The general anatomy of the teeth

Comparative anatomy of the teeth.

At the first time the teeth appeared from the squama of the ancient fishes.
There are three types of attachment to the low jaw:
1. The tooth attaches to the external surface of the jaw – acrodontal type.
2. The tooth attaches to the internal surface of the jaw –pleurodontal
3. The tooth grows from own cellular – tekodontal type.
The simplest shapes of the teeth are conical. There is no difference in the shape of
teeth in the lowest vertebrates. Such system is called homodontal. Higher vertebrates
have the heterodontal system of the teeth.
The teeth of the ancient lowest vertebrates were temporary. After their
distraction they were replaced by new teeth. Polyfiodontal type. Higher vertebrates
have only one сhange of teeth- Difiodal type.
The living person has:
1. Type of attachment - tekodontal
2. Type of the shape – heterodontal
3. Type of change –difiodontal.
Development of the teeth.
There are 3 stages of the development of the teeth:
1.Foundations of the teeth
2. Differentiation of the buds of the teeth
3.Formation of the root of the tooth and their eruption.
At the 5-th week of embryonic development lamina enamelare is formed from
ectoderm of the upper and low surfaces of oral cavity. Then epithelium grows and
cavity forms in ectoderm, this cavity is called organon enamelare. At the 10-th
week mesenchyma grows inside of organon enamelare. It is the buds of papillae
dentales. At the end of the 3-d months enamel organ separates from enamel plate.
Only collum of enamel organ communicates these two formations. This organ is
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surrounded with dental sac (sacculus dentalis), which fused with papillae
dentales.
At the second stage all cells of enamel organ are divided into different layers. At
the center of enamel organ pulpa is formed, but in periphery ameloblasts in
enamel organ is appeared. Papillae dentales increase at this period and grow in
enamel organ. At the surface of the papillae from the mesenchyma odontoblasts
are formed.
At the 3-d stage, which begins at the end of 4-th embryonic development the
tissues of the teeth appear, they are: dentinum, enamelium and pulp. Ameloblasts
produce enamelium and crown of the tooth forms. Odontoblasts produce
dentinum. Development of the root begins in postembrionic period. From
sacculus dentalis cementoblasts are appered. They produce cementum, which is
covered the root of the tooth. Also they produce fibers, which attach tooth to the
gum. The milk and permanent teeth are developed in one cellulae.
Chewing- communicative system consist of the following parts: 1) the hard
base is the facial skeleton; hard palate and temporomandibular joint; 2) masticator
muscles; 3) tongue, lips and cheeks; 4) teeth; 5) salivary glands.
The part of the jaw with the tooth is called segment. The segment of upper jaw
is called segmenta dentomaxillares. The segment of lower jaw is called
segmenta dentomandibulares. The segments include the following parts: 1) the
tooth; 2)alveoli; 3)ligaments, which attach tooth to the alveoli; 4) vessels and
nerves.
Each tooth consists of:
The cavity of the tooth is filled with the tooth pulp rich in vessels and nerves.
The tooth roots fuse tightly with the surface of the tooth alveoli by means of the
alveolar periosteum (periodontium). The tooth, the periodontium, the alveolar
wall, and the gingiva compose the tooth organ. The hard material of the tooth
consists of Dentine (dentinum); enamel (enamelum) and cement (cementum).
Enamel is the hardest tissue of the human body.
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The teeth form the dental rows. Each rows consists of 16 teeth arranched in the
form of dental arch.
Five surfaces are distinguished in each tooth:
1) Facies vestibularis; 2) f. Lingualis, facing the oral cavity; 3) f.occlusalis looks
to the teeth of opposite side, molar has …; 4) f.contactus is a paired looks at
neibouring tooth. During investigation and describing the tooth some terms are
used: vestibular norm, mastication norm and so on. Crown and root are
divided into three parts: In crown: occlusal third; middle third and cervical
third, but in the root: cervical; middle and apecis third.
Formular of the teeth: the large formular is ;
formular of milk teeth: The other formula

The following three signs are used in determining to which side, right or left, a
tooth belongs: 1) the root sign; 2) the crown angle sign and 3) the crown
curvature sign.
1) The longitudinal root axis is inclined distally and forms an angle with the
line passing through the middle of the crown.
2) The medial angle is sharp and the lateral angle is blunt
3) In occlusal norm the medial part more sharp then the lateral.
Whether a tooth belons to the upper or lower jaw is established from the
shape of the crown and the shape and number of the roots.
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Lecture №1
General Anatomy and Development of the Digastive System.
Clinical Anatomy of the Digestive Organs.

Digestion is a physiological process, as a result of which the nutrition in a

digestive tube is exposed to physical and chemical processing, and the nutrient
materials, keeping in it, are soaked up in a blood and lymph.
Functions of a digestive tube:
1. Mechanical and chemical treatment of food.
2. Motor - the mastication, swallowing, agitating both moving on a digestive
tube and evacuation of unnecessary oddments.
3. Absorption of the treated nutrients.
1 4. Excretion of undigested remnants of the food.
5. Protective - lymphoid device.
The human alimentary canal is about 8-10m long and is subdivided into the
following parts: the cavity of the mouth, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach
and the small and large intestine. The small intestine consists of duodenum, jejunum
and ileum. The large intestine consists of the caecum with vermiform process the
ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon and finally, the rectum. There
are two large glands in the digestive tube : liver and pancreas.
In the pharynx the alimentary canal crosses with the respiratory tract. Organs
of the digestive system are located in the thoracic and in the abdominal cavity and
the pelvic cavity.
Features of a constitution of walls of the alimentary canal:
Each part of digestive tube has the common features of the wall
1. Mucous membrane (tunica mucosa) is the internal layer of the digestive tube. It
is named so, because the glands which are situated inside this membrane is produced
digestive juices. In structure the mucous membrane consists of: 1)epithelium and
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2)lamina propria mucosae. The mucous coat is concerned with absorption and
secretion.
2.The submucosa layer. It bridges mucous with muscle. It consists of a quaggy
connected tissue and contains plexuses of large veins.
3.Muscle layer (tunica muscularis) situated between the external serous and the
internal mucous membranes. It is formed of smooth muscular tissue. The superior
and inferior parts of the alimentary canal also contain striated fibres. The muscular
coat accomplishes the motor function. In some parts of the digestive canal striate
fibers are developed very well, thus parts are called sphincters. There are two
sphincters in digestive tube: 1) in pyloric part of the stomach; 2) and in iliocecal
valve.
4. Connective tissue covers the alimentary tube from the outside. In the thoracic and
abdominal cavity it is called tunica serosa but in the head and neck it is called tunica
adventitia.

Development of members of an alimentary system

The formation of Digestive organs creates at the 2-d week from Primitive digestive
tube. It is developed from germinal ectoderma. At the 4-th week Primitive digestive
tube is subdivided into three parts: 1) anterior (the foregut), 2) middle part (the
midgut). 3) the posterior part (hindgut)
During this time the tube is closed. The anterior part of the tube is closed with
pharyngeal membrane, but the posterior part of the tube is closed with anal
membrane. Only middle part communicates with yolk sac. At the 7-th week of
embryonic development pharyngeal and anal membranes are destroyed. And
digestive tube open into the external environment from both sides. Later from
foregut develop the posterior part of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
duodenum, liver and its excretory apparatus, gall bladder, larynx. Derivatives of
midgut: duodenum, jejunum, ileum, coecum and appendix, ascending colon, right
two third of transverse colon. The parts of large intestine are developed from
hindgut.
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Mucous membrane of gastro-intestinal tract is endodermal but the membrane of the

mouth and lower part of anal canal is ectodermal and form stomodeum and
proctodeum respectively.
The musculature and rest of the wall is mesodermal and from splanchnic
mesoderm.
The important function of digestive system is protective function. There is an
accumulation of lymphoid tissue along the whole digestive tube.
At the beginning of the digestive tube some oval-shaped mass of lymphoid
tissue are founded: the lingual tonsil, is located at the root of the tongue, two
palatine tonsil, are located in the depression between two arches of the soft palate,
two tube tonsil, are situated near the auditory tube of the nasopharynx and one
pharyngel tonsil, is located at the posterior wall of the pharynx. Thus, almost a
complete ring of lymphoid structures is called Pirogov,s lymphoepithelial ring.
The next accumulation of lymphoid tissue is vermiform process (appendix
vermiformis). Some scientists call vermiform process is intestinal tonsil. It arises of
the medioposterior surface of the caecum, 2.5-3.5 cm below the iliocaecal junction.
It varies greatly in length and position. Its length may be 3-8 cm. The position of
appendix is first of all associated with the position of the caecum. Usually, it lies in
the right iliac fossa, but may also be located at a higher level or lower level. The
physician must know two points of pain during appendicitis which projected on the
surface of abdomen. McBurney’s point is located at the junction of the lateral and
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middle third of a line connecting the umbilical ring with the right anterior superior
iliac spine. Lanz’s point is located at the junction of the right and middle third of a
line connecting both anterior superior spines.
Small intestine and large intestine have lymphoid nodes. They are aggregated
in small intestine but they are more scattered and rather solitary in large one.
The upper three part (oral cavity, pharynx and part of esophagus) of digestive
tube are located in the head, neck and chest. The other digestive organs lie in
abdominal cavity.
Studding the organs, which are situated in abdominal cavity you must know
the following terms:
Skeletotopy is relation of the organ to the vertebral column and ribs.
Syntopy is relation of the organ to neibouring organs.
Holotopy is projection of the organ to anterior thoracic or abdominal walls.
The abdomen is divided by to horizontal lines, one drawn between the ends of
the X-th ribs and the other between both the anterior superior iliac spines, into three
parts, one located above another: the upper part of the abdomen (epigastrium), the
middle part (mesogastrium) and the lower part (hypogastrium). Each of these three
parts of the abdomen is subdivide by two vertical lines into three secondary regions:
the epigastrium is divided into a middle epigastric region (regio epigastrica) and
two lateral regions, the right and left hypochondrium (regiones hypochondriacae
dextra and sinistra). The middle abdomen is divided into a medial umbilical region
(regio umbilicalis) and two lateral right and left lumbar regions (regiones
abdominalis lateralies dextra and sinistra). Hypogastrium is divided into the pubic
region (regio pubica) and two lateral, right and left inguinal regions (regiones
inguinales dextra et sinistra).
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The abdominal cavity is the space in the trunk below the diaphragm; it is
completely filled with the abdominal organs. The anterior wall of the abdominal
cavity is formed by the three broad abdominal muscles and the straight abdominal
muscles. The components of the lateral walls are the muscular portions of the three
broad muscles of the abdomen. The posterior wall is formed by the lumbar segment
of the spine and the psoas major and quadratus lumborum muscles.
The abdominal cavity is subdivided into the abdominal cavity proper and the
pelvic cavity. Internally of the muscular layers, the abdominal cavity is lined with
the subperitoneal fascia, which is divided into the following parts according to the
regions: the transverse fascia lines the inner surface of the transverse abdominal
muscle and is then continuous with the pelvic fascia on the walls of the pelvis. The
abdominal cavity is lined with a serous membrane called the peritoneum, which also
covers to a lesser or greater extent the abdominal viscera. When the peritoneum
covers the walls of the abdominal cavity it is called parietal peritoneum, if it covers
the visceral organs it is called peritoneum visceralis. The potential space between
the parietal and visceral peritoneum is present. This space is called the peritoneal
cavity (cavum peritonei). It contains а small amount of serous fluid; this fluid
moistens the surface of the organs and so makes easier their movement against one
another. In male this is a close cavity, but in female it communicates with the
external environment by means of a very small abdominal opening of the uterine
tubes, the uterus, and the vagina. Between the parietal peritoneum posteriorly and the
posterior abdominal wall the space is present. This space is called spatium
retroperitoneale. It contains fatty tissue and some organs: kidneys, suprarenal
glands, abdominal aorta, vena cava inferior and pancreas.
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The terms intraperitoneal, mesoperitoneal and extraperitoneal are used to

describe the relationship of various organs to their peritoneal covering. If organ is
covered with the peritoneum from all sides is said to have an intraperitoneal position
(stomack, jejunum, ileum, coecum with vermiform process, colon transversus, colon
sygmoideum, upper part of the rectum); a mesoperitoneal position is that when an
organ is covered by the peritoneum on three sides (colon ascendens, colon
descendens, liver). If an organ is covered with the peritoneum only in one side it is
called extraperitoneal (pancreas, duodenum, kidneys).
There are many small salivary glands in the mucous membrane of the mouth.
They are called labial, buccal, palatine and ligual glands, according the places where
they are located. There are three pairs of large salivary glands, the ducts of which
opens into oral cavity.
The parotid gland is the largest of salivary glands. It is located on the lateral
side of the face on the mandibular ramus. It is a serous gland. It consists of two parts
superficial and deep. Facial nerve and external carotid artery pass through the gland.
This gland has an excretory duct. It passes around the anterior margin of the
masseter, penetrates buccinator and opens near the second upper molar tooth in
vestibule of the mouth.
The sublingual gland is mucous gland. It is situated over the mylohyoid muscle on
the floor of the oral cavity. The ducts of some lobules (18-20 in number) open into
the oral cavity along the sublingual fold.
The submandibular (glandula submandibularis) is of a mixed character,
compound alveolar – tubular in structure. The fascia invests the gland and forms a
thin-walled capsule. The submandibular duct opens on the caruncula sublingualis in
the oral diaphragm.