(Donald E. Super, Charles Super,) Opportunities

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VGM Opportunities Series
OPPORTUNITIES IN
PSYCHOLOGY
CAREERS
Charles M. Super, Ph.D.

Donald E. Super, Ph.D.
Revised by
Blythe Camenson
Foreword by
Joanne E. Callan, Ph.D.
Former Executive Director—Education Directorate
American Psychological Association
Preface by
Dan Matthews, Ph.D.
Director, University of New Mexico Department of Psychology Clinic
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DOI: 10.1036/0071392068
CONTENTS
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1. Psychology Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The three psychologies. An overview of psychology specialties.
Questions in psychology. Psychology as science. Psychology as
profession. Psychology as academic pursuit and instructional field.
Psychology and the public debate. Psychology’s place in society.
2. Specializations in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Experimental and physiological psychology. Engineering
psychology. Developmental psychology. Educational psychology.
The psychology of personality. Social psychology. Psychometrics
and quantitative methods. Industrial and organizational psychology.
Counseling psychology. Clinical and abnormal psychology. School
psychology. Sports psychology. Emerging specialties, related fields,
and interdisciplinary bridges.
3. Prospects in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Master’s degree holders. Bachelor’s degree holders. Rapid growth.
Where psychologists work. Geographic distribution. Women and
minorities in psychology.
iii
McGraw-Hill's Terms of Use
iv Opportunities in Psychology Careers
4. The Rewards of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Financial rewards. Intangible rewards. Some disadvantages. Who
should enter psychology?
5. Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Undergraduate education. Graduate preparation. Master’s
programs. Doctoral programs. Postdoctoral programs. Continuing
education. Institutions offering graduate study in psychology.
Choosing a graduate school. Financing graduate education.
6. A Career in Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Getting started. Getting ahead. Moving ahead. Think tanks, research
institutes, and freelance. The last stage of a career: retirement.
7. Scientific and Professional Organizations in Psychology . . . . 98
The American Psychological Association. The American
Psychological Society. The American Board of Examiners in
Professional Psychology. Psi Chi. Related associations. State
licensing and certification boards. The Council for the National
Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology.
Appendix A: Recommended Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Appendix B: APA-Accredited Doctoral Programs in
Professional Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Clinical psychology. Counseling psychology. School psychology.
Combined professional-scientific psychology.
Appendix C: APA-Accredited Predoctoral Internships
for Doctoral Training in Clinical and Counseling
Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Charles McAfee Super is Professor of Human Development and Fam-
ily Studies at the Pennsylvania State University and an Associate in Prac-
tice at the Child, Adult, and Family Psychological Center in State
College, Pennsylvania. He was previously director of a program of edu-
cation and therapy for parents at the Judge Baker Children’s Center in
Boston, where he also held academic appointments at the Harvard Medi-
cal School and the Harvard School of Public Health. He has directed or
participated in research projects on early human development and family
life in the Netherlands, Kenya, Zambia, Guatemala, Colombia, Haiti, and
Bangladesh, as well as the United States. A staff member of the 1970
White House Conference on Children, his writings have been published
in psychological, anthropological, and medical journals such as Develop-
mental Psychology, Child Development, Medical Anthropology, Develop-
mental Medicine and Child Neurology, and Social Science and Medicine.
Professor Super has contributed chapters to many books on child devel-
opment and has served as consultant or committee member for the Social
Science Research Council, the World Health Organization, and the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.
Donald Edwin Super, Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Educa-
tion at Teachers College, Columbia University, was international coordi-
nator of the Work Importance Study in the department of psychology at
the University of Florida. Until his retirement, he also was actively affil-
iated with the University of Georgia and Armstrong State College (in
Savannah) and served as consultant to various government agencies,
corporations, and educational institutions. Professor Super has served as
a consulting editor for several American, British, and international psy-
chological journals and is the author or coauthor of such books as Ap-
praising Vocational Fitness, The Psychology of Careers, Computer-
Assisted Counseling, Measuring Vocational Maturity, and Career Devel-
v
vi Opportunities in Psychology Careers
opment in Britain. He has authored or coauthored several widely used

