Nuclear Engineering and Design 105 (1987) 19-33 19

North-Holland, Amsterdam

CONTINUUM DAMAGE MECHANICS: PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE TRENDS

J.L. C H A B O C H E
Office National d'Etudes et de Recherches A~rospatiales, BP 72, 92322 Ch~tillon Cedex, France

Received 4 November 1986

Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) has developed since the initial works of Kachanov and Rabotnov. The paper gives a
review of its main features, of the present possibilities and of further developments.
Several aspects are considered successively:
- damage definitions and measures,
- damage growth equations and anisotropy effects,
- use of CDM for local approaches of fracture.
Various materials, loading conditions and damaging processes are incorporated in the same general framework. Particular
attention is given to the possible connections between different definitions of damage, especially between the CDM definition
and the information obtained from material science.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n such equations, which can be used for crack initiation

problems, as well as crack growth problems, in the
During the past two decades many researches have context of local approaches (section 6).
been developed around the concept of a macroscopic
damage variable initially proposed by Kachanov [1] and
Rabotnov [2] for creep. The distributed defects in 2. Damage measures and definitions
materials, not only lead to the crack initiation and the
final fracture, but also induce the material deterioration The first step in developing a damage theory con-
(material damage), such as decrease of strength, rigidity, cerns the definition of the damage variable. Obviously
toughness, stability and of residual life. damage is not directly measurable as strain or plastic
The new concepts initiated the development of Con- strain (already with the hypothesis of the unloaded
tinuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) [3]. They are sup- configuration). In the present section we consider dif-
ported by the general framework of thermodynamics of ferent possibilities to define the damage internal varia-
irreversible processes and offer complementary possibil- ble through indirect measurement procedures. In fact
ities to the Fracture Mechanics. such measurements are not always practicable but fur-
The aim of the present paper is to review some nish conceptual definitions. Let us note that interpreta-
general features of CDM and to summarize its main tion of each measure in terms of a damage variable
possibilities, considering successively the following needs a corresponding model.
aspects: Before any damage theory, it is necessary to precise
- definition and damage measures, including the possi- what we mean by the ultimate state of the damage
bility to describe the microstructural damaged state processes: under the present development of CDM, this
in terms of appropriate mechanical variables, final state corresponds generally to the macroscopic
- formulation of equations governing the evolution of crack initiation, that is the presence of a material dis-
these damage variables (section 3), continuity, sufficiently large as regards the microscopic
-description of the mechanical behaviour of the heterogeneities (grains, subgrains.... ): in such a case,
damaged material. This can be studied in the frame- the main macroscopic crack is assumed to be developed
work of the thermodynamics and can include the through several grains, in order to show a sufficient
influence of damage anisotropy (see section 5), macroscopic homogeneity in size, geometry and direc-
- solution of boundary value problems by means of tion, leading to a possible treatment through the Frac-

0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 / 8 7 / $ 0 3 . 5 0 © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

( N o r t h - H o l l a n d Physics P u b l i s h i n g Division)
20 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

!Cavities ! Micro- I ! Macro- ] Macro- 'D (a) !D (~)

Dislocations{slip t crack j Micro- ! crack I propagation
I bands i initiation j propagation] initiationi mm_
o.bl 011
Classical I
crack initiation
Presentdefinition
of crack initiation
D1 ~F

-- ~ II Fracture Ol" N1/N~I1 : ~2/NF2 11

Damagemechanics ]1 mechanics
Fig. 2. Schematic of damage evolution curves as deduced from
Surface remaining life measures; (a) linear accumulation, (b) non-linear
\?~r ains ~ mechanics
Fracture accumulation.
i ~ \ idealization
/ \ specimen) is NF2. If the measured remaining life is N2
the damage after the initial damaging process writes:
Micro*o0c -,,-
initiations \ ~ ~.L ~ a I D = 1 - N2/NF. (2)

The remaining life measurements make evidence of

/"---" macroscoDiccrack // interesting properties for damage. For instance in fa-
tigue there is not an unique damage evolution curve as
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of a macroscopic crack initiation function of the life ratio N / N F, but a dependence on
concept.
the applied loading (fig. 2) [4,5]. This leads to the
conclusion that damage growth equations have to show
unseparability, of the damage and loading variables
ture Mechanics concepts (see schematic illustration in
[6,7]. However, such measurements are not sufficient to
fig. 1).
completely fix the values for damage. As shown in [4], a
one-to-one mapping changes the damage value without
2.1. Measures through the remaining life
changing any remaining life result. Let us note that the
remaining life measures are also practicable for creep
As an engineer point of view, the main objective of a
damage [8].
damage theory is to allow prediction of lifetime of the
structure. Then the remaining life concept is a natural
2.2. Damage measures from the microstructure
way to define damage. The most conventional definition
for such damage parameter is the life ratio N / N v in
A second natural way to define a damage variable is
fatigue, where N and N v represent (for a given loading
to observe and quantify the irreversible defects: inter-
condition) the present number of cycles already applied
granular cavities in creep, surface microcracks in fa-
and the total number of cycles to crack initiation (or
tigue, dimensions of cavities in ductile fracture. Such
failure), respectively. In that case the damage theory
measurements have been already used in many situa-
limits to the linear Miner's rule. For instance, the re-
tions (see [9,10,11] for instance). Some difficulties arise
maining life at the second level, N2, after damaging to
when dealing with the interpretation:
N 1 / N v , at a first level writes:
such measures are destructive, which limit their use
N2 - l - D = 1 - N--! (1) to observe the development of damage,
Nv2 Nv, " - defects are difficult to observe during the first phase
of damaging processes. Moreover, the initial state is
More generally the remaining life concept does not not easily characterized,
necessarily lead to the linear rule: after a certain damag- - the quantification has to be done in terms of macro-
ing process, the present damage is measured by perfor- scopic variables (usable in structure computation).
ming a "measure test", with a fixed loading under Then in each case, convenient hypotheses have to be
which the nominal life (for an initially undamaged considered and a particular model developed.
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 21

0 O 0

ii
i
i ,
s
i/__ _ J / ",.,,;.',(h)o=(fi)u
;..,,.
b ," i°i,

o
O*
(a) (b)

Fig. 4. (a) Net stress tensor for damage growth, (b) effective
stress tensor for deformation.

state of material damage may be described by a second

rank symmetric tensor [13] (fig. 3b), generalizing eq. (3)
as:
V
N
-b- o= s,(v3 f/,k, ®,,,, dSW, (4)

where dSg~k) and I, (k) are the area of a given boundary

X3 X3 Xa occupied by the k th cavity in volume V and the unit
normal vector to it, respectively. Fig. 4a indicates
schematically that some equivalence is supposed be-
tween the present damaged material and the un-
x" - -~' a ~ x,..K a~ 1,,/ damaged one (in terms of damage rate) to define the net
stress a*. The problem of damage anisotropy is consid-
ered in section 5.
-- C --

Fig.3. Net area reductions - (a) the damaged element, (b)

2.3. Damage measures through physical parameters and
volume element with grain boundary cavities, (c) net area
reduction on principal planes of damage tensor.
the effective stress concept

The influence of damage on physical quantities can

Interpretation in terms of mechanical parameters be measured and used to define properly the damage
can be made by means of a net area reduction (fig. 3a). variable:
By definition, the damage variable /9, associated with - density change [14], which can be interpreted as a
direction n is: damage variable in ductile failure (see section 3.3),
- resistivity change [15] which, through a convenient
SD S - S*
D. - S - ~ (3) model, leads to very similar damage measures com-
pared to mechanical parameters (see below),
D n = 0 corresponds to the undamaged state, D, = D c, a - acoustic emission, change in sound velocity . . . .
critical value, corresponds to the rupture of the element - change in the fatigue limit [16] which can he also
(0.2 < D c < 0.8 for metals). interpreted in terms of the remaining life,
The corresponding net stress concept has been devel- - change in the mechanical behaviour of the material,
oped by Murakami and Ohno [12,13] in the case of interpreted through the effective stress concept:
creep damage of polycristalline metals. The microstruct- " a damaged volume of material under the applied stress
ural changes can be characterized mainly by nucleation o shows the same strain response than the undamaged
and growth of various cavities on grain boundaries. one submitted to the effective stress 8 ". If the damage
Assuming that the principal effect consists in the net D represents the loss of effective area taking into
area reduction due to the distribution of cavities, the account decohesions and local stress concentrations,
22 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

one can write: undamaged state:

S o is = ( o / X ) N (7)
= . (5)
S 1-D
Several tests give the exponent N. Damage follows
This definition through the gross behaviour of the
easily from the measurement of strain rate during ter-
material is supported by the results of homogenization tiary creep and the effective stress concept (5):
techniques [17], considering periodic arrays of defects.
Damage measures through the effective stress con- D = 1 - ( i l i a ) '/N. (8)
cept have been performed in several situations. Let us
mention: Fig. 5b shows the case of the superalloy IN 100 [19].
- the case of ductile rupture [18], measuring the The damage in composites develops continuously
change of elastic modulus. From elasticity equations for and shows various mechanisms at the microscale: fiber
both damaged and undamaged material debonding, matrix microcracking, delamination... The
case of fatigue is illustrated in fig. 6 for graphite/epoxy
o=/~%, 6=E%, laminates (from [20]). One observes simultaneously the
change in the elastic modulus on the first cycle (due to
one obtains:
partial debonding), its progressive decrease during fa-
E o /~ tigue (fig. 6b), accompanying microcracking of the ma-
3=~o= ~ D=I--- (6) trix with some stabilization, and the final delamination
E 1-D E'
giving rise to rupture. Let us note some similarities with
Fig. 5a illustrates the case of copper [18]. the case of metals, with much more pronounced effects.
- the brittle creep damage [19]: using the power law Ref. [20] shows clearly the correspondence between the
to describe the secondary creep, considered as an decrease of elastic modulus, the decrease of residual

0
IN I00 IO00*C

MPo) .5(

500-

400-

300- 0--
:239
2OO-

I00- ~,' ~t.t,,i

0 ~5 t
o
9b 10o l'lO-

zaU2GN 180"C
O
. _0_~ =__.~ . . . . . .
.0-

5(;
.6-

.4- 21Z MPo --~

226 ~ \
.2-
2 6 8 ~ ,
2b ~ 14b ' 0~ ' 8b ' 160 ' r
, .~_,~-,-i-,-; -'~-Z]k'' |
"CpI ) I. $5 "CpR : 1,07 0,5 t/tc

Fig. 5. (a) ductile plastic damage for 99.9% copper, T = 20°C, (b) creep damage measures - Superalloy IN 100 at 1.000°C and light
alloy AU2GN at 180°C.
 J.L. Chaboche/ Continuumdamagemechanics 23

60 Table 1
1- 1 cycle
2- 40000 cycles 1 2 3 Observable Internal Associated
50
_8oooooyc,e, ////74 variables variables variables
40- Elastic strain Stress tensor
$, tensor ce o
30
Temperature Entropy
20 T s

10 Accumulated Radius of yield

plastic strain surface: Ry + R
P R
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Damage Damage strain
energy release rate
0.9 D Y

~, 0.8 the total strain tensor by Cp = ( - % and the accu-

mulated plastic strain by p = (~/p : ~p)1/2.

0.7 3.1. Thermodynamicpotential

The specific free energy 'it', taken as the thermody-
/ Normalized cycles (n/N) namic potential in which elasticity and plasticity are
0.6 ~ , ~--,
0 0'.2 014 0'.6 0.8 1 uncoupled, gives the law of thermoelasticity coupled
with damage and the definition of the associated varia-
Fig. 6. Fatigue of [0/90] graphite/epoxy specimens, O~n = 345
MPa (50 ksi), R = 0.1, from ref. [20]; (a) stress-strain curves at bles related to internal variables [26]:
various stages of the fatigue life, (b) normalized residual elastic g, = '/,,(%, T, D) + ~p(T, p ) . (9)
modulus.
As proposed in [30], the damaged elastic behaviour is
described through a strain equivalence and, referring to
strength and the remaining life in fatigue.
the effective stress concept:
This last example shows the adequacy of Damage
Mechanics to describe completely different kinds of
materials. Ref. [21] gives further theoretical develop-
X/Ie= ~1( 1 - - D)A : % : %. (10)

ments on the case of composites.

Let us note that damage can be active or passive The stress writes:
[22]. When the defects, especially microcracks, are 3~
closed, they do not affect the macroscopic behaviour. a=p~=(1-D)A:% or 0=/~:%. (11)
Damage state is not eliminated but has to be considered
as passive: this can be the case under compression for The thermodynamic force Y associated to D is defined
instance. Ref. [23] gives some developments around that by:
point.
0q"
Y=0~=-½A:%:% (12)

3. Thermodynamic aspects Let us note that D includes all the damaging effects,
the density p being considered as constant. In the finite
The present developments are based on a thermody- strain case [29], the change of p (due to the growth of
namic theory of irreversible processes with internal state cavities) can be used as a damage variable. Moreover, in
variables [24,25,26]. Here the presentation is limited to the present case, complete separability of the hardening
the simple case of isotropic hardening within the small and damage processes is assumed, '/'p does not depend
strain hypothesis and to isotropic damage evolution. on D.
Extension to kinematic hardening is well known [27] being the density of elastic strain energy defined
and theories with anisotropic damage evolution have by dW~ = a : %, the expression for Y shows that [30]:
been developed in [26] and [28]. Generalization to finite
-y We 1 dive
strain can be found in [29].
The chosen state variables are given in table 1 for the l-D-2 dD
present case. The plastic strain tensor is defined from at constant a and temperature. (13)
24 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

C~ J II / Hardening and damage being uncoupled, it is sufficient

/F ,'E-6E to assume:
I
' A - YD > O. (16)
:. ')/ " As - Y is a quadratic function, this leads to /} > 0.
,' ? :/i .
The rupture criterion " - Y = [ Y[ = Yc ~ crack ini-
tiation" corresponds to an elastic energy criterion. It
may be written in terms of D through the one-dimen-
~i":5:-::, '/i~;; e sional rupture stress o R [28]:

02 OR
Y~- 2E(1 - Oc) ~ Dc= 1 (2EYc)l/2 . (17)
o ]_ Many experiments have shown that: 0.2 < Dc < 0.8,
" 8~p-:-See which allows (1 - De) x to be neglected with regard to 1
when x is much greater than 1.
Fig. 7. Schematic of the dissipation during plastic flow and The potential of dissipation is a scalar convex func-
damage growth. tion of flux variables (ip, p, D, and the heat flux q) or
their dual variables (by means of the Legendre-Fenchel
transform), the state variables acting as parameters [25]:
Then the variable - Y can be considered as the
elastic strain energy release rate associated to a unit qb*(O, R , Y; Ce, T , p , D ) .
damage growth. Analogy with Fracture Mechanics con-
It gives the constitutive equations for the evolution of
cepts is clear. - Y may be calculated as a function of
dissipative variables [26]. Here:
the hydrostatic stress o n = ½Tr(o) and the Von Mises
3 , : o,)a/2 where o' is the stress
equivalent stress O~q = (2-0 ip 3q,* 3,#* b - 3~* (18)
deviator [31]: = 30' P- 3R' 3Y"

If q~* is a convex function of - Y, the damage dissipa-

°eq
[ (-tl
-}(1 + ~,) + 3(1 - 2z,) O'eq

(14)
tion (16) is automatically positive [30].
In the case of time independent plasticity and iso-
tropic hardening the plastic flow can be particularized
with the Von Mises plastic potential [26]:
The relation (13) defining - Y as the elastic strain
energy release rate and the above dissipation aspects f(o, R, O ) = 8 ~ q - k - k <O, (19)
can be illustrated in fig. 7, showing the different parts
where Gq is the equivalent effective stress (here %a/(1
of dissipation during the plasticity and rupture process
- D ) ) and /~ = R/(1- D). It follows then from the
[26]. The curve OA'B' represents the evolution of
normality rule ( o ' is the stress deviator):
hardening during plastic flow OAB. Parts AB and BC
correspond to the plastic flow and the elastic strain ip=~ 3f~ 3 X o'
increase during the damaging process, respectively 2 1 - D Oeq' (20)
(schematized at constant stress). The total dissipated 3f X ~. . xl/2
energy separates into (1) the energy stored in the sys- P= -X3R 1-D -- ( ~ l [ p : Cp) .
tem (hardening), (~) the heat dissipated energy, (~) the
energy released by the system during the damaging The plastic multiplier is determined from the con-
process - Y3D, eventually converted into heat. sistency condition f ' = 0.
In fact the above normality rule is a sufficient but
3.2. Dissipation not a necessary condition [32]. In some cases it appears
as too restrictive, especially for materials or rupture
The second principle of thermodynamics imposes conditions where the energetic rupture criterion (17)
that the intrinsic dissipation has to be positive: does not allow a correct description, as it is the case in
creep. The only condition to be verified is b > 0 (be-
o:ip-Rp- Y/) > 0. (15) cause - Y is always positive).
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 25

3.3. A slightly different theory for large strain damage law, especially a form suggested by the Rice and Tracey
[29] formula for the growth of spherical voids under high
triaxiality [33].
In that case the density changes constitute a damag- The main differences with the above theory (sections
ing effect in the mechanical sense. The above approach 3.1, 3.2) are:
can be modified into (in the isothermal case): - the damaged elastic behaviour (only through the den-
sity change),
" / ( % , p , 13) = ½Z : % : I[e + " / l ( P , T ) + "/2(fl, T ) , - the additional term "/2 in the free energy, which leads
(21) to a completely different sense to the associated
thermodynamic force and to the dissipation,
where L is now independent of the damage variable/3. - the hydrostatic term in the plastic strain rate [26]. In
The isotropic part of damage is taken into account in the first theory it comes only through the anisotropic
the elastic moduli by: form of the damage variable [34],
- the form of the plastic potential. Comparing (23) and
o = p-~% = p L : % = p 0 ( 1 - D ) L : %. (22) (19) shows that damage reduces the hardening R in
the second theory though it does not in the first one.
This theory corresponds to a particular case of the With o H = 0 for instance: Oeq = p(R + k) instead of
preceding one in that concerns the elastic behaviour. aeq = R + k(1 - D ).
The plastic flow rule and the damage evolution are
written in the framework of generalized standard
materials. The plastic potential is: 4. Damage growth equations

4.1. Creep damage

where J ( a / p ) = Oeq/P. The generafized force B is con- Continuum Damage Mechanics was developed first
jugated to the damage variable/3: for the case of creep damage [1,2]. The Rabotnov-
Kachanov equation can be considered as very classical.
0"/2
B=o 0,8 " (24) D varying between 0 for the undamaged material and 1
for the rupture, it writes, under pure tensile stress:
The flow rule now writes [29]:
dD = (1 - D) -k dt, (28)
~p=X Of (25)
a(o/0)' where r, k, A are material and temperature dependent
Decomposing it into deviatoric and spherical parts: coefficients. Their determination is made from constant
stress creep tests, for which the integration from 0 to 1
•, =2 ' . =- Xn ,[°hi (26) gives the rupture time:
Oeq
to= k +1l (A)-r (29)
and for the internal variables:
Of )1/2 while evolution of damage is given by:

D= l- (l- ~)l/(k + l). (30)

0f
/3=-X-~-~ = +)tg(~). (27)
The concept of effective stress, introduced in the
Let us note that g is an increasing function of ort/p secondary creep law (Norton's equation), allows the
but '/2 is a decreasing function of/3, so that B < 0 and calculation of tertiary creep curves as well as the predic-
the hydrostatic strain rate is positive. As in the first tion of the change in creep ductility [28,34]. Fig. 8 gives
theory the growth of damage decreases the free energy. an example:
In [29], the function g is chosen as an exponential and
different forms are considered for the relation between = o_ (31)
fl and p, by taking into account the mass conservation ~p /¢(1 D) "
26 J.L. Chaboche/ Continuumdamage mechanics

epl%) which can describe adequately the isochronous surfaces

I - - Predictions in a large domain [38,39]. However, the form (34)
• x + o Tests automatically gives no damage under pure compression,
5- \ Failure which is not perfectly true in polycristalline metals, as
shown by two level creep tests [40]. Let us mention a
4- possible different form for the damage growth equation,
"' '~"'~ INIO0 Z = 1000°C using the creep strain instead of time [41]:
3"
a B
dD=A[Jo(o)] %q de.q, (35)
2'
such form was deduced from cavity measurements on
1. notched specimens. It is possible to show that (28) and
~x~.-X.-~ X--X- : ~ ( ' - x , t (h)
(31) are equivalent to (35) through the following one-to-
one mapping [42] (in tension):
o 10 20 40 60

Fig. 8. Calculated and measured creep curves on superalloy IN D ~ [1 - (1 - D ) k - " + ' ] a + ' (36)
100. Prediction of creep ductility.

4.2. Fatigue damage

Under multiaxial stress conditions the damage equa-
tions can be generalized by describing isodamage In the case of fatigue several aspects have to be
surfaces (or isochronous surfaces) defined with proper considered:
stress invariants: - the existence of micro-initiation and nficro-propa-
- the octahedral shear stress ./2(o) related to the ef- gation stages,
fects of shear, - the non-linear-cumulative effects for two-level tests
- the hydrostatic stress ./1(o) = Tr(o) = a : 1, which or block-program loading conditions,
greatly affects the growth of the cavities, - the existence of a fatigue limit, but its marked de-
- the maximum principal stress Jo(a) = 01, which opens crease after prior damage,
the microcracks and causes them to grow. - the effect of mean-stress either for the fatigue limit
Following Hayhurst's method [35], the equivalent and for the S - N curves.
stress can be defined through a linear combination: Fatigue damage accumulation models have been
considered in [43,5,7]. A common general form is ob-
X(o)=aJo(o)+flJl(a)+(1-a-fl)J2(o), (32)
tained with:
where a, /3 are coefficients dependent on the material
- [OM--ff] '8
and temperature. The time to failure under a fixed dD=D,~( . . . . )[ M ( ~ ) ] dN, (37)
multiaxial stress is expressed as:
where a M and 8 are the maximum and mean stress,
respectively. Several choices [44] for a lead to the rules
considered in [5,45,46]. The key of the non-linear effect
is the dependency in o M and ff which, after integrating
The creep damage equations can be considered as
for a two-level test, gives:
taking into account the evolution of microstructural
defects in an indirect manner. Works by the material
scientists have shown the combination of two mecha- NF
2N2-I-(N1)O-'~2)/t'-'~') . (38)
nisms; the nucleation and growth of cavities [36,37]. It
is possible to make some connections between the equa-
tions obtained from material science and the more The function M ( 8 ) is deduced from a linear depend-
macroscopic ones developed in the framework of C D M ency between 8 and the fatigue limit.
[381. This cumulative damage equation allows a very good
In that concerns the multiaxial stress criterion, the description of multi-level fatigue tests [7,44]. In a cer-
physical interpretations lead often to a product form: tain sense it includes in a continuous way the micro-ini-
tiation and micro-propagation phases as discussed in
x( o) = [ Jo(o)]"[ J2(,)] '-~, (34) [5,11,47]. Moreover, by a convenient variable change,
eq. (37) can be incorporated into Continuum Damage
 J.L Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 27

Mechanics, with the effective stress concept, as shown 4.4. Ductile plastic damage
by damage measurements described in [19,26]. The mi-
crocrack measurements made in [11,48] for instance Ductile damage in metals is essentially the initiation
then show the possible equivalence between: and growth of cavities due to large deformations. Ex-
- the definition by the effective stress concept, periments of ductile rupture show that the dissipative
- the definition in terms of the remaining life concepts potential q~* can be expressed, in the framework of
(subjacent in eq. (37)), time-independent plasticity [26]:
- the quantification of physical damage, in terms of
microcracking. ~b* = Oeq--/~ -- k + 2-1
S --~ ( -S y)2, (40)
In the case of Low-cycle Fatigue, the conventional
parametrization of the life is written in terms of the ip =~3q~* - A Oq'* = (Zip:
• ~1/2
(41)
plastic (or total) strain range. Provided the existence of 0o ' P = " ' ~ R % ) '

a one-to-one relation between o M and Z~Cp (the cyclic 0q,* = -

curve) eq. (37) can still be used and contains indepen- b = -• ~- S-Yp. (42)
dently the influence of mean-stress.
The generalization to multiaxial loading conditions Using the relation (14) between Oeq and - Y, and a
is a difficult problem. At least two parameters have to particular choice for hardening:
be considered:
Oeq=/~ + k = gp 1/M. (43)
- an equivalent shear-stress amplitude,
- a mean (or maximum) hydrostatic stress. K and M being coefficients which are material depen-
Experiments near the fatigue limit show the independ- dent, one obtains the following differential constitutive
ency in the mean shear-stress and in the hydrostatic equation for ductile plastic damage [18]:
range [49]. A possible form to generalize (37) has been
proposed in [28].
b = + + 3(1 -

4.3. Creep-fatigue interaction In the case of radial loading, when the principal
directions of stresses do not vary, the triaxiality ratio
on/O~q is constant and this expression may be in-
One advantage of the CDM approach in creep and tegrated using the conditions:
fatigue is to allow a natural way to predict creep-fa- P < P i~ (damage threshold) = D = 0,
tigue interaction. The simplest hypothesis consists in a p = p ~ (strain to rupture) = D = D c.
direct summation of creep and fatigue damages, which Neglecting elastic strain in the calculation of p and
leads to [4,19]: using Pr)/PR = Er)/CR, the equation for damage evolu-
d D =fc(O, D ) dt +fF(OM, o, D ) d N , (39) tion may be written in terms of the one-dimensional
threshold c D and one-dimensional strain to rupture ~R
where fc is for instance deduced from eq. (28) and fF [181:
from eq. (37). These two functions can be determined
from pure tensile creep tests and pure fatigue tests (high
frequency). The conditions at low-frequency or with
hold times are then predicted by integrating numerically
(39). This approach has given good results for several
o ,.-
(Ip + . ) + 3(1 - 2 . )
t /21 / - ,D

(45)
materials [19,50,51,52].
Let us note that the additive hypothesis does not Identification of such a model consists in the
correspond to the direct addition of physical damages quantitative evaluation of the coefficients ~r), ~R and
of different natures. For instance microcracks and cavi- D c (Poisson's coefficient being known from elasticity),
ties are not added. Only their mechanical effects add, in which can be done from experimental results such as
the framework of the effective stress concept. The those shown on fig. 5a.
mechanical effects are obtained by the above mentioned As shown in fig. 9, the present model gives the
one-to-one mappings between the physical damage influence of triaxiality on the strain to failure [18]. It
(crackgor cavities) and the corresponding macroscopic compares fairly well with the MacClintock [53] or Rice
variable D (see sections 4.1 and 4.2). and Tracey [33] models and can be used to predict the
28 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

p, considered as a scalar function [59], vectors [22], second

t
,U.. [12] or fourth order tensors [60]. See also [61] for a more
complete review.
The scalar measure of damage anisotropy is defined
(in the creep range) by considering the grain boundaries
orthogonal to the direction n and the fraction of
boundaries which are cavitated. Then to each direction
n is associated a scalar valued function V(n). In ref.
[59], it is shown that a tensorial decomposition of such
05 ,, elementary damage measure leads to even order tensors.
However, if one considers the damage as produced
by small parallel cracks, it is possible to associate a
vector to each crack direction [22]. Such kind of theory,
-"- Ocq
o i ~' 3 similar to the slip theory of plasticity can be developed
with a similar thermodynamic framework as the one
Fig. 9. Influence of triaxiality on fracture strain: • A 508 steel, presented in sections 3.1 and 3.2, introducing for in-
® H steel, - . . . . . domain covered by Mc-Clintock Rice- stance a vector as the dual variable to the present
Tracey models, - - domain covered by the present model.
damage variable (instead of the scalar Y or of the fourth
order tensor Y defined in [26]). This kind of theory is
attractive to give directly the distinction between active
fracture limits of metal forming [31]. damage (open microcracks) and passive damage (closed
Let us note that the modified thermodynamic frame- microcracks). The main difficulty is the number of
work developed by Rousselier [29] (see section 3.3) independent systems which have to be considered in a
leads to similar results. It fits directly the Rice and general case, but several useful applications have been
Tracey model for a special choice of g'2(fl)- As shown done for concrete under special loading cases [22].
in [29] this theory allows a correct prediction of plastic Two kinds of theories are summarized below, with a
instabilities and can be used to predict ductile fracture little more details. In the first one damage acts as a
by means of local approaches [54,55]. Let us mention second order tensor and its evolution is directed by the
also some works based on homogenization concepts so-called net stress tensor. Influence of damage on the
which, in the case of ductile fracture, allow informa- constitutive behaviour is described by a fourth order
tions about the damage evolution equations [56,57]. transformation. In the second one damage is defined
directly as a fourth order tensor.

5. Damage anisotropy 5.1. The anisotropic theory of Murakarni and Ohno [12,13]

As shown in section 2.2, the damaged state of a

The directional nature of damage is clear in many
material can be interpreted by a second order damage
situations. In creep for instance, microstructure ob-
tensor. In its principal directions it writes 12 = I2jvi ® J,j.
servations have shown two classes of metallic materials
Considering the vector force acting on a surface element
[38,58]:
and on the net surface element, the net stress is in-
- for copper, cavitation takes place on grain boundaries
troduced in [12] as:
more or less perpendicular to the maximum principal
stress, o* = ½ ( o . ~ + ~.o), ~ = ( 1 - 12) 1. (46)
- for aluminium alloys, grain boundary cavitation is
much more isotropically distributed. The creep damage evolution is expressed in the form:
Clearly these observations relate to the anisotropy of r

the damage rate equation. For a situation with varying

directions of principal stresses the anisotropy of the
present damage state could be reduced (even for copper
type materials). In Continuum Damage Mechanics the where X(o*) is the invariant describing the isochronous
problem of anisotropy concerns also the effect of damage surface (see eq. (32)). Coefficient ~, adjusts the degree of
on the constitutive behaviour. Several levels of theories anisotropy of the damage evolution.
can then be considered, where the damage variable is On the other hand, the effect of the present damage
 J.L Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 29

on the strain behaviour (elastic, plastic, creep) can only state:

be introduced through a fourth-rank tensor. Murakami
D = 1 - A : ,'~-x. (53)
and Ohno use an effective stress of the form [12]:
such an operator D can represent any observed
S = ½IF: o + ( F : o)T], (48) behaviour for the damaged elastic material. We have:
where the fourth-rank tensor F is deduced from the o =A: ce = (1-/)): A: 'e (54)
tensor ~2 or rather from (I)= ( 1 - $2) -1 by a general
expression deduced from the representation theory. and the symmetry of A and A is verified.
This effective stress is introduced in the creep con- The thermodynamic framework presented in section
stitutive law. As a particular case, under tension and 3.1 can be generalized in the present case. Note that

[
neglecting hardening it writes:

o
[ o
]r (49)
slightly different formulations have been developed,
using a second order damage tensor [65].
The creep damage evolution is expressed here as:
4p= K(1-c~2) ' I)= A(1-/2)
b= 0(6)b, (55)
Integrating (49b) between 0 and 1 leads to:
where Q ( 6 ) gives the directionality of damage evolu-
I2 = 1 - (1 - t /_t c ).x/(r+l) . (50) tion, in the principal effective stress system. It is in-
troduced by rotating a fourth order tensor Q* which is
Experiments on perforated plates have shown the fixed for a given material. Its identification is made by
adequacy of the present theory for both the anisotropic linearly superposing the isotropic case and the one
effects on the elastic-plastic behaviour and on the rup- corresponding to planar microcracks, all parallel, devel-
ture conditions [62]. Also experiments on slotted plates oping perpendicular to the direction of maximum prin-
show similar possibilities [63]. The theory is capable to cipal stress:
predict fairly correctly creep rupture for sequence ten-
sion-torsion experiments [12,13], especially longer lives Q* = vl + (1 - y ) G . (56)
when changing the direction of the maximum principal
The anisotropy tensor G is defined from elastic analysis
stress.
results [64].
The scalar damage rate b in relation (55) (D is a
5.2. The theory developed by the author [60,64] scalar measure of damage density) obeys the Rabot-
nov-Kachanov equation. The damage law writes:
k
The damage variable is defined directly through the
effective stress concept, that is by means of an
equivalence made between the damaged and un-
damaged materials in terms of their stress-strain be- where invariants 2 and X are defined properly [34]. Eq.
haviours. In the case of linear elasticity, one writes (57) has to be compared to eq. (47) of the first theory.
o = -4 : c and 6 = A : %, respectively, where A repre- Using the effective stress concept in the thermody-
sents the damaged elasticity tensor. The effective stress namic framework leads to the creep strain rate equa-
follows: tion, applied here under pure tension [28,34]:

6=A:%=A:fx 1:o. (51)

4p= 1 - D K(12D)
The fourth-rank tensor M = A : A-1 can be set in a
form that generalizes the initial theories of Kachanov the damage equation (57) expresses in that case:
and Rabotnov, such that the effective stress can be
expressed: JDm(i)r(1-n)-k. (59)

= (t-D)-' :°, (52)

5.3. Comparison between the two theories
where D is an asymmetrical fourth-rank damage tensor.
It can be measured through the elastic behaviour mea- In the particular case of tension, the comparison
sured in the present state and in the initial (undamaged) with relation (49) in the theory of Murakami-Ohno
30 ,L L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

D=I -'E/E worthiness in the past and in the future.

However in some situations this global approach
presents some difficulties, even inconsistencies, espe-
cially when material non-linearities play an important
role, for example in ductile fracture or creep crack
growth.
An alternate method, presently under development is
o., i[? the so-called "local approach of fracture". Some atten-
'" tion is given here to the additional possibilities offered
by Damage Mechanics to this development. See refs.
y ~ = 2a/d [66,67] for more detailed discussions.
I
In fact, two levels can be considered for local ap-
0.5 1
proaches:
Fig. 10. Damages defined by the net area reduction and by the - Numerical methods using discrete crack incre-
effective cross section. Results of elastic calculations on perfo-
ments: one uses the technique of node release to pro-
rated (O) or cracked ( + ) plates. Plain lines are calculated by
duce the crack growth when some critical value of a
eq. (61).
physical quantity is reached at some critical distance
ahead of the crack tip [68-71]. This physical quantity
easily shows the main difference between I2 and D, can be equivalent stress or strain, energy or some mea-
difference corresponding to the two definitions used. sure of local damage. In such situations, the prediction
Integrating (59) between 0 and 1 leads to: of crack growth using this method will be mesh depen-
dent [69], but the local mesh size is fixed by means of
D=I -
(1 -
._ c ).1/(k+1)
t/t (60) statistical considerations [55,72]. Simplified approaches
can be developed, using analytical stress-strain fields
and combining with (50) gives [34]:
near the crack tip [73].
O = 1 -- (1 -- ff~)(r+l)/(k+l) (61) - Use of the Continuum Damage Mechanics, includ-
ing the progressive deterioration and the corresponding
Fig. 10 shows this correspondence together with stiffness reduction. The crack (damaged zone) is then
elasticity results for perforated and cracked plates. It taken as the locus of material points with no rigidity
proves that the influence of damage on the constitutive where damage has reached its critical value (fig. 11).
behaviour is less sensitive than given by the net area Conceptually, due to the stress redistribution associated
definition. This is described in the two theories by with viscoplasticity and strength decrease, there is no
means of the influence factor c in the first one and the need to introduce a critical distance nor node release
use of exponent k instead of r in relation (59) for the techniques for crack growth simulation. After some
second one. Moreover the predicted creep ductilities
with the two theories are identical if the coefficient c in
the theory of Murakami (damage effect on the constitu-
tive equations) is c = (n + 1 ) / ( k + 1).
In that concerns anisotropic effects several similari- / ~ ~ ~ / H/gh grad/enfof
ties between the two theories have been pointed out [34]
either for the rupture conditions (damaging effect) and
for the constitutive behaviour.

6. Local a p p r o a c h e s of fracture

The Linear Elastic and Non-Linear Fracture Mecha-

nics are very useful to describe the crack propagation
and the fracture of different structures. In many cases
L E F M constitutes a practical tool to predict crack
growth, especially in situation of non dissipative "small
scale yielding" materials. Not doubt on its utility and Fig. 11. Crack as a damaged zone.
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 31

maximum, the stresses in the plastic zone decrease limitations and promises, in: Mechanisms of Deformation
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