Guthold et al. (2008, 2011), Heroux et al.
(2013), Kerr et al. (2012), Onywera et al. (2012, 2013), and Wang and
Lobstein (2006). One was an evidence-based report (Sinnett et al., 2011),
one documentary review (April et al., n.d.), one outcome report (Dvorak
et al., 2012); two policy overviews (Micheli et al., 2011; WHO, 2008),
one authoritative opinion (Bailey et al., 2012), one qualitative study
(Hoehner et al., 2003), and one analytical study (Strydom, 2013). There
were therefore diverse study designs, geographical scope, and approaches
that shed light on the state of PA and health, particularly in Africa.

The main conceptual models used in the studies were PA transition
(Heroux et al., 2013; Hoehner et al., 2003; Micheli et al., 2011; Onywera
et al., 2012, 2013), ecological/socio-ecological model (April et al., n.d.;
Ferreira et al., 2006; Kerr et al., 2012; Sinnett et al., 2011), Delphi
method (Aarts et al., 2011), community education (Dvorak et al., 2012),
WHO’s World Health Survey/worldwide trends (Dumith et al., 2011;
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 219
Guthold et al., 2008, 2011; Wang & Lobstein, 2006; WHO, 2008),
human capital model (HCM) (Bailey et al., 2012), social capital and
community (Chau, 2007), wellness continuum (Strydom, 2013), and
descriptive paradigm (Bloemhoff, 2010) (see Table 10.1).
The predominant approaches were the ecological model and the
WHO’s World Health Survey. However, the overriding purpose for the
promotion of PA, irrespective of the conceptual differences, is the enhance-
ment of human capacity. It is therefore vital that we discuss PA from vari-
ous perspectives, including community/ecological, social capital, and the
HCM, as well as the best-practice approaches based on the World Health
Survey/worldwide trends. This is done while acknowledging that African
countries are undergoing a PA transition as exemplified in the studies by
Heroux et al. (2013) and Onywera et al. (2012, 2013).
PA is a behaviour that is associated with individual, social, and eco-
nomic factors, as well as with the physical environments in which individu-
als live (Chau, 2007). With the increasing levels of obesity and
non-communicable diseases (NCDs), there is increasing attention given
to the relationship between PA and community factors and the potential
health benefits for individuals, as well as for the community as a whole
(Chau, 2007). In Africa, the concept of community is strong and there-
fore any planning for development has to factor it in the strategies for
implementation of programmes.
Paronen and Oja (1998, p. 14) define community by identifying the six
main features it should possess:
1. A community is typified by membership; that is, its members have a

sense of identity and belonging.
2. A community consists of common symbol systems, such as similar
language, religion, and practices.
3. Community members share norms and values.
4. They have a sense of mutual influence, whereby they influence and
are influenced by each other (reciprocity).
5. A community is characterized by shared needs and commitment to
meeting those needs.
6. Community members typically share an emotional connection, such
as common history, mutual support, and similar experiences.
Furthermore, a community may be defined not only by geographical

boundaries (e.g., neighbourhood), but also by characteristics such as ethnic
background, employment sector, lifestyle, and age (Chau, 2007). According

to Chau (2007), a ‘strong community consists of members and stakeholders
who understand the community’s social, economic and environmental
assets and who work together to ensure the sustainability of resources, as
well as working with more disadvantaged community populations to achieve
minimum standards across the community’ (p. 4). The concept of commu-
nity empowerment is vital to the understanding of the paradigm of social
capital. Social capital has been defined by Putnam (1993) as ‘networks,
norms and social trust’ that enable people to coordinate and cooperate to
achieve shared goals (p. 35). Berkman (2000) described social capital as a
measure of social cohesiveness, while Kawachi, Subramanian, and Almeida-
Filho (2002) consider it material or psychosocial resources available to indi-
viduals and society through social relationships. Baum (1999) defined it as
the way in which society members may be supported to access other forms
of capital, whether it be economic, cultural, or symbolic.
From these varied definitions of social capital, the underlining features
include participation in networks, trust, cooperation, social norms, and
reciprocity (Chau, 2007). Social capital encompasses the ideas of commu-
nity development and empowerment, which are critical in planning for
community transformation. It is a concept that practitioners, researchers,
and PA personnel can utilize in building stronger communities, while
decision-makers may use it to build stronger communities, as there is evi-
dence demonstrating an association between the different aspects of social
capital and PA (Chau, 2007). Indeed, social capital has been linked with a
reduced likelihood of being physically inactive during leisure time.
Some evidence indicates that having greater social participation is asso-
ciated with a reduced likelihood of having low levels of PA (Chau, 2007;
Lindstrom, Moghaddassi, & Merlo, 2003). Communities that are charac-
terized by social networks, including friends or family who are supportive
or with whom to participate in PA, or neighbours with recreational facili-
ties, are more likely to exhibit higher levels of PA (Chau, 2007; Ferreira
et al., 2006). Other social benefits of higher levels of PA at the community
level include reduced crime and improved perception of safety, which
attract higher participation by youth and children as parents are more will-
ing to let them out. According to Lumeng, Appugliese, Cabral, Bradley,
and Zuckerman (2006), parents of children who are not overweight
perceive their neighbourhoods as significantly more safe compared with
parents of children who are overweight, whose children also spent less
time in structured activities after school. However, having a sense of com-
munity cohesion and a collective sense of safety alleviates fear of crime,

thereby allowing for more outdoor activity.
Other aspects of social capital include characteristics of the built envi-
ronment and neighbourhoods in which communities exist. It has been
suggested that living in walkable neighbourhoods (for instance, those with
higher residential density, land use mix, street connectivity, better aesthet-
ics, and safety) has been found to be related to greater PA engagement
compared with living in less walkable areas (Berke, Koepsell, Moudon,
Hoskins, & Larson, 2007; Salens, Sallis, Black, & Chen, 2003). Leyden
(2003) suggests that residents of neighbourhoods identified as more walk-
able have reported feeling more connected with their community, and are
more likely to know their neighbours and be engaged with local-level gov-
ernment. But according to Chau (2007), there is still debate regarding the
relationship between the environment in which individuals live and their
PA levels. Some evidence suggests that the environment in which people
live is an important determinant of participation in PA, independent of
individual characteristics, while other findings suggest that leisure-time PA
is not determined by neighbourhood characteristics. Indeed, it is doubtful
whether having access to community parks and facilities has an association
with PA levels.
Evidence from community-based PA initiatives suggests that providing
social support is effective for increasing PA levels and the frequency and
amount of time spent engaged in PA (Fisher & Li, 2004; Kahn et al.,
2002). On the contrary, Booth, Owen, Bauman, Clavisi, and Leslie (2000)
suggest that social network characteristics, such as the number of people
in the network and the frequency of contact, are associated with participa-
tion in PA. This network is likely to spur more formation of new groups,
thereby encouraging health-promoting behaviours. Bayly and Bull (2001)
report that in an Australian community-based walking group programme,
walking group members not only increased their PA engagement, but also
benefitted from closer interpersonal relationships with other group mem-
bers, greater feelings of belongingness and connectedness with their local
community, and participating in community events such as charity drives.
From the foregoing, PA has the potential to facilitate community build-
ing and strengthening by encouraging greater participation and contribut-
ing to the social capital in communities. According to Chau (2007),
community-based PA interventions show promise in fostering social con-
nections, cooperation, reciprocity, collective identity, and trust in the
community. These studies on intervention suggest that the direction of
the relationship may be through promoting PA to increasing social capital.

However, beyond the social empowerment, there is the ultimate need to
invest and equip the individual, hence the new conceptual framework for
planning for PA and health as an investment for personal and social change
(Bailey et al., 2012). This is the HCM, which includes the following ele-
ments as stipulated by the authors:
1. Physical capital: The direct benefits of PA to physical health and

human function, including the prevention and mitigation of NCDs
and conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and obesity
(Bailey et al., 2012).
2. Emotional capital: The psychological and mental health benefits
associated with PA, including increased levels of self-esteem and self-
efficacy, reduced depression and anxiety, reduced social isolation,
and a greater ability to process stressful events (Bailey et al., 2012).
3. Individual capital: The elements of a person’s character, for exam-
ple, life skills, interpersonal skills, and values that accrue via partici-
pation in play, sports, and other forms of PA. Reported benefits in
this area include teamwork, cooperation, moral and social responsi-
bility, and resilience (Bailey et al., 2012).
4. Social capital: The outcomes that arise when networks between peo-
ple, groups, organizations, and civil society are strengthened because
of participation in group-based PA, play, or competitive sports. This
domain of capital includes the development of both pro-social
behaviours and social inclusion through participation in PA (Bailey
et al., 2012).
5. Intellectual capital: The cognitive and educational gains that are
increasingly linked to participation in PA. This feature of capital
focuses particularly on the effects of regular exercise on cognitive
functioning, on subject-specific performance at school, and on gen-
eral academic achievement (Bailey et al., 2012).
6. Financial capital: Gains in terms of earning power, job performance,
productivity, and job attainment, along with reduced costs of health
care and absenteeism/presenteeism (i.e., lower productivity among
those who are ‘present’), which are linked to regular PA participa-
tion (Bailey et al., 2012, p. 1053).
This Human Capital Model (HCM) therefore emphasizes the six domains

that need to be taken care of, as they underpin the totality of human well-
being and success (Bailey et al., 2012). The shortcoming of this model is
that it focuses entirely on the individual, yet for one to develop fully and
holistically, the physical environment in which they function has to be
conducive, hence the emphasis on the socio-ecological approach.
Studies by April et al. (n.d.), Ferreira et al. (2006), Hoehner et al.
(2003), Kerr et al. (2012), and Sinnett et al. (2011), all emphasize a socio-
ecological conceptualization of PA and its promotion in the community.
The interplay between the built environment, residential choices, travel
behaviour, and accessibility to social utilities is vital in any attempt to
understand and promote PA levels. According to April et al. (n.d.), the
socio-ecological model illustrates the interrelationship between the indi-
vidual and their environment. In this regard, the social environment
includes community norms and values, regulations, policies, and culture.
Some of the determinants and barriers to healthy behaviours are shared by
the community as a whole. There is therefore a need to approach health
promotion on all levels in order to increase effectiveness.
According to April et al. (n.d.), evidence shows high levels of physical
inactivity among adults and children throughout Africa, leading to high
levels of obesity. It is also apparent that NCDs prevalence shows signs of
increase due to competing agendas and barriers of PA which exist at each
level of the social environment. High levels of physical inactivity can only
be addressed by targeting interventions at each level of the social environ-
ment. For interventions to be effective, custodians at community, work-
place, and policy level need to work together to promote PA, and not just
medical practitioners. This network, involving custodians at all levels,
would further improve the efficiency of PA promotion throughout the
social environment.
Obesity Prevalence and Physical Inactivity

It is evident that obesity is on the rise worldwide (Amusa et al., 2012;
April et al., n.d.; Guthold et al., 2008; Heroux et al., 2013; Onywera
et al., 2012; Wang & Lobstein, 2006; WHO, 2008). Although it is not
a major crisis in the less developed countries compared with the more
developed ones, it is noticeable that obese and overweight cases are
increasing in Africa, too (Amusa et al., 2012; April et al., n.d.; Guthold
et al., 2008; Heroux et al., 2013; Kamau, Mwangi, Njororai, &
Wamukoya, 2011; Onywera et al., 2012, 2013; Wang & Lobstein,
2006; WHO, 2008).
According to April et al. (n.d.), high levels of obesity exist and NCDs
prevalence show signs of increase due to competing priorities and barriers
of PA. Similarly, Wang and Lobstein (2006) agree that childhood obesity
and overweight cases are on the increase, even though infants and pre-
school children are an exception in low-income countries. A study by
Heroux et al. (2013) which compared obesity levels in Kenya, Mexico,
and Canada confirms that obesity levels were still low (0.9 for boys and
2.8 for girls) in Kenya. Despite these findings for Kenya, data presented by
April et al. (n.d.), Bloemhoff (2010), and Guthold et al. (2008) show that
there is an increasing trend of inactivity among youth in Africa. This is a
worrying trend, as inactivity could precede an increase in overweight and
obesity cases unless intervention measures are put in place early enough.
However, it should be pointed out that comprehensive and detailed data
on the reality of PA levels in Africa are lacking (Guthold et al., 2008,
2011; Wang & Lobstein, 2006).
Tables 10.2 and 10.3 show the physical inactivity rates for men and
women in selected countries of Africa. According to Guthold et al. (2008),
data for physical inactivity were derived from the World Health Survey to
estimate the prevalence of physical inactivity for the populations of 51
countries, as well as for different subgroups across the countries. The term
‘physical inactivity’ was measured by whether or not a person engaged in
PA. In this case, PA was assessed using the short form of the validated
International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), in which respon-
dents are asked to report the number of days and the duration of the vig-
orous, moderate, and walking activities they undertook during the last
one week (Guthold et al., 2008).
Tables 10.2 and 10.3 reveal that the level of physical inactivity is close
to or above 50 per cent for both men and women in Mauritania and
Swaziland. Other countries such as Congo, South Africa, and Namibia are
also experiencing high levels of physical inactivity. These data show that
there is a need for intervention if the problem of inactivity is to be resolved
before it turns into an obesity pandemic, as in Western countries. According
to April et al. (n.d.), high levels of physical inactivity can only be addressed
by targeting interventions at each level of the social environment.
According to Ferreira et al. (2006, p. 129), ‘understanding the environ-
mental factors that are associated with physical activity in youth is needed
to better inform the development of effective intervention strategies
attempting to halt the obesity epidemic’.
Aarts et al. (2011) state that ‘next to individual characteristics, physical
and social environmental characteristics, such as access to recreational
Table 10.2 Prevalence of physical inactivity for men in selected African

countries
Country Prevalence Country Prevalence
Comoros 1.6 Senegal 16.5

Burkina Faso 7.3 Zimbabwe 16.6
Malawi 8.4 Mauritius 17.5
Ghana 8.8 Chad 18.5
Zambia 8.9 Congo 27.3
Kenya 9 Namibia 31.8
Ethiopia 9.5 South Africa 44.7
Cote d’Ivoire 11.3 Swaziland 49.1
Mali 11.9 Mauritania 52.6
Source: Guthold et al. (2008, p. 489)
Table 10.3 Prevalence of physical inactivity for women in selected African

countries
Country Prevalence Country Prevalence
Comoros 3.8 Mali 21.1

Burkina Faso 9.5 Zimbabwe 22.1
Kenya 11.2 Chad 24.4
Zambia 13 Senegal 24.5
Malawi 14.3 Congo 32.2
Ghana 15.4 South Africa 47.6
Côte d’Ivoire 17.3 Namibia 48.6
Ethiopia 17.7 Swaziland 56.4
Mauritius 18.1 Mauritania 72
Source: Guthold et al. (2008, p. 490)
facilities, traffic situation, social safety, and social cohesion, are related to
children’s physical activity behaviour such as outdoor play, sports partici-
pation, or active commuting to school’ (p. 1). This therefore calls for
interventions at community, workplace, and policy level to promote PA,
and not just medical and health practitioners. There is a need for a net-
work involving custodians at all levels to improve the efficiency of PA
promotion throughout the social environment.
The need for collaborative efforts to facilitate and promote PA is made
more urgent given the spiralling costs of health care due to the prevalence
of both communicable diseases and NCDs, which are compounded by the
high levels of poverty in many African countries. The implications for local
health services in countries that are experiencing an increase in physical

inactivity and obesity levels therefore include the development of obesity-
related chronic diseases in later adolescence and early adulthood. The
costs for such an eventuality are difficult to estimate. However, planning
for this disease burden needs to be undertaken urgently, with emphasis
being placed on preventive measures, as for most African countries, the
costs may not be easily absorbed into the domestic economy (Wang &
Lobstein, 2006). Thus, the numerous health benefits of PA and its declin-
ing levels in Africa, and indeed around the globe, have elicited PA to be
described as a ‘whole-of-community concern’, with the potential to deliver
benefits not only to public health but also to other sectors outside of
health, including transport, sport and recreation, urban planning, and
education (Shilton et al., 2001).
PA and sports participation are essential for our health and well-being.
PA is for an individual a strong means for the prevention of diseases and
for nations a cost-effective method to improve public health across the
population (WHO, 2003). There is a significant increase in the global
burden of NCDs, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, obesity, diabetes,
and chronic respiratory diseases. Due to epidemiological transition, there
is evidence of the burden of NCDs increasing in developing countries
across all socio-economic levels. The increasing global epidemic of these
diseases relates closely to respective changes in lifestyles, mainly in tobacco
use, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet. Unhealthy diets, caloric excess,
inactivity, obesity, and associated chronic diseases are the greatest public
health problem in most countries in the world.
Overall, as reported by WHO (2003), physical inactivity is estimated to
cause 1.9 million deaths globally. Globally, physical inactivity causes about
10–16 per cent of cases each year of breast cancer, colon and rectal can-
cers, and diabetes mellitus, and about 22 per cent of ischaemic heart dis-
ease (WHO, 2003). The risk of getting a cardiovascular disease increases
up to 1.5 times in people who do not follow minimum PA recommenda-
tions. Bearing in mind the increasing rates of physical inactivity in some
African countries, the dire consequences of cardiovascular diseases are a
huge threat. This imminent health challenge is likely to affect all facets of
life and therefore community participation in forestalling it is critical.
Socialization, context, and patterns of PA acquired during childhood
and adolescence may, among other things, contribute to the lifestyle of
active and healthy life, or lack of it, across the lifespan. Individual, com-
munity, or population health is determined greatly by multidimensional
factors, including social factors such as poverty, income inequality, educa-

tion, employment, housing, gender, and social capital. These factors, also
known as social determinants of health, produce widespread inequities in
health within and between societies. Strategies to improve the quality of
life, health, and development should be tailored to the diverse and evolv-
ing contextual, economic, political, and sociocultural needs of each coun-
try (Bloom, n.d.; Sport and Health, n.d.; Ziraba, Fotso, & Ochako, 2009).
Physical inactivity is considered a primary risk factor contributing to the
global increase in chronic diseases; therefore, PA can play a critical role in
slowing or preventing the onset or spread of chronic diseases, reducing
their social and economic burden, and saving lives (Sport and Health,
n.d.; WHO, 2003). PA and sports provide individuals of all ages and com-
munities with a wide range of physical, social, and mental health benefits,
and help in developing self-efficacy, which could translate into strategies to
improve diet, reduce violence, enhance functional capacity, promote social
interaction and integration, and discourage the use of tobacco, alcohol,
and drugs (Sport & Health; WHO).
PA includes a wide range of activities than sport alone and these include
different forms of work, walking, running, domestic tasks, cultural activi-
ties such as dancing, and organized sports, which is one of the most pow-
erful means of engaging people, social mobilization—a forum for
communication, education, and empowerment of individuals and com-
munities. Promotion of PA for health and development should therefore
embrace various dimensions of PA for varying populations and contexts.
Built Environment and Intervention Programmes

Among the reviewed studies, Aarts et al. (2011), April et al. (n.d.), Chau
(2007), Dvorak et al. (2012), Ferreira et al. (2006), Guthold et al. (2008,
2011), Hoehner et al. (2003), Kerr et al. (2012), Micheli et al. (2011),
Wang and Lobstein (2006), WHO (2008), Sinnett et al. (2011), and
Strydom (2013), all agree that there is a need for intervention to address
not only the prevalence of obesity and overweight cases, but also the
emerging trend of inactivity. According to Ferreira et al. (2006), to address
inactivity, the focus should be on the home and in the school. In this
regard, the built environment is vital in promoting or inhibiting PA
involvement. Kerr et al. (2012) also emphasize that the design of the phys-
ical environment in which people live and access to key service destina-
tions are vital considerations in policy formulation and intervention
strategies. Sinnett et al. (2011) provide evidence from Great Britain on
how investment in PA-promoting infrastructure has overwhelmingly
improved the economic and well-being of the people in selected small cit-
ies. According to these authors, ‘evaluations of walking environments
showed cost-benefit ratios of up to 37.6 per cent’. A similar approach is
advanced by Aarts et al. (2011) based on a case study in the Netherlands.
The authors emphasize cultural and community acceptability, political fea-
sibility, and cost feasibility as vital considerations in formulating and imple-
menting policies to promote physical and social environmental correlates
of PA among children, youth, and adults.
Chau (2007) advocates for engaging people from the community so as
to build partnerships between businesses, councils, government, and non-
government organizations (NGOs) in order to collaborate and cooperate
in promoting PA and participating in it. The collaboration enables com-
munity members to recognize different interests and abilities in the com-
munity and provide opportunities for different types of involvement in
programmes, including physical, social, and cultural activities. Chau also
recommends empowering community members to manage programmes
to encourage ownership and sustainability. In this regard, policies should
target community groups that are more disadvantaged and less likely to be
active, ensure that programmes are culturally specific and sensitive, pro-
vide local facilities at gathering places for activities, and conduct periodic
surveys for feedback so as to improve the programme offerings.
In the African setting, the built environment can be perceived both as
a facilitator and as a barrier to PA participation. April et al. (n.d.) lists some
of the key barriers, such as road safety and neighbourhood crime. However,
there are also opportunities for PA, including walking to recreational facil-
ities that are nearby, such as school playgrounds; common life activities
such as cycling and walking paths; and walking to bus stops and shopping
centres. However, more studies are needed to explore the reality of PA
patterns in most African studies, as it is apparent that only countries such
as South Africa, Mauritius, Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria have attracted
scholarly attention to PA and the corresponding emergence of cardiovas-
cular diseases as a major public health concern (April et al., n.d.; Onywera
et al., 2012, 2013; WHO, 2008). In South Africa, for example, NCDs
account for 37 per cent of deaths in the country. In addition, 57 per cent
of South African women and nearly 30 per cent of men are either over-
weight or obese (Kolbe-Alexander, Bull, & Lambert, 2012). According to
Kolbe-Alexander et al. (2012), only 36 per cent of men and 24 per cent of
women report sufficient levels of daily health-enhancing PA, while a third
of youth report insufficient levels of PA. These conditions could be preva-

lent in other parts of Africa, thus the need for more locally generated
research findings.
Public Policy to Increase Physical Activity

Diet, PA, and obesity are three risk factors that are separate but closely
intertwined and should therefore be considered both alone and in concert
when one thinks of health promotion and empowerment in the twenty-
first century (WHO, 2009). Taken together, the convergence of a poor
diet, an inactive lifestyle, and obesity is a lethal combination to health,
increasing the risk of developing a long list of chronic conditions, includ-
ing cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and cancer, as well as meta-
bolic syndrome, gall bladder disease, osteoarthritis, and others, which are
now on the increase in Africa (WHO, 2009).
Indeed, obesity is rapidly rising in developing countries and is affecting
women more than men. In South Africa, for example, 57 per cent and 30
per cent of women and men, respectively, are either obese or overweight.
In Mauritius, the 2009 data shows that only 16.5 per cent of people aged
25 to 74 years undertake sufficient vigorous or moderate PA to meet the
national guidelines of 30 minutes of exercise each day, with 23.2 per cent
being for men and only 10.95 per cent for women (Mauritius, n.d.). There
is a remarkable difference between men and women. According to April
et al. (n.d.), certain cultures do not look favourably on women engaging
in PA. This could therefore be a major social barrier to PA, which in turn
requires policy intervention, as well as public education measures, to shift
this traditional perception.
In the African context, there is need to combat the rising levels of phys-
ical inactivity and formulate strategies that need to be put in place at vari-
ous levels of society. According to April et al. (n.d.), the possible policy
options should target policies on environmental, workplace, and commu-
nity interventions. The other major point of emphasis is the need to pro-
mote physical education (PE) as well as sporting activities in institutions of
learning. The physical and social environments should thus be structured
to promote physically active living.
The positive health effects of changing the built environment through
land use redesign to promote PA are remarkable and constitute a fascinat-
ing area where disease prevention planning intersect (Perdue, Stone, &
Goslin, 2003). According to Halpin, Morales-Suarez-Varela, and Martin-
Moreno (n.d.), effective policies to increase PA in a community involve
changing the planning and development strategies of the physical environ-

ment to include design elements that take into consideration the distance
from residential areas to stores, workplaces, schools, and recreation areas;
the continuity and connectivity of sidewalks and streets; aesthetic and
safety aspects of the physical environment; policies such as zoning regula-
tions, building codes, and builders’ practices; and other governmental
policies.
At the local level, selected changes, including roadway design standards
and environment, can enhance PA. Design components include improved
street lighting, infrastructure projects to increase the safety of street cross-
ings, the use of traffic-calming approaches (e.g., speed bumps, traffic cir-
cles), and enhancement of street landscaping (US Department of Health
and Human Services, 2009). This new public health approach to rural and
urban planning is of crucial importance and could have important reper-
cussions in population health, particularly for those who cannot or do not
find opportunities to follow an exercise regimen.
Community-Based Programmes for Increased Physical Activity

Various reports (Chau, 2007; Community Builders, 2007; Frank & Smith,
1999) suggest that the following elements are important aspects of pro-
grammes that aim to empower communities:
1. Connecting the social, cultural, environmental, and economics

spheres in the community
2. Improving the quality of life of community populations and gaining
mutual benefit among community members
3. Creating opportunities and encouraging community members to
participate in community activities, from employment to social
events to civic duties
4. Empowering communities and helping them to take advantage of
opportunities and to take shared responsibility for their well-being
5. Recognizing the diversity of interests within a community and how
that may affect capacity building
6. Engaging people from the community, government, and private
sectors to work together to address community issues, solve prob-
lems in their community, and achieve common goals
According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2009),

highly visible, broad-based, multicomponent strategies can also work to
increase PA in a community, particularly through education, communica-

tion, training, and public awareness campaigns. The goal is to make PA
easy and desirable by increasing the social component of exercise and pro-
viding education on its positive health effects at the various community
constituents. A simple example of an effective way to increase the ease and
desirability of PA is to use various community gathering points to dissemi-
nate the information, such as local market centres, worship places, public
meetings, and government offices. For children and adolescents, school
health education and enhanced PE curricula (including more time spent
on moderate-to-vigorous exercise) can contribute to improved health
awareness and physical fitness (US Department of Health & Human
Services, 2009).
Community leaders from diverse backgrounds, including community
development officers, can contribute by political advocacy, raising popula-
tion awareness, and helping to increase access to existing exercise facilities
in schools and other recreation outlets. One of the advantages of social
capital planning for PA participation is the inclusion of the social element
in activities. According to Halpin et al. (n.d.), interventions that create
and maintain supportive relationships for behaviour change can include
setting up a buddy system and making contracts with others to complete
specified levels of PA, or setting up walking groups, sports teams, or other
groups, which provide friendship and support.
Adopting and disseminating existing evidence-based clinical practice
guidelines for increasing PA are also effective (US Department of Health
and Human Services, 2008) in guiding participation. The following are
the guidelines that have been recommended as minimum levels of PA for
different age groups of any population:
1. Children and adolescents: 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of PA per

day is recommended, including aerobic activity, muscle strengthen-
ing, and bone strengthening.
2. Adults and older adults (65 years and older who are generally fit and
have no limiting health conditions): 150 minutes (2.5 hours) a week
of moderate-to-vigorous activity spread out during the week for at
least 10 minutes at a time, including aerobic activity and muscle
strengthening.
Indeed, and this is prevalent in African countries, activities as simple as

walking and gardening provide a level of PA sufficient to achieve health
benefits. Above all, any initiatives to promote PA and health must focus
on implementing behaviour change programmes adapted to each indi-

vidual. One of the community intervention programmes that leverage
sports to empower youth is the Mathare Youth Sports Association
(MYSA) in Kenya. MYSA was started in 1987 as a self-help youth pro-
gramme that linked sports with various community service activities,
including environmental cleaning, HIV awareness campaigns, and female
empowerment. According to April et al. (n.d.), the MYSA programme
has evolved to serve about 20,000 young people. This programme has
now become a renowned youth serving organization that promotes
sports for development. Similar programmes have sprung up around
Kenya, and in Africa.
Examples of National Physical Activity and

Health Initiatives in Africa
The WHO (2008) identified Mauritius and South Africa as some of the
countries in Africa that have initiated national programmes for the promo-
tion of PA through their experience and progress in implementing PA
interventions on a large scale. These initiatives are a pointer to what
African countries can do to empower their citizens in terms of PA and
health promotion.
Mauritius
According to WHO (2008), the Mauritian government launched a three-
year National Plan of Action on Physical Activity (2004–2006) in 2004.
The action plan was prepared by the Ministry of Health and Quality of
Life. The National Plan was developed in line with the Global Strategy on
Diet, Physical Activity and Health. Its overall objective was to foster a
culture of PA and to promote PA practice in Mauritius. Mauritians were
urged to undertake some form of PA for at least 30 minutes daily. The
implementation of the National Plan culminated in developing a ‘National
Action Plan on Physical Activity 2011–2014’, whose vision is ‘[t]o make
Mauritius a physically active and healthy nation’. The specific goals were
to increase and maintain adequate levels of health-enhancing PA for all
people, to contribute to the prevention and control of chronic NCDs, and
to contribute to the achievement of optimal health for all Mauritians
(Mauritius, n.d., p. 8). Several PA intervention strategies were planned
within the implementation of the initial National Plan. The following are
some of the strategies:
1. Community-based activities (e.g., setting up local health clubs and

health tracks) to provide opportunities to the Mauritian community,
including specific target groups (e.g., NCD patients) to practise
physical activities regularly.
2. Information, education, communication activities, and a media

campaign to create awareness of the need for practising physical
activities. This includes a media strategy using various media (e.g.,
television, radio, newspaper inserts, video films, posters, pamphlets),
as well as the broadcasting of morning shows on television to train
the population on techniques for the practice of physical activities at
home.
3. A national awareness campaign to mobilize the population and

stress the importance of physical activities. In line with WHO’s
‘Move for Health’ Day, the awareness campaign comprises mass
demonstration sessions on the practice of physical activities and the
organization of an Annual Physical Fitness Day.
4. Capacity building of health professionals, teachers, and education
officers, as well as other trainers, to provide them with specific skills
to practice PA. This occurs through training-of-trainer (TOT)
courses on PA, training programmes on physical fitness counselling,
and the inclusion of physical fitness education in the training cur-
riculum of health professionals.
Funding for the implementation of the PA interventions came from sev-

eral ministries (particularly the Ministry of Health and Quality of Life) as
well as from WHO. A Task Force on Physical Activity was set up by the
Ministry of Health and Quality of Life, including representatives from
various ministries, NGOs, and private sector organizations, to coordinate
the intervention strategies (WHO, 2008). This earlier programme has
now been succeeded by the ‘National Action Plan on Physical Activity
(NAPPA)’, which covers a period of four years, that is, from 2011 to 2014
(Mauritius, n.d., p. 8). Accordingly, the objectives of the NAPPA included:
1. to increase the level of adequate PA in adult male population from

23.2 per cent to 35 per cent by 2014;
2. to increase the level of adequate PA in adult female population from
10.9 per cent to 20 per cent by 2014;
3. to raise awareness and knowledge of the health benefits of PA in the
adult population;
4. to raise awareness and knowledge of the health benefits of PA and

increase the level of PA in the school-going population;
5. to increase awareness of the importance of PA among key

stakeholders;
6. to implement transport and land use policies that create appropriate
conditions for safe walking and cycling;
7. to ascertain commitment of ministries and local authorities to

increase recreational facilities for PA; and
8. to conduct research and national monitoring of levels of PA using
standardized surveillance tools.
The 2011–2014 plan utilized the SMART (Specific, Measurable,

Achievable, Relevant, and Timely) approach in implementing the Action
Plan. Looking at the plan, one can notice the incremental benefits from
previous national initiatives. Some of the specific infrastructural develop-
ments include the following:
1. The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life had set up a Task Force
in December 2002 in order to make recommendations for the pro-
motion of PA in the Mauritian population. In June 2003, the Task
Force submitted its report, which also included a draft policy on
PA. Subsequently, a National Action Plan on Physical Activity for
the 2004–2006 period was developed. Some of the accomplish-
ments include setting up health clubs equipped with treadmills for
public use throughout the island. PA programmes promoted in the
health clubs include yoga, aerobic dance, and Tai Chi. These activ-
ities are presently carried out in 54 sites in the community. The
Ministry of Health and Quality of Life also hired personnel to
supervise the physical activities in its health centres. The commu-
nity health nurses also regularly give talks on the importance of PA
and healthy lifestyle in primary schools as a component of the
school health programme. The Health Information Education and
Communication (HIEC) Unit also conducts such talks in second-
ary schools and community settings and produces health education
material on diet and exercise. NCD patients are briefed appropri-
ately by doctors, NCD nurses, and dieticians during clinics. In
2005, a media campaign was carried out on NCDs which included
the production and broadcasting of one TV and two radio spots on
PA (Mauritius, n.d.).
2. The Ministry of Education and Human Resources (MOE&HR)

runs 63 state secondary schools, out of which 30 schools have a
gymnasium/multipurpose hall (27 have gymnasia and 3 have multi-
purpose halls). These schools have sports facilities such as football
grounds, volleyball, basketball, handball pitches, and so on. The stu-
dents use these facilities during school hours and the general public
have access to some of the facilities after school hours, subject to
certain conditions. This approach of joint use of the school sports
facilities by both the students in schools and the community is a
model worth replicating in other countries of Africa. It is also
instructive that the plan emphasizes physical and health education in
schools, where such discussion is allocated 75 minutes per week in
all primary schools (Mauritius, n.d.):
(a) In all secondary schools, 80 (two classes of 40 minutes each)

minutes are allocated to each class weekly for PE lessons. All
state secondary schools and state colleges are serviced by at
least one qualified Education Officer for the teaching of
PE. Monitoring is done by PE organisers. The school curricu-
lum for PE includes lessons on minor games, kids’ athletics,
simple physical activities, and breathing exercises. To ensure PE
is taken seriously, the MOE&HR embarked on a pilot project
in 14 secondary schools from January 2010 for the introduc-
tion of PE as an examinable subject at School Certificate/O
Level in 2011. The Ministry, in collaboration with other stake-
holders, organizes activities on related issues such as nutrition,
sports medicine, diet, obesity, and NCDs, besides sports com-
petitions/activities. Health clubs have been set up in most of
the 67 state secondary schools and in 77 out of 109 private
secondary schools throughout the island. The Mauritius
Institute of Education offers full-time and part-time Diploma
in PE, full-time and part-time Bachelor of Education in PE,
and a Post-Graduate Certificate in PE. The University of
Mauritius runs a diploma course in Sports Science and
Recreational Management, with an intake of 30 students every
two years. It is therefore apparent that PE and other health-
promoting PA are emphasized at all levels of learning, from
primary schools to university in Mauritius, through this new
initiative (Mauritius, n.d.).
3. The Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family

Welfare operates through a network of 16 women’s centres across the
country. The activities offered at the centres include yoga, aerobics,
gym, weight management, healthy eating, and self-defence. Notable
achievements include the fact that to date, 11,000 women have ben-
efitted from the courses/activities and 16 Women’s Sports Associations
(WSAs) have been launched in the women’s centres to specifically
address the issue of obesity and physical fitness among women. The
sports and physical activities conducted include petanque, volleyball,
badminton, Tai Chi, walking, keep-fit exercises, table tennis, and
swimming. Additional benefits include a National Awareness
Campaign held yearly in four regions of the island to encourage
women to be members of WSAs; equipped keep-fit corner under a
gym instructor at various sites; training programmes on ‘Healthy
Eating and Nutrition’ in 25 women’s centres, targeting 500 women
in general per year; 30 weight management clubs set up to target
overweight or obese adult women less than 55 years of age; an annual
National Sports Day; and inter-centre competitions in various sports
disciplines (Mauritius, n.d.).
4. The Ministry of Youth and Sports has set up swimming pools which
are at the disposal of the general public and where swimming classes
are held under the supervision of qualified instructors. These swim-
ming pools target those aged 16 to 80 years. Also, outdoor physical
activities for the youth, such as trekking, are organized regularly.
Women in rural areas are also encouraged to participate in sports and
leisure activities organized by the Ministry. The Ministry also con-
ducts ToT courses in yoga, Tai Chi, and aerobic dance in youth cen-
tres across the island (Mauritius, n.d.).
5. The Ministry of Environment has created health tracks in various
parts of the island, which are widely used by Mauritians. These tracks
provide an opportunity to the population to indulge in physical
activities such as jogging and leisure walks in a natural environment
(Mauritius, n.d.).
6. The Ministry of Social Security and National Solidarity has the fol-
lowing facilities: 56 social welfare centres equipped with sports and
related facilities throughout the island and which are at the disposal
of different age groups; 16 day care centres for the elderly, where
physical fitness equipment is made available; 17 gym clubs for differ-
ent age groups for the promotion of physical fitness and healthy
lifestyles; 20 health and nutrition clubs operating at the social wel-

fare centres. Regular physical activities such as walk for health, yoga,
and Taekwondo are carried out at all the social welfare centres
(Mauritius, n.d.).
7. The Sugar Industry Labour Welfare Fund, which also operates under
the aegis of the Ministry of Social Security, runs more than 120 com-
munity centres that offer facilities such as volleyball grounds, pet-
anque courts, equipment, and table tennis tables for the practice of
PA. Courses are offered in karate, taekwondo, and yoga. Facilities are
extended to health clubs for senior citizens and women. Activities
such as family jogging, indoor and outdoor games, and national com-
munity games are organized in collaboration with other ministries
and NGOs on a fairly regular basis (Mauritius, n.d.).
8. The Municipality of Vacoas/Phoenix runs16 gymnasia in different
localities within its catchment area that are open to the public for
indoor games. It has 11 football grounds equipped with lighting facil-
ities put at the disposal of clubs in the respective localities. It also
offers facilities for the practice of yoga, aerobic dance, and karate.
Two omni-sports complex have been opened at Phoenix and Paillote
for the benefit of the inhabitants. Recreational parks have been set up
in different regions of the town, where jogging can equally be prac-
tised (Mauritius, n.d.).
9. All municipalities and district councils have playgrounds for football,
volleyball, and petanque, which are open to the general public. Some
of them have health tracks as well. Many offer courses in yoga, aerobic
dance, and modern dance. The municipalities of Quatre-Bornes,
Beau-Bassin/Rose-Hill, Vacoas/Phoenix, and Port Louis all have
gymnasia. The district councils have an impressive number of sports
infrastructures that they manage, which include football grounds,
volleyball pitches, petanque courts, and children’s play area.
Recreational parks are also available (Mauritius, n.d.).
10. The Public Officers Welfare Council, under the aegis of the Ministry
of Civil Service and AR, organizes recreational, sporting, and leisure
activities amongst others for public officers, thereby providing them
with opportunities to maintain their physical fitness and also enabling
them to practise their favourite sports activities (Mauritius, n.d.).
For Mauritius, the setting up of proper infrastructure was one of the key
determinants in the promotion of PA in the country. As indicated above,
a number of Ministries and local governments invested in this national

action plan in the form of manpower capacity, community mobilization,
media, and other activities (Mauritius, n.d.). This programme envisaged
that evaluation was to be an ongoing monitoring of the processes and
outcomes of actions for the promotion of PA, which is necessary in order
to examine programme success and to identify target areas for future plans
of action. Outcome evaluation is carried out through national surveys and
monitoring systems by including standardized measures of PA. Process
evaluation records implementation and includes documentation of types
of programmes and actions, for example, mass media campaigns, dissemi-
nation of educational materials to schools and worksites, provision of local
PA programmes, and provision of training sessions. Indicators to monitor
the progress of activities have been developed (Mauritius, n.d.). Whereas
there is evident improvement in the provision of programmes, personnel,
and infrastructure (Mauritius, n.d.), it is still too early to know how it has
impacted the PA patterns of the people. The proactive approach to PA and
health in Mauritius has also attracted the attention of the Federation of
International Football Associations (FIFA).
According to Dvorak et al. (2012), a pilot study on ‘planning and
implementing a nationwide football-based health-education program’
produced an 18 per cent absolute increase in post-intervention health
knowledge across the health messages, which was equivalent to a 26 per
cent relative increase against the children’s baseline knowledge level; while
the nationwide study produced a 14 per cent absolute increase in the post-
intervention health knowledge across the health messages, equivalent to a
22 per cent relative increase against the baseline knowledge level. The
implementation of the ‘11 for Health’ programme was considered to have
met the objectives set out at the beginning of the project. Given the suc-
cess of the ‘11 for Health’ programme in Mauritius, a programme similar
to this one has already been transferred to three other African countries
(Botswana, Malawi, and Namibia). The success of the programme is
attributed to the tripartite collaboration between FIFA/F-MARC (FIFA
Medical Assessment and Research Centre), the country’s football associa-
tion, and the government’s Departments of Health, Education, and Sport,
with the country’s media used to increase the public awareness of the
programme. Thus, Mauritius, as a country, has embraced an aggressive
approach to increase the level of PA as well as the general health knowl-
edge by its citizenry. However, it is still too early to know the impact on
PA behaviours of the people.
S outh Africa: Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health Campaign

South Africa is one of the African countries with high levels of physical
inactivity and obesity levels. According to Strydom (2013), 74.6 per cent
of South Africans do not participate in any PA. In 2005, the Minister of
Health launched the Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health cam-
paign. ‘Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health’ means ‘Wake up,
South Africa, move for your health’. The campaign was initiated at a time
when the policy environment was conducive for adopting the ‘Move for
Your Health’ concept in South Africa (Strydom, 2013; WHO, 2008). For
example, in 2005, Healthy Lifestyles programmes within the National
Department of Health established a multisector task team comprising
governmental departments, NGOs, and private sector organizations which
began the process of developing the healthy lifestyle strategy for South
Africa. The strategy has five key components: healthy nutrition, promo-
tion of PA, tobacco control, responsible alcohol consumption, and pro-
motion of safe sexual behaviour (WHO, 2008). This forms part of the
government’s Strategic Priorities for the National Health System
2004–2009, which emphasizes the importance of promoting a healthy
lifestyle, including regular PA and the prevention of obesity.
‘Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health’ sets a good example of a
nationwide campaign for PA and health in the African continent (WHO,
2008). The objective of the programme is to promote sustainable PA ini-
tiatives around the country. The groups targeted for the ongoing cam-
paign to promote regular PA included children and youth, adults, and
older adults. The programme is promoted in a variety of settings and is
geared towards ‘empowering’ existing initiatives. The core message of
‘Move for Your Health’ is to encourage individuals to accumulate 30 min-
utes of moderate PA on most (at least five) days of the week, in line with
the WHO global recommendation.
To enhance chances of success, South Africa embraced a partnership
approach in implementing ‘Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health’.
The National Department of Health is the leading agency responsible for
coordinating the campaign, together with an inter-sector task team. Other
key stakeholders committed to campaign implementation come from aca-
demic institutions and the business sector, as well as the National
Department of Education and the Department of Sport and Recreation.
To facilitate effective implementation, national and local workshops with
international facilitators were held around the country. The workshop
attendees represented different constituencies, including the local and
national media (radio, television, print), for purposes of information

dissemination.
To date, there has not been any feedback to the programme’s overall
impact (Strydom, 2013). This is despite having an evaluation framework
developed to examine, for example, accredited PA programmes under
‘Move for Your Health’, awareness of ‘Move for Your Health’ campaign
messages, and prevalence of PA behaviour. The projects spent more than
half a million South Africa Rand on branding and promotion of the
launches of the activities in 2005. In addition, in-kind contributions, such
as time and resources for health risk screening, were provided by more
than 30 organizations, NGOs, and tertiary institutions.
Together with the ‘Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health’, work
began in 2004 on the development of a Charter for Physical Activity, Sport,
Play and Well-being for All Children and Youth in South Africa (Youth
Fitness & Wellness Charter) (Strydom, 2013). It was initiated by the
University of Cape Town’s Medical Research Council’s (MRC) Research
Unit for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine (ESSM), in collaboration
with governmental organizations, NGOs, educational institutions, and the
private sector. The Charter is a broad statement that provides a philosophi-
cal underpinning for the development of policies and guidelines to promote
PA, sports, and play among South Africa’s children and youth, with a par-
ticular emphasis on equity, diversity, and nation-building.
The Charter was adapted through a consultative process involving
more than 200 individual partners and stakeholder organizations, and has
undergone eight revisions since October 2004. An implementation cam-
paign schedule aimed at performing the following three tasks: educating
governmental departments, schools, parents and care-givers, communi-
ties, and health services about PA, nutrition, and wellness; facilitating
interventions that are already in place; and providing a support base for
intervention programmes in schools and private-service providers. The
implementation phase was piloted in 2006.
Thus, the ‘Vuka South Africa—Move for Your Health’ campaign dem-
onstrated that it has had an inter-sector impact. Subsequent to the ‘Move
for Your Health’ workshop in September 2005, Sport and Recreation
South Africa presented the programme to Sport and Recreation provincial
coordinators, who are based in all the nine provinces and who have access
to the wider rural communities across the country. The programme thus
elicited participation around the country, involving different organiza-
tions and persons with diverse backgrounds. The media, on its part, played
a crucial role in the dissemination of information and education. Some of

the highlight events included community walks, TV exercise programmes,
radio discussions, health walks in provinces, physical activities at schools,
soccer matches with older citizens and people with disabilities, workshops
on lifestyle-related chronic diseases, as well as mass aerobic demonstra-
tions and nutrition exhibitions. The health walks and community-wide
screenings for obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes, con-
ducted by Health Department staff and partners, became an integral part
of all national campaigning and health awareness days (WHO, 2008).
Although the main campaign launch took place in Alexandra, eight of
South Africa’s nine provinces celebrated ‘Vuka South Africa—Move for
Your Health’ on 30 May 2005. The provincial activities ranged from fun
walks in various communities, to PA and health educational presentations,
to soccer games for older adults and people with disabilities. Subsequent
to the launch, the Department of Health has integrated a 5 km health
walk and PA promotion into the overall Healthy Lifestyle campaign.
Various nodal points and cities, particularly those in the rural and peri-
urban communities, were identified by the Department of Health for
either a day- or a week-long screening and broad health promotion activi-
ties. Other government departments such as Sport Recreation South
Africa have continued to promote mass participation in physical activities
and sports, thereby promoting activity as part of their function. For exam-
ple, Soul City, a media-based health promotion initiative included PA
posters and education in newsletters, which are distributed to more than
1000 Soul Buddyz clubs, which promote health and well-being among
school youth (WHO, 2008).
Other programmes that have been launched in South Africa include the
Charter of Physical Activity, Sport, Play and Well-being for All Children
and Youth in South Africa, together with the Youth Fitness and Wellness
Charter launched in 2004 (Strydom, 2013), and a government-imported
sport development programme from England and Australia (Burnett,
2006). Empirical evaluations for these programmes have been published,
showing that the outcomes of these programmes provided a positive
impact on social markers within the community regarding health, well-
being, and self-worth; environment; education and training; economy;
and crime and security (Burnett, 2006). According to Burnett (2006), the
programmes impacted on human and community development, yet many
challenges still remain, such as inadequate resources and marketing and
managing expectations of ‘easy’ access to a professional career in sport,
among others, to meaningfully contribute to sustainable human develop-

ment. In like manner, the Vuka SA campaign provided an opportunity for
various governmental departments and stakeholders to work together
with the aim of increasing PA in the country. However, the implementa-
tion of the programme has been sporadic since 2007.
According to Kolbe-Alexander et al. (2012), monitoring and evalu-
ation of the programme activities have not been systematic and are lim-
ited, and as a result of this, there are no current measures of national or
regional reach and impact. It appears that there is a need for a consulta-
tive national plan for the promotion of PA throughout the implementa-
tion process. Although the programme is laudable, especially in the
initial stages of bringing together different stakeholders, there is a need
for more coordinated efforts in streamlining the policies and imple-
mentation of the PA programmes. According to Strydom (2013,
p. 988):
In the light of the discussion regarding the impact of ageing, NCDs, and
physical inactivity (hypokinesis), it is of paramount importance that we
should echo and embrace Vuka South Africa—Move for your health. The
strategic objective of the National Sport and Recreation Plan (NSRP) for
South Africa, viz. to improve the health and well-being of the nation by
providing mass participation opportunities through active recreation, is
indeed a wake-up call which cannot be ignored by leaders at all levels in this
country. However, successful implementation thereof requires dedication
and acceptance of responsibility together with the will and thrust to ‘make
things happen; These challenge political- social- academic- professional peo-
ple and volunteers to be willing to ‘walk the extra mile’. As discussed, many
endeavours to tackle the idea of health improvement have already emerged
in South Africa, with various levels of success.
Conclusion
It is noteworthy that there is a rising worldwide attention to NCDs that
has attracted a lot of peer-reviewed publications on NCDs at the global
level. However, there is still limited research on the NCDs in Africa and a
lack of a detailed analysis of what interventions are being put in place to
prevent the surge. More research is definitely needed on high-priority
interventions on PA and health promotion, including the related aspects
of obesity and dietary patterns in Africa. However, the examples drawn
from Mauritius and South Africa reveal their national commitment to
prevent the citizens of these countries from falling prey to the hitherto
Western lifestyle diseases. For the rest of Africa, there is a need to heed the
warning and embark on programmes to sustain PA levels, promote health
practices, and empower the local communities to take charge of their own
health for the good of the individuals, the communities, and the countries
of Africa as a whole.
It is important that African countries strive to promote the mainte-
nance of a healthy energy balance among the people. In this regard, fami-
lies, schools, and communities must ensure that all people have the
educational, dietary, and PA resources to pursue this task successfully.
Additionally, health care professionals must be prepared to treat obesity
and partner with community resources to facilitate normal growth and
development, as well as healthy psychosocial function. Research on the
prevention, early intervention, and treatment of overweight and obesity
persons should assume high priority, given the high prevalence of obesity
and its health consequences elsewhere in the world and the emerging
trends in Africa.
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Fletcher Njororai , a teacher by profession, is an assistant professor, Health

Sciences, Department of Health and Kinesiology, the University of Texas at Tyler.
She teaches and conducts research in public health, with a focus on global health.
She holds a PhD in health studies, with a major in community and population
health. She has 29 years of work and professional experience that spans university
teaching and student mentoring, programme design, implementation and evalua-
tion, community-based participatory research, service learning, health disparities
among immigrant and displaced populations, and public health theories in health
promotion and education. She serves as a peer reviewer with the American Public
Health Association.
Wycliffe W.S. Njororai is a teacher by profession. He is Full Professor of

Kinesiology, Department of Health and Kinesiology, the University of Texas at
Tyler, where he has taught and conducted research that focuses on human motor
behaviour since fall 2012. He holds a PhD in kinesiology, majoring in physical
education and sport. He has 30 years of work experience in Kenya and the USA,
where he has taught a variety of courses, including Motor Development, Motor
Control and Learning, Coaching Theory, Organization and Administration of
Sport, Sociology of Sport, and Methods of Teaching. He has published widely on
various themes, including physical activity, sports labour migration, soccer, athlet-
ics, and sports performance. During spells of academic exchange at Minnesota
State University and as a visiting professor at Kyambogo University in Uganda, he
mentors faculty and graduate students.
Index
A Community participation, 14, 84,

Africa, ix, 1, 17, 53, 69, 93, 107, 135, 157, 160, 163–165, 168, 169,
153, 174, 199 178, 188, 189, 226
Agricultural reform, 76 Conceptual models, 5, 8, 12–14, 28,
Agro-ecological assets, 74 69, 75, 94, 99, 107, 108, 112,
Agropolitan development strategies, 119, 136, 139, 148, 154, 159,
113 174, 182, 184, 218
Alternative urban futures, 109 Conflict, 29, 37, 41, 57, 72, 142, 143
Conservation, 12, 28–30, 33–35,
44–46, 71, 79, 83
B Corruption, 22, 24, 25, 37, 62, 72,
Biodiversity, 30, 71 142
Bottom-up, 4 Credit facilities, 93, 102
Built environment, 202, 221, 223,
227–229
D
Decentralization, 12, 30, 35–37, 56,
C 57, 59, 62, 64, 66, 108–111,
Centralized models of forest 113, 114, 117–119, 141–143,
conservation, 22 145, 146, 165, 184, 189
Central places, 109, 113 Deconcentration, 58, 59, 63
Colonialism, 58, 173 Democratic centralism, 63
Community, ix, 21, 32, 64, 69, 143, Development, ix, 1, 17, 53, 69, 93,
159, 200 107, 140, 160, 176, 219
Community-based natural resource Devolution, 12, 25, 37, 54, 58,
management, 11, 18, 28, 32, 33 62–64, 66, 163

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95297-7
250 INDEX
Diseases, 14, 15, 72, 83, 84, 153, G

176–178, 180–182, 187, 188, Gender violence, 227
190, 192, 199, 216, 222, Geothermal energy, 143, 148
225–229, 241, 243 Governance, 11–13, 22, 28, 31, 32,
District councils, 59–61, 63, 237 34, 36, 53–67, 72, 79, 97–100,
Drought, 41, 45, 46 111, 165, 167, 178, 179, 187
Grid supply, 142
Growth centre (GC), 110, 113–118,
E 121, 126
Economic, 2, 3, 28, 31–34, 36, Growth pole (GP), 13, 110, 113–117,
43–45, 47, 62–64, 69, 74, 76, 121, 126
78, 80, 95, 97, 98, 101, 103,
107, 109, 110, 114–116, 118,
120, 121, 124, 141, 144, 145, H
148, 175, 186, 192, 219, 220, Health, 3, 64, 71, 95, 122, 153,
227, 228, 230 173–193, 199
Economic settlement cluster, 109, Health benefits, 199, 219, 222, 226,
113 227, 231, 233, 234
Ecosystem, 11, 29 Health care, 14, 95–97, 100, 101,
Efficiency of water services, 163 173–182, 185–193, 225, 243
Empowerment, 35, 85, 109, 200, Health clubs, 233–235, 237
220, 222, 227, 229, 232 Health planning, 14, 175–180,
Energy, 13, 96, 100, 135–149, 243 182–185, 189, 192
Energy access, 135, 142, 145 Health promotion, 14, 200, 223, 229,
Energy policy, 135, 141, 142, 146, 232, 241, 242
147, 149 HIV/AIDS, 102, 190
Energy supply, 135, 145, 146 Human capital model (HCM), 209,
Energy transition, 13, 139–142, 144, 219, 222
149 Human resource (HR), 14, 31, 93,
Equity, 3, 12, 77, 79, 85, 95, 96, 98, 176, 179, 183, 184, 187, 191
99, 186, 187, 240
Ethnic district, 64
Extension services, 76 I
External economies, 115 Insurance, 93, 97, 102, 175, 176,
187–191
Integrated natural resource
F management, 11, 12, 28, 79
Feminist, 12, 77 Intermediate urban centres, 111
Flexy energy concept, 140, 143 Irrigation, 41, 76, 83, 164
Flood, 41
Food security and famine, 3, 28, 76,
82, 164, 166 K
Functional integration, 113 Knowledge synthesis, 9
INDEX
251
L O
Land, 3, 12, 23, 25, 31–34, 36, 37, Obesity, 14, 199, 201, 204, 213, 216,
41–44, 71, 74, 76, 79–81, 116, 219, 222–227, 229, 235, 236,
221, 229, 234 239, 241–243
Land management, 11, 29 Organic, 84
Leapfrogging, 99, 139, 140, 144
Lifestyle, 15, 174, 199, 220, 226,
229, 234, 237, 239, 243 P
Literature review, 7, 9, 111, 159, 175, Participation, 12, 35, 36, 53, 58,
176, 178, 180, 181, 190 62–65, 76, 85, 162, 168, 192,
Livelihoods, 2–4, 12, 21, 26, 29, 30, 32, 220–222, 225, 226, 228, 231,
34, 71–74, 76–80, 114, 119, 153 240–242
Local development, 59, 60 Participatory approach, 36, 46, 82,
160, 162
Participatory development, 109
M Physical activity, 14, 15, 199–243
Malnutrition, 188 Physical activity transition, 14
Market centres, 38, 107, 108, 115, Physical inactivity, 199, 214–216, 223,
120, 123, 124, 127, 231 229, 239, 242
Markets, 3, 11–13, 43, 71, 74, 76, Planning, ix, x, 1, 69, 70, 79, 84, 86,
78–82, 101, 107–109, 114, 93, 109–111, 117, 120, 121, 123,
119–127, 148, 179, 186 126, 127, 153, 160, 168, 176,
Medical, 173, 176, 191, 223, 225 182, 185, 187, 190, 192, 219,
Meta-analysis, 112, 138, 148, 158, 220, 222, 226, 229–231, 238
201, 202, 218 Policy, 1, 4–6, 8, 11, 12, 26, 33, 36,
Methods, 3, 8, 14, 17–27, 44, 54–56, 56, 62, 64, 69, 71, 77, 85, 95,
69–75, 79, 83, 86, 94, 95, 107, 96, 98–100, 108, 117, 119, 120,
108, 111, 135, 136, 138–140, 125, 142, 147, 148, 153, 168,
145, 146, 149, 154, 157–159, 174, 175, 179, 180, 186, 187,
161, 164, 166, 169, 174–182, 190, 205, 207, 218, 223, 225,
188, 189, 200, 201, 218, 226 227, 229, 230, 234, 239
Microfinance, 94, 101, 102 Political infrastructure, 100
Mixed district approach, 59, 60 Poor, 19, 29, 38, 44, 59, 72, 73, 79,
Multi-spatial livelihoods analysis, 113 80, 85, 96, 97, 100, 119, 120,
126, 127, 135, 143, 146, 158,
166, 179, 184, 186, 189, 191,
N 192, 229
Neo-patrimonialism, 62 Poverty, 2, 3, 12, 26, 29, 57, 64, 66,
Network analysis, 113 71–73, 76–78, 81, 82, 96, 101,
Non-communicable disease (NCDs), 109, 111, 119, 148, 225, 227
14, 174–176, 179, 188, 204, 219, Power sector reforms, 142
222–226, 228, 232–235, 242 Primary Health Care (PHC), 175,
Nutrition, 181, 235, 237, 239–241 176, 180, 182–186, 189
252 INDEX
R Services, 3, 6, 13, 14, 59, 62, 63, 65,

Regional planning, 110, 111, 115 66, 71, 72, 81, 84, 93, 96, 97,
Renewable energy, 135, 136, 101, 102, 110, 111, 113–115,
141–146, 149 119, 121, 122, 125, 142, 153,
Renewable power, 141, 142, 146 160–167, 169, 173–179,
Reproductive health, 189–190 181–186, 188, 189, 192, 226,
Research designs, 5, 8, 10, 11, 70–75, 227, 232, 240
107, 108, 126, 148, 154, 182 Small urban settlements, 107
Resources, 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, 17–47, Social, 2, 4, 17, 26, 27, 33, 43, 45,
53, 59–61, 63–65, 70, 72, 77–79, 47, 62, 70, 75–78, 85, 97, 98,
83, 101, 115, 118, 125, 126, 100, 101, 115, 118, 120, 121,
136, 145, 146, 148, 162–165, 124, 161, 179, 209, 219–225,
167–169, 183, 189, 192, 209, 227–231, 236, 237, 241
220, 240, 241, 243 Social capital, 3, 13, 14, 95–99, 101,
Risk management, 14, 28, 160, 103, 210, 219–222, 227, 231
162–164, 169 Social exclusion, 98, 99, 101
Rural, ix, 1, 17, 53, 69, 93, 107, 116, Socio-ecological model, 14, 218, 223
135, 153, 173, 230 Socio-economic, 31, 58, 93, 99–101,
Rural development, ix, x, 1–15, 17, 107, 112, 127, 143, 148, 161,
30, 35, 69, 70, 75, 84, 86, 162, 165, 166, 168, 226
93–103, 108–111, 113, 116, Spatial inequalities, 110
118, 119, 123–127, 135, 146, Spatial planning policy, 124
153, 160 Spatial strategies, 111
Rural electrification, 135, 136, Spatial theories, 113, 114
142–148 Sustainability, 3, 29, 32, 84, 110, 160,
Rural finance, 13, 93, 94, 100–103 186, 220, 228
Rural growth linkages, 113 Sustainable development, 46, 56, 58,
Rural growth points, 111 59, 99, 115, 144, 147
Rural household, x, 135, 141–144,
147, 161, 164, 181, 187
Rural-urban interactions, 111, 113, T
114 Technology, 12, 77, 79, 84, 85, 97,
Rural-urban relations, 109, 110, 114, 114, 142, 146, 148, 161, 168,
120, 124–126 190
Territorial development, 113
Theory, 5, 8, 11–13, 20, 21, 28–30,
S 35, 69, 71, 74–78, 83, 94, 99,
Savings, 71, 93, 102, 227 107, 108, 112–114, 116–119,
School sports facilities, 235 136, 139, 140, 148, 149, 154,
Secondary cities, 111, 116 159–162, 175, 177, 182, 183,
Service delivery, 164, 165, 168, 169, 218–223
174, 177, 179, 182–191, 193 Top-down, 4, 30, 31, 46, 66, 145
INDEX
253
Traditional rule, 35, 58, 59, 63 V

Tragedy of the commons, 20, 21, 29, Vertical, 66, 176, 180, 182, 184, 185,
30 190, 192
Treatment, 83, 162, 178, 180, 181, Vuka South Africa, 239–242
188, 189, 191, 243 Vulnerable, 65, 66, 80, 102
Trickle down, 117, 118
W
U Water access, 14, 159, 163, 165, 167,
Ujamaa, 61 169
Urban, 2, 4, 13, 61, 63, 64, 80, 98, Water law, 161, 163, 165, 169
102, 107–127, 145, 149, 164, Water planning, 14, 169
169, 177, 181, 188, 189, 192, Water policy, 14, 157, 163, 164, 167,
226, 230 169
Urban council, 60, 61 Water quality, 14, 83, 153, 157–159,
Urbanization, 110, 111, 116, 118, 161, 163–166, 169
121 Water security, 14, 157, 159,
Urban-led rural development, 121 163–167, 169
Urban policy, 111 Water supply, 14, 157, 159, 160,
Urban rank size hierarchy, 107 162–169
Urban systems theory, 110 Workforce, 173, 176, 179, 180, 190,
Urban transition, 110 191
User fees, 175, 180, 181, 186, 187

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RURAL

ISBN 978-1-349-95296-0 ISBN 978-1-349-95297-7 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951956

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover design by Akihiro Nakayama

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

Rural development remains one of the most enduring challenges con-

development models often narrowly associating rural development with

International Institute of Social Studies M.A. Mohamed Salih

Contributing to African rural development planning experience fulfils a

1 Encountering African Rural Development Planning 1

2 Natural Resource Management 17

5 Financing Rural Development Programmes 93

6 Small Market and Urban Centres 107

Table 2.1 Criteria for inclusion or exclusion of articles during

Table 9.2 Design characteristics of studies reviewed 183

Encountering African Rural Development

Meleckidzedeck Khayesi, Peter Mala, and Joan Fairhurst

What Is This Chapter About?

What Characterizes the African Rural Development

© The Author(s) 2018 1

rural, it is estimated that the number of people living in urban settlements

By applying this method, significant observations emerge that would

If a new paradigm of rural development is to emerge, it will be one in which

Considering Africa’s demographic dynamics regarding population dis-

Why Synthesize African Rural Development

How Was This Book Prepared?

The Self-Organization and Mobilization Process

The group undertook the following steps to mobilize and organize

• defining the research topic on which to focus that provide a synthesis

The process of gathering information and preparing chapters is

Information Gathering, Processing and Analysis

• defining the topic for which the literature would be reviewed;

• selecting studies for review; and

Each author answered the research question by recording information

The Main Themes

High and Low Moments in Collaboration Experience

contributors, acceptance of the book proposal by Palgrave Macmillan,

part of our emergent collective leadership in our book manuscript prepa-

Francis embraced the book as a great learning opportunity despite the

design, a defined population of studies from which a sample was to be drawn

What Do the Book Chapters Reveal?

conceptual models utilized centre around constitutional analysis. The

draw on three main theoretical and conceptual models: social capital,

Chapter 8 presents evidence on water issues. Both qualitative and quan-

activity, advocating prevention initiatives to inform its citizens about the

Meleckidzedeck Khayesi (PhD), a teacher by profession, conducts research in

Joan Fairhurst (DPhil), Professor Emeritus from the University of Pretoria, is a

Natural Resource Management

C.A. Shisanya (*)

© The Author(s) 2018 17

papers, theses, meetings, organizational and project reports as well as

Date of Articles published Articles published It is assumed that attention

Agrawal Tanzania research on if not more, effective incentives for forest

Agrawal reviews of outcome of efforts to agents, especially when

devolution and reclaim

rights over land and

research exploring the international NGOs are

Study Designs and Approaches

International Institute of Social Studies M.A. Mohamed Salih

1 Encountering African Rural Development Planning 1

2 Natural Resource Management 17

5 Financing Rural Development Programmes 93

6 Small Market and Urban Centres 107

Table 9.2 Design characteristics of studies reviewed 183

The present regime of natural resource management in most resource-

d’Ivoire (Stamm, 2000)). This delayed the emergence of community-

e conomic sector, locally, nationally and globally, and its significance as an