psychological tests for vocational counseling and personnel selection.
He is an honorary fellow of the National Institute for Careers Education
and Counseling in Cambridge, and was its director for three years while
a fellow at Wolfson College, Cambridge University. He is past president
of international and American organizations in the fields of psychology
and education, including the Division of Counseling Psychology of the
American Psychological Association. In 1983 he received the American
Psychological Association’s Award for Distinguished Scientific Contri-
butions to Applications of Psychology. He is also the recipient of a Doc-
tor of Science degree from Oxford University.
This edition was revised by Blythe Camenson. Educated in Boston,
Camenson earned her B.A. with a double major in psychology and En-
glish from the University of Massachusetts and her M.Ed. in counseling
from Northeastern University. She worked in the mental health field for
several years, then moved overseas and taught English as a foreign lan-
guage in various universities in the Persian Gulf. Now based in Albu-
querque, New Mexico, she is a full-time writer and director of Fiction
Writer’s Connection, a membership organization that helps new writers
learn how to get published. Her website is at www.fictionwriters.com.
Blythe Camenson has more than three dozen books in print, most pub-
lished by VGM Career Books. She is also the co-author of Your Novel
Proposal: From Creation to Contract (Writer’s Digest Books, 1999).
FOREWORD
Psychology appeals strongly to those who consider entering the field
for several compelling reasons. One is its basic focus on human behav-
ior—a topic relevant to each of us as individuals and in our many differ-
ent relationships. At all ages, the psychological aspects of our behavior
and that of others are key in how we perceive and experience our worlds.
Another of psychology’s appeals has to do with its wide scope. Born
out of both the experimental laboratory and philosophy, psychology is a
science, yet it is also closely aligned with the social sciences and human-
ities. Psychologists may concentrate their professional activities in sci-
ence, for example, conducting research from the full range of human and
animal behavior. Or, they may focus on applied psychology, working
with individuals, groups, institutions, and systems from various theoret-
ical orientations. They might choose to teach psychology from high
school through postdoctoral levels. Some psychologists combine two or
all three of these activities at different times in their careers.
Psychology also is attractive because of its direct relevance to society.
Many of the world’s most pressing problems—such as crime and vio-
lence, disease prevention and treatment, lack of shelter, and ecological
issues—can be best addressed through the application of psychological
knowledge and research because they are tied so closely to human needs
and behaviors.
In the near future, there will be increasing demand for well-educated
and trained psychologists. With advancing technology and concomitant
shrinking of our increasingly complex world, psychology will be called
upon more and more to address individual and societal needs. In respond-
ing, it will rely on bright people with integrity and ethical sensitivity.
Joanne E. Callan, Ph.D.

Former Executive Director-Education Directorate
vii
PREFACE
I suppose I have no greater interest in and curiosity about people than
average. That’s only because the average is so high. We are intensely so-
cial creatures and our desire and need to observe, know, wonder, predict,
and attempt to influence or control each other is almost as strong as our
hungers for food and water. We are all (with the possible exception of a
couple of rare forms of psychopathology) driven to spend much of our
time trying to figure each other out. So, even though I am a psychologist,
I may not be more interested in people than you are. However, I have the
great fortune to be able to spend my time and make my living engrossed
in this basic human preoccupation.
Not surprisingly, I love what I do. My passion for learning about and
interacting with others is carried out in the training clinic at a state uni-
versity, the place where doctoral students in psychology learn to be ther-
apists and to do psychological assessment. Since psychology is both the
science of behavior (I was trained as a researcher) and one of the healing
arts (I was trained also to listen, understand, and use my empathy) I have
to (and get to) keep up as well as I can in two separate but related areas.
To teach I have constantly to learn. I learn from reading, observing, and
living. Plus, I say without apology, that I learn as much from my students
as from any other source. And they learn from me that it’s okay and good
to be anxious about the work of dealing with fragile and precious people
and that they can learn to use themselves and their knowledge to help
others.
These days, the most exciting thing I’m learning from and with my
students is neuropsychology—the study of the brain and how it works.
Psychologists have long been the leaders among human scientists and
mental health professionals in the development and use of psychological
testing to measure mental abilities and emotional characteristics. For the
past couple of decades, we’ve also been able to see, through brain scans
viii
Preface ix
or neuroimages, what the brain of a living person looks like and what it’s
doing when engaged in various tasks. We can’t see thoughts, of course,
but we can see what parts of the brain “light up” when a person’s doing
a particular type of thinking. And, we can look at people with different
diagnoses or normal individuals with different results on our psycholog-
ical tests and see how their brains function in different ways. Psycholo-
gists are working in teams with physicians (neurologists), radiologists,
chemists, physicists, computer experts, and others to unravel mysteries
about the brain, body, and behavior. The results are complex while en-
lightening—I once read that if the brain were simple to understand, it
would be too simple to do the understanding. But it’s extraordinary what
we’re learning.
So far, I can’t say that the advances in neuropsychology and neuroim-
aging have changed how I do and teach psychotherapy and psychologi-
cal assessment. I do understand my clients differently and often am
better able to help them see how they developed some of their patterns of
perceiving and living. I also have learned that the cognitive therapy that
I do results in changes in brain images (brain chemistry) that are similar
to what happens when the person takes some of the valuable new medi-
cations for depression.
But for now, I can enjoy the pure science of it all, because whatever I
learn about people and how they think and how they deal with their emo-
tions and relate to other people is part of what I’m supposed to do in my
job. That’s one of the loveliest parts of what I do—anything I read, see,
experience, hear, talk about with others, feel, or find inside myself can
become part of my work, if I spend the time to reflect on it and develop
my understanding. Even my own weaknesses provide valuable informa-
tion (and no, I haven’t gotten rid of all my own weaknesses and flaws).
Psychology at its best is both the collecting of information and the ap-
plication of careful methodology and reason to understand what that in-
formation means. I often describe psychology as the most skeptical of all
the mental health disciplines, and I like that about it. The bookshelves
are filled with self-help guides, and claims about improving the human
condition are spread throughout the sections of bookstores. Psycholo-
gists (and others with a scientific approach to human problems and be-
havior) have helped us and will continue to help us sort through these
x Opportunities in Psychology Careers
claims and refine our thinking about how to be human and how to im-
prove the human condition.
So, one of the promises that psychology holds for you if you study it
and work with it is a different understanding of yourself, the people you
meet, and human nature. I could have said “a better understanding,” and
that would probably be true, but I think the more honest claim is that you
will come to understand people differently—more richly and complexly
and deeply. But you’re likely also to become more aware of what you
don’t know and to doubt the ways you’ve typically come to categorize
and predict and influence others. (To be honest, there are dogmatic and
arrogant psychologists who think they know it all. I, myself, find the
whole endeavor profoundly humbling, while enlightening). If your
teachers are successful, you’ll grow in both knowledge and doubt. And
in acceptance of yourself and others. That doesn’t mean you’ll lose your
ability to believe and judge and be moral, but your morality is likely to
become richer and more complex, too. I know I’m different as a person
because I chose this field. (Or did it choose me?)
All this adds up to a mixed bag of values that comes out of studying
psychology and doing psychology. Whether you simply take psychology
courses, major in it, or do advanced work toward a master’s degree or a
doctorate, you will increase your knowledge, change your way of look-
ing at and thinking about yourself and others, and simultaneously de-
velop more questions, more doubts, and a healthy skepticism. If you’re
okay with ambiguity and willing to put at risk any feeling you might
have in the security of your judgments, go for it. You’ll never be bored.
Dan Matthews, Ph.D.

Director, University of New Mexico Department of Psychology Clinic
Albuquerque, New Mexico
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Jessica Kohout, director of the American
Psychological Association’s research office, for her help in providing
the latest figures for this update. Her patience and cooperation should
not go unnoticed.
Blythe Camenson
xi
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CHAPTER 1
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY
Most people think they have an accurate idea of what a doctor or a
lawyer does, and they are probably right. Most people will admit, how-
ever, that they have no idea what a mycologist is, although the field of
mycology is easily described as the study of fungi. People’s ideas about
psychology are different. Many people think they know what a psychol-
ogist is and have some idea of what a psychologist does, but many others
have only a fuzzy or incorrect view about the field of psychology and the
many varieties of psychological work.
For people who have been to college, psychology may be remembered
as an introductory course, maybe in an area they never pursued further.
Perhaps they could not see the value of studying how rats learn to run
mazes, how cats get out of puzzle boxes, or how the mechanism of the
eye reacts to light and darkness. None of the subject matter of the course
seemed to have any bearing on self-understanding, getting along with
others, or helping people with problems of living. Yet psychology is sup-
posed to be the science of human behavior!
Today increasing numbers of people have encountered psychologists
in school, industry, or the armed forces. They are likely to think of psy-
chologists as mental testers or as the genial people in the guidance or
personnel office who always had time to listen to what you thought you
wanted to do. Any one of these pictures of a psychologist is good as far
as it goes, but it does not go very far.
THE THREE PSYCHOLOGIES

There are three different ways of looking at what psychology is. It is
an academic discipline, a body of knowledge with themes of method and
content that tie together disparate parts. The knowledge is organized and
1
2 Opportunities in Psychology Careers
synthesized into theories and “schools of thought” for communication

among members of the scientific community and for transmittal to stu-
dents and other interested parties. Thus psychologists may be teachers
and writers. The way psychology’s knowledge is expanded, through var-
ious methods of structured inquiry, makes psychology also a science.
The scientist fashions questions and guidelines for finding answers to
those questions. Many psychologists spend their time in a laboratory as
part of a research team. Finally, psychology is also a profession, that is,
an organized way of using the academic and scientific knowledge for the
betterment of individuals and groups of individuals. Professional psy-
chologists, in this sense, practice psychotherapy and advise business
managers, plan mental health services, find effective ways to display
computerized information, and diagnose children’s problems in school.
No one psychologist, of course, carries out all the activities of each as-
pect of psychology, and the variety of combinations that people choose
for their careers is part of what makes understanding the nature of psy-
chology seem complicated at first. It is also true that some aspects of
psychology are much more familiar to nonpsychologists than are others,
and some of the familiar roles appear similar to other occupations.
There is, for example, a common confusion between psychologists
and psychiatrists. Psychologists differ from psychiatrists partly in the
content of their training and partly in the work they generally do. The
differences in their training are best summed up by the different aca-
demic degrees that they are awarded upon completion of their university
education. The psychiatrist earns the degree of Doctor of Medicine
(M.D.) and, as a physician, has studied the biological sciences that are
basic to the profession of medicine and the techniques of medical prac-
tice. More knowledge of psychiatry is acquired later in practical training
and related study.
The fully trained psychologist, on the other hand, earns the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Psychology (Psy.D.), or Education
(Ed.D.). (The Ph.D. is still the most common higher degree.) The psy-
chologist has studied the biological and social sciences related to
psychology and has specialized in the science of psychology as a gradu-
ate student. Preparation for an applied field may have included the study
of relevant professional problems and methods. There may have been
further practical training after the doctorate. This means that, like the
physician who later specializes in psychiatry, the psychologist has been
Psychology Today 3
trained in the principles and techniques of a special field of knowledge

and its supporting fields. It also means that, unlike the psychiatrist, the
psychologist has been trained primarily in the behavioral sciences. Psy-
chologists also are trained in research methods that enable them to add
to their store of knowledge.
Psychology is both a science and a profession. As a science, psychol-
ogy is the study of how people perceive, think, feel, and act; as a profes-
sion, it is concerned with predicting how people will act, helping people
to modify their behavior and helping organizations and even communi-
ties and societies to change. This means that a psychologist may spend
time in research, which adds to our knowledge of behavior and develops
new ways of understanding behavior, or helps people and institutions
change their behavior, structure, or functions. Or the psychologist may
spend more time working with people, studying them by examining
records of what they have done or by talking with them in order to help
them modify their behavior, change the methods of their organizations,
or put their resources to better use.
Many psychologists work with people and do research. The psycholo-
gist who works with people can see firsthand the important problems to
be studied and often gets better ideas of how to study them. There is a
better chance that what is found out in research will be used if the re-
searcher also works with people. For these very reasons, university pro-
grams for the professional preparation of psychologists who will work
with people include a good deal of emphasis on research.
Many psychologists become scientists rather than practitioners. In
this respect they are like physiologists, bacteriologists, and other natural
scientists whose research results are used by physicians in the treatment
of illness, or like sociologists, economists, and other social scientists,
whose research knowledge is used in government, industry, and educa-
tion. But many other psychologists become practitioners; that is, they
put into practice the knowledge that they and their pure-scientist col-
leagues accumulate.
AN OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY SPECIALTIES

Among specialists, there are clinical psychologists, who, in some re-
spects, resemble psychiatrists, because they apply their knowledge of
psychological principles and methods to the diagnosis and treatment of
mental disorders; there are personnel psychologists, who apply their

knowledge of psychological principles and methods to the study and im-
provement of personnel practices in industry and government; and there
are school psychologists, who use their knowledge of psychological
principles and techniques to help teachers understand and work more ef-
fectively with the children in their classes. They also work directly with
children and their parents to help them make better adjustments to
school and life in general.
In all three specialties—clinical, personnel, and school—the psychol-
ogist works in a field that is more social than biological, for the problems
of personal adjustment are primarily problems of interpersonal or human
relations. The clinical psychologist and the psychiatrist do have common
ground in the problems of mental health, along with the psychiatric so-
cial worker and the psychiatric nurse. However, the psychiatrist has a
distinctive medical contribution to make to study and treatment, and of-
ten there is a focus on illness and healing. The psychologist has a dis-
tinctive sociopsychological contribution to make, with an emphasis on
changing behavior.
But clinical, personnel, and school psychologists are not the only
practitioners. Today behavioral scientists—specialists in developmental
psychology, personality theory, social psychology, educational psychol-
ogy, and experimental psychology—find that their understanding of hu-
man behavior (and the methods they bring to bear upon its study) causes
them to become increasingly involved in practice.
Most often, these behavior scientists apply their knowledge to the be-
havior of normal people functioning in everyday circumstances, rather
than people with serious problems. Experimental psychologists find them-
selves involved in engineering problems in industry or in medical prob-
lems in space exploration. Educational and developmental psychologists
are drawn into designing and evaluating new methods of teaching the
handicapped, the normal, and the gifted. Social psychologists help plan
and evaluate the outcome of government policies or political campaigns.
Personality theorists may participate in any of these projects. A more in-
depth look at the various specializations is provided in Chapter 2.
QUESTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
To round out our picture of the nature of psychology, let us consider
some of the kinds of problems on which psychologists work. A discus-
Psychology Today 5
sion of some of the scientific questions studied by psychologists follows,

after which some of the more practical problems on which psychologists
work are reviewed. The distinction between the scientific and the practi-
cal, while convenient, is actