Thesis CDU 59864 Chabvuta B
Thesis CDU 59864 Chabvuta B
Thesis CDU 59864 Chabvuta B
Blessing Chabvuta
2016
Supervisors
Rob Wolff
Sabaratnam Prathapan
In this report carbon fibre in the form of braided rope was considered for the possibility of use
in reinforcing concrete. Braided carbon fibre ropes were considered for applications such as
tendons for prestressed concrete or grids for slabs and beams. Experimental investigations that
were carried out by Cortis, Kaczmarcyzyk, & Pearce, (2013) reported a low bonding strength
between concrete and braided carbon fibre rope. This means braided carbon fibre despite
having exceptional mechanical properties may not be used for prestressed concrete. However,
braided carbon fibre may be used for post-tensioning of concrete.
Grid reinforcement may be the only way to effectively to use carbon fibre for concrete
reinforcement. Application of grid reinforcement in concrete was reported to increase the pull
out load (Seo & Djamaluddin, 2006). This could be due to large surface area of the grid that is
exposed to concrete bonding in comparison with adhesive bonding on ropes. Therefore, grid
carbon fibre reinforcement may be used to reinforce concrete slabs, wall panels and beams.
I am grateful to my primary supervisor Rob Wolff for his support, guidance and mentoring
over the course of the study. I would also like to thank my second supervisor A/Prof
Sabaratnam Prathapan for their support and expert advice. I would also like to thank the
school of Engineering and Information technology department.
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 7
2 Scope .................................................................................................................................. 8
6.5. Properties of concrete reinforced with braided carbon fibre grid .............................. 41
7 Discussion......................................................................................................................... 44
8 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 46
9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 46
10 References ........................................................................................................................ 47
Replacing steel reinforcement with carbon fibre may be a solution to improve on the
durability of concrete. Over the years carbon fibre has been used to reinforce concrete in the
form of a composite material known as Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP). CFRP
have exceptional mechanical strength and does not corrode in chloride environment such as
sea water. However, the epoxy used in fabrication of CFRP is not stable at high temperatures
above 120°C (Huang, 2009). This report considers the possibility of using carbon fibre
without thermosetting resin to reinforce concrete in the form of a rope. Continuous carbon
fibre rope was reported to be ineffective in transferring force with 50% reported to work as
flexural reinforcement in concrete (Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, 2000).
Braiding carbon strands was considered as a way on improving interlocking between carbon
filaments and also produces a surface that can bond well with concrete. Alternatively, braided
carbon fibre rope may be used to make grid reinforcement for slabs and beams.
In order to successfully use braided carbon fibre rope and grid, to reinforce concrete, the bond
strength between concrete and reinforcement had to be considered. Research done by Cortis,
Kaczmarcyzyk, & Pearce, (2013), reported a low bond strenth which was about 36% that of
steel reinforecemnt and concrete. However, a grid reinforcement may result in improved
bonding to concrete. Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, (2000) report an increase in
pull out load when grid reinforcement with more than three crossing members were used in
concrete. The low bond strength that was reported means braided carbon fibre may not be
used to prestressed concrete. The only effective way of reinforcing concrete with carbon fibre
may be to use a grid reinforcement instead of rope.
There are four different types of stainless steel that are suitable for reinforcing concrete. These
are 2205 stainless steel, Type 316LN, 18Cr-3Ni-12Mn and Type 304LN (Maggie & Schnell,
2002). With regard to the hostile marine environment and the reinforcing properties of
stainless steel, this report considered 2205 stainless steel and Type 316LN as more suitable
material that may be used as alternative to carbon steel.
Stainless steel 2205 is a duplex with a microstructure that is made up of austenite and ferrite
phase. The duplex structure, along with its chemical composition, gives the alloy an excellent
combination of strength and corrosion resistance (Magee & Schnell, 2002). It has a higher
percentage of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen which provide exceptional superior
chloride pitting and crevice corrosion resistance. The duplex microstructure allows it to resist
chloride stress-induced corrosion and cracking. According to Bourgin, Chauveau, & Demelin,
(2006), the pitting resistance of stainless steel 2205 is approximately 50%, which is higher
than the other stainless steel grades.
Stainless steel Type 316LN has high yield and tensile strength. It has a higher nitrogen
content which enhances its resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion. The low percentage of
carbon makes it resistant to intergranular corrosion and it should, therefore, be considered for
concrete reinforcement exposed to chloride ions (Magee & Schnell, 2002).
Carbon fibre has excellent mechanical properties when compared to steel. It has high modulus
of elasticity ranging from 200 to 800GPa and an ultimate elongation of 0.3 to 2.5% where low
elongation refers to high stiffness and vice versa (Chaea, et al., 2015). It does not absorb
water and is further resistant to chemical solutions that corrode steel, such as sea water.
Carbon fibre does not stress corrode and neither shows any sign of creep relaxation. It is
however, a quite conductive, such that when it is joined to steel, it undergoes galvanic
corrosion (Chaea, et al., 2015). Table 1 illustrates the mechanical properties of a carbon fibre
brand (PX35) that is produced by Zoltek.
Information in table 2 was obtained from Benmoktane, Chaallalt, & Masmoudi (1995)
Elongation 2.9 %
Information contained in table 3 was obtained from Fibre Technologies International, (2016)
It can be seen from Table 4 carbon fibre, glass fibre and aramid fibre have high tensile
strength when compared with stainless steel. However, this property alone can not be used to
select the best material as they have almost the same tensile strength. Carbon fibre has a
higher modulus of elsticity when it is compared with all the other material listed in Table 4.
From the information obtained Table 4, it can be concluded that carbon fibre has exceptional
mechanical properties, therefore, it may potential to reinforce concrete.
Table 5: Chemical resistance of Fibres and stainless steel (Newhook & Svecova, 2007)
During World War II, an American company called Union Carbide Corporation explored the
production of high strength carbon fibre from Rayon and polyacrylonitrile precursor material.
The research performed by Union Carbide lead to the production of carbon fibre from Rayon
and PAN in 1959 and 1961 respectively. Previous research in the 1950 by DuPont has
reviewed that acrylic material could be thermally stabilised, while work conducted by Shindo
in Japan and Watts demonstrated that using tension through carbonisation process increases
the mechanical properties of carbon fibre.
The demand for carbon fibre increased in 1980 due to advances in aerospace industry. PAN
based carbon fibre was extensively used compared to carbon fibre from other precursor
material such as pitch and rayon. This was mainly due to the low cost of producing PAN
compared with spinnable pitch.
In the mid-90s, a new cost effective PAN based carbon fibre made from modified textile
precursor was aggressively promoted by companies such as Zoltek and Fortar for commercial
application. According to Walsh (2001), a goal was announced to reach a carbon fibre price
level of $11/Kg by the year 2000. This received wide attention and increased application
development. An overall trend in improved performance/price ratio for both pitch and PAN-
based manufacturer has sustained growth.
Polymerisation
Polymerization is the first step in the production of carbon fibre. In this step, polymeric
feedstock known as a precursor is produced. Acrylonitrile monomer is combined with
plasticized acrylic monomer and a catalyst such as titanic acid, sulphuric acid, and sulphur
dioxide or methyl acrylic acid. The mixture is continuously stirred to blend the ingredients
and ensure consistency and purity and initial formation of free radical. This leads to the
polymerization reaction to produce acrylic fibres. After acrylic fibres have been washed and
dried, the acrylonitrile now in powder form is dissolved in either organic solvent such as
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylacetamide (DMAC), or dimethylformamide (DMF) or
aqueous solvent such as zinc chloride. Organic solvents prevent contamination by trace metals
that can upset thermal oxidation. At this point, the solvent-powder slurry is the consistency of
maple syrup. This stage is important as it determines the success of the next phase of fibre
formation (McConnell, 2008).
Spinning
Wet spinning is performed where the dope is immersed in a liquid coagulation bath and
extruded through holes in a spinneret made from precious metals. The number of spinneret
holes determines the filament count of the PAN fibre. Wet spanned fibres which are
gelatinous and fragile are drawn by rolling through a wash which removes excess coagulant,
then dried and stretched to continue orientation of PAN polymer. Filament external shape and
internal cross section are determined by the degree to which the selected solvent and
coagulant have penetrated the precursor fibre, the amount of applied tension and percentage
of filament elongation. The last step of this stage is the application of finishing oil to prevent
tacky filaments from clumping white PAN fibres, then dried and wound onto bobbins. The
process combines oxygen molecules from the air with PAN fibre in the warp and causes
polymeric chains to start cross-linking. This increases the density of the fibres (McConnell,
2008).
Carbonisation occurs in an inert atmosphere inside a series of specially designed furnaces that
progressively increases the processing temperature. During the carbonisation process, non-
carbon elements are removed. Carbonisation starts at low temperature around 700°C to 800°C
and ends in a high-temperature furnace at 1200°C to 1500°C. Fibre tensioning is continued
throughout the production process. The number of furnaces determines the modulus desired in
the carbon fibre (McConnell, 2008).
Surface treatment
The surface treatment is the last step in the production PAN based carbon fibre. The surface
treatment is performed to enhance adhesion and one of the common methods used involves
pulling fibres through an electrochemical or electrolytic bath that contains solutions such as
sodium hypochlorite or nitric acid. These chemicals etch or roughen the surface the surface of
each filament (McConnell, 2008).
A special type of coating is applied at a ration that varies from 05 to 5 percent the weight of
carbon fibre. This coating process protects the fibre during handling, processing and also
holds individual filaments together in tows.
Compression
Effective depth d
Carbon fibre
There are different methods of making CFRPb reinforcements which are hand lay-up,
pultrusion, filament winding and moulding. The mechanical properties of resulting CFRP
depends on matrix that is used, direction and volume of carbon fibre. In some cases, there is a
limit on the volume of carbon fibre that can be used to make the polymer. For instance, at
least 60% fibre volume in required to make carbon fibre reinforced polymer bars and rods.
These bars can be used in the same manner as steel bars. CFRP can also be made in the form
of cables for prestressed concrete and grids for concrete slabs and walls.
Deforming the surface of the bars by creating ribs (Figure 5) or indents. Ribbed bars
can be manufactured from a combination of protrusion and compression moulding
technique.
Surface treatment using sandblasting or epoxy coated sand.
Spirally winding the protrusion rod carbon fibre row and sand coat.
Figure 2:Ribbed carbon fibre reinforced polymer bars (Zongao Carbon, 2016)
Carbon fibre reinforced polymer bars are used to reinforce concrete in the same way as steel.
Their main advantage over steel reinforcement is that they can be tailor-made to resist specific
loads.
Figure 6 demonstrates how carbon fibre was used in the face panel to replace steel mesh
reinforcement and as a mechanical link between the inner and outer sections of the concrete
wall. Less concrete cover is needed to protect the reinforcing material as carbon fibre grid
does not corrode. This saves material and produces thin, strong and durable concrete walls.
Figure 7: Carbon fibre grid was used to reinforce double tee beam
Figure 8:Shade grove parking garage in Maryland used double Tee beams reinforced with
carbon fibre grid (Altusgroup, 2016)
A reduction in concrete cover for structures reinforced using CFRP also decreases the total
weight of the structure built. The symphony house in Philadelphia (see figure 9) for example
used wall panels reinforced with carbon fibre grid. The weight of the wall panels was reported
to weigh 40% less compared to a conventional six-inch steel reinforced precast concrete
(Dave, 2009)
CFRP are expensive reinforcing material when it is compared with the price of steel
reinforcement. The price of CFRP is about ten times that of steel tendons (Burgoyne, 2009)
making construction process uneconomical. Therefore, CFRP may not be used a direct
replacement of steel reinforcement despite having excellent mechanical properties.
Carbon fibre rope is a flexible material which requires application on tensional force to keep
in position when pouring concrete. Therefore, reinforcing concrete using carbon fibre rope is
only applicable for precast concrete produced in a factory. Although it is possible to make
long beams and wide slabs using carbon fibre rope, transportability problems limit the size of
precast concrete structures that can be produced. For example, by considering the width of
roads and turning circles of long vehicles, precast concrete beams reinforced with carbon fibre
rope must be approximately 12m which is the length of most transport vehicles.
In order to determine the feasibility of using carbon fibre rope to reinforce concrete, the
bonding between concrete and the rope must be investigated. Pre-stressed concrete relies on
bonding between concrete and reinforcement to transfer force, therefore a strong bonding is
critical. For structures that may be reinforced with grid made from carbon fibre rope, flexural
bonding and failure mode needs to be investigated.
Although a single strand of carbon fibre rope may have the same strength as braided carbon
fibre rope of the same cross-sectional area, there are several advantages which make braided
carbon fibre rope a more preferred choice. These are:
If one carbon fibre strand were to break, the rope will remain intact whereas a single
stranded large continuous carbon fibre rope would fail with potentially catastrophic
consequences.
Thin braided carbon fibre rope has a higher strength in contrast to thick continuous
carbon fibre rope. Therefore, using thin braided carbon fibre rope saves material;
reduces weight and the cost of producing the rope.
Multi-stranded braided carbon fibre rope is more flexible than a single stranded carbon
fibre rope of the same diameter.
Commercially, there exists a high strength carbon fibre rope (figure 10) that is being produced
by a Chinese company Hi-tech Carbon Co Limited. This type of braided carbon fibre rope is
produced from Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) through a classified woven technique and has the
potential to be used as concrete reinforcement. The rope is characterised by its exceptional
properties which include high strength, light weight, good corrosion resistance, non-melting
Figure 11:Typical arrangement Figure 12: Possible way of arranging small diameter
of steel reinforcement in carbon fibre rope in concrete
concrete
In pre-tensioning, three or more 2mm braided carbon fibre ropes can be combined to make a
pre-tensioning tendon of approximately 8mm in diameter. Stress is applied to the pre-
tensioning cable and concrete is cast around it. Afterwards, when the concrete has reached the
desired strength, the cables are cut at the anchorage. Through the bond between the concrete
and the pre-tensioned braided carbon fibre rope, a compressive force is applied onto the
concrete. This technique relies on the bond strength between the cables and the concrete to be
effective in transferring compressive forces.
In post-tensioning, cables consisting of three or more 2mm braided carbon fibre rope encased
in a duct or sleeve that is positioned in the form before concrete is cast. Afterwards, when the
concrete has gained the desired strength before service loads are applied, the cables are pulled
tight and anchored against the outer edge of the concrete.
Figure 14: Steel coupling device for anchoring braided carbon fibre (Tokyo rope
mfy.co.ltd)
Sleeve for braided carbon fibre Wedge for braided carbon fibre rope Joint coupler
Figure 15: Components of the steel coupling device (Tokyo rope mfy.co.ltd)
Figure 17: Standard pull out test for braided carbon fibre rope
In this thesis report, experimental investigation to determine the bond strength between
braided carbon fibre reinforcement and concrete was not carried out. However, findings from
past experiments on similar studies were used to estimate the strength of braided carbon fibre
to concrete. Cortis, Kaczmarcyzyk, & Pearce, (2013) performed an experimental investigation
to determine the bonding strength between concrete and braided fibre ropes. They performed
a standard pull-out test on 7mm diameter Siltex prestressed carbon fibre ropes, that were
embedded in six samples of 150mm by 20mm concrete cylinders. The test reported an
average bond strength of 4.17 MPa which was 36 percent of the bond strength between
concrete and similar diameter steel bars (11.44MPa). The load response was reported as linear
Blessing Chabvuta Carbon Fibre reinforcement in concrete Page | 34
load displacement behaviour, followed by rope de-bonding and failure was due to anchorage
slippage during pulling load which influenced elongation behaviour (Cortis, Kaczmarcyzyk,
& Pearce, 2013).
Due to the low bond strength reported on braided carbon fibre rope, a similar pullout test was
conducted to determine the bond strength using 10mm diameter technora fibre rope ribbed
with glass beads at the core. A 5.5 times increase in bonding strength was reported and the
failure mode was due to crushing of glass beads and cracking of concrete as shown in figure
18. The ripped braided carbon fibre rope was reported to show an enhancement in bond
strength but in cost comparison with steel reinforcement, the ripped rope was four times more
expensive than a steel reinforcement (Cortis, Kaczmarcyzyk, & Pearce, 2013).
The low bond strength reported on braided carbon fibre ropes makes braided carbon fibre
rope not suitable for prestressing concrete. Prestressing relies on the bond strength between
the braided carbon fibres and surrounding concrete to transfer stress from prestressed strands
to concrete. It can be concluded that braided carbon fibre ropes will have a long development
length and prestressed members would fail prematurely due to pull out failure. A solution to
increase the bond strength between braided carbon fibre rope and concrete will be to increase
the surface area for bonding by making a reinforcement mesh.
Longitudinal members
Crossing members
Increases the surface area of braided carbon fibre rope that can be bonded to concrete.
The grid reinforcement system is easy to layout at a construction site and maybe used
for precast as well as cast in-situ concrete.
A braided carbon fibre grid reinforcement system may be used to replace steel mesh. During
the construction process, the grid is placed under tension force to keep it in position when
concrete is poured.
EP42HT-2 adhesive
This is room temperature curable, two component epoxy adhesive with high temperature and
chemical resistance. It has a service temperature of 230°C and easy to use by just applying
contact pressure while curing. The material has outstanding strength properties (Masterbond,
2016)
EP17HT-LO
A one component heat cured epoxy system for bonding. It has excellent physical properties
and chemical resistance. The glass transition temperature of 225°C is higher than that of
commercial epoxy and has a high service temperature of 345°C.The adhesive is easy to use
but requires a minimum curing temperature of 150°C (Masterbond, 2016).
UV 25
This has a glass transition temperature of 180°C and can readily cure by exposing the material
to UV radiation.
By comparing the five structural adhesives described in sections above based on service
temperature. Mastersil 800 has the better option because it has a high service life of 300°C.
Although the temperature for Mastersil 800 is less than that of EP 17HT AND EP46HT of
345 and 315°C, Mastersil can cure rapidly at room temperature whereas the EP17HT require
minimum curing temperature of 150°C
Carbon fibre grid has a rectangular opening measuring 10mm x 20mm.Therefore; concrete
mixture must not contain aggregates which are more than 10mm in size. Self-consolidating
concrete may be used for carbon fibre grid reinforcement. This type of concrete is highly
flowable and does not segregate. It can spread into form, fills the form work and can
encapsulate even most congested reinforcement. Plasticisers are used to create flowing
concrete that meets high performance requirements. In order for concrete to be considered as
self-consolidating concrete, it must be able to meet three minimum requirements which are:
Ability to flow
Passing ability
Resistance to segregation
Self-consolidating concrete may be used for precast slabs, wall panels and beams that may be
strengthened with carbon fibre grid. Figure 20 illustrates the practical application of self-
consolidating concrete to make precast concrete slab.
Figure 20: Self consolidating concrete being applied over a grid reinforcement
Self-consolidating concrete has a high paste volume which allows it to flow. In addition, a
typical mix has less or small aggregates and high sand to coarse aggregate ratio than
conventional concrete. Figure 21 illustrates the percentage composition of aggregates in self-
consolidating concrete and conventional concrete.
The strain distribution was reported to increase from 0 on the free end to a maximum on the
loaded end. The difference in strain between segments along the longitudinal cable separated
by a crossing member indicated that some of the tensile force is carried by the joints in the
grid.
30
25
P max (kN)
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4
number of grids
Figure 22: Average bond capacity (information used to draw the graph was obtained from
Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, (2000))
It was reported that the bond capacity of the cable alone was about 10% of the specimen with
five grids, therefore, it was concluded that the existence of more than three grids increases the
pullout load approximately 10 times. Although the experiment was conducted using
continuous carbon fibre rope, the bonding strength to concrete may be increased by using
braided carbon fibre. The bonding strength between braided carbon fibre ropes to concrete
was reported to be equivalent to 36% of that of deformed steel bars to concrete (Cortis,
Kaczmarcyzyk, & Pearce, 2013). This is higher when it is compared with that of continous
carbon fibre rope. In an experiment to determine the bonding strength of continuous carbon
fibre rope to concrete, Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, (2000) reported a bonding
strength equivalent to 10% of deformed steel bars to concrete.
When a beam is loaded under simply supported conditions and the applied point load is
increased continuously until it breaks, the beam will fail by the crushing of concrete instead of
shear failure. When a carbon fibre grid reinforced beam is loaded for the flexural test, a single
crack will appear at the midpoint and on further loading; the crack widens and propagates fast
upwards near the top of the compression side. The single crack will continue to widen until
concrete starts to crush (Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, 2000). A maximum
load of 92.7 kN was reported Djamaluddin, Yuichi, Toshiaki, & Takayaki, (2000)and this was
followed by crushing of concrete until the load reached 124.4 kN, then the load started to
decrease followed by an increase in deflection. The propagation of a single crack was
attributed to the fact that, the carbon fibre cables could not be bonded perfectly with
surrounding concrete.
In comparison with a steel reinforced concrete beam, a crack will appear at the midpoint and
widen and then propagate upwards. With further loading, an inclined crack will start from the
support and propagate to the load point. This is due to the fact that, the beam had no shear
reinforcement, therefore, shear capacity must be sustained by concrete.
A grid reinforcement may be the only way to reinforce concrete using carbon fibre. This is
due to the grid having a large surface area exposed for bonding with concrete as compared to
tension rope reinforcement. Seo & Djamaluddin, (2006) reported an increase in bonding of
approximately 10 times when a grid reinforcement was used compared to the adhesive bond
capacity of cables alone. Although the experiment conducted by Seo & Djamaluddin, (2006),
used CFRP cables instead of braided carbon fibre rope, the same phenomenon may be
experienced when a grid using braided carbon fibre rope is used. However, the bonding
values may be slightly less as CFRP cables have better adhesion bond compared to braided
carbon fibre.
Although braided carbon fibre has exceptional mechanical properties which make it a possible
replacement for steel, there are limitations in the application of braided carbon fibre rope for
concrete reinforcement. Braided carbon fibre rope is a flexible material which would deflect
due to its own weight. Due to the nature of this reinforcing material, it is hard to keep it in
position when concrete is poured. One way to overcome this deflection problem is to apply
tensile force and cast concrete around it. This makes reinforcing with braided carbon fibre
only limited to precast concrete that is fabricated in a factory. Application for cast in place
concrete may not be possible.
The strength of the adhesive used in fabricating carbon fibre grid need to be investigated and
its behaviour at high temperature. In order for the grid to be used as a reinforcing material, the
reinforced material must be able to meet the fire endurance standards of 90 minutes. MasterSil
800 was chosen because it has a higher glass transition temperature compared to that of
epoxy. Although MasterSil 800 was reported to be stable at high temperature, there is a need
to investigate its behaviour and durability in different chemical environments.
9 Conclusion
Braided carbon fibre rope has exceptional mechanical and non-corrosion properties which
makes it a good alternative concrete reinforcement option to steel. 2mm braided carbon fibre
rope may be combined to form a prestressing tendon for precast concrete. A low bonding
strength between braided carbon fibre and concrete was reported by (Cortis, Kaczmarcyzyk,
& Pearce, 2013). This means braided carbon fibre rope may not be used as pre-stressing
tendons in concrete as the technique relies on bonding in transferring stress from tendon to
concrete. Braided carbon fibre grid was reported to have enhanced bonding strength due to
large surface are of the reinforcement exposed to bonding with concrete. In conclusion
braided carbon fibre rope cannot be used as a replacement of steel reinforcement.
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