FOREIGN RELATIONS

AND
NATIONAL SECURITY LAW

I. The Analytic Framework: Separate Branches With Shared National

Security Powers
a. Introduction
i. The Original Understanding
 Overview of National Security Law:
o US domestic legal framework
 this is the US law governing response to threats
 there is some international law included in US law:
 treaties
 Congress can codify the law of Nations
 customary international law is part of federal US CL
 this focuses on the law of incorporations itself, not what the law is
when it is incorporated.
o Protecting “polity” from threat of violence or theft
 this is a threat on the US government or society at large
 cf. to the vast majority of criminal law which is aimed at
individuals
 examples include:
 drug trafficking
 international organized crime
 international money laundering
 this is when crime which is aimed at individuals threatens society as a
community.
o Using lethal force, intelligence ops, homeland defense, etc.
 lethal force:
 armed militia and covert forms – ie. assassinations
 intelligence “ops”:
 often involves using dirty assets – don’t just operate through US
agents – it privatizes war.
 homeland defense:
 detection and prevention of terrorism – crisis and consequence
management
 immediate first response and then continuity of government.
 includes punishment of terrorists:
o punish by trial like techniques for punishment and/or
deportation; possibly trial by military commission.
 military commission: a panel of officers
operating under military rules, without appellate
review in the courts.
o punish by use of force
o economic punishment
Bodner 1
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  secrets:
 classified information – how can public hold government
accountable if information is w/held from them?

 The Constitutional Text

o hypothetical: Identify any arguable constitutional authority – based on text and
the framing history – for the military detention and possible trial by military
commission of suspected terrorists who are U.S. citizens, such as the “Dirty
Bomber,” taken into custody in Chicago, and the “Cajun Taliban,” taken into
custody in Afghanistan.
 Dirty Bomber: in military custody, not been charged with anything, no
access to a lawyer and no court can review his detention.
 Cajun Taliban: in military detention
o Possible Authority:
 5th Amendment: “No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a
Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the
Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger;”
 does the exception require a declaration of war or is the
President’s authorization of use of force enough authority?
 does it apply only to members of the armed forces?
 Art II § 2: “The President shall be the Commander in Chief of the
Army and Navy of the United States . . . .”
 w/out regard to whether there has been a formal declaration of
war, President can say people are unlawful combatants and there
is no limitation on that – its not reviewable.
 where is the check and balance on that?
o political check – probably not that much of a check
o appropriations: Art I § 9 cl. 7: “No money shall be drawn
from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations
made by Law;”
 Congress can specifically say that no money
should be spent on appropriations.
 there are general appropriations items (ie 20
million for military police)
 Congress’ appropriations power is limited as well:
Art I § 8 cl. 12 & 13: appropriations for military
must be revisited every 2 years and it must be
done in public.  illustrates constitutional
concern regarding the standing army and using a
people based militia.
 RH: this cannot mean that anytime the President orders the
military around he can do whatever he wants – there are some
limits on the CIC power: at the very least – the Presidents
authority under this is greater in war time b/c it has to do w/
tactical command.

Bodner 2
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  Art I § 9: “The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public
safety may require it.”
 writ of habeas corpus: right to have a court review the legality of
your detention.
 problem, not clear who can suspend the writ  it is in Art I
which deals w/ powers of Congress BUT it is included in § 9
which is passive and farmed in the negative (ie. one interpretation
– the framers didn’t want this to be a Congressional decision).
 another interpretation: allow the President to suspend the writ and
this part is simply focused on the conditions – not who could
suspend the writ.
 Art IV § 4: “The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them
against Invasion;”
 limits: President can only step in if the legislature cant be
convened.
 Art II § 3: “[H]e may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both
Houses.”
 this illustrates that even in emergency times the President may
have to resort to Congress – he cannot act on his own.
 Art I § 10 cl. 3: “No state shall, without the Consent of Congress . . .
engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as
will not admit of delay.”
 illustrates that the Federal government wants control of war.
 Art II § 1: presidents oath to uphold the constitution:
 argue that the President is acting in defense of people – it seems
odd, but that is what Lincoln did during the Civil war.
 limit: Congress takes the same oath.
 Art I § 8: “The Congress shall have the Power To . . . provide for the
common defence and general Welfare of the United States.”
 Congress lays down the law fro when to call militia – President
will presumably be the one to call them up.

 NOTE: our constitution favors legislative action – which is not the optimal
scheme for dealing with emergencies. The severe constraints are no accident –
emergency power by the executive is the most frequently abused.

o hypothetical: If Congress wanted information on who was being detained and

the Administration said no – how could Congress get classified information,
secrets, etc?
o Possible Authority:
 Art I § 5: secret journal provision:
 allows Congress to keep secrets – doesn’t say the President can
keep secrets from Congress.
 Art II § 3: state of the Union address:

Bodner 3
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  President gives Congress info on the state of the Union – but is
limited from time to time – not necessarily whenever Congress
asks for it.
 Art I § 1:
 implied power to give information to legislature to allow
Congress to legislate appropriately – this would place limits on
what Congress could ask from the President.
 Art II § 2:
 in order to command troops during wartime, President would
presumably have to have some right to classifying secrets.
 diplomacy: appointing ambassadors, signing treaties – requires
some secrecy.
 Art I § 9:
 “regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures
of all public Money shall be published from time to time.”
 but, this deals w/ the flow of information to the public – not from
the President to Congress.

 Examination of the text reveals the potential for the allocation of national security
powers actually reflected in our history. It also demonstrates the futility of trying to
divine the Framers’ intent from the text alone.
o Articles I and II have overlapping functions
o The text is not precise
o The text fails altogether to prescribe or allocate power over some important
areas of national security.

 The Framers’ View:

o The Convention: general consensus among Convention delegates about the need
for a strengthened national government. There was a general understanding that
the appropriations power would be employed to control the military. A motion
to vest the war power solely in the senate was rejected and power to “declare” as
opposed to “make” (which suggests “conduct”) was given to Congress.
Although nothing suggests an intention to allow the President to “make” war
without a declaration. In the end, the delegates themselves did little to define
the executive.
o Ratification: indicates a rejection of the notion of a unilateral presidential power
over war-making. There is similar evidence that the Commander-in-Chief
power was viewed narrowly. The ratification debates tend to confirm that the
“declare” language could not fairly be read to limit Congress to formal war-
initiation. No ratifier argued that the President has unilateral power to engage in
hostilities without congressional approval, in the absence of a sudden attack.
Undeclared wars were thought to be possible, but it is not altogether clear under
what circumstances and by whom they could be initiated.

ii. Shared Powers and Separate or Customary Authority

 Some observers believe the constitution created a government of separated institutions
sharing powers. Even those who disagree that the branches share power would today
Bodner 4
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 have to agree that they share authority over the same subjects, though they usually
exercise it in different forms. Youngstown illustrates the various approaches taken to
such separation of powers issues.

 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (US S.Ct. 1952): text 31
o Facts: President issued EO to seize the nations steel mills and keep production
going. The Secretary of Commerce did so and the President sent a message to
Congress reporting his action – Congress did nothing. The companies obeyed
the EO, but brought proceedings against the Secretary. The D.Ct. issued a
preliminary injunction restraining the Secretary from acting under EO and
seizing the plants. The Secretary appeals here.
 note: EO’s are either issued by statute (which have the force and effect of
statute) or are not (which is then based on inherent constitutional
authority to have the force and effect of law – if not based on
constitutional authority – then doesn’t have the force and effect of law).
o Issue: Whether the President was acting w/in his constitutional power when he
issued an order directing the Secretary of Commerce to take possession of and
operate most of the Nation’s steel mills.
o Black: Majority:
 there is no statutory authorization for President to seize the plant
 seizure statutes don’t apply and the Taft-Hartley Act illustrates
that Congress concluded not to provide such authority b/c it
would interfere w/ collective bargaining.
 Congress has not authorized seizure, President’s actions are lawmaking
and the President cannot make the laws.
 Commander-in-Chief Cl:
 this is not occurring in the theater of war (suggesting he may be
less stringent if this took place in theater of war)
 in theater have evidentiary problem of collecting evidence to
work under normal criminal procedures  that is not the case
here.
 Vestiture/Take Care Cl:
 rejects this as authority because laws are made by Congress and
there are no laws here – thus there is nothing to execute faithfully.
o Frankfurter: Concurring:
 Commander-in-Chief Cl:
 stresses that this is not a declared war – if it was, then maybe the
domestic authorities would be different.
 Vestiture/Take Care Cl:
 even if there is no express statute to execute, it is possible that by
consistent and long lasting executive practice that the President
has been allowed to exercise power in which Congress by notice
has acquiesced. = customary authority
 the current situation, however, can be distinguished from past
instances of customary authority. (ie. Midwest Oil = unique,
WWI and WWII – had authority from Congress, others are all

Bodner 5
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 distinguishable).  it’s a fairly demanding predicate and it is not
met here.
 Emergency Powers:
 there is a temporary emergency power which authorizes collapses
– acknowledges some form of emergency power under very
narrow conditions.
o Douglas: Concurring:
 only Congress can authorize such seizure because only Congress can
authorize money to compensate for it.
o Jackson: Concurring:
 Commander-in-Chief Cl:
 this is a war the President has started on his own – how can the
President start a war and then use that war to invoke further
power?
 not necessarily convinced that the Korean war is illegal, but
regardless, it is not enough to self-vest the President to seize the
plant.
 makes a distinction b/w outside and inside world: “I should
indulge the widest latitude of interpretation to sustain his
exclusive function to command the instruments of national force,
at least when turned against the outside world for the security of
our society. But, when it is turned inward, not because of
rebellion, but because of a lawful economic struggle between
industry and labor, it should have no such indulgence.”
 Emergency Powers:
 framers set up a procedure for dealing w/ emergencies and it
required going to Congress to ask for authorization – need to get
a law.
 when there isn’t time to go to Congress – don’t worry about it,
Congress can see it coming and delegate authority before hand =
standby statutory authority (ie. Militia Act – delegated authority
for when invasion occurs).
 Jackson is wholly reluctant to acknowledge emergency power for
fear of abuse.
o Burton: Concurring:
 Commander-in-Chief Cl:
 might be a war situation in which entire nation is mobilized
where the President might have the power (so not completely
rejecting it), but this is not such a situation.
 Emergency Powers:
 in a catastrophic situation there may be emergency power – but
this is not one – not an insurrection or an invasion (which the
constitution text talks about).
o Clark: Concurring:
 Emergency Powers:

Bodner 6
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 there might be situations sufficiently grave where the Presdient
can act – but only if Congress hasn’t occupied the field – in his
opinion, the Taft-Hartley Act occupies the field.
o Vinson: Dissenting:
 Vestiture /Take Care Cl:
 argues that the President is executing legislative programs and he
reported to Congress:
o (1) wage and price stabilization
o (2) Defense Production Act
o Count da Justices:
 3 Justices agree that there is CIC power to do this under some
circumstances – but this aint it.
 5-6 Justices agree that there is emergency authority in other
circumstances  there is inherent emergency powers.
 5-6 Justices agree that there is other executive power (ie. vestiture and
take care cl) IF Congress has not occupied the field and you buy into FF
customary authority argument.

 Youngstown leaves the question open as to what happens if a conflict arises between a
statute and a claim of independent authorization from the President – who prevails?
o Public Citizen v. United States Department of Justice (US S.Ct. 1989): text
56
 . . . Kennedy’s concurring opinion suggests a solution
 Kennedy writes that there are 2 categories of separation of powers cases:
 (1) formalist: the constitution already struck a balance b/w
branches and assigned the authorization to one branch. (ie
Black’s opinion in Steel Seizure)
 where the constitution is silent – there the courts do have a role
and its left to the S.Ct. to balance the degree of intrusion of the
Executive against the need for a statute from Congress. (ie.
Morrison v. Olsen)
 Kennedy believes that national security cases will generally use
category (2) b/c either: (a) the constitution is silent or (b) the authority is
assigned to both branches.

b. The President’s Constitutional Authority

i. “Curtiss-Wright, So I’m Right”: The President’s Foreign Relations and War
Authority
 Foreign Relations Power:
 United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (US S.Ct. 1936): text 61
o Procedural History: Appellees were indicted for conspiracy to sell arms from US
to Bolivia during conflict in Chaco, in violation of the Joint Resolution of
Congress and the proclamation issued by the President.
o Facts: Joint Resolution directs that if President finds the prohibition on the sale
of arms would contribute to the reestablishment of peace b/w the countries, he
may make a proclamation to that effect and it will be unlawful to sell arms
except under such limitations as the President prescribes. The President made
Bodner 7
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 such proclamation and delegated to the Secretary of State power of prescribing
exceptions. Appellee’s contend that in four different (see 62) provisions of the
Resolution, Congress unconstitutionally abdicated its essential functions and
delegated them to the Executive.
o Issue: Whether Congress is permitted to delegate authority with less specificity
than would be required in the domestic arena.
o The Ct. upholds the statute even though it is not specific enough to pass muster
under domestic delegation doctrine, b/c:
 (1) Inherent authority theory: the President has some inherent authority
in the Foreign Affairs area to begin w/ cf. in domestic arena, any power
he has must come from Congress.
 (2) Necessity theory: Congress doesn’t have access to the same
information as the President (some of which is secret) so Congress is not
in a position to legislate effectively.
 (3) Flexibility: in foreign affairs, the Ct. assumes the events to which US
has to respond are harder to predict in advance then domestic prediction,
so to the extent it delegates any authority – it has to do so loosely.
o Sutherland explains the inherent authority theory: “The President is the sole
organ of the nation in its external relations, and its sole representative with
foreign nations.”
 foreign affairs powers are inherent in the sovereign and are derived from
the law of nations – not taken from the people or the states.
 counterarguments
 as a historical matter, most think this is bullshit – the Continental
Congress and states both exercise foreign affairs power – so it
does come from the states.
 logically erroneous: even if concede that nation has foreign
affairs power, who says the President has to have it?
 “sole organ” language doesn’t necessarily mean what it has been
used for  its been used to say that the President has huge
foreign affairs power.
o Marshall was speaking on the floor re: a treaty – if there is
a duty imposed on the Executive branch Congress can say
how and when – if Congress doesn’t specify, the President
has to b/c he still has to execute the laws  this is a far
cry from plenary and exclusive foreign affairs power.

 President’s War Authority:

 Little v. Barreme (US S.Ct. 1804): text 71
Marshall: Majority
o Procedural History: US frigate was detained as it returned from a French Port.
The ship owners sued Captain Little (of the armed ship) for trespass.
o Facts: The Act authorizes the President to instruct the commanders of armed
vessels to stop and examine a ship is has reason so suspect is engaging in traffic
or commerce … so can stop ships going to any French port. The US ship here
was stopped returning from a French Port. It turns out the President authorized
the seizure of ships returning from a French Port as well.

Bodner 8
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Barreme argued that the statute is controlling and the executive re-writing of it is
unlawful.
o 2 issues to examine:
 (1) would the seizure have been lawful if there was no statute? ie. could
the President have authorized the seizure?
 if Congress hasn’t occupied the field by specifying the means by
which to execute war, the President has CIC powers to execute it.
Justice Marshall thinks the President’s order is more logical than
the statute.
 (2) How does the court find the action unlawful when the statute doesn’t
expressly prohibit seizing vessels coming from the port?
 Marshall feels bad b/c Little is just following President’s order
and Little will be personally liable.
o In the Ct’s view, Congress has occupied the field – has specified the means and
precluded other modes of carrying this out. Marshall: doesn’t think the
President has unfettered authority (note: this is 2 years after his sole organ
speech)

 President’s Defensive War Power:

 The Prize Cases (US S.Ct. 1863): text 73
Grier: Majority
o Procedural History: Owners of captured prize vessels during the blockade
brought an action challenging the legality of the President’s proclamation.
o Facts: President Lincoln issued blockade order to prevent ships from leaving
port. If a ship attempted to do so, it was warned, and if it did so again, it was
captured and prosecuted – the ships cargo was kept as prize.
o Issue: whether the seizure is lawful  find that: The President had a right to
institute a blockade of ports in possession of the States in rebellion.
o Constitutional authority for President: CIC has power to repel sudden attacks
which why charged Congress to “declare” war – conserve for the President the
power to repel sudden attacks  not explicit in constitution, but found in its
legislative history.
 what is the amount of force President may respond w/?
 it is highly deferential and left up to the President to determine
the amount of force = one view.
 perhaps it is only as much as it takes to repel the attack and
anything further is considered offensive. (just logical, not
constitutionally based)
 it is understood to be a proportional response
o Statutory authority for President:
 there may be some express statutory authority here to use naval forces to
suppress an insurrection (if so – all the above conts’l authority is dicta)
 other statutory authority = retroactively ratifying what President has
done.
 regardless . . . it is THE case re: preventive, defensive war power.
Nelson (plus 3) : Dissent:

Bodner 9
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Congress decides legal status of those in war and the President responds with
force as occasioned  essentially differentiating b/w what the President can do
de facto to ward off attack and the legal consequences which flow from war.
o believes that there are a certain amount of legal consequences which alter legal
status of people flowing from war – and only Congress can make that
determination. (ie. confiscation of property and war crimes). The President can
fight as a de facto matter, but to impose legal consequences – need statutory
authority. (note: RH refers to these legal consequences as the “legal dominoes”
which fall once Congress has declared war).

 Review of Presidents War Powers:

o (1) President has right to tactical command authority – this is implicit and not
yet the subject of judicial opinion.
o (2) Defensive War Authority: at least has the authority to respond in combat
until Congress can convene even if he cannot change legal status.
o (3) Smaller Scale Attacks: defensive war power, inferred from the Prize Cases,
respond to force w/ force – doesn’t have to be large scale war.

ii. The President’s Emergency Authority; Executive Privilege

 The President’s Emergency Authority:
 In re Neagle (US S.Ct. 1890): text 80
Miller: Majority
o PH / Facts: When Neagle, US Marshall, was assigned to protect Justice Field,
Neagle shot and killed Terry in the course of an assault on Field. Neagle was
arrested and charged w/ murder – he sought release under federal habeus corpus
statute.
o Issue: Whether the President’s duty to “take care” limited to the enforcement of
acts of Congress or of treaties of the United States according to their express
terms, or does it include the rights, duties and obligations growing out of the
Constitution itself, our international relations, and all the protection implied by
the nature of the government under the Constitution.
o in order to review the legality of detention there must be some law which
authorized Neagle to protect field. The Ct’s view of the const’n is that any
“obligation fairly and properly inferablefrom that instrument, or any duty of the
marshal to be derived from the general scope of his duties under the laws of the
United States, is “a law” within the meaning of this phrase.”
o Does find positive law for Neagle’s actions: US Revised statute: marshall has
the same powers in executing the laws as sheriffs would have  a sheriff would
clearly have the power to protect the Justice in this situation, therefore it was
Neagle’s DUTY to do so as well.
Lamar: Dissent
o basically just said too bad – the President just cant make the law up. While it is
the Presidents duty to take care that the laws be faithfully executed, it is
not his duty to make laws or a law of the United States.

 Neagle suggests an inherent rescue authority in the President – are there any limits?
o If Congress had spoke: either (a) prohibiting it or (b) occupying the field.

Bodner 10
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o subject matter limit: protection of government officials and function and maybe
government official property  self-protective of government.
o clearly cannot violate other parts of the constitution
o perhaps its only reactive – an imminent threat which activates the President’s
power.

 Little v. Barreme and Neagle read together represent two different approaches to
emergencies which Congress hasn’t anticipated and the constitution is silent:
o (1) liberal approach: strict rule of law – if Congress hasn’t laid down response,
there is no lawful response and if President goes forward – it his own ass.
 if gauged emergency correctly, Congress will ratify it late.
 BUT no precedent created for him to do it again.
o (2) 3 dissenters in Steel Seizure:
 whatever response the President takes is lawful – necessity compelled it.
 the problem with this view is that if it is declared lawful, it establishes
precedent and it easier for next Administration to do it.

 Executive Privilege:
o Executive Privilege refers to a group of executive branch justifications for
resisting disclosure of information to the public or other branches.
o Justifications:
 State Secret Privilege
 The CL evidentiary privilege is chief when the Executive invokes
it.
 the information is a state secret the disclosure of which would
jeopardize the nation’s security.
 Law Enforcement Privilege
 The CL, codified into FOIA, authorizes law enforcement
personnel to withhold from disclosure in court OPEN
investigation files.
 exists to protect sources and to prevent new material from being
released.
 Intra-Branch Communications:
 to encourage candor and to encourage to operate on paper in
decision making process.
 Confidentiality of Presidential Communications:
 presidential privilege is rooted in constitutional separation of
powers principles and the Presidents unique constitutional role.
 The President invokes the presidential communications privilege
to protect documents he wants to keep confidential, and they are
presumptively privileged, but the presumption can be overcome
by a specific showing of adequate need. = balancing test (in
category 2 of separation of powers).

c. Congress’s Constitutional Authority

i. Declaring War
 Authorizations of War:
Bodner 11
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Declaration – includes all the legal consequences of a formal declaration (ie.
Alien Enemy Act)
o Defensive War – “state of war” – including repelling attack
o Statute – imperfect war – authorized by a specific statute which is different than
appropriations.

 Declaration Process:
o Upon request of the President, Congress will enact a joint resolution declaring
war.
 joint resolution = approved bicamerally and presented to the President
 concurrent resolution = bicameralism, but no presentment
 simple resolution = only one house
o there are legal consequences of declaring war  activates international law and
standby statutes.
 Bas v. Tingy (US S.Ct. 1800): text 93
Seriatim
o this is technically a prize question – whether or not a certain prize statute
applies. Congress had begun to incrementally raise the hostility b/w the US and
France.
o Chase: France ≠ an open enemy of the US; but, people began to get pissed at
France so Congress could get away w/ elevated degree of hostility. There wasn’t
a declaration of war against France.
o are we at war by virtue of these incremental statutes?
 yes, we are at war – but its not a perfect (declared) war which would
allow attendant legal consequences.
 this is an imperfect war: authorized by statute, containing both area and
use limitations (ie couldn’t do anything on land, could only use the
navy).  France & America were enemies & the degree of hostility
meant to be carried on was done so w/out declaring war  thus, have
imperfect, public war.
o It is not unconstitutional to do this:
 if the it is set out by statute, the limits are binding on the President – he is
authorized to fight the war that Congress authorized (note: this provides
rebuttal to the President claiming that Congress cant limit President b/c
he has plenary authority).
 just b/c don’t use formal declaration – view the declaration as a decision.

 Hypothetical: Should we have declared war on Al Queda?

o there may be legal consequences which flow from that which some might not
want – ie. permission to round up aliens, control production, etc.
 yet, the same might also kick in legal consequences that we would want:
ie. certain legal rights to their soldiers under the Geneva Convention.
o declaring war on a group is different than a sovereign state – how can you
identify who you are warring w/ and aim armed forces and detention
authorization against them?

Bodner 12
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o if you declare war on a state, its over when you enter into a treaty – there is an
endpoint. But, against a group – there is no one to negotiate a terminus – it ends
when the President says it ends.
o see the September 18, 2001 Authorization of Force Against Terrorism (text 263):
 it is troubling lose at the boundaries of who it is authorized against
considering the broad sweep of power.
 but, limit: have to be tied to September 11.

 Other means of authorization Congress has to authorize the use of armed forces:
o Appropriation
 problem: not necessarily clear Congressional intent – if already in
hostilities, it is unlikely that Congress will pull $ from the troops.
 problem: accountability – depending on how specific the appropriation
is, a person may not be able to tell who authorized the war.
 note: for all the options of authorization – at some point, Congress has to
appropriate money – Congress might not pull out $, but it can set a time
limit for when the money will stop (but, then the enemy knows when it
will end).
o Silence / Acquiescence
 can also have acquiescence by subsequent legislation – ie. Executive
goes to war w/ Korea and Congress votes to extend the peace time draft.
– its not directly supporting it, but it facilitates what the President has
done.
 problem: frequency of instances – acquiescence only occurs if President
does this a lot and it is hard to generalize military instances.
 problem: accountability
 problem: arithmetic: it takes fewer people to continue going to war under
the acquiescence theory (congress says no and President vetoes it) – a
larger # (majority) is needed if President has to get congressional
approval first.
o Treaty Based Wars
 if we have been attacked, we have a duty to use armed forces of our
allies.
 Senate has already approved the treaty
 under the Supremacy clause it is US law
 counterargument: the treaty is subject to constitution; house must also
OK the war (so the treaty cannot dictate domestic process for war).
Also, where would the treaty power end?
 counterargument: in declaration clause debate the framers rejected giving
the Senate the sole power to declare war  this would be contrary to
history and the conscription of the constitution.

ii. Passing the Buck: Delegating National Security and Emergency Authority
Delegations of National Security Authority:
 Lichter v. United States (US S.Ct. 1948): text 102
o PH / Facts: Several contractors challenged the constitutionality of the
Renegotiation Act. The Act authorized the gov’t to determine and recapture

Bodner 13
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 ‘excessive profits’ by private contractors. It was part of a national policy
adopted in time of crisis in the conduct of total global warfare.
o Issue: Whether the Renegotiation Act was a law “necessary and proper” for
carrying into Execution the war powers of Congress and especially its power to
support armies. Moreover, whether the Act constitutes an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power to administrative officials.
o Holding: “On the basis of (a) the nature of the particular constitutional powers
being employed, (b) the current administrative practices later incorporated into
the Act and (c) the adequacy of the statutory term ‘excessive profits’ as used in
this context, we hold that the authority granted was a lawful delegation of
administrative authority and not an unconstitutional delegation of legislative
power.”
o Authority: (1) necessary and proper clause; (2) raise and support.  almost
anything necessary to wage war successfully will be deemed necessary and
proper.
o Hypo: could the President have done the same thing Congress did here?
 necessary and proper only in Article I – re: Congress’ power
 Congress can pass in support of presidential powers, but president does
not have it alone.

 Greene v. McElroy (US S.Ct. 1959): text 106

o Issue: Whether the DOD has been authorized to create an industrial security
clearance program under which affected persons may lose their jobs and may be
restrained in following their chosen professions on the basis of fact
determinations concerning their fitness for clearance made in proceedings in
which they are denied the traditional procedural safeguards of confrontation and
cross-examination.
o Holding: In the absence of explicit authorization from either the President or
Congress the respondents were not empowered to deprive the petitioner of his
job in a proceeding in which he was not afforded the safeguards of confrontation
and cross-examination.
 Clear Statement Requirement: To authorize or ratify executive action
an appropriation must “plainly show a purpose to bestow the precise
authority which is claimed.”
o The Ct does not hold that it is unconstitutional to deny a security clearance
without confrontation and cross-examination; rather, the Court decides on the
ability to give the DOD authority:
 NSA: says nothing about security clearance
 Armed Services Procurement Act: provides limitation on contracting
power for a certain type of cost system – no limitation on the type of
security clearance program.
 this is not specific enough and if it does contemplate a security
clearance – it does not authorize this type of elaborate system.
 Implied Inferred Authority:
 appropriation: no b/c done in executive session.
o Greene cut Lichter back  if going to give such a delegation – must do so
specifically. [note: didn’t decide whether it would have been conts’l had it been

Bodner 14
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 explicitly authorized – just that first, it must be explicitly authorized – and it
wasn’t here.]

 Hypo: Can Congress delegate the war powers (ie. if national security requires?)
o Possible Sources:
 Lichter:
 constitutionally explicit about raise & support (by Congress) and
Lichter allowed it to be delegated.
 Greene:
 if has such a dramatic effect on individual rights, it must be a
clear statement.
 S.Ct. never said any power is non-delegable
 may be non-delegable b/c Congress must make the determination
of whether to go to war (constitutional convention)
 note: any situation which is so time urgent, the President can
repel an attack.

Congressional Emergency Powers

 Dames & Moore v. Regan (US S.Ct. 1981): text 115
o Facts: When American Embassy in Tehran seized, President Carter declared a
national emergency and blocked the removal or transfer of Iranian assets.
Pursuant to the EO, the Secretary of the Treasury promulgated regulations
nullifying attachments of Iranian assets, but subsequently licensed pre-judgment
attachments in judicial proceedings against Iran. The American hostages were
released pursuant to an agreement obligating the US to terminate all legal
proceedings in US cts involving claims of US national against Iran and nullify
all attachments and judgments therein.
o Issue: Whether the EO and the Treasury Dept. regulations were beyond the
statutory and constitutional powers of the Executive.
o Holding: Where the settlement of claims has been determined to be a necessary
incident to the resolution of a major foreign policy dispute between our country
and another, and where, as here, we can conclude that Congress acquiesced in
the President’s action, we are not prepared to say that the President lacks the
power to settle such claims.
o The statutes are relevant even though they don’t authorize the nullification of
claims b/c it shows that Congress has not disapproved – the President has been
settling claims for a long time and Congress has been silent. Additionally,
Congress set up a claims tribunal and left it in place to deal w/ future claims. All
this together makes a pretty good case of Congressional acquiescence in a long
standing history.
 note: the President’s power here depends on Congressional acquiescence
– not him just doing it alone.
o Emergency Power of Congress: seems only to be able to pass the buck to the
President:
 makes sense b/c Congress cant forsee
 reserve right to end emergency through appropriations power
 must have a declaration by the President of an emergency

Bodner 15
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  Dames shows that incidental to the Presidents power to recognize
foreign countries, accept ambassadors, etc.  President has an
inherent authority plus acquiescence in emergencies.

iii. Lovett or Leave It: Limitations on Congress’ National Security Authority

 Substantive Limitations on Congressional National Security Powers

 Lovett v. United States (US S.Ct. 1946): text 134
o Facts: The House Committee on Un-American Activities identified a number of
employees as affiliated w/ the Communist party and recommended that the
Appropriations Committee act to eliminate those identified from public office.
The Committee conducted hearings, found three employees guilty, and the
House voted a rider to the Wartime Urgent Deficiency Act forbidding the
executive branch from disbursing salaries to them unless they were reappointed
w/ advice of House and Senate.
o Issue: Whether the House could constitutionally pass such an appropriations
rider.(ie are there limits on Congressional appropriations power)
o limits on the President re: appropriations:
 riders
 “you can spend $ on X.” negative implication – you cant spend money
on Y.
  limits are possibly only for a year or two, when lapsed, the restriction
in (2) is gone, but it is possible that (10 does not depend on language –
ie. cant spend funds v. cant spend these funds.
o Held: The grant of any power by the Constitution is subject to the limitation that
it must not be exercised in a way that would nullify another provision of the
constitution.  here: this is a bill of attainder – so the rider invalidates a
separate constitutional prohibition.
o Jones: Concurrence:
 Congress’ appropriation power is plenary:
 does not have to have a reason to do so
 Congress’ act here is a statute
 Raven-Hansen: don’t make the mistake: an appropriation is a
statute . only difference is that appropriation will likely have
less legislative history.

 Post-Lovett Hypo: Which category of analysis is used if a rider infringes on the inherent
power of the President? [note: use bablancing b/c implied and shared authority] ie: rider
says: can’t fund weapons for Nicaragua:
o (1) President can veto, chose not to sign b/c unconst’l – this is likely not his only
weapon b/c then Congress could override w/ 2/3.
o (2) violate the rider. then a court can review if there is standing  some
Presidents say its unconstitutional when signed. consequences of violation of an
appropriations: money runs out after violating, cant raise $ b/c need an
appropriation – may be able to finagle and transfer money.
o (3) run against Congress

Bodner 16
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o (4) quid pro quo: arrange w/ a country who has the power – give that country the
money appropriated for foreign aid.

 Procedural Limitations on Congressional National Security Powers: Chadha and

the Line-Item Veto
 INS v. Chadha (US S.Ct. 1983): text 141
o legislative veto found unconstitutional b/c:
 (1) veto had effect of changing legal status of deportee
 (2) must use bicameralism and presentment to pass a law – to change
legal rights.
o Chadha and National Security:
 these legislative vetoes were used all the time – b/c it was hard for
Congress to predict events, Congress was able to delegate loosely and
hold the legislative veto on reserve to stop them.
 Example of War Powers Resolution: President can use 60 days of force
w/out authorization by Congress. Then have a legislative veto via
concurrent resolution (no presentment):
 no b/c Art I process does not differ for foreign relations and
domestic laws.
 is it changing legal rights – maybe b/c of legal domino effect.
o note: could make the argument that based on Curtiss-Wright (allowing Congress
to delegate loosely) – this must be allowed b/c Congress is incapable of
specifying standards for foreign affairs.
 a check is missing in foreign affairs b/c there is no standard to apply (no
standards set forth in the statute – b/c allow broad delegation of
authority)
 maybe the legislative veto is the substitute for this – so foreign
relations and domestic is different. the legislative veto is the
substitute for judicial review in the foreign relations arena.

 Alternative for Congress if veto is taken away:

o sunset provision: authority lapses after X years – when lapses, must go back to
Congress to get permission.
o take authority back – but need 2/3 majority b/c President will veto the new
legislation.
o report & wait provisions: can exercise, but must give notice and wait X days.
o appropriations rider: easier to get in place  less vulnerable to interpretation.

 Summary of Congress’ National Security Authority:

o Lichter: Congress has sweeping authority to delegate war powers  subject to
Constitutional limits.
o Greene: if departs from normal principles (like DP) then must say it explicitly
Appropriation: cant use $ for anything not authorized or forbidden.
o Lovett: Congress limited substantively by other constitutional provisions.
o Chadha: procedural limit. Article I process necessary for legislation – but this is
not really consistent w/ D&M (which suggest a difference b/w delegations of

Bodner 17
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 domestic power and delegations of foreign affairs and war powers – perhaps the
latter is not subject to check by the terms of the legislation)

d. The Courts’ Constitutional Authority

i. What is the (Political) Question? The Courts’ National Security Powers
 Political Question Framework:
o (1) Identify the Political Question
o (2) Is it textually committed to some other branch?
 if so – then courts can enforce it = textual concern
o (3) Are there judicially manageable standards for determining the question?
 in constitution, case law, or even common sense = competency concern
o (4) Will judicial decision cause embarrassment?
 require reversal of policies essentially irreversible – damage US foreign
policy and FA = prudential concern.

 Dellums v. Bush (DC D.Ct. 1990): text 147

o Facts: President Bush sent a great number of troops into the Persian Gulf w/out
a Congressional declaration of war under Article I. The President stated that the
objective was to provide an adequate offensive military option should that be
necessary.
o Issue: (1) Whether the determination of “war” under Article I, §8, Cl 8 is a
political question such that the judiciary may not decide it.
(2) Whether the Congressional member plaintiffs lack standing to bring this
claim.
(3) Whether the Court should dismiss the claim under the doctrine of remedial
discretion.
(4) Whether the issue is ripe for review.
o Holding: (1) Ct can and does conclude that an offensive entry into Iraq under the
conditions described could be described as “war” within the meaning of Article
I, §8, Cl 8.  it is not a political question.
(2) The plaintiffs have adequately alleged a threat of injury in fact necessary to
support standing.
(3) The court should not dismiss the claim under the doctrine of remedial
discretion.
(4) (a) Unless the Congress as a whole, or by a majority, is heard from, the
controversy here cannot be deemed ripe; it is only if the majority of the
Congress seeks relief from an infringement on its constitutional war-declaration
power that it may be entitled to receive it. (b) As of now, the Executive Branch
has not shown a commitment to a definitive course of action sufficient to
support ripeness. This issue is not ripe.
o note: the fact that this involves FA does not alone make this a political question
– w/out more that doesn’t mean this is non-justiciable (otherwise couldn’t have
decided The Prize Cases).

 Ange v. Bush (DC D.Ct. 1990): text 159

o Issue: Whether the court may determine the allocation of war powers to the
executive and legislative branches. If so, whether the issue is ripe for review.
Bodner 18
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Holding: The court finds that resolution of each of Π’s three claims challenging
the Presidents deployment orders and activities in the Persian Gulf would
require the court to impermissibly intrude into the realm of authority which the
Constitution confers on the executive and legislative branches, those three
claims will be dismissed with prejudice. Even if this case presented a
justiciable political question, it would be dismissed as not ripe for judicial
review.
o note: cf. to Dellums, the court says here that if it involves FA its not something
the court should decide (RH thinks this is wrong).
o Π’s claim here is that the decision to deploy troops violates the war powers
claue  Ct: the decision as to whether to deploy troops ≠ a judicial function.
it’s a political determination of when and why to deploy troops – judiciary has
no standard to apply.

 These two cases read together illustrate:

o PQ is very sensitive as to how you formulate the question.
 Dellums question: can cite constitution itself – have a standard –
Congress shall declare war.
 Ange question: constitution is silent – the court doesn’t have a standard.
o Are these cases taking place in a war?
 Dellums: is there a standard?
 look to scale: it’s a standard the court can apply – how large is it,
how many troops, projection of casualties, duration, etc.
 compromise: even though things may change, large scale w/ risk
of high # of potential casualties, a lot of money spent  it was
war then and it is war now  Structural allocation of that
decisionmaking ought to be embraced societally through
congressional authorization. (RH thinks Dellums and this is right
– its common sense).
 Beyond a standard – is this textually committed to one branch?
 it is not clear, so then would it be committed to the judiciary to
decide? if something is textually ambiguous it is committed to the
S.Ct. to decide WHEN its necessary to decide (brings up
ripeness).
 Embarrassment concern – have decision already been implicated
which are irreversible w/out embarrassment to country?

ii. A Standing Problem

 Basic Doctrine: Standing elements:
(1) injury in fact
(a) concrete and particularized
(b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical
(2) causal relationship b/w the injury and the challenged conduct – fairly traceable
(3) likelihood the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision.

 Ange & Standing:

Bodner 19
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Ange had been deployed – imminent threatened injury – he could get shot – he
doesn’t have to wait until that happens.
o it’s a result of an unlawful order coupled w/ disruption of life of being sent to the
Middle East.
o its enough to have standing.

 Dellums & Standing:

o if only have generalized grievance, ie. RH’s wife as a concerned mother, its not
particularized enough to be sufficient for standing.
 why? b/c their redress is political – if have generalized grievance, must
use the levers of politics to prevent war; judicial intervention is often
used for those who don’t have the #’s to access polity.
 separation of powers: constantly policing the government would allow
generalized grievances  standing = gatekeeping doctrine.
o Would Congressman Dellums have standing as a member of Congress?
 After Dellums, the S.Ct. rules that legislators may not sue in their
institutional capacity unless their votes have been “completely nullified.”
Raines v. Baird. = an extremely difficult standard.

iii. Ripeness
 The ripeness doctrine allows the judiciary to avoid present adjudication of an issue by
determining that future events may affect its shape or even its existence. The doctrine
maintains that “federal courts do not render advisory opinions. For adjudication of
constitutional issues ‘concrete legal issues, presented in actual cases, not abstractions’
are requisite.”

 Dellums & Ripeness:

o the Court found that the issue was not ripe and it would only be ripe if Congress
and the Executive had each taken action asserting constitutional authority. (ie.
Congress makes peacekeeping deal and the President is committed to immediate
military operations)
o it’s a hopeless question here b/c it would require Congress to express itself on
whether it wants to declare war – which is contrary to standing doctrine b/c
Dellums says its not a discretionary thing for Congress – President cant do it
w/out a declaration. = tension b/w justiciability and ripeness.
o also might not be ripe b/c could argue that President has not brought it to a point
where Congressional intervention is necessary.
o note: effect of concluding a case is not ripe is to leave the case on the docket.

 Ange & Ripeness:

o Πs claimed threat of harm from the Presidents threat of bypassing Congress is
too speculative: “The court cannot divine the intentions of the President where
the court does not believe that the President can even know for himself whether
he plans to go to war at all, much less whether he intends to do so with or
without Congressional consent.”

Bodner 20
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o however, b/c the court concludes first that this is non-justiciable – it leave Ange
w/out any remedy (cf. it still being on the docket in Dellums) now or in the
future.

e. Punishing Terrorists By Force

i. Vietnam – A Case Study
 The War
o While an undeclared war, Vietnam has been used as the paradigm for general,
perfect war because of its size, scale and duration.
o North Vietnam was clearly supplying the VietCong in the South; but, Johnson
had fooled Congress about the reality of the Tonkin Gulf incident [didn’t tell
them about the provocation which led up to it]. Congress was not fully aware of
the operations in Laos and Cambodia. No military internal record existed and
when the Cambodian bombing was leaked to the NY times, Nixon investigated
the leak  all of which led to Watergate, Independent counsel, etc.
 Testing the Legitimacy of the War in Court:
 Orlando v. Laird (2nd Cir. 1971): text 266
o PH / Facts: Two enlisted men received orders to transfer to Vietnam. Πs then
commenced actions seeking to enjoin the SOD and SOA from enforcing them.
The Π’s contend that the officers exceeded their constitutional authority by
ordering them to participate in a war not properly authorized by Congress.
o Issue: Whether the court may decide the sufficiency of congressional
authorization of war. Really asking whether the Vietnam war has been lawfully
authorized in accordance with the constitutional provisions?
o Holding: Beyond determining that there has been some mutual participation
between Congress and the President, which unquestionably exists here, with
action by the Congress sufficient to authorize or ratify the military action at
issue, it is clear that the constitutional propriety of the means by which Congress
has chosen to ratify and approve the protracted military operations in Southeast
Asia is a political question.  the court really does decide this case on the
merits, however, because it decides that there is a standard to decide.
o the constitutional delegation of war-declaring power to Congress contains a
standard imposing on Congress a duty of mutual participation in the prosecution
of war  this could be inferred from formal declaration or other forms.  there
is a standard to apply – so it is not non-justiciable b/c it lacks a standard for the
court to apply.
o prudential concerns? there are already a large number of troops in Vietnam as
well as a large number of troops dead – is it simply too late for the court to
intervene?
 on one hand, wanted to live up to US duties under the SEATO treaty in
order to have others in the NEATO treaty live up to their obligations.
 on the other hand, if the war is unlawful, the court has an opportunity to
stop it before more troops are killed.

 Legal Foundation for the Commitment of American Forces

o Article II
President’s Arguments:

Bodner 21
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  Commander-in-Chief: President comes close to saying that this alone
would give him the power to do this. – basically, the President controls
the war b/c he is the CIC.
 in conjunction w/ “sole organ” in FA language: sets standard as if
he deems it necessary to maintain the security and defense of the
US.
 Defensive War: defending ships in the Gulf of Tonkin and President
decides what the appropriate level of response is – authority = The Prize
Cases.
 Historic Uses of Force: Meeker (legal advisor to the Dept. of State
during Vietnam) – says there are 125 historic uses of force in an effort to
establish a pattern of usage. Under Youngstown, a steady pattern of
usage and congressional acquiescence leads to an accumulation of
precedent for the use of force.
 Take Care Clause – taking care of SEATO (see below)

Counter-Arguments:
 Defensive War: proportionality requirement is not met – domino effect
(ie. defensive action isn’t just attacking the boats, but the defense of an
ally whose defeat would lead to the domino effect and imperil the US) is
tenuous.
 Abraham Lincoln’s warning about the Mexico-American war –
allowing an invasion to repel an invasion allows the President to
make war at his pleasure.
 Time Urgency: proposal – can repel immediately, but then have to ask
for subsequent authorization.
 Usage: did Congress acquiesce with clear notice – they weren’t really
aware of what was happening. In order to have Congress acquiesce in
custom the 125 have to be consistent and many were attacks on pirates –
not really consistent w/ what was going on in Vietnam. Also, Meeker’s
historical numbers are fishy.
 Commander-in-Chief: proves too much – if President could do this –
what happened to the declaration power of Congress?

o SEATO:
Presidents Arguments:
 a treaty is the law of the US and I am charged w/ taking care of the laws
of the US.
 if triggered, a signer must act to meet the common danger in accordance
w/ constitutional process – President would argue the above
constitutional provisions is the constitutional process.
Counter Arguments:
 the treaty is a law, but that doesn’t mean that it can bypass the
declaration clause. the constitutional process is the approval of Congress
and that hasn’t occurred here.
 the treaty just applies if you are attacked – it doesn’t mean you don’t
seek authorization from Congress.

Bodner 22
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Gulf of Tonkin Resolution:
Presidents Arguments:
 The TGR gives broad discretion to the President to “prevent further
aggression” and its to prevent aggression against the people of South
Asia.
 Congress might not have had all the info, but often in the Nat’l Security
area Congress has to act w/out all of the information. Moreover,
Congress could have rescinded it. The statute says what it says – the
speculation whether Congress was or wasn’t really informed doesn’t
matter.
Counter Arguments:
 Problem: it is rather vague and ambiguous in wording and probably not
intended to give the President broad war making powers and have the
President take maximum advantage of it.
 the Resolution was to allow the President to respond to an attack on the
ships; however, none of them probably had in mind giving the President
the power to conduct an 8 year war.
 Congress didn’t really know what they were doing – kind of like a
contract procured by fraud.
 Delegation or Clear Statement Argument: cant delegate it and if can
delegate it must delegate it clearly.

o Other Statues / Law:

Presidents Arguments:
 Appropriation and Draft statutes which illustrate congressional approval.
Counter Arguments:
 Clear statement rule re: appropriations
 in this circumstance, the appropriated money was clearly given to
support war in Vietnam.
 the TGR strengthened it, but even without it, the appropriations
might be enough.

 Residual Issues:
o Scope of Initial Authority
 The President conducted the war outside of Vietnam – went into Laos
and Cambodia – what arguments are for doing so?
 its part of deterring further aggression against South Vietnam and
as such it is authorized by the TGR. And even if TGR said only
in Vietnam – as a tactical matter (CIC) this is part of the war in
South Vietnam.
o note: there is likely a political restraint on the CIC power
ie – President perhaps wouldn’t just take it nuclear on his
own.
o Area & Use Limits
 ie. Congress says you cant go into Cambodia (like did in amendment to
Defense Appropriations Act – page 277). Is such an appropriations rider
constitutional?

Bodner 23
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  argument against it: Congress is trying to share the CIC power –
under Chadha balancing test it is interfering w/ executive power
and it is a huge intrusion.
 argument for it: Congress has done it before (ie. Prize Cases –
however, there Congress did it up front; here, Congress has given
the power and now is taking it back). Here, Congress just
received the correct information – which is why they are now
taking it back.
o Ending the War:
 Can Congress decide midway through to end the war by rescinding their
authorization?
Arguments Against it:
 It is within the Presidents CIC powers to w/draw the troops – the
President always has plenary power to take actions to protect the
safety of the troops.
 Congress is unlikely to do it for obvious political reasons – it
would likely instead just say it would like the President to end the
war.
o Mansfield Amendment (see page 285): RH says its likely
unconstitutional. Moreover, its unlikely it could be
enforced it court – it gives the President the time table
discretion – it’s a PQ baby.
 The President is the sole organ in FA (Curtiss-Wright so Im right
fucker) and the end date set by Congress encroaches on that.
 The form and speed of the end is within the Presidents tactical
CIC powers.
Arguments For it:
 If Congress gives authority – it can take it back. The framing
history supports this notion – it should be easier to get out of war
then to get in it.
 As a practical matter, Congress appropriates the money, has to
consider it every two years.
 Re: form and speed  Congress is in on the beginning of the
war, it should be included in the end.
 Note: In Holtzman v. Schlesinger (2nd Cir. 1973) the court directed a cut off
date of August 15th – the President could use forces until the 15th after which an
injunction would be issued – the injunction was never issued.

o September 18th Authorization for the Use of Force in light of Vietnam Case
Study:
 § 2(a) says all necessary and appropriate force – doesn’t say military
force – so its broader than others we’ve seen.
 target: very broad – perpetrators, aided or harbored organizations/persons
in Sept. 11th. It doesn’t name a sovereign nation – virtually every other
authorization we’ve seen has targeted a sovereign state.
 theater of war = home and abroad.

Bodner 24
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  time period: doesn’t specify when over and not really an entity capable
of ending it (ie. no sovereign state).
 ponder: does it repeat the TGR mistake of being overbroad???

ii. Treaty-Based War

 War Powers Resolution
o The WPR was the congressional response to the Vietnam war. In sum, it
provides that if the President introduces troops into imminent hostilities w/out a
declaration of war: (1) must report to Congress; (2) must consult with Congress
and (3) within 60 days of reporting, the President must terminate the use of
forces.
o § 2 (c): the President cannot commit armed forces absent:
 a declaration of war
 specific statutory authorization
 an attack on US and personnel (ie. defensive war)
o § 3: if President does introduce forces into hostilities, he must consult w/
Congress first and consult w/ Congress regularly afterwards.
o § 4: Absent a declaration, when troops are increased to a certain number, or if
troops will travel through an area equipped for combat – the President must
report this to Congress.
o § 5: Within 60 days after a reported is submitted (re: introducing troops into
hostilities), the President must terminate the use of troops unless (1) Congress
has declared war or given specific authorization; (2) Congress has extended by
law the 60 days; or (3) Congress is physically unable to meet as a result of an
armed attack on the US.
 § 5 (c) also provides that notwithstanding the 60 day requirement,
Congress can by concurrent resolution order the President to remove the
troops. NOTE: this is probably unconstitutional after Chadha.
o § 8: provides a rule of construction: authority cannot be inferred from draft
statutes, appropriations, or treaties UNLESS specifically authorized: ie:
“Consistent with section 8(a)(1) of the War Powers Resolution, the Congress
declares that this section is intended to constitute specific statutory authority
within the meaning of section 5(b) of the War Powers Resolution.” (see example
in 9/18 authorization – page 262).

 The Persian Gulf War: A Case Study

o Operation Desert Shield: to enforce a UN trade embargo on Iraq, President Bush
dispatched US Air Force to Saudi Arabia on August 8, 1990, commencing what
became known as Desert Shield. Subsequently, on August 10, the President sent
a letter to Congress expressing his desire to keep Congress fully informed
consistent with the War Powers Resolution. The President cited his authority as
CIC and his authority to conduct foreign relations. In response both the House
and Senate each passed simple resolutions, not declaring war, but showing
affirmative support – neither resolution was voted on by both houses. Congress
then voted supplemental appropriations for Desert Shield which included lines
for “military personnel.”
 Did the President comply w/ the WPR?

Bodner 25
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  Under § 4(a)(2), the President placed troops in an area equipped
for combat – but didn’t really place them into hostilities – thus,
b/c not under § 4(a)(1) – consultation and 60 day clock is not
triggered.
 An argument may be made that the President did place the troops
into imminent hostilities. If imminent hostilities is a political
term, it might be up to Congress to say whether or not we are in
imminent hostilities and whether 60 day clock starts running.
This may be contrary to the intent of the WPR, however, which
wanted the trigger to be automatic.
 If the 60 day clock did start running after August 10, did
Congress’ subsequent actions satisfy the WPR?
o the simple resolutions fail on two levels: (1) the language
is not strong enough and (2) Art I is not satisfied –
bicameralism and presentment.
o supplemental appropriations: doesn’t satisfy the “major
language requirement” of the WPR: specificity and cross
reference to the WPR.  this appropriation doesn’t.
 PROBLEM: the last statute in time controls – “A dead
Congress cant tie the hands of the current Congress.”  if
it is clear that the 1990 Congress wanted to authorize war,
the fact that the 1973 Congress wanted it done in a certain
manner does not matter.  HOWEVER, this
appropriation does not clearly authorize the war.

o Operation Desert Storm: In November, the UN passed Resolution 678 which

established a deadline for Iraqi compliance with all prior resolutions, threatening
the use of “all necessary means” to enforce them thereafter. The President wrote
Congress asking for a joint resolution supporting UN Resolution 678. Congress
responded by passing Resolution 687. Four days after Congress issued the joint
resolution, President Bush reported to Congress that the UN had exhausted
diplomatic and other peaceful means of obtaining compliance by Iraq of the
UN’s resolutions. The next day the President commenced Operation Desert
Storm. A month and a half later, a cease-fire was declared and the Iraqi’s had
been expelled.
 The President did make it clear that he didn’t think he needed
Congressional authorization . . . is he right?
 UN Treaty (resolution 678): it gives permission to enforce
enforce resolution 660 using all necessary means, but it is not a
mandate – maybe not really an obligation.
 UN Charter: Article 42 authorizes the use of force, but Article 43
says it must be pursuant to a special agreement (no one has ever
entered into a special agreement).
 UN Participation Act: provides that Congress must approve the
agreement.
 In sum, if the UN wants troops, the US must make a deal w/ the UN
and Congress must approve the deal – then the President can move

Bodner 26
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 troops w/out permission. Problem – this procedure has never been
followed.
 Other Authority:
 Police Action:
o if the UN approves it – its not war – its simply a police
action.
o the problem with this is that it confuses the definition of
war that international law applies and what the
constitution would apply. For constitutional purposes,
generally if it’s a large scale action it has to come back to
Congress for declaration, if it’s a smaller scale its
probably more like a police action (not requiring
congressional approval). But, this would only work if
Congress had signed off on a UN special agreement to
begin with.
o moreover, the UN Participations Act § 287d-1 (a)(1)
provides that not more than a total of one thousand US
troops may be detailed to the UN for police action.
 Statutory Authorization:
o together, they don’t constitute what Chadha requires and
the language alone still doesn’t authorize it.
 Custom:
o Bush seemed to largely rely on custom.
o Congressional acquiescence – its unlike prior use – this is
where Congress could see it coming and didn’t act to
prohibit it.  Prior practice and failure to say no on this
occasion.
o counterargument: precedents aren’t comparable – relies
on 220 actions the bulk of which are small and have to do
with pirates. – not deployments of this size.
o what about Korea?  one incident is not enough and
distinguish Korea b/c (1) can infer authorization from
mutual participation (draft extension) and (2) the Korean
war was unconstitutional (President didn’t have the CIC
power to do it).

o Gulf War II: 2003 (we discussed this before “Operation Iraqi Freedom”
commenced).
 Did anything in the 1990 Gulf War I authorization serve as authorization
for this war?
 Arguments against it:
o The purposes behind the two wars are different: in 1991 it
was to oust Iraq from Kuwait – now the intent of the
administration is to (a) fight terrorism; (b) disarmament
and regime change.  the two purposes are very different

Bodner 27
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o 687 it said use of force was authorized for the set of
resolutions described there – not all subsequent
resolutions.
 Arguments for it:
o the language of Congress’ resolution 687 mentions UN
resolution 678 calling for a cease fire – it wasn’t done
then – so now still carrying it out.
o Iraqi’s violated the cease fire – so war has not ceased – it
is not over yet.
 New Authority:
 UN Resolution 1441:
o falls short  ¶ 12: UN convenes upon request to consider
- haven’t yet authorized the use of force.
 9/18 Authorization (2001 resolution):
o only would help if Iraq has aided or harbored perpetrators
of 9-11 – and haven’t yet made this connection yet.
 2002 Congressional Resolution:
o § 3 (a)(1): authorized to use Armed Forces to defend the
national security of US against a continuing threat posed
by Iraq  intended to authorize preventative self-defense.
– have to make sure we are in continuing hostilities – its
not just them defending themselves against our attack.
o § 3 (a)(2): use Armed Forces to enforce all relevant UN
Security Council Resolutions against Iraq [note: very
different from 1991 authorization which limited it to
specific resolutions].
o In either aspect, is this unconstitutional delegation to the
Executive?
 isn’t the minimum decision of Congress to decide
when a continuing threat reaches the point that it
justified the cost of using armed force?
 one view: this is a conditional declaration -
Congress has authorized it and it’s the Presidents
tactical decision as CIC to determine when to
carry it out.
 another view: the reason for the delegation
doctrine is to establish clear lines of
accountability, if delegate fact finding to the
President – how can congress really be held
accountable?
o  this is really precedent for the preventative use of
force.

iii. Repelling Attacks

 Imperfect War: an imperfect term for uses of lethal force which fall short of general war.
Can be subdivided into four categories:
o (1) repelling attacks

Bodner 28
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  Gulf of Sidra Incident
o (2) rescue operations
 protective interventions
 Iran hostage rescue mission
o (3) democracy interventions
 to restore democratic regime or restore winner of foreign election.
 this isn’t always the sole purpose for interventions in the name of
democracy – RH says that he hasn’t found any purely in that motive. For
example, the incident in Grenada was under the guise of ridding
Marxism – but US was truly concerned w/ it as a jet port for shipping
arms.
o (4) humanitarian ops
 disaster relief
 legally uncontroversial, but obscure statutory authority
 peace operations
 historically = peacekeeping
 now, say peacemaking – suppress and make peace (ie. Kosovo
and Bosnia).

 Gulf of Sidra Incident:

o In 1973, Libya claimed a huge portion of international waters as its territory, and
leader el-Qadhafi established a “line of death.” The United States refused to
recognize claim of territorial waters running more than 12 miles offshore. 2
Libyan fighters fired at American planes operating inside the line in 1981. In
1986, US began buildup of carrier forces in the area of the line and began
exercises, flying forces south of the line. Libyan batteries fired on US planes
inside the line. The Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs
complained to the Administration that the exercises violated the WPR by not
obtaining prior consultation from Congress. The legal advisor to the State
Department, Sofaer, replied that the decision was made that the conduct of those
operations did not place US forces into hostilities or into a situation in which
imminent involvement in hostilities was “clearly indicated by the
circumstances.” Moreover, the threat of a possible hostile response is not
sufficient to trigger the consultation requirement of WPR § 3, which refers only
to actual hostilities and situations to which imminent involvement in hostilities
is “clearly indicated” by the circumstances.
o Under what authority did the President deploy the armed forces?
 Power to repel sudden attacks:
 the naval vessel was engaged in lawful activities and was fired on
– acted to protect itself.
 real issue for repelling sudden attacks: what power can be used –
how much force?
o respond to force w/ proportional force
 The Prize Cases
 International Law analogy
 Common sense
o maybe it has to be so imminent that must shoot back or be

Bodner 29
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 killed  leaving no choice for the means – this attack
seems to fit this criteria.

iv. Anticipatory (or Preventive?) Self-Defense

 Anticipatory Self-Defense or Reprisal?: The U.S. Raid on Libya
 The Raid: On April 5, 1986 a terrorist bomb exploded in a Berlin night-club, killing a
US soldier and injuring 64 other Americans. It was linked to the Libyan People’s
Bureau. On April 14th, President Reagan issued a raid on Libya and went to Congress
hours before the attack and told them of the raid he had dispatched. US planes dropped
bombs on coastal targets and el-Qadafhi’s residential compound. In Reagan’s address,
he labeled the raid as self-defense and said that he had first tried to seek peaceful
avenues. The Legal Adviser to the Department of State, Sofaer, claimed that while the
action of US forces fell w/in the WPR consultation and reporting requirements – both
were met here when the President advised Congress before the military action occurred
and the President relied on his powers as CIC to dispatch the raid.
o Was the Raid an effort to repel an attack?
 the attack was over and no further attack was imminent
 there was a choice for deliberation thru diplomatic means
o Was the Raid a defensive war?
 Qadafhi had said that he declared war
 the President gave an order of presumptive self defense
o Was the Raid reprisal/retaliation?
 the Declaration Clause states that Congress grants letters of reprisal – not
el Presidente. – they were historically the first steps up to war.

 Responding to Acts of Imperfect War: Should the scope of the President’s power to
respond to general attack or invasion be different from the scope of his power to
respond to an act of imperfect war?
o In United States v. Smith (CCNY 1806), Judge Patterson held that the President
does not have the unilateral power to change peace into war. There is a
difference b/w changing the state of peace into a state of war and defensive
warfare. In the case of going to war, it is the exclusive province of congress to
change a state of peace into a state of war.

 Anticipatory Self-Defense:
o What is it?:
 hit first to ward off foreseeable, inevitable self-defense.
 its preventative b/c the consequences could be so dramatic have to get
them first even if it is not foreseeable.
 terrorism lends itself to this b/c there is no telling when it is coming or
how to stop it – so maybe the only response is to hit them first.
o Basis for it:
 President has to get authority unless it is part of the authority to repel
sudden attacks
 Presidential emergency authority against terrorists.
 appropriations for preventing terrorism?

Bodner 30
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 argue that it is so hard to stop terrorists b/c cant forsee the attacks
that Congress could do little more than appropriate money.
 counter-argument: Congress could authorize use of force against
terrorists and usual appropriations argument – it has to be a clear
statement.
 Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA):
 essentially just a finding – not necessarily authority
 the language says “should” – doesn’t say that he has to
 the statute essentially says don’t give $ to those who fund
terrorism.
o Standard for engaging in anticipatory self-defense:
 the whole idea is that they can and will do it – is this impossible to
measure?
 criminal standard – beyond a reasonable doubt:
 might not be the right standard
 intelligence is different from evidence – hearsay rule doesn’t
apply, no adverse testimony, decision has to be made off of raw
intelligence material – not like a criminal case.
 if President can decide on his own standard, on something less than
evidence, what couldn’t he do?
 some check of having to answer to the pubic via the media.
 some international law check.
 could limit President – ie see reporting requirement re: Kosovo
(page 411): reporting is probably ok, but a time table might
interfere w/ CIC powers. (but in Bas v. Tingy – Congress
imposed limits and created a limited war).

v. Targeted Killing (or Assassination?)

 Is Assassination forbidden?  Analysis:
o (1) International Law
 in peacetime, assassination is forbidden unless it is in self-defense.
 UN Charter generally prohibits force except in self-defense –
assassination would be a violation of this.
 in wartime, there is a prohibition against killing by treacherous means –
so there is some kind of prohibition. but, killing combatants of other
side, even in surprise ≠ assassination.
o (2) Domestic Law
 there are ordinary criminal statutes against murder; but, most criminal
statutes are not extraterritorial in application – they only apply in the US.
 DP Cl. is another limitation – FBI sniper case at Ruby Ridge – shoot to
kill rules are patently unconstitutional in a police action.
o (3) EO 12,333: prohibits assassination as a matter of national policy
 does it apply?
 b/c it has no definition of assassination – it is difficult to tell
whether the EO applies to a particular situation.
 it has its origins in criminal code – so perhaps could interpret it
the way assassination was used in the preempted statute
Bodner 31
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 [Congress proposed a bill to criminalize the assassination or
attempted assassination of “any foreign official because of such
official’s political views, actions, or statements while such
official is outside the United States.”  However, President Ford
headed off such legislation by adopting an EO, which Carter
expanded, and Reagan retained in EO 12,333].
 2 limitations to application based on preempted statute origin:
o (1) if intended only to prohibit political assassination – it
is inapplicable to targeted killing in preemptory self-
defense. [ie. if go after Bin Laden – its to prevent him
from another attack – not b/c of his political views].
o (2) the criminal statute that the EO preempted would have
been inapplicable to killings in the course of war.  if in
war, all bets are off and assassinations run wild.
 is it law?
 EO’s can have force and effect of law IF
o they are pursuant to a statute  which this is not
o if they are an exercise of the Presidents inherent authority
 which, arguably, this is.
 can the President waive it – ie. even if this is law, is it binding on the
person who promulgated it?
 The President can change it or rescind it – BUT what he cant do
is violate it and pretend at the same time that it stands in place.
 The Washington Post reports a list of 30 people to which the EO
has been waived.
 has Congress superceded it?
 The 9/18 resolution is another statute and unless the Presidents
order is plenary and beyond the control of Congress, it would
seem that Congress has explicitly stated that the President can use
all necessary force to go after terrorists.  argue that this isn’t
interfering w/ Presidential CIC power b/c Congress isn’t
mandating – the President can still decide not to do it, its just a
tool available to him.
 If assassination is legal, what would be the selection process / decision making process?
o there is no legal guidance on it
o DP might be pertinent if the target it a US citizen, but if not a US citizen, then its
whatever decision making process is morally required and efficient.
o if the purpose of the EO wasn’t to absolutely prohibit assassination, but make
sure that the President made the decision – then the decision making process
must of necessity include the President or his delegate.

 If the EO is read to permit assassination abroad, what ramifications does it have at

home?
o still left w/ a number of domestic authorities that would be hard to overcome by
the EO:
 criminal law: doesn’t make generic exceptions for the government
 NSA: prohibits CIA from engaging in law enforcement functions

Bodner 32
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  DP Cl – what slides internationally – doesn’t necessarily slide
domestically  DP: any PERSON entitled to DP.

 Assassination “Hypo’s”: Would these violate EO 12,333?

o el-Qadahfi:
 no:
 going for command and control reasons
 Lybia declared war against us – if read into the EO that war or
introduced forces must be present via the WPR.
 yes:
 hit the compound only to kill el-Qadahfi
 even if the EO prohibition does not apply, is there still authorization for
it?  it leaves it up to the President to decide whether to assassinate him.
the real issue regarding applicability is whether or not we are at war w/
Lybia.
o Saddam in 2003? – no b/c Congress has authorized war against Saddam.
Saddams family?  probably not ok under the EO.
o Noriega:
 CIA was helping plot coup – plotters raised issue of whether could
assassinate Noriega.
 problem is that the CIA was just talking here – but, EO § 2.12 includes
indirect participation.  US could be said to be participating.
 Noriega captured by coup – then they killed him. CIA says they had
w/drawn from full participation in the coup.
o Bin Laden:
 post-2001 – have the Congressional authorization
 pre-2001 – possibly a form of anticipatory self-defense, he had already
bombed the military and said he was going to kill US citizens again.
moreover, the fact that he is not the head of any state makes a better case
for assassination b/c it supports the fact that the US doesn’t want to kill
him b/c of his political views.
o US Citizen in Yemen:
 the Constitution reaches abroad to protect US citizens abroad – one of
the core constitutional rights is DP.
 counterargument – DP doesn’t apply in time of war.

f. The Authority of International Law in Our Law

i. Incorporating International Agreements
 Caselaw:

Making and Terminating Treaties:

Goldwater v. Carter (DC Cir. 1979): text 194
o PH/ Facts: Carter announced the termination of the U.S. Mutual Defense Treaty
w/ Taiwan. Members of Congress filed suit for declaratory and injunctive relief
to prevent the treaty termination w/out senatorial or congressional consent. The
D.Ct. found for Π’s and the Administration appealed.

Bodner 33
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Issue: Whether 2/3 Congressional confirmation is necessary for the President to
terminate a treaty.
o Holding: The President does not need Congressional confirmation to terminate
this treaty (the opinion passed where the factors present here are lacking).
Treaty termination is a political act, but political acts are not customarily taken
without political support. Even if formal advice and consent is not
constitutionally required as a prerequisite to termination, it might be sought.

Executive and Other Agreements

Dames & Moore v. Regan (US S.Ct. 1981): text 211 & 115
o Facts: When American Embassy in Tehran seized, President Carter acting
pursuant to IEEPA, declared a national emergency and blocked the removal or
transfer of Iranian assets. Pursuant to the EO, the Secretary of the Treasury
promulgated regulations nullifying attachments of Iranian assets, but
subsequently licensed pre-judgment attachments in judicial proceedings against
Iran. The American hostages were released pursuant to an agreement obligating
the US to terminate all legal proceedings in US cts involving claims of US
national against Iran and nullify all attachments and judgments therein.
o Issue: Whether the EO and the Treasury Dept. regulations were beyond the
statutory and constitutional powers of the Executive.
o Holding: Where the settlement of claims has been determined to be a necessary
incident to the resolution of a major foreign policy dispute between our country
and another, and where, as here, we can conclude that Congress acquiesced in
the President’s action, we are not prepared to say that the President lacks the
power to settle such claims.

The Domestic Legal Effect of Treaties and Agreements

Reid v. Covert (US S.Ct. 1957): text 215
o PH/ Facts: Mrs. Covert killed her husband on an airbase in England. Pursuant to
a “status-of-forces” executive agreement w/ that country, she was tried and
convicted by US court-martial w/out a jury trial under the UCMJ. She petitions
writ of habeus corpus on the grounds that the conviction violated her 5th & 6th
Amendment rights to be tried by a jury after indictment by a grand jury.
o Issue: Whether the executive agreement is restrained by constitutional
limitations.
o Holding: The Constitution in its entirety applies to the trials. Since their court-
martial did not meet the requirements of Art. III §2 or the 5th and 6th
Amendments we are compelled to determine if there is anything within the
Constitution which authorizes the military trial of dependents accompanying the
armed forces overseas. No agreement with a foreign nation can confer power on
the Congress, or on any other branch of Government, which is free from the
restraints of the Constitution.

Committee of U.S. Citizens Living in Nicaragua v. Reagan (DC Cir. 1988): text 218
o Procedural History: 1986, the ICJ held that US financial support of paramilitary
activities by the Contras against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua
violated both a treaty b/w the countries and customary international law. But,
Bodner 34
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 the US w/drew from the ICJ’s jurisdiction b/f the ct’s decision. Π seeks
injunctive and declaratory relief. The D.Ct. dismissed the complaint on political
question grounds. Π appeals here.
o Issue: Whether alleged violations of the UN Article 94 can be remedied by an
American court or whether they can only be redressed on an international level.
In short, do violations of international law have domestic legal consequences?
o Holding: Treaty obligations may be overridden by subsequent inconsistent
statute, therefore, cant say as a matter of domestic law that congressional
enactments violate prior treaties. [note: not saying whether US has upheld its
treaty as a matter of international law].

 Exercise I (see handout):

o Analytical Framework:
 (1) Does the treaty prohibit forcible abduction from a sovereign state?
(ie. would the abduction of a terrorist be a violation of international
law?)
 (2) Despite the treaties plain words, can the President interpret it not to
apply?
 (3) Can a terrorist invoke the treaty to dismiss his indictment?
 (4) Suppose the treaty is applicable, what is the effect of the domestic
statutes?
o (1): is this a violation of international law?
 UN Charter / Treaty:
 this could be a threat against territorial integrity because would
have to go abroad to abduct the terrorist – just b/c you breach the
territorial integrity to accomplish another purpose (ie abduct the
terrorist) – you still breach the territorial integrity.
 one of the purposes of the Charter is to protect human rights, this
would be a violation of that and as such violates the treaty which
says members shall refrain from acting in a manner inconsistent
with the purpose of the UN.
 UN Article 51 – have to use the UN before resort to self-help 
= exhaustion requirement.
 this is pretty clearly a violation of international law.
o (2): Can the President interpret the treaty not to apply?
 for example, can the President argue that the provision only prohibits the
use of military force, but not police force – so we aren’t violating the
treaty?
 the Senate understood the treaty to mean that nay forcible trespass
against the territorial integrity of a state by persons acting on behalf of a
foreign government would violate this article. In the absence of
additional testimony regarding what was said to the Committee, have to
go w/ what Senate said it understood at the time.
 What if Executive claims he has secret info which is part of the treaty?
The Senate never consented to a secret record, the treaty only becomes
law when the President gets a supermajority from the Senate – so advice
and consent does not cover the secret record. The part not revealed to

Bodner 35
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 them cannot be used for purposes of interpreting the treaty for domestic
law.
 note: the US has a dualistic system – we could be in breach
internationally, but be ok domestically.
 The fact that the President cant reinterpret the treaty not to apply does
not mean that the President cannot terminate the treaty. The President
has the power as Chief Executive under a number of circumstances to
exercise functions regarding treaties which have the effect of either
terminating or continuing their vitality. Prominent among these is the
Presidents authority to unilaterally terminate a treaty if:
 (1) to determine whether a treaty has been terminated b/c of a
breach
 (2) to determine whether a treaty is at an end due to changed
circumstances – circumstances on which the treaty was
predicated have changed.
o ie. complete regime change
 if a treaty says if X happens the President can terminate the treaty
and X happens.
o (3) Can terrorists invoke the treaty to dismiss his indictment?
 the terrorist can only invoke the treaty if it is self-executing  its
another way of saying that the courts can enforce them w/out more if
someone w/ standing brings it to attention – a terrorist might have
standing.
 if it is not self-executing, then Congress has to do a further act
implementing the treaty as US law, until then, private parties don’t have
any right to enforce it.
 factors indicating whether a treaty is self-executing:
 In Committee of US Citizens Living in Nicaragua v. Regan, the
court held that “in determining whether a treaty is self-executing”
in the sense of its creating private enforcement rights, “courts
look to the intent of the signatory parties as manifested by the
language of the instrument.”
 RH added:
o if the treaty contemplates undertakings b/w just nations or
confers it upon private individuals as well.
o if the treaty has mandatory language.
o whether there are alternative mechanisms for enforcement
besides judicial enforcement (ie. NATO)  seems to
confer individualized enforcement.
 most treaties are viewed as non-self executing – including this one.
o (4) If the treaty does apply, what is the effect of the domestic statutes?
 there is no express language in the statutes which says you can do
extraterritorial arrests.
 there is arrest authority for reasonable grounds to believe a felony has
been committed; but, normally domestic statutes do not apply
extraterritorially. Could argue that b/c federal domestic law makes

Bodner 36
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 terrorism a felony, which is peculiarly international, it meant for the
statute to apply extraterritorially.
 if it were the last in time, it would supercede – but it was enacted in 1928
(just last time it was codified was 2000) – so it wouldn’t be the last in
time.
 however, assuming it is the last in time, we should still read the
statue not to violate existing international law (the Betsy
Charming Rule)  so here, where the statute is ambiguous as to
whether it applies extraterritorially and to these activities, avoid
reading it to violate the UN Charter.
 What if instead of statute, we had an Executive Agreement dealing w/
arrest:
 While the case law suggests that congressional-executive
agreements and agreements made pursuant to treaty have the
same legal effect as constitutional treaties, it is unclear about the
effect of sole executive agreements on prior statutory or treaty
law. Is it “Curtiss-Wright so I’m right?”
o It may depend on what kind of executive agreement:
 ie. Congressional executive agreement vs. sole
executive agreement v. treaty agreement.

ii. Incorporating Customary International Law and Jus Cogens

 Caselaw:

The Domestic Effect of Customary International Law and Jus Cogens

Committee of US Citizens Living in Nicaragua v. Reagan (DC Cir. 1988): text 226
o Subsequently enacted statutes preempt existing principles of customary
international law. Statutes inconsistent w/ principles of customary international
law may well lead to international law violations. But within the domestic legal
realm, that inconsistent statute simply modifies or supercedes customary
international law to the extent of the inconsistency.
 if no legislative act then have to resort to customs of international law, but if
there is subsequent domestic legislation then it overrides customary international
law.
 therefore, claim that this is a violation of customary international law fails.
o Jus Cogens:
 jus cogens: peremptory norm, a recognition by the international
community as a whole that this is a norm from which no derogation is
permitted. examples: the UN Charter principles prohibiting the use of
force; fundamental human rights law that prohibits genocide, slavery,
murder, torture, prolonged arbitrary detention and racial discrimination.
 fewer than 1/3 of the UNs member nations have field unilateral
declarations consenting to compulsory jurisdiction, and many have
imposed significant reservations on the scope of their consent.
 ICJ judgments do not meet the definition of jus cogens  thus, they
do not restrain our government in the same way that the Constitution
restrains it.
 note: jus cogens may have the domestic legal effect that restrain the
Bodner 37
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 gov’t in the same way as the const’n restrains it.

Garcia-Mir v. Meese (11th Cir. 1986): text 231

o Procedural History: Refugees brought a class action suit claiming that their
detention violated customary international law.
o Facts: In 1985, Cuba permitted a massive “boatlift” of refugees to come to US,
including many who had been convicted of crimes in Cuba (First Group). The
Administration detained these refugees b/f deporting them w/out giving them
individual hearings.
o Issue: Whether the United States actions violated international law.
o Holding: The United States has not violated the international law because
international law is not controlling in these circumstances. As to the first group,
there is sufficiently express evidence of congressional intent as to interdict the
application of international law. As to the second group, the executive acts
evident constitute a sufficient basis for affirming the trial court’s finding that
international law does not control. Moreover, there is a controlling judicial
decision which overrides the international law.

 Exercise II (see handout):

o Analytical Framework:
 (1) What is customary international law?
 (2) If there is a custom, what role does it play in our law?
 (3) If it is CL, can Congress supercede it?
 (4) Can a court supercede customary international law, because its part of
the CL?
 (5) Could the President just order the director the FBI to do this?
 (6) Which executive acts are viewed as controlling?

o (1) What is customary international law?

 a widely shared practice and those doing it consciously and deliberately
pursue it as lawful right/obligation of the countries who pursue it.
o (2) If there is a custom, what role does it play in our law?
 customary international law requires consistent denial by a state in order
for that state not to be bound by it; a state cannot just decide don’t want
to follow it in one instance.
 in the Supremacy Clause of the constitution, it doesn’t say that
customary international law is part of the “laws of the US.” One view is
that “laws of the US” means not only statutes, but also certain judge
made federal CL and other federal CL which is not judge made – but
customary international law. Customary international law is brought into
domestic law b/c its included in the CL. [note: this is controversial]
o (3) If it is CL, can Congress supercede it?
 the rule is that Congress, by statute, can supercede it unless its jus cogens
– it has to be done explicitly.
 possible argument that b/c customary international law is state made law
(not judge made law) maybe the Congress can supercede it. – but that
aint the rule.

Bodner 38
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o (4) Can a court supercede customary international law, because its part of the
CL?
 yes, courts change it all the time; But public international law is
controlling only “where there is no treaty and no controlling executive
or legislative act or judicial decision.”(Garcia-Mir quoting from
Paquette Habana). This suggests that if had any of those, could
supercede customary international law.
o (5) Could the President just order the director of the FBI to do this?
 Curtiss-Wright – “sole organ” – President makes the decision to start
changing customary international law.
 counter-argument: just b/c we can change customary international law –
that doesn’t mean the President can do it  but, likely we want it to be
kept quiet so President would be more discrete.
o (6) Which executive acts are viewed as controlling?
 The most controversial implication of the Paquette Habana dictum is
that a controlling executive act may override customary international
law. It likely has to be performed by the President himself or his
immediate alter ego cabinet level official.  so, FBI director probably
wouldn’t be an executive act as controlling on his own.
o (7) If this is jus cogens, and it doesn’t have the stature of a constitutional
provision, how might it still enter into the analysis of deciding domestic legality
of this action?
 4th A. search and seizure  possibly
 5th A. DP: b/c it says any PERSON – its substantive DP used in US
courts to go after abusive police behavior. Conduct which shocks the
conscience violates the 5th A. If it shocks the conscience because its just
cogens, it is an illustration that the rest of the world would be shocked
by it.  use the jus cogens definitions to define the behavior which
shocks the conscience for substantive DP analysis.
 problem w/ it: Scalia DP: has to be deeply rooted w/in the
states history / tradition – process is due which as always
been given (Bowers v. Hardwick style). What US society
thinks is due – not the international world. Jus cogens is the
view of 190 foreign countries most of which do not have
representative democracy – who cares what they think?
 note: Nicaragua v. Regan illustrates the DC Cir. might
be more hospitable to using jus cogens than Scalia
would be.

II. Intelligence Operations

a. Intelligence Ops: An Historical Oversight by Congress
 Intelligence Community Range of Activities:
o intelligence collection
 spies, assets abroad
 signals intelligence – NSA  electronic intercepts
 National Recognizance Office = overhead photos by satellite
o propaganda and political actions
Bodner 39
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  plant misinformation  problem w/ blowback to the US
o paramilitary actions
 economic warfare
 sabotage
 subversion – provide assistance to indigenous groups
 Intelligence is controversial because:
o it involves the use of military force which constitutionally may require
congressional approval. (see marque and reprisal cl.)
o plausible deniability  US can claim not to be responsible in covert actions
o presents a moral issue as a policy matter: the US is engaged in conduct we typically
find morally reprehensible.

 Exercise: Intelligence Operation in Iraq (text 417): provide a legal opinion concerning the
legality under domestic law of proposed U.S. financial support for a coup in Iraq to
overthrow President Saddam Hussein.
o President: would argue that he has the authority for this as part of his FA power
rather than CIC in order to avoid any necessity of congressional approval under the
WPR. Would rely on Curtiss-Wright and the tradition of diplomatic actions done
under the rubric of FA, and, thus, at the discretion of the President.
o Congress: would argue that this is an exercise of war b/c using military force which
comes under the congressional Marque and Reprisal powers as well as the WPR.
Moreover, Congress has to appropriate money for it.
 Secrecy Problems:
o President: Under Curtiss-Wright, he has the capacity and necessity to conduct things
secretly – including intelligence collection. Such secrecy may extend to keeping
these things from Congress.
o Congress: the State of the Union presumes Congress will get information when it
needs it and it is a necessary predicate for congress to legislate, and appropriate
money. Unlike the President, Congress does have the authority to keep secrets
(secret journal clause); thus, this would allow Congress to take secret information
from the President.
 Custom:
o President: I’ve been doing this for a long time and you have known about it.
o Congress: (1) practice is varied and not necessarily adequate precedent (often cited
examples include “ceremonial occasions” in which special agents have spoke for the
President personally); (2) how could we have acquiesced in what we don’t know (in
the 1950’s there was almost no congressional oversight of the rash of such
intelligence).
 Would the coup violate the Neutrality Act?
o there is a question as to whether it applies to government agents as well as private
persons  case law splits on the issue.
o it has to be against a country w/ which we are at peace.
o moreover, the 1947 NSA was enacted subsequent to the Neutrality Act  last in
time baby.

 National Security Act of 1947

o prior to 1947:
Bodner 40
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 the intelligence branch was either incident to the military or in the Office of
Strategic Services – running it under the declaration of war.
 the war is over, but should Truman keep intelligence communications?
There really isn’t any authority to do this as en executive project, so Truman
was advised to get a statute.
o NSA 1947 created two “agencies”:
 (1) CIA:
 § 3(d): collets intelligence through human sources, but the DCI ≠
have police power.
 § 7: protect intelligence sources & methods from unauthorized
disclosure = classified information.
 (d)(5):  the fifth function 
 (2) Director of Central Intelligence: coordinator of intelligence community,
doesn’t simply run the CIA, he has his own staff which is not coterminous
with the CIA staff.
o Does the 5th function authorize the coup of Saddam discussed above?
 the fifth function still has the limitation that the other functions have to be
related to intelligence.
 counter-argument that this isn’t a limitation and it does authorize the coup?
 have to use the ambiguous language of “functions and duties”
because cant go on the record as authorizing things such as murder.
 other requirement: the President or NSC has to direct it – highest ranking
group of advisors in FA.

 United States v. Lopez-Lima (S.D.FL 1990): text 437

o PH / Facts: Lopez-Lima seized an aircraft at gunpoint in FL and flew it to Cuba. He
was indicted w/ aircraft piracy. His defense to the charge is that the hijacking was
authorized by the CIA as part of its activities to destabilize the communist regime of
Fidel Castro.
o Issue: Whether Lopez-Lima has a legally cognizable defense based on classified
information, so as to make that information relevant at trial.
o Holding: To establish a public authority affirmative defense, the defense must show
that the governmental entity involve had the real authority to sanction conduct that
would violate the laws under which the defendant is charged; and that the defendant
acted in reasonable reliance on an actual US government agent.
 in short, have to show that the CIA had real authorization and you relied on
that real authorization.
o How could Lopez-Lima prove this defense?
 Δ may have a constitutional right to classified information which would
show that he relied on an actual US government agent.
 but, the DCI is charged w/ protecting sources and methods
 court says he is entitled to have access to it and introduce it to a jury
o In 1965, the CIA did have the authority to hijack the airplane:
 5th Function = statute which authorized a number of NSC Directives
(specifically 5412-1 = broad list of covert activities covering this activity) 
court says it was authority for a covert operation.

Bodner 41
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  EO 12,333 was in response to the CIA violating US laws (like in this case) –
however, it was enacted in 1981 and this is 1964. Basically, up until 1981,
the CIA has the authority to do anything.

 Disruption of Domestic Groups

 Halkin v. Helms (DC Cir. 1982): text 449
o Facts/PH: Πs were involved in various activities seeking to protest and secure an
end to the involvement of hte US in Vietnam. They filed suit after disclosures by
teh press which revealed that the FBI and CIA had conducted intelligence operations
that resulted in teh surveillance of US citizens who opposed the war to Vietnam.
The operations included intelligence gathering activities both within and without the
US. The Πs claim that their constitutional rights and the 1947 NSA is violated
because the government is conducting internal security and seek production of
documents concerning their claims.
o The court incites the CIA’s statutory authority to protect secrets under their “sources
and material” protection. Thus, leaving Πs claim unresolved and their recourse is
political – go to Congress.
o What if the court had reached the merits? Argue that they were conducting
incidental domestic activity for legitimate foreign intelligence  its another
increment up from Lopez-Lima – the loophole was opened and it is expanded here.
RH thinks that the Πs would have lost on the merits b/c the activities described here
are quintessential FBI activities.

b. Undercutting Oversight: The Iran Contra Affair

Congressional Oversight Reforms:
 The Hughes-Ryan Amendment:
o the Hughes-Ryan Amendment impliedly authorized intelligence operations,
including covert ops. While it assumes such operations will take place, it requires
the President to make a finding that they are important to national security and to
report this to Congress (although doesn’t necessarily say it requires Congressional
approval).
o the teeth of the Amendment is the funding limitation placed on intelligence activities
– it is impossible to spend money on the activities unless it is authorized.
o the requirement of a Presidential finding limits internal plausible deniability. The
finding limitation appears to require a finding before the President engages in such
activities – therefore, retroactive findings are not allowed. While the Amendment
does not explicitly require the finding to be in a certain form, the fact that it must be
reported to Congress generally implies that the report will be in writing.
o the effect and purpose of the of the Amendment:
 finding requirement: Ensures a more disciplined decision making process,
requires it to be down on paper.
 reporting requirement: it specifies certain committees because it is supposed
to be covert operations; but, if you add it up, it turns out to be 163
senators/representatives on 8 committees.  seems to be a mistake b/c it
cant be secure to report to that many people. have to report in a timely
fashion – it isn’t clear whether that means before or after the President takes

Bodner 42
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 action – remember, it just says report to Congress, not that Congress has to
approve the action.

 The Church Committee and a Proposed Charter: In 1975, the Senate created a
committee to study governmental operations, known as the Church Committee after its
chair. The committee was charged to determine “the extent, if any, to which illegal,
improper, or unethical activities were engaged in by the intelligence activities.” Eventually,
the committee proposed a new act to replace the NSA with more specific lines of
responsibility and limits of authority. The Charter/Act was never adopted, and the
Intelligence Oversight Act represents what the Senate Intelligence Committee was able to
salvage of its proposed charter.

 Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980:

o The IO Act eliminated the Hughes-Ryan reporting requirement of “and reports, in a
timely fashion” and inserted the following sentence into subsection (a): “Each such
operation shall be considered a significant anticipated intelligence activity for the
purpose of section 501 of the National Security Act of 1947.”
o The three main requirements under the IO are:
 (1) keep the Intelligence Committee fully informed of al intelligence
activities including any significant anticipated intelligence activity.
 this could mean provide prior notice b/c there is a special provision
providing what to do in the case of inability to provide prior notice.
 it could mean don’t have to give prior notice – the preamble gives a
nod that the constitution may require w/holding prior notice as an
inherent constitutional authority of the President.
 or it could mean that no notice at all must be given in extreme
circumstances – b/c it contemplates situations where no notice is
given.
 its very ambigous
 (2) furnish information to the Committee when it is requested.
 (3) report any illegal intelligence activity to the Committee.

Executive Branch Reforms:

 Executive Order 12,333:
o (1) the EO divided labor for intelligence operations
 the CIA conducts special activities and not one else (including NSC) w/out
special authorization of the President (see ¶1.8 (e)). There doesn’t seem to
be any other meaningful review of the Presidents decision.
 the director of the CIA is in charge of implementation
o (2) The Administration determination covert operations by the following standards:
 ¶ 2.11: Prohibits assassination – but it can be waived and anticipatory self-
defense might be ok.
 ¶ 2.8: the statutes of the US provide an additional standard b/c it must be
consistent with other laws of the US [note: it doesn’t say consistent w/
international law at all]
 ¶ 3.4 (h): Defines special activities  has to be consistent w/ national
foreign policy objectives, plausible deniability is intended, but cannot have
any blowback  cant try to influence US public opinion.
Bodner 43
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o (3) Form of reporting covert actions:
 EO ¶ 1.2 (b) – give all policy decisions including dissents to the President.
 National Security Directive 159 requires it to be in writing
 EO: picks up Intelligence Oversight Act at ¶ 3.1 – so it must be consistent w/
that.

 The Reforms Tested: A Case Study of the Iran-Contra Affair:

On November 3, 1986 a Beirut newspaper reported that the US has secretly sold arms to
Iran. Reports soon followed that linked the arms sales to a desire to gain the release of
American hostages in Lebanon. The Administration had been approached by Israel with the
proposal that if the US was willing to sell it anti-missile tanks, Iran would use its good
offices to lean on Lebanon to release hostages. Israel would give the tanks to Iran, Iran
would pay Israel, and the US would replace Israels arms and get the money. After a DOJ
investigation, it was revealed that some proceeds from the arms sales to Iran had been
diverted to the administration-supported Contras fighting the Sandanista government of
Nicaragua, at a time when US military aid to the Contras had been prohibited by Congress.

Authority for the arms deal:

o (1) FR power via Cutiss-Wright
o (2) Hostage Act – massive delegation cited in Dames & Moore v. Regan. 2 problems
with using this:
 (1) policy problem: as a pre-condition to the President using this authority,
he must report to Congress. possible loophole – it says report “as soon as
practicable.”
 (2) legal problem: (a) it is not a good fit if the hostages are not held by a
foreign government – b/c here they are held by terrorists; (b) it does not
apply b/c they aren’t being held despite the fact that they are American –
they are being held because they are Americans  at least as it was
interpreted in D& M – but RH thinks this is incorrect interpretation.
 the Hostage Act is likely not to apply
o (3) Version of self-defense authority. Durand v. Hollins (SDNY 1860) stands for the
proposition that the President has the discretion to take whatever steps may be
necessary, short of a full scale war, to protect American Citizens. Neagle illustrated
an inherent authority of the government to protect itself – the hostages are members
of the US embassy staff. Also argue that the President has the power to rescue
Americans when being held abroad.
 problem: Neagle and Durand are talking about the authority of the President
in absence of congressional legislation – under these circumstances, the
Hostage Act occupies the field.
 alternative: the Arms Export Control Act (AECA) deals point blank with the
sale of arms to any state on the State Department Terrorist Watch List and
Iran was on that list. Congress never permitted the President to transfer arms
to allies (ie Israel) to states on the list. While the President can waive
restriction if necessary for national security, he still have to report it – and he
did not report the sales to Congress.

If the President didn’t want Congress to know, what other authority did he have?

Bodner 44
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o The President could attempt to avoid the AECA by using the Fifth Function of the
NSA – the sales were made as a covert action and thus do not fall under the AECA.
It would still fall under the Intelligence Oversight Act (which includes the Hughes-
Ryan Amendment), however, and thus the President is still required to report it to
Congress. If under the IOA, the President has to:
 make a written finding:
 the President didn’t make a finding initially, but after the second sale
in 1985, he made a finding. The “finding”, however, was oral and it
came after had already taken the action.
 in 1986, the President made another finding, but he omitted any
reference to the arms-hostage situation.
 division of labor for implementation:
 the CIA is required to conduct such activities; however, in this
situation the NSC directed and conducted the operations vis a vis
Ollie North and Poindexter. While this is not very consistent w/ the
NSA, it is not necessarily a violation because the CIA is to conduct it
unless the President directs someone else to do it.
 reporting requirement:
 report in a timely fashion (limit it to gang of eight or not report at all
b/c the extraordinary circumstances excuse notice?  statute is
ambig.)
 what would be the extraordinary circumstances?
o is the risk that Congress will disapprove and thus jeopardize
the operation enough to establish extraordinary care?
 this is probably the least solid ground for not
informing them. should have to report unless its on
the inherent executive power of the President.
o Congressional policy to disapprove this would be based on
theory that it would encourage taking of hostages and policy
was not to negotiate with terrorists.

c. Following the Money

 Covert Support for the Contras and the Boland Amendments:
In 1981, President Reagan signed a funding that authorized the CIA to support and
conduct paramilitary operations against the Cuban presence and the Cuban Sandanista
support infrastructure in Nicaragua and elsewhere in Central America. Beginning in
1982, Congress enacted a series of measures, dubbed Boland Amendments, designed to
limit that assistance. The most restrictive of the Contra aid measures is referred to as
Boland II. Boland II presents three discrete problems of interpretation:
o (1) whether the language “any other agency or entity” covers only agencies
traditionally involved in intelligence operations, or does it also apply to any
entity that is actually so involved?
 argue that Congress was trying to establish a restriction on the funding of
the Contras and therefore created a catchall phrase (instead of listing all

Bodner 45
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 of the agencies) which would include agencies such as the NSC which
diverted funds to the Contras. [RH thinks it does include agencies such
as the NSC].
o (2) does “involved” encompass indirect support?
 arguably, it does include indirect support. The legislation is a response
by Congress to perceived end runs around Congress by the
Administration. If it didn’t include indirect support the intent of the
legislation would be frustrated.
o (3) does the phrase “no funds available” apply only to the then-current DOD
appropriation or to all government funds?
 part of a budget consists of contingency funds (for which there is no line
item appropriation)  Congress didn’t want them to use contingency
funds for this action.
 but, could they use private weapons manufacturers dealing directly w/
Iran?
 by soliciting contributions from the US,
via photo ops w/ the President for example, and then making a
cash contribution to the Contras?  The Miscellaneous Receipts
Act provides that the money has to go to the US treasury if there
is not a statute directing it elsewhere. The money only comes out
of the treasury if it has been appropriated. No statute authorizing
the money to go any where else here. The Anti-Deficiency Act
makes it a crime to authorize an expenditure without an
appropriation.
 by inducing the contribution by quid pro
quo (giving them a tax break or assistance?): It would still fall
within the “indirect funds” language. Moreover, Congress
enacted the Pell Amendment (text 501) to prohibit quid pro quo.
It is hard to enforce a quid pro quo, however, because have to
allow the President certain FA latitude in communicating and
making foreign policy with the countries.
 could Ollie North do this privately?
 Under the Neutrality Act it would still fit fundraising to support
paramilitary support of Nicaragua.

 The Constitutionality of the Boland Amendment:

o Is Congress empowered to restrain the President in this manner? Two constitutional
conflicts must be considered. First, may Congress prohibit the President from
soliciting private and third-country funds in furtherance of his foreign policy
objectives? Second, may Congress exercise its appropriations power to supervise
the President’s conduct of the nation’s foreign policy?
 Majority of Congressional Committees respond to those constitutional
questions in the following way: “The Administration’s activities in support
of the Contras were conduced in direct contravention of the will of
Congress. It follows, then, that the President’s constitutional authority to
conduct those activities was at its lowest ebb.”

Bodner 46
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Others argue that the Boland Amendments were unconstitutional because they
usurped the power of President Reagan to fashion a response to the multiple
violations of international law perpetrated by the Sandanistas. The counterargument
is that Boland is implementing international law by defining offenses. The
President must uphold the international law in absence of a controlling legislative
act – Boland Amendments are arguably a controlling legislative act.

The Neutrality Act

 United States v. Terrell (SDFL 1989): text 512
o Terrell and others were charged with conspiracy in violation of the Neutrality Act
because they allegedly provided weapons to the Contras. Defendants asserted that
the US was not “at peace” with the nations involved in these conflicts and as such
they didn’t violate the Neutrality Act.
o The government conceded that it would be inaccurate to say that the only time the
United States is not “at peace” is when Congress has formally declared war. The
court found that the facts of the case do not support a finding of “at peace” between
the US and Nicaragua during the time in question. Because they were not “at
peace,” the court dismissed the case against defendants.

d. Contemporary Intelligence Oversight

 Intelligence Authorization Act (1991):
In response to the Iran-Contra affair, the House and Senate Intelligence Committees
introduced several bills seeking generally to strengthen the oversight process.
Congressional advocates of oversight reform differed sharply with the administration
officials concerning the timing of notification and congressional leaders of a
presidential finding authorizing a covert action. Instead of the “in a timely fashion”
language first incorporated into the Hughes-Ryan Amendment, the congressional
reformers wanted presidential notification within 48 hours of a finding. A major
intelligence oversight reform bill, without the 48-hour notice requirement, was passed
by both houses of Congress in 1990. But the President vetoed it. In 1991, the bill was
revised, and after repealing the Hughes-Ryan Amendment, they substituted the
Intelligence Authorization Act for the Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980.

 Budget Oversight of Intelligence

 Richardson v. United States (3rd cir. 1972): text 532
o Taxpayer sought information concerning detailed expenditures of the CIA. He was
provided some information, but in accordance with the CIA Act, which permits the
Agency to account for its expenditures “solely on the certificate of the Director,” the
Combined Statement did not provide information on the budget of the CIA. The
taxpayer sued claiming that the provision violates the Statement and Account Clause
of Art. I § 9 cl. 7.
o The majority didn’t decide on the merits, but held that he had standing.
o The S.Ct. subsequently reversed and found that Richardson lacked standing as a
citizen because his grievance was “generalized” and “common to all members of the
public,” while his claim as a taxpayer failed because there was no challenge to an
enactment under the Taxing and Spending Clause and no claim based on a “specific
constitutional limitation” on the taxing and spending power.

Bodner 47
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
III. Fighting Terrorists and Other Transnational Criminals
a. Crisis Management: Detecting and Interdicting Terrorism and Transnational
Crime
i. Sleuthing at Home: The Fourth Amendment Framework (and its National Security
Exceptions?)
 Terrorism:
o A federal statute provides international terrorism as activities that –
(A) involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that are a violation
of the criminal laws of the United States or of any States, or that would
be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United
States or of any State;
(B) appear to be intended –
i. to intimidate or coerce a civilian population;
ii. to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion;
or
iii. to affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping;
and
(C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States, or
transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are
accomplished, the persons they appear to intend to coerce or intimidate,
or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum.
o The USA PATRIOT ACT, passed in response to the September 11 attacks,
borrows the above definition of “international terrorism” to define as “domestic
terrorism” such acts that occur primarily within the jurisdiction of the United
States.
o Designation by the Secretary of State as a terrorist country has the following
implications:
 you cannot be sold arms by the US or a country to which we have sent
them
 civil liability statute waiving sovereign immunity for suit
 Posse Comitatus: use of forces in certain terrorist instances
 your assets may be blocked/frozen
 immigration may be blocked
 you may get booted from the US
 prohibited from giving material support to an organization.
 the DC Cir. has held that some organizations labeled as terrorists
have some DP right to be heard during such designation.

 Fourth Amendment and Investigations:

o Types of investigations: starting at innocuous level and getting on up there:
 records check
 credit reports
 look at prior criminal record
 datamining – Taps 1 & 2  airports, luggage, seating
arrangement, credit reports, etc.
 personal interviews
 polygraph
Bodner 48
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  fingerprint
 surveillance
 wire taps:
o pen registers – records outgoing calls
o trap and trace – records incoming calls
 xrays/full body
 mail cover
 internet surveillance
 body wires
 parabolic mikes
 thermal imaging
 physical entry
 informants
 infiltrators
 when can you use any of these and when cant you?
o Fourth Amendment provides a right against unreasonable searches and
seizures. There is a presumption that a warrantless search is per se
unreasonable with a limited number of exceptions (Katz v. US 1967). A
judicial warrant is:
 (1) issued by an independent judge
 (2) issued on probable cause – evidence establishing a fair possibility
that a crime has been or is being committed. (only need to meet the
mere possibility standard – its less than preponderance)
The presumption may be rebutted under certain circumstances including
time emergencies, searches incident to arrest, plain view during hot pursuit,
and persons entering/leaving US. The range of reasonable searches is
created by balancing the governments interest against the intrusion on
privacy. A warrant is presumptively reasonable b/c (a) it comes from a
detached, neutral 3rd party; and (b) the probable cause requirement
eliminates post-facto justification, it specifies and confines the search.
o The balancing test affects national security b/c national security purposes are
a factor in the test – national security presents special circumstances which
justifies balancing in favor of a search.

A National Security Exception to the Fourth Amendment?

 United States v. United States District Court (Keith) (US S.Ct. 1972): text 615
o The defendant was charged with bombing CIA offices on a University of
Michigan campus, but there is no claim that the Δ has any connection with any
foreign power. The government subjected the Δ to surveillance by wire tap
w/out obtaining a prior judicial warrant. The President cites the Omnibus Crime
Control and Safe Streets Act (aka Title III) from the 1960’s which authorizes
wire taps in ordinary criminal cases. The government argues that “in excepting
national security surveillances from the Act’s warrant requirement Congress
recognized the President’s authority to conduct such surveillances without prior
judicial approval.” The court doesn’t buy it – it’s a savings clause – it does not

Bodner 49
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 give the President any authorization to conduct such surveillance absent a
warrant.
o Title III explicitly mentions national security searches and recognizes
constitutional authorities of the President in two scenarios:
 foreign power threats
 preserve, protect, defend
 domestic security threats
 mentions President taking such measures as are required to
prevent the overthrow of government.  this is where this Δ falls
under – its not a foreign powers situation, but its not for a normal
crime either, it’s a symbolic act against the government.
o Did the President authorize warrantless searches pursuant to Title III correctly?
 Title III recognizes that the President has the authority, but it doesn’t give
authority to conduct warrantless searches and it doesn’t regulate national
security issues.
 counterargument: it does authorize and regulate national security issues
b/c last sentence in portion quoted on 317 says the contents of
communication intercepted by the President in the exercise of the
foregoing powers may be received if the interception was reasonable.
 The court, however, concludes that Title III does not govern it.
o So, does the President have other constitutional authority to do this?
 implied in the “Take Care” clause – Neagle – didn’t need specific statute
to protect S.Ct. justice from being attacked.
 customary authority – the President has done this for decades
o Does this require a warrant and how is reasonableness determined?
 gov’t: no warrant b/c national security presents special circumstances
which make this reasonable.  the information they are seeking is hard
to explain to the court and they don’t want it leaked to the presss.
 response:
 there are certainly procedures to avoid the above concerns from
occurring.
 re: the competency concern of the judges – courts already look at
a lot of these cases.
o Courts 3 part holding vis a vis RH:
 (1) some sort of prior judicial approval is necessary (not after the fact
judicial approval)
 (2) for intenal/domestic security surveillance where the subject has no
connection to foreign power
 (3) but not necessarily by same standards as the Fourth Amendment
requires for ordinary crimes (codified in Title III) – ie. different
standards may be compatible with the Fourth Amendment if they are
reasonable both in relation to the legitimate need of Government for
intelligence information and the protected rights of our citizens.
 important because rejects the notion that the 4th Amendment
doesn’t apply, but says circumstances/standards might be relaxed
under those circumstances (and a fortiori probably more relaxed

Bodner 50
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 under foreign powers  not addressed, but implied in the
holding).

A Foreign Intelligence Exception?

 United States v. Erlichman (D.Ct. DC 1974): text 628
o Agents of the Executive Branch broke into a psychiatrists office without a
warrant for the purpose of obtaining the doctor’s medical records relating to one
of his patients, Ellsberg, then under Federal indictment for revealing top secret
documents. The defendants claimed that the (1) the break-in was legal under the
Fourth Amendment because the President authorized it for reasons of national
security; and (2) that even in the absence of such authorization the national
security information available to the defendants at that time led them to the
good-faith, reasonable belief that the break-in was legal and justified in the
national interest. The defendants distinguishes Keith b/c Keith was entirely
domestic and this has to do w/ foreign powers.
o The defendants argued that the courts have begun to carve out an exception to
the traditional rule for purely intelligence-gathering searches deemed necessary
for the conduct of foreign affairs. The court, however, responded that any such
exceptions have been narrowly limited to wiretapping cases – which is a much
less intrusive search. (is it really less intrusive – its ongoing.)
o Even if the President does have any authority in such wiretapping cases, the
Court rejects that the President could delegate such power absent an express
authorization by the President.
o The Court concludes that the President not only lacked the authority to authorize
the break-in but also that he did not in fact give any specific directive to do so.

 United States v. Truong Dinh Hung (4th Cir. 1980): text 633
o Δ was convicted of espionage and the Δs seek reversal of their convictions
becaue of warrantless surveillance and searches. No court authorization was
ever sough or obtained for the installation of wire taps, for mail intercepts, etc.
The government relies on a “foreign intelligence” exception to the Fourth
Amendment. The FBI sought and received approval for the surveillance from
the AG.
o the court now recognizes a foreign intelligence exception, however, because
individual privacy interests are so important, the court provides a carefully
limited exception:
 (1) the government is only relieved from seeking a warrant when the
object of the search is a foreign power, its agent or collaborators. Where
there is no foreign connection, the executive’s needs become less
compelling; and the surveillance more closely resembles the surveillance
of suspected criminals, which must be authorized by warrant.
 (2) the executive should be excused from securing a warrant only when
the surveillance is conducted “primarily” for foreign intelligence
reasons. (ie. not for criminal prosecution).

ii. Sleuthing (and Torturing (?)) Abroad

 Reid v. Covert (US S.Ct. 1957): text 639
o see facts around outline page 34
Bodner 51
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Court rejects the idea that when the US acts against citizens abroad it can do so
free of the Bill of rights. When the government reaches out to punish a citizen
who is abroad, the shield which the Bill of Rights and other parts of the
Constitution provide to protect his life and liberty should not be stripped away
just because he happens to be in another land. Court finds that ALL the
constitutional rights apply to US citizens abroad.
o Harlan: concurring: doesn’t agree with the suggestion that every provision of the
Constitution must always be deemed automatically applicable to American
citizens in every part of the world. The question of which specific safeguards of
the Constitution are appropriately to be applied in a particular context overseas
can be reduced to the issue of what process is “due” a defendant in the particular
circumstances of a particular case.

 United States v. Verdugo-Uriquidez (US S.Ct. 1990): text 642

o Issue: Whether the Fourth Amendment applies to the search and seizure by US
agents of property that is owned by a nonresident alien and located in a foreign
country.  Court holds that it does not.
o Facts: Δ, a citizen and resident of Mexico, was apprehended by Mexican police
and delivered to the US border authorities in response to a US warrant for his
arrest on drug-smuggling charges. Following his arrest, and while he was
incarcerated in the US, DEA agents searched Δ’s property in Mexico with the
approval of Mexican authorities, but without a US warrant, and seized certain
documents which were subsequently offered as evidence against him.
o court finds that the “people” referred to in the 4th Amendment “refers to a class
of persons who are part of a national community or who have otherwise
developed sufficient connection with this country to be considered part of that
community.” Also cites Johnson v. Eisentrager for the holding that in some cases
constitutional provisions extend beyond the citizenry; “the alien has been
accorded a generous and ascending scale of rights as he increase his identity
with our society.”

 United States v. Bin Laden (SDNY 2000): text 650

o Δs were charged w/ offenses arising out of their alleged participation in an
international terrorist organization (Al Qaeda) led by Bin Laden. Δ, an
American citizen, seeks to suppress evidence seized from the search of his
residence in Kenya and evidence obtained from electronic surveillance.
o The Court finds that the power of the Executive to conduct foreign intelligence
collection would be significantly frustrated by the imposition of a warrant
requirement in this context. Therefore, this Court adopts the foreign intelligence
exception to the warrant requirement for searches targeting foreign powers (or
their agents) which are conducted abroad.
o At the same time, the Court is mindful of the importance of the Fourth
Amendment interests at stake. In keeping with the precedents reviewed above,
the warrant exception adopted by this Court is narrowly drawn to include only
those overseas searches, authorized by the President (or his delegate, the
Attorney General), which are conducted primarily for foreign intelligence
purposes and which target foreign powers or their agents. All warrantless

Bodner 52
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 searches are still governed by the reasonableness requirement and can be
challenged in ex post criminal or civil proceedings.
o The court applies their standard and finds that the searches fall within the
foreign intelligence exception to the Fourth Amendment.

 Summary:
 Electric Surveillance and Physical Searches in the US
o Ordinary Criminal Evidence:
 in connection with ordinary criminal investigation = warrant upon
probable cause that a crime has been or is being committed = Title III.
o “Domestic Intelligence”
 need prior judicial approval
 prior approval doesn’t have to be a warrant, but its not up to the court to
decide what a domestic intelligence warrant should be based on.
o “Foreign Intelligence”
 Truong and FISA?
 courts said that the difference b/w foreign intelligence and domestic
intelligence are so significant that we can dispense w/ the prior judicial
approval – but it must be approved by at least the AG, must have foreign
intelligence reason to collect information, and must be foreign power
target. [note: these cases are pre-FISA]
 In 1978, this was codified in FISA: wanted prior judicial approval, but
under relaxed circumstances.

 Electric Surveillance and Physical Searches outside of the US

o Of “Unconnected” Aliens
 no 4th A. protection
o Of US persons by foreign police
 obvious answer: no protection from the constitution
 silver platter doctrine: can use fruits of such “illegal” searches w/out
obeying the 4th A. Because the Bill of Rights does not protect
Americans from the acts of foreign sovereigns, and because applying the
exclusionary rule to such acts would not deter them, such evidence can
be turned over the US law enforcement officials on a “silver platter” and
admitted in US criminal prosecutions.
o Of US persons by US police or “joint venture”
 joint venture is more than a tip – it’s a controlling role in the search.
 probably don’t need a warrant, but reasonableness standard still applies
(see Verdugo) . . . however, there is now some extraterritorial authority
for a warrant thru the PATRIOT ACT.
 possibilities for measuring reasonableness:
 (1) Good faith compliance with foreign law.
o The Ninth Circuit in United States v. Barona, looked to
good faith compliance with the law of the foreign country
where the surveillance was conducted absent conduct
which shocks the conscience. Judge Reinhardt dissented
b/c thought Americans are given even less protection
under foreign law. He argued, therefore, that the
Bodner 53
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 government still must have probable cause for a foreign
search, even if a warrant is impracticable.
 (2) Require probable cause.
o not clear that traditional probable cause is appropriate or
loose enough to permit intelligence searches = open
question.
 (3) Ad hoc:
o factors: length, ultimate notice, day/night search,
specificity of search, possibly good faith compliance w/
foreign law, existence of mutual assistance treaties, etc.

 Hypo: What if a US person is beaten and tortured during an investigation abroad?

o It would be a violation of the Treaty Against Torture  there is a treaty, part of
US law, which makes this illegal search. It should be excluded notwithstanding
any foreign intelligence exception to the 4th Amendment because it violates a
treaty.
o US v. Verdugo: substantive DP includes conduct which shocks the conscience
right not to be treated unhumanely and arbitrarily. note: the 5th A protects any
PERSON (not just US citizens) – therefore there may be no territorial limit to it
either.
 counterargument: even though the 5th A. says no person, foreigners
have no way to get to US court to enforce it – so is it really a right
which could be asserted.
 and Johnson v. Eisentrager: rejected extraterritorial application of the
5th A.  it doesn’t apply to unconnected aliens like the 4th A,
despite the different language.

iii. Congressional Authority for Surveillance: FISA

 United States v. Duggan (2nd Cir. 1984): text 666
o Members of the IRA were convicted on a number of charges relating to export,
transportation, and delivery of explosives and arms. Defendants move to
suppress the evidence the government obtained as a result of tape recordings and
information obtained pursuant to a FISA surveillance of the defendants. The
defendants argue that (1) FISA is unconstitutional and (2) even if it is not
unconstitutional, its requirements were not met in this case.
o FISA generally allows a federal officer, if authorized by the President acting
through the AG, to obtain from a judge of the specially created FISA Court, an
order “approving electronic surveillance of a foreign power or an agent of a
foreign power for the purpose of obtaining foreign intelligence information.”
o Court finds that:
Re: Constitutionality of FISA
(1) FISA is not overly broad and thus does not violate DP
(2) FISA does not violate the probable cause requirement of the 4th
Amendment. The Act requires that the FISA judge find probable
cause to believe that the target is a foreign power or an agent of a
foreign power, and that the place at which the electronic surveillance
is to be directed is being used or is about to be used by a foreign
power or an agent of a foreign power; and it requires him to find that
Bodner 54
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 the application meets the requirements of the Act. The procedures
fashioned in FISA are a constitutionally adequate balancing of the
individuals Fourth Amendment rights against the nations need to
obtain foreign intelligence information.
(3) FISA does not deprive nonresident aliens of Equal Protection. The
fact that an Act of Congress treats aliens differently from citizens doe
not itself imply that such disparate treatment is “invidious.” The
different treatment accorded nonresident aliens under FISA is
rationally related toe the Acts purposes of attempting to protect the
US against various types of acts of foreign powers and to acquire
information necessary to the national defense or the conduct of
foreign affairs.
Re: Compliance with FISA
(1) Defendants contend that some of the surveillance was not authorized
b/c it was sought as part of a criminal investigation.
(2) Ct: FISA only requires that foreign intelligence information be the
primary objective of the surveillance.  it was asserted in the
application for the warrant that it was. [ note: USA PATRIOT Act
lowered this to a standard of “significant purpose”]
(3) The FISA judge, in reviewing the application, is not to second-guess
the executive branch officials certification that the objective of the
surveillance is foreign intelligence information.
o The court upholds the convictions.

 Process of Obtaining a FISA Warrant:

o The United States makes an application to a secret court (of Art III judges) to
obtain the warrant. The application must have been approved by the Att’y
General. If the application is rejected internally, the AG must certify the
rejection (want AG accountable for denials of applications as well).
o Requirements:
 Targeting Requirement: requested surveillance is targeted at:
 foreign power (includes non-state power  which would include
international terrorist groups) OR
 agent of a foreign power
o person other than a US person
 US person: when target is a US person, the government is
required to minimize the acquisition and retention of nonpublicly
available information and to prohibit its dissemination, consistent
with the need of the United States to obtain, produce, and
disseminate foreign intelligence information; and the application
must set out what minimization procedures are proposed.
 Application must contain:
 the identity if known, or a description of the target of the
electronic surveilliance.
 a statement of the facts and circumstances relied upon by the
applicant to justify his belief that the target of the electronic
surveillance is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power.

Bodner 55
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  certification by the Assistant to the President for National
Security Affairs, or AG, the certifying official deems the
information sought to be foreign intelligence information and that
the purpose of the surveillance is to obtain foreign intelligence
information, together with a statement of the basis for
certification that the information sought it a type of foreign
intelligence information designated.
o Less intrusive forms of surveillance which don’t require a FISA warrant
 pen registers, track and tracer devices, intercepts on email routers
 all are regarded as somewhat less intrusive and they are also surveillance
of info you voluntarily put “out there.”
 just get court order that you need warrant which does not involves US
person or involves foreign terrorism.
 also can get certain kinds of business information upon mere relevance
to intelligence collection: credit records, some bank records  subject to
search by gov’t upon nothing more than request (National Security
Letter) – don’t even have to go to court – just send the letter to the credit
bureau, libraries, etc.

 Court Approval of FISA Warrant:

o heart of court approval = probable cause to believe that the target of the
electronic surveillance is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power. [NOT
4th A. probable cause that a crime is being committed.]
o if the target is a US person, the FISA judge is not to approve surveillance unless
he finds that the certifications submitted are not clearly erroneous on the basis of
data before him.  probable cause cant be based off of information obtained
from instances where exercising 1st Amendment rights.

iv. The Purpose of FISA Investigations

 FISA pre-PATRIOT Act:
o FISA was interpreted as requiring the primary purpose of the warrant to be
collection of foreign intelligence.
o In order to allow the CIA to collect foreign intelligence without tainting the
FISA process and not prejudice any future criminal prosecution, the agency set
up a wall b/w those CIA agents responsible for collecting foreign intelligence
and those responsible for conducting the criminal prosecution = “The Wall.”
 can only communicate across the wall w/ a chaperone – if it works then
the FISA application can be cleanly obtained and can still prosecute later
on w/out compromising sources of foreign intelligence
 the wall is partly due to a:
 legal distinction: Keith
 cultural: the CIA and the FBI didn’t talk b/w each other very
much before the wall was put up – CIA focused on protecting
sources and methods and the FBI is interested in the information
for the sake of prosecution.
o September 11th Impacts re: Wall
 Aschcroft responded by lowering the wall  said criminal investigators
can communicate w/ the CIA and the FBI.
Bodner 56
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  FISA changed itself  amended by the USA PATRIOT Act – changed
“the purpose” to “a significant purpose.”

 In Re: Sealed Case No. 02-001 (FISC of Review 2002): appendix 1

o US brought an appeal from a FISC surveillance order which imposed certain
restrictions on the government. The government argued that (1) the supposed
pre-Patriot Act limitation in FISA that restricts the governments intention to use
foreign intelligence information in criminal prosecutions is an illusion; and (2)
even if the primary purpose test was a legitimate construction of FISA prior to
the passage of the Patriot Act, that Act’s amendments to FISA eliminate that
concept. The court found that the supposed limitation was an illusion, largely as
a result of the DOJ mistakenly applying the Truong analysis (requiring primary
purpose to a warrant exception) to an interpretation of the FISA statute. In
response to the courts interpretation, the FBI incorrectly imposed the “Wall”
restrictions. Secondly, the court found that the Patriot Act did eliminate the
concept of the primary purpose test by changing “a purpose” to “a significant
purpose” and by expressly authorizing law enforcement to have consultation w/
foreign intelligence staff. The court stated that the better reading excludes
from the propose of gaining foreign intelligence information a sole objective
of criminal prosecution.
o So . . . what is improper now under FISA?
 cannot have the sole objective be to gather criminal evidence – BUT still
have to go after foreign target.  can use FISA any other time as long as
have a foreign target.
 note: the Court really seems to ignore the word “significant” – just as
much as the FISC ignored the Patriot Act changes.
 if Congress did what the Court said, is it constitutional?
 the constitutional basis for departing from the 4th A. is b/c
foreign affairs.
 the Court finds that FISA is reasonable under the 4th A.
o 2 conclusions from this case:
(1) FISA allows any purpose other than pure criminal evidence
collection.
(2) this interpretation comports w/ the 4th Amendment as set out in
Keith.
 RH thinks they are both questionable conclusions
 Hypo: Now that FISA has been enacted, could the President still
engage in foreign intelligence collection for foreign purposes w/out using FISA (ie. just
going ahead and doing it on his own?)
o If FISA occupies the field, then the President cant do it on his own. In an effort
to prevent the executive branch from bypassing the FISA procedures, in 1988
Congress enacted an amendment to Title III expressly eliminating the disclaimer
that was central to the Keith decision and stating that FISA and Title III are
intended to be the “exclusive means” for the conduct of electronic surveillance
by the government.

v. Executive Regulation of Investigation

Bodner 57
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  The FBI has scant statutory authority to carry out its mission. In addition to the powers
granted to the FBI by FISA, the FBI, lacking a statutory charter, conducts all of its
investigations under the authority of two sets of guidelines promulgated by the AG (one
domestic and one foreign), and President Reagan’s 1981 EO 12,333, that directs the
activities of all the agencies that make up the intelligence community.

 Hypo: In connection with the Palestinian Coalition and National Patriots investigations,
informants have told FBI field officers of apparently unlinked plots by some
Palestinian-Americans who are members of PC and some US citizens who are members
of NP to bomb federal facilities throughout the United States. FBI officials are inclined
to rely on FISA or executive authority to engage in electronic surveillance and physical
searches of PC and NP headquarters and members homes. The concern is that the FBI
is at the intersection of the 4th and 1st Amendments. Both groups engage in some
protected activity; but, the tips suggest violent activity which the government has an
interest in protecting. (see pages 611 and 698 for further facts on the exercise)
o Investigations Analysis:
 Generic Authority = CIA/FBI
Levels of Investigation:
 “Checking Leads”
 Preliminary Inquiry
 Full Investigation.

(1) Generic Authority:

o The Attorney General is the person by statute given broad investigative authority
and the FBI answers to him.
o Does the CIA have authority? Under EO 12,333, the CIA can coordinate w/ FBI
if the collection is inside the US and have authority to collect outside of US.
Another restriction is that the investigation must be approved by the AG. Is the
EO consistent w/ the CIA charter, the NSA (which says shouldn’t have internal
functions)? The EO says can collect intelligence inside the US and against US
citizens. If “intra” is redefined as foreign intelligence and counterintelligence –
then the foreign connection can reconcile the EO w/ the NSA. Like FISA, the
EO requires a foreign connection.
 Here – PC funds H = foreign connection; but, NP doesn’t have any
foreign connection.
o Note: the assignments the CIA and FBI receive are functional not geographic –
foreign intelligence vs. domestic intelligence. The EO also provides that the
FBI cannot do anything based on solely 1st Amendment activity = anther
domestic limitation.
(2) “Checking Leads”:
o no invasive techniques, just like checking names or having field agent go out
and look  not unduly invasive.
(3) Preliminary Inquiry:
o the standard for a full investigation is a reasonable indication of criminal
activities – so this is something less than that – like a possibility of criminal
activities.
o a preliminary inquiry cannot be based solely on 1st Amendment activities except
under limited circumstances.
Bodner 58
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o techniques = limited degree of intrusion: records checks, public interviews,
surveillance in public places – don’t need prior judicial approval for 
domestically. Foreign intelligence guidelines: apply to groups in preparation
for international terrorism – might fit PC in these circumstances. This standard is
classified – so don’t really know it; however, it is likely a lower threshold than
required for domestic preliminary inquiries.
(4) Full Investigation:
o domestic guidelines state that a reasonable indication of criminal activity. The
guidelines also provide a totality of the circumstances balancing test, balancing
the need against protecting 1st Amendment rights (Domestic Guidelines III B.1.)
o note: post 9-11, the FBI may consider the capability of the group in determining
whether it can conduct a full investigation (ie. they been amassing fertilizer and
it clear they aint farmers).

What level is appropriate for NP? the FBI only have one tip, it might be enough under
the full investigation balancing test b/c of the type of concern. The bulk of their
activity, however, are protected under the 1st A.

What level is appropriate for PC? hard to say b/c the foreign guidelines apply, but if
domestic guidelines would allow it, surely the foreign ones would. PC also takes part in
non-terrorist humanitarian aid – so PC could be giving money just for that. The
government, however, would argue that because money is fungible, it doesn’t matter if
PC only intended to fund humanitarian efforts – it frees up money for the group to
support terrorism.

vi. Profiling Suspects

 Korematsu v. United States (US S.Ct. 1944): text 796
Black: Majority
o PH/Facts: petitioner, an American citizen of Japanese descent, was convicted
for remaining in a “Military Area,” contrary to a Civilian Exclusion Order. The
court upholds the exclusion order b/c it has a definite and close relationship to
the prevention of espionage and sabotage. Korematsu was not excluded from
the area b/c of hostility to him or his race.
o The court also decided Ex parte Endo the same day and found that a Japanese-
American girl whose loyalty to the US was conceded by the government couild
not be detained in a relocation center. The court refused to find any implied
authority to detain an admittedly loyal citizen where none was expressly given.
The difference w/ Korematsu was that a statute, an express authorization to
create military zones, made it a crime to refuse to leave.
o Does the statute violate Equal Protection? – the Court says the standard of
review = a most rigid scrutiny (precursor to strict scrutiny); however, the court
seems to use more of rationale basis review saying that there is a close
relationship b/w the ends and the means. Under current EP analysis, however,
the government would have to show a compelling government interest, and
narrowly tailored means. EP isn’t really used b/c it wasn’t clear yet that the 14th
A. is applied to the federal government thru the 5th A. Even as a matter of DP,
however, rigid scrutiny still must be applied when a race classification is made.
o How does majority determine rationale basis?
Bodner 59
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  the Court essentially defers to the military judgment and the assertion
made by the military that a danger of sabotage and espionage existed: (1)
war time; (2) military; (3) secret information.
 the Court notes that “we cannot reject as unfounded the judgment of the
military authorities and of Congress that there were disloyal members of
that population, whose number and strength could not be precisely and
quickly ascertained.”
 RH claims that the military themselves had no expertise to decide
anything about loyal members. In order to develop expertise, the
military would have really had to hold individual hearings (then
this might be narrowly tailored)
o Other alternatives for interning Japanese-American resident aliens (not citizens):
 A declaration of war triggers the Enemy Alien Act which allows
detention of aliens (although not based on race, but citizenship). The
problem under these circumstances is that most of the detainees are
American citizens.
Murphy: Dissent
o defines the majority’s test for whether the Government, on a plea of military
necessity, can validly deprive an individual of any of his constitutional rights is
whether the deprivation is reasonably related to a public danger that is so
immediate, imminent, and impending as not to admit of delay and not to permit
the intervention of ordinary constitutional processes to alleviate the danger.
Jackson: Dissent
o Jackson is concerned that a judicial order, as opposed to a military order, would
never expire and thus would essentially constitutionalize the military order.
o Jackson claims that if the Court affirms the conviction, then it necessarily
constitutionalizes the military order; however, if the Court reversed the
conviction, Korematsu cant be held as a felon, but the military can still hold
Korematsu as a military detainee.  he is simply a military detainee and should
only be held for as long as the order.
o Jackson is concerned that sucking courts into emergency power/military power
sits there as legal precedent to be used elsewhere.
In 1984, Korematsu was granted a writ of coram nobis, however, the legal reasoning
behind that decision still stands.

vii. Detaining Preventively

 Post 9-11 Detentions (in connection w/ Profiling)
o Basis for Detention:
 Arab:
 probably racial classification  suspect classification
 not narrowly tailored – no consideration of less onerous means
alternatives.
 Muslim:
 religious classification  suspect classification
 not narrowly tailored
 Immigrant:
 suspect classification?

Bodner 60
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  government has a basis for classification: (1) legal authorization
for classifying aliens; (2) can rationally worry about flight risk
and loyalty.
 Arab, Muslim & Immigrant:
 begin to move from assumptions about propensity to identifying
characteristics of hijackers and those w/ whom they affiliated.
 may not be profiling which is unconstitutional.
 Political Advocacy:
 this would appear to be unlawful, and protected 1st A. speech,
unless the advocacy itself is criminal.
 could attempt to apply Korematsu, and argue that we are at war
w/ terrorism (undeclared defensive) and thus have Congressional
authorization. In Korematsu, however, at least in theory the
government could identify those who might be disloyal. Under
the present circumstances, identity is really gone.
o Pre-Textual Basis:
 detainees are arrested for “spitting on the sidewalk” offenses = minor
crimes: credit card fraud, identify fraud, petty larceny, smuggling
cigarettes, etc.  these give law enforcement probable cause to arrest the
detainees. They are called pre-textual because they were really arrested
b/c the government thought they were engaged in terrorism.
 What’s wrong w/ these detentions?
 selective prosecution – still prosecuted b/c of race, etc.
 only people they are detaining are those they believe are involved
in terrorism (not everyone who spits on the sidewalk). Bail is
available for these minor crimes, yet they detain only these
certain people. [note: Bail Reform Act does allow for preventive
detention for (1) flight risk and (2) dangerousness to community.]
 Why then, wasn’t the Bail Reform Act used to detain those charged?
 in order to show they were dangerous might have to reveal
information and sources the government is protecting. And would
have to give them counsel – the government wants to keep the
detainees isolated.
 note: flight risk is based on what the detainees were originally
charged with (so is dangerousness) – charge is so trivial, neither
really dangerousness nor flight risk would be high based on the
underlying offenses.
 Speedy Trial Act: bail is pending trial, trial has to be set promptly.
If the objective here is preventively holding them, then it is not in
the governments best interest to proceed under the Bail Reform
Act b/c a speedy trial would still need to be provided.
o Other Alternatives:
 Material Witness:
 ill fit b/c it is not a security measure, it requires an open court
hearing, access to an attorney, and evidentiary demands on the
government. Further, the detention is in aid of securing

Bodner 61
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 testimony for trail, if there is no proceeding pending trial, the
federal statute might not even apply.
 about 40 of the 1200 post-9-11 detainees were held as military
witnesses.
 Immigration Detainees:
 might be helpful in these circumstances b/c it is not a criminal
proceeding so the 6th A. wouldn’t apply.
 drawback for the government is that there is a large body of law
regarding immigration detainees, including the Patriot Act. The
Patriot Act authorizes the INS to detain immigrants for up to 7
days b/f charging them. But, the Act also expressly authorizes
the writ of habeus corpus. The S.Ct. ruled that the DP Cl. places
a reasonable time limit on immigration detention. Therefore,
while the government may not be able to hold them indefinitely,
the Court may still give some deference under the national
security concerns.
 Presidential Authorization: President’s CIC authority that the suspects
have information regarding terrorism and the President has been
authorized to detain them. = national security exception to the 4th
Amendment re: seizure:
 Keith: Keith and its progeny suggest a warrant exception for
domestic searches – but need prior judicial approval. Perhaps by
implication, foreign intelligence might be ok w/ out prior judicial
approval. Is it such a stretch to come up with the argument for
seizure where the normal procedure is an arrest warrant?
o Seizure, even without a warrant, still must be reasonable.
Courts have found that holding someone indefinitely is
not reasonable.
o Keith ultimately says Congress can lower the standards,
but didn’t say anything about Congressional involvement
in foreign intelligence. Congress, however, clearly
thought they should be involved when they enacted FISA
 Congress may determine the standards, and once they
do so – it occupies the field.
 Suspend Writ of Habeus Corpus:
 The President issued a Military Order on November 13, 2001
authorizing detention in § 3. The President has detained people
based on the same cases which he said support the order. § 7(b)
(2) of that order looks like an awful lot like a suspension of the
write of habeus corpus.
 If the Military Order applies, has the President constitutionally
suspended the writ?
o Art. I § 9 cl 2: “The Privilege of the Writ of Habeus
Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of
Rebellion or Invasion the public safety may require it.”
o argument: it is an Art. I power – so it really belongs to
Congress to suspend the writ.

Bodner 62
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o counterargument: the President shouldn’t have to wait and
let the emergency run its course. So – both should be able
to suspend it. Article I is passive construction – the
constitution doesn’t say that the President cant have it –
so he can.
o Art I § 9 is entirely passive and seems to apply to both
branches of government. Congress, however, did address
suspending the writ in the Patriot Act. The Presidents
suspension of the writ, therefore, would seem unlawful
unless it operated under an entirely different field of law.
Thus, it should be construed narrowly to avoid a
constitutional question (INS v. St. Cyr n. 4 text 814). If
the Military Order suspends the writ – then it must do so
clearly. If the strict rule of construction were applied to
the Military Order, the S.Ct. would probably say that the
language doesn’t suspend the writ.

 Rights of the 1200 Detainees while in detention:

o Geneva Convention and International Law provide that the detainees shall be
treated humanely.
o Enemy Alien Act and 9/18 authorization: argue they occupy the field and at the
least lay down the requirements which suggest that the President does not have
unfettered discretion over civilian detention.
o 5th Amendment: they are being held in the US (not like Verdugo-Uriquedez),
these people entered legally and under ascending scale of rights – they are up
near the top.
o Right to Contact their embassy: according to a treaty, if you arrest a foreign
national, the embassy has to be notified of arrest so they can retain counsel and
intervene otherwise  this is routinely disregarded in the TX and southwest.
We should be legitimately concerned about this, however, because we want the
same protection when we are abroad. Moreover, it is binding US law.
o Right to an Attorney: Under either arrest for “spitting on the sidewalk” or
immigration detentions, the detainees still have a right to an attorney. The US
issued a regulation authorizing monitoring communications b/w attorney and
client. While this may be lawful, it still may have the effect of chilling speech.

 Trial by Military Commission:

o military commissions are tribunals of military officers sitting without a civilian
judge or jury. They have been authorized to admit evidence which would be
inadmissible in a civilian court, such as hearsay, or suspend many of the
guarantees for accused persons found in the First and Sixth Amendments.
o military commissions are used b/c typically the government is dealing w/
classified information, but the true rationale is necessity in a battle zone or
occupied territory. (the rationales for military commission also justify military
detention as a less included power).
Bodner 63
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o the rationale for necessity isn’t necessarily removed by bringing detainees to the
United States b/c an evidentiary problem still exists.
o military commissions have jurisdiction over violations of the law of war =
unlawful combatants. For example, falsely surrendering, targeting civilians, etc.

 Ex Parte Milligan (US S.Ct. 1866): text 811 and 889

o Milligan, an Indiana resident, was arrested for planning to raid a federal arsenal
in Indiana and to use the munitions seized there to free Confederate prisoners,
for inciting insurrection, and for plotting to assassinate the governor. He was
imprisoned and then brought before a military tribunal where he was charged
with violation of the laws of war, found guilty, and sentenced to be hanged.
(786). Milligan is petitioning the right to be tried by jury, to be indicted by a
grand jury and entitlement to be tried in an Article III court – not a military
tribunal.
o Congress had suspended the writ of habeus corpus for as long as the grand jury
met – a specific time limit. The jury had met, so Milligan couldn’t be held any
longer. This supports the notion that if Congress gets there first – the President
has to follow what they layed out. IF set Merryman aside and accept Milligan –
the President or Congress can suspend the writ; but, if Congress does it, then the
President can only do so according to Congressional direction.
o What has happened to the military necessity rationale? the courts are open, the
grand jury is sitting, he is accused of criminal things, others had been tried in
civilian court for similar things  necessity makes no sense.  the outcome is
pretty predictable  Court finds that he shouldn’t be tried by military
commission.
o Note, however, the 4 justice concurrence, states that while Milligan should not
have been tried by military commission, Congress could establish a military
commission in Indiana by statute – they just haven’t.
o  the President does not have inherent authority to do this = violation of the
Open Court rule. (while the courts are opening and functioning, outside the
battle zone, the President does not have the authority to use military
commissions / military detention = open court rule).

 Ex Parte Quirin (US S.Ct. 1942): text 893

o 7 German nationals came to the United States to engage in sabotage – one of
them turned the group over to the FBI. President Roosevelt issued an order
establishing military commission and proclaimed its jurisdiction to try nationals
of enemy states or those who act under their direction for sabotage, espionage,
or “violations of the law of war.” The military commission conducted a trial and
sentenced the nationals to death. The S.Ct. affirmed the conviction and sentence
from the bench and later Justice Stone had to write the opinion.
o Roosevelt attempted to deny the petitions of habeus corpus, but the court clearly
decides the case on the merits – so it didn’t work.
o President had authority to use a military commission. Congress provided the
Articles of War – Articles 81 & 82 – which sounds like an express grant of
Congress, but the jurisdictional charges (relieving, harboring or corresponding
with the enemy and spying) doesn’t completely fit with what the saboteurs were

Bodner 64
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 here to do. Article 15 simply provides that those provisions don’t deprive
commissions of other jurisdiction – it’s a savings provision not an affirmative
grant of authority.
o this case implicates that there is a CL of war and the military commission has
authority under that to try offenses against the it. It may be that a
constitutionally authorized was is a predicate to using the CL of war and thus a
military commission [the Court doesn’t decide what would happen if there
wasn’t a constitutionally authorized war – b/c this is one].
 if there is a CL of war, can Congress override it? Congress has
authorization to define the law of nations (Art. I § 8 cl 10) which
includes the law of war = subject matter jurisdiction. At the procedural
end, Congress may make rules and regulations of naval and military
(Art. I § 8 cl 14). If Congress hasn’t spoken, the President would seem
by default to have the authority to do this.
o The court found the President had the authority for the military commission and
the law of war is clearly violated. Thus, the 5th, 6th and 7th Amendments done
apply once w/in jurisdiction of a military commission.

 How is Milligan distinguished from Quirin?

o Milligan is a US citizen and these are 7 Germans – but one has dual citizenship
and the Court said could have tried him anyways.
o factual distinction: civil war was not a declared war, here have a formally
declared war  identifiable enemy. If constitutionally authorized war is a
predicate for using the law of war – clearly the President had the authority to do
so in Quirin. the duration of the Presidents law of war authority is different b/c a
formally declared war has an endpoint.
o one reading of Quirin: it creates a declared enemy exception to the Open Court
rule of Milligan.
o another reading: the Court in Quirin says at one point that Milligan should be
confined to the facts – not clear whether Milligan or Quirin should be read
narrowly, but note that Justice Black says he wouldn’t join Quirin unless held it
to the facts.

viii. Evolving Military Detention

 Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (4th Cir. 2003): appendix 33
o Hamdi, aka the Cajun Taliban, is a US citizen who was residing in Afghanistan
when he was seized by the US government. Hamdi has been held in South
Carolina. Various people tried to represent Hamdi and eventually, his family
took over on his behalf to petition for writ of habeus corpus. The court certified
the question as whether a declaration by a Special Advisor to the Under
Secretary of Defense for Policy setting forth what the government contends
were the circumstances of Hamdi’s capture was sufficient by itself to justify his
detention. The court found that because it was undisputed that Hamdi was
captured in a zone of active combat in a foreign theater of conflict, the submitted
declaration is a sufficient basis upon which to conclude that the Commander in
Chief has constitutionally detained Hamdi pursuant to the war powers entrusted
to him by the Constitution.
o Hamdi had two purely legal arguments for relief:
Bodner 65
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 (1) 18 USC 4001(a): regulates the detention of US citizens. It states
“No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the
United States except pursuant to an Act of Congress.”
(2) Article 5 of the Geneva Convention.
o First Argument: seems to say that you cant hold civilians absent statutory
authority. (note: doesn’t say express statutory authority)
 The Court says that the 9/18 authorization for the use of force and the
authorized expenditure of funds constitutes statutory authority.
 The Court uses 9/18 authorization to apply to combatants, but that is not
what the authorization says – statute requires a tie to 9-11  this isn’t
really present in Hamdi’s case.
 The authorized expenditure of funds was found in Greene v. McElroy to
require a clear statement of express authorization – here, to detain US
citizens in order to use the authorization of funds for such authority.
o Second Argument: Hamdi argues that Article 5 of the Geneva Convention
applies and requires an initial formal determination of his status as an enemy
“belligerent” by a competent tribunal.
 The Court finds that the argument fails because the Geneva Convention
is not self-executing and as such there is no provision for enforcement by
any form of private petition.
 Moreover, the distinction Hamdi seeks to make b/w lawful and unlawful
combatants is inapplicable b/c regardless, Hamdi could still be detained.
That distinction is only important regarding trial by military commission.
o A declared enemy exception, possibly developed in Quirin, does not apply to
Hamdi because no war was ever declared on anyone.
 but, it is not just a declaration of war that puts this country
constitutionally at war; have the statute – it puts us at war, and if in a
constitutionally authorized state of war, then the President’s war powers
include the power to detain any enemy combatant.
 if this is so, why was Milligan not lawfully detained? The civil war was
constitutional – what is the difference?  military necessity  Hamdi
was picked up on the battlefield and Milligan wasn’t.

 THUS: all the cases together (Milligan, Quirin and Hamdi) stand for the proposition
that: the Open Court rule applies except in constitutionally authorized war and a
detainee is picked up on the battlefield OR if declared enemies (Congressional
declaration of war) and the President is acting with full powers under war.

 Padilla v. Bush (S.D.N.Y. 2002): appendix 16

o Padilla, a US citizen and also known as the Dirty Bomber, was arrested on a
material witness warrant. He is now detained, without formal charges against
him or the prospect of release after giving testimony. Padilla argues that the
President lacks that authority to detain him under the circumstances and that in
any event he must be permitted to consult with counsel. The court finds that (1)
the President is authorized under the Constitution and by law to direct the
military to detain enemy combatants in the circumstances present here, such that
Bodner 66
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 Padilla’s detention is not per se unlawful; (2) Padilla has the right to counsel;
and (3) to resolve the issue of whether Padilla was lawfully detained on the facts
present here, the court will only examine whether the President has some
evidence to support his finding that Padilla was an enemy combatant.
o The court says that in order for the possible authority for detention, a state of
war, to be applied against Padilla, he must be declared an enemy combatant.
The only way to decide that is two Mobbs affidavits (one unsealed and one
sealed).
o Regarding the unsealed document, the court noted that even if Padilla had access
to the document, he wouldn’t be able to understand it without an attorney. This
is the courts real bone of contention – it is precisely b/c Padilla is isolated that he
needs an attorney.

o Currently: government has resisted order to provide Padilla a lawyer. 1292(b)

certification – asking for trial judge to certify the appeal, court of appeals, here
2nd Cir., has to certify to take it. Government wants certified for appeal: Appeal
whether Padilla’s attorney can ask as next friend for his habeus petition. Asking
whether court has jurisdiction any longer b/c he was transferred secretly and
thus whether sec’y of defense is proper defendant. Court certified 6 questions,
including whether can declare US citizen captured in US as enemy combatant
and detain him for as long as armed conflict w/ Al Queda continues (which is
what the gov’t didn’t want certified).

b. Consequence Management: When the Worst Happens

i. Who’s in Charge Here?
Addressing Medical Emergencies
 Homeland Security Act: currently exists only on paper, the Department goes into
operation in November 2003. In theory, it is supposed to create/incorporate a number of
departments/branches:
o (1) Border & Transportation Department: consolidate the Coast Guard, Border
Patrol and the Secret Service.
o (2) Emergency Preparedness & Response = FEMA  experience in disaster
relief.
o (3) Chemical, Biological and Radiological Countermeasures
o (4) Information and Infrastructure Protection
 page 750: Case Study: A plague on your city
o First 2 days – generally go by w/ no one noticing – the bio-incident runs its
course w/out any regulatory response.
 as time goes on, people begin to show up at the hospital and Dr.’s offices
w/ symptoms – but still not readily identified. the first response is
usually the least organized, least modern, etc. have to train first
responders to identify an attack in order to quickly deal w/ it.
 once identified, typically notify their own public health commissioner
that there is an epidemic symptom, comm’n notifies CDC in Atlanta.
 CDC help identifies what it is and have pre-positioned stockpiles of
antibiotics and vaccines, deliver in push packs to metropolitan area.
possibly consider mass vaccination of the population b/f attack occurs,

Bodner 67
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 vaccinate first responders at the very least. Also coordinate medical
personnel from other states thru Public Health Service Act.
o When reached national health level, Governor declares state emergency and
issues a travel advisory (not immediately jump to quarantine or anything). Hard
advisory b/c these are tourist locations, saying no one can come in. Natural
local response was to flee – advisory had opposite effect.
 Could he actually enforce the travel advisory? Means of implementation
will be local police or the national guard. The problem is that there are
no rules of engagement for local police and possibly not for the NG for
dealing w/ this  shooting on innocent civilians to enforce travel ban.
 NG has some experience for dealing w/ looters, but its an issue b/c the
people who will be enforcing it are generally local – the community
police firing on the community – and are worried about their own
families. The number of effective police declined – they took off too.
Suggests if this is a large scale, need military, need to federalize it and
bring in troops not indigenous to the area.
 Problem w/ NG – many of the NG are also the first responders (police,
fireman) – which way to use them best.
 Legal Authority: broad at state level, Governor’s concern here was
information – didn’t know what was the best thing to do – travel
advisory, quarantine, etc. Medical evidence was unclear.
o Governor has to tell the public what is going on – disseminate information.
Governor has to establish a chain of command, have someone responsible for
press relations, its not necessarily clear. Another problem: can you prohibit the
press from reporting certain things – take over media to control whats going to
the public – serious 1st A. issue. RH thinks probably cant do anything about
that – bank on panic from misinformation.
o Federal Role:
 FBI is the lead federal agency (LFA) for investigating the bio-terrorist
incident. An agent in charge and everyone answers to him for
investigatory phase – going on at same time as response.
 FEMA = lead federal agency for consequence management
 who commands federalized national guard if so federalize them? not
clear how will interact w/ FBI and FEMA.
o Once antibiotics arrive, who gets them? Logically, it ought to be the first
responders to encourage them to continue to respond. but, innocuating them,
often means innocuating their families. Governor and staff? People already
been subjected the plague – if antibiotics will still work. Equity considerations
which are not hypothetical – population gets the notion that someone is being
favored – have potential for a riot. Serious disruption to stay at home orders.
Whenever you vaccinate one person – it makes them a carrier for a time – have
to vaccinate family. There are some who are not supposed to be vaccinated
(pregnant, etc) – which is a huge part of the US population – cant only vaccinate
only part of the family – so what do you do?
o 4 days after plague hit – estimated 1900 cases and 400 dead. May 22, Governor
forbid any travel in or out of Colorado. Can you prevent people from crossing
state lines? Public Health Service Act (757) – probably gives authority to
prevent interstate travel – but not intrastate travel.
Bodner 68
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o Scenario ended w/ civil unrest breaking out everywhere. In 5 days, this just
went nuts.

ii. Military Assistance

 Bissonette v. Haig (8th Cir. 1985): text 765
o Facts/PH: action for damages by persons who had been surrounded during the
siege of Wounded Knee. Military helped in conducting the siege in various
ways. More commonly, Posse Comitatus act is raised as a defense – not
affirmatively as often.
o Πs claim here: (1) unreasonably seized and confined contrary to the 4th
Amendment – rights to free movement and travel; (2) unreasonably searched by
ground and aerial surveillance; (3) assaulted, deprived of life and deprived of
property under 5th & 8th A.  all claims have added concern that the military
was involved in the siege; claim they were unconstitutional “for the reason that
the arms use din the force were parts of the US Army or Air Force.” =
unreasonable by means of using the military.
o Issue: Whether a search or seizure, otherwise permissible, can be rendered
unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment because military personnel or
equipment were used to accomplish these actions.
o 4th A. reasonableness: reasonableness is determined by balancing the interests
for the seizure (governments interest) against individuals interest.
 individuals interest: Ct says individual interest is really more societal
and concern the special threats to constitutional government inherent
in military enforcement of civilian law.  fear of military rule leads
to slippery slope, don’t want military running the government. If
open up civilian society for larger role for military, they will soon
expand and take over. = “Junta”
 “The use of military forces to seize civilians can expose
civilian government to the threat of military rule and the
suspension of constitutional liberties.”
 other precise concerns: (1) not trained for civilian law
enforcement – inappropriate/incompetent to rule over
civilians b/c presumably the rules of engagement in which
they are trained are diff. – military as a mission applies as
much power as necc to accomplish the mission, not
concerned w/ using force as a last resort. (2) chilling effect
of having uniformed, heavily armed military, answerable to
strict change of command carrying out civilian law
enforcement.
 these are the trio of concerns make it unreasonable unless
outweighed by government interest.
 where in constitution and other ground documents do the
framers illustrate these concerns?
o Constitution - not quartering military; insistence that
President be the Commander in Chief (elected
official); careful nurturing of the militia – localized

Bodner 69
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 military at disposal of governor; continuing hostility
to a standing army.
o Declaration of Independence – list of military offenses
– concerned w/ military overrunning civil society.
Concern w/ presence of military order answerable to
the King and military officials and not the locals.
interfering w/ law enforcement carried on on a much
lower scale.
 this is historically a big deal and it should be relied on.
 government interest: government interests are twofold: (1) to
maintain order in times of domestic violence or rebellion = maintain
order; and (2) to improve the efficiency of civilian law enforcement
by giving it the benefit of military technologies, equipment,
information, and training personnel = effectiveness and efficiency.
 how do you strike the balance? don’t have to b/c Congress already
struck a balance in the Posse Comitatus Act – Πs 4th A. claim
therefore must stand or fall on the proposition that the military
activity in connection w/ the occupation of Wounded Knee violated
the PC Act. [note: this isn’t a strict PC claim, the court uses PC as a
guideline for the balancing test, w/out the Act, the court still might
come out the same way under the balancing test.]. How does the PC
strike a balance?
 PC isn’t absolute prohibition – its prohibition on coercive
nature of using military power  not violated unless
“subjected the citizens to the exercise of military power
which was regulatory, proscriptive, or compulsory in nature,
either presently or prospectively.”
 At Wounded Knee, Court found PC not violated: logistical
activity, conducting surveillance from the air, or giving advice
 none of it is coercive and thus not proscribed by the PC.
Thus, ultimatey, 4th A. is not violated.
 on other hand, if military involved in road blocks, it would
likely violate the PC, unless authorized by a separate statute,
and would then violate the 4th A.
o 4th A. views coercive activity more skeptically than other involvement.
Coercive activity doesn’t always violate it – if extreme need for it – then it
would be balanced out.

 Exceptions to Posse Comitatus: (see n 5 773)

o expressly authorized by congress (war on drugs, etc)
o emergency / disaster relief – depends on exactly what they are doing.
o humanitarian response – lending equipment and abilities for civilian purposes
o war on drugs assistance (n 7 775) and border interdiction; but statute expressly
forbids “direct participation by a member of the Army, Navy, Air Force, or
Marine Corps in a search, seizure, arrest, or other similar activity unless
otherwise authorized by law.” it adopts the language of the PC and expands it
to other branches of the armed force.

Bodner 70
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o insurrections (773 n 5): 10 USC § 333
o use of military to enforce the laws when unlawful obstructions . . . § 332 – ie
KKK; use military to break strikes (Pullman strikes in 1950s); desegregation
aid;
 what these all have in common – President cant just do it – if thinks there
is something blocking the law – has to “read them the Riot Act”  these
are the Riot Acts, and has to call publicly on the groups to disperse as a
condition of calling up the Federal Troops.
o called out to assist the secret service in performance of its duties (774). not only
protect president, but candidates of president, etc.
o hypo: suppose the President has no statutory exception, does that leave him
bereft of using the military?
 (1) constitutional authority recognized in PC, but says express authority
– so not clear that saying emergency power is enough b/c its not express.
 (2) riot acts occupy the field?  pretty strong argument that they do
o Bisonette – page 768: “We believe that the limits established by
Congress on the use of the military for civilian law enforcement
provide a reliable guidepost by which to evaluate the
reasonableness of the Fourth Amendment purposes of the seizure
and searches in question here. Congress has acted to establish
reasonable limits on the President’s use of military forces in
emergency situations, and in doing so has circumscribed
whatever, if any, inherent power the President may have had
absent such legislation.”
o Justice Jackson in Youngstown  of course gov’t has emergency
authority, but that doesn’t follow its vested in president alone, if
Congress can anticipate the authority and provides it – that’s it.
o Neagle: it is an emergency case  counterargument – Neagle
didn’t deal w/ the situation where Congress had put down a
statute.
 (3) power to protect governmental installations, property etc. and can do
so if he concludes it is necessary – protect government facilities so that
the government can function. Neagle important for this proposition as
well.

c. Punishing Terrorists by Trial

i. Secret Trials
 Options for Protecting Information:
o decline prosecution – why detention is looking better and better; but, wouldn’t
entertain decline as often after 9-11 as would have before. there are a number of
factors to take into consideration (see notes after case)
o try them in public using secret evidence – that intuitively poses a problem – its
unfair to try someone on evidence that he cant see. see Greene v. McElroy
o try them in secret where you might use secret evidence and might not – then
don’t have public learning about it; but, may still have to show the evidence to
the Δ.

Bodner 71
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 o try them in a military commission – advantage: we write the rules for the
comm’n they don’t come from const’n, statute, etc. so could say that secret
evidence could be used under certain circumstances, could make the trial
completely secret = an option under the current rules, although not the preferred
method.
 Secret Trial:
Immigrant / Defendant Public / Media
- private interest - experience of public access?
- government interest - “logic” (positive effect) of public access
- risk of inaccuracy - strict scrutiny

Trying them in public using secret evidence:

 American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee v. Reno (9th Cir. 1995): text 871
o Facts / PH: Πs applied for legalization of their status under immigration laws –
they are resident aliens. They were denied b/c the INS, using undisclosed
classified information, found them excludable under a statute that provides for
the exclusion of aliens who advocate or teach or are members of organizations
which advocate or teach the duty, necessity, or propriety of unlawfully assaulting
or killing officers of government or unlawfully damaging property. The
classified info purported to link the Πs to the Popular Front for the Liberation of
Palestein. The Πs sued in D.Ct. to challenge the use of the secret information
and won an injunction.
o The government cites the INA as authority for the use of the undisclosed
classified information in the legalization determination.
o Court applies the Matthews v. Eldridge balancing test: (1) the private interest
that will be affected the government action; (2) the risk of erroneous deprivation
of that interest through the procedures the government is using, as well as the
probable value of additional or substitute procedures; and (3) the government’s
interest in the action and in avoiding the additional administrative or fiscal
burdens with additional or substitute procedures would impose.
 (1) private interest: strong liberty interest in remaining in their homes
and an opportunity of an alien to work. this interest is given by statute –
if he satisfied statutory standards, he is entitled to legalized status =
statutory entitlement.
 (2) risk: procedure is likely to result in erroneous deprivation – w/out any
opportunity for confrontation, there is no adversarial check on the quality
of the information on which the INS relies. the government is using
intelligence – and an intelligence agent takes whatever he can get w/out
necessarily checking the accuracy of it – especially if buy mosaic theory
– wouldn’t throw anything away b/c waiting to get big picture. its not the
same evidence used in a case. From the defendants point of view, its not
enough to be accused of terrorism w/out knowing the details that led to
that a conclusion – how do you prove your not a terrorist w/ out
specificity? cant respond to accusations w/out evidence.  risk is
especially high.
 (3) governmental interest: gov’t seeks to use undisclosed information to
achieve its desired outcome of prohibiting these individuals whom it
perceives to be threats to national security from remaining in the United
Bodner 72
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 States while protecting its confidential sources involved in the
investigation of terrorist organizations.  be aware of accepting interests
of that generality  RH says.
o Court found that the balancing suggests that the use of undisclosed
information in adjudications should be presumptively unconstitutional.
Only in the most extraordinary cases could support a one-sided process.
Therefore, the court held that the use of undisclosed classified information
under these circumstances violates due process.
o the risk part is sometimes shorthanded as what other additional processes would
decrease the risk of inaccuracy while still protecting governments interest?
 summary for the information – court compares the summary w/ the
original information and decides if it is sufficient for defendant to defend
himself. (see also CIPA – page 881).
 possible way to go, but government hasn’t grasped it b/c (1)
judge still gets to see the information and (2) what happens if
judge says its not good enough.
 require that the government internally use an objective, competent
interpreter.  if problem is intake, not clear this would be sufficient to
solve the problem.
o Why isn’t the statute, on page 872, dispositive? exclusion is when the aliens
aren’t here yet and haven’t built substantial connections w/ the US – in these
circumstances, they are resident aliens and have established those connections.
– the law is about exclusion and as such it doesn’t really apply to denying a
resident alien legalization.
o What are the resident aliens entitled to then? How do you decide they are
entitled to the information  5th A. does balancing test  Matthews v.
Eldridge. The question is not whether he has a 5th A. right, but what process is
due?
o Takes the perspective of the immigrant and looks at his need to see the secret
evidence: balances the private interest, the governments interest and the risk of
inaccuracy. [cf. Detroit Free Press, etc. which takes the perspective of the need
of the public and media to have access to the information].

Show it to Defendant, But Close the Proceedings

 Detroit Free Press v. Ashcroft (6th Cir. 2002): appendix 44
o Facts / PH: Post 9-11, Chief Immigration Judge, Creppy, issued a directive (the
“Creppy Directive”) to all US immigration judges requiring closure of special
interest cases. Special interest cases are a broad category, includes those
possessing information regarding terrorism – not that they even want to use it
themselves. The Creppy directive requires that all proceedings in such cases be
closed to the press and public, including family members and friends. Haddad
was subjected to a bond hearing which fell within the special interest case
category. Haddad was subject to deportation for overstaying his tourist visa.
The government suspected that the Islamic charity he operated supplied funds to
terrorist organizations. His hearing was closed, he was denied bail, detained and
has since been in government custody. Several newspapers filed suit, advancing
a number of claims, including that the Creppy directive facially and as applied

Bodner 73
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 violated their 1st Amendment right of access to Haddad’s deportation
proceeding.
 unless the respondent does not have an attorney, the person that are most
interested are aware of the proceeding b/c the attorney can communicate
w/ family, etc. and after the proceeding is over, the respondent and the
attorney can communicate w/ the media re: the protected information.
o Issue: Whether the First Amendment to the US constitution confers a public
right of access to deportation hearings.
o Holding: The Richmond Newspapers two-part “experience and logic” test is
applied to deportation proceedings. Under this test, the Court finds that there is
a First Amendment right of access to deportation proceedings because (1)
deportation proceedings have historically been open to the public and (2) public
access plays a significant role in the functioning of the deportation proceeding.
Under strict scrutiny, the government must show that denial of the First
Amendment right is necessitated by a compelling governmental interest, and is
narrowly tailored to serve that interest. While the government has illustrated a
compelling governmental interest, the Creppy directive fails to make specific
findings, is both under inclusive and over inclusive and as such is not narrowly
tailored [note: could be done on a case by case basis]. Thus, the Creppy
directive is unconstitutional.
o hypo: what is the right of a special interest respondent to have an open hearing?
 RH suspects that on the same procedural DP ground as found having a
right to see the secret information, the respondent has a right to have an
open hearing – to ensure that the media checks the quality of justice – it’s
a particularized interest of the respondent of the case.
 the individuals right isn’t the subject of this litigation – its from the
perspective of the medias right.
o Government claims that it has plenary control over immigration issues  CT:
this isn’t a question of who comes and goes its whether this person is in a
particular “special interest” group – it’s a procedural question which the courts
can decide.  don’t give the government deference on that point.
 Zadyvdas v. Davis (supplement 44 and text 732): issue was whether the
post-removal statute authorized a detention indefinitely, or for a period
reasonably necessary to secure removal. While finding the government
didn’t have plenary authority to create immigration law, the Court noted
that it might be deferential in situations involving terrorism or national
security  is this a basis for insisting on extreme deference to gov’t for
closing the procedures?  CT: in that case, the Court was looking at a
case regarding the detention of a small segment of particularly dangerous
individuals – the group currently before the court is not a small segment,
but a broad, indiscriminate range of information, including information
likely to be entirely innocuous. Zadyvadas itself and the sexual predator
case it refers to both talk about a group of people identified by statute –
in this case the special interest group is determined the Executive & no
similarly no definable standard used to determine whether a case is of
“special interest” have been articulated.
o Can they close the hearings?
 1st A. background: Richmond Newspapers test:
Bodner 74
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
  (1) look to the experience of public access to the particular
governmental proceeding  how much public access has been
historically permitted and for how long.
 (2) logic: what positive contribution does public access make to
the functioning of the particular governmental process.
 if determine have a right of access, is any limitation on that right
pass strict scrutiny: compelling governmental interest, narrowly
tailored.
o 6th Cir. concluded based on experience and logic that
there was a 1st A. right of access, then applied strict
scrutiny – govt hadn’t narrowly tailored it to compelling
governmental interest.
o cf. 3rd Cir. which says never get to strict scrutiny if don’t
get past logic prong – and in logic prong also have to
consider what negative contribution it makes to the
functioning of the particular governmental process.
o “experience” prong: they had been closed in a few cases, ie. abused children or
abused spouses, the proceedings had been closed.  not an unbroken tradition
of open access to deportation proceedings. [cf. exclusion proceedings which are
closed]. 1964 statute created rebuttable presumption that the proceedings are
open.
 3rd Cir: says maybe, but not long enough tradition. The criminal
proceeding tradition was centuries old – and this isn’t. note: default
mode for government hearings = open – 3rd cir. seems to ignore that.
o “logic” prong: it’s a check on bad faith of the government, bad conduct, more
importantly, it’s a check on mistakes and inaptitude – if performing in public,
you will prepare more carefully. it’s a substitute for other checks – there is no
jury at these proceedings and no right to counsel at governments expense. in
criminal court, it’s a therapeutic aspect to having open process – more
satisfactory to see it done then just to hear about it. right to participate in what
the government does to you.
 do you consider the flip side, like the 3rd Cir., or does that only come in
when in strict scrutiny and deciding whether or not its narrowly tailored.

 North Jersey Media Group, Inc. v. Ashcroft (3rd Cir. 2002): appendix 61
o Facts / PH: reporters for the Π were repeatedly denied docket information and
access to deportation hearings in Newark’s Immigration Court. The Newspapers
filed a challenge to the Creppy Directive, asserting that its mandated policy of
closing every “special interest” case precluded the case by case treatment the
First Amendment requires. The D.Ct. found that under the Richmond
Newspapers two-part test, a First Amendment right to access existed. Further,
under strict scrutiny, it found that the directive failed because it lacked narrowly-
tailored means. The D.Ct. granted the Newspapers motion and temporarily
enjoined the Directive’s operation.
o Holding: The Richmond Newspapers analysis is proper in the administrative
context, but under that test, there is no First Amendment right to attend
deportation hearings. The deportation hearings do not pass the test because (1)

Bodner 75
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003
 the history of deportation proceedings do not present the type of unbroken,
uncontradicted history required and (2) with the logic prong properly
considering the extent to which the openness impairs the public good, the logic
prong test does not favor the media. Our judgment is confined to the extremely
narrow class of deportation cases that are determined by the Attorney General to
present significant national security concerns. In the absent of such a right, we
need not reach the subsequent question whether the Creppy Directive’s closures
would pass a strict scrutiny analysis.

NOTE: FOR EXAM PROBLEM #5: ASSUME TIA IS STAFFED ENTIRELY BY

ACTIVE DUTY MILITARY

Bodner 76
FR – Raven Hansen
Spring 2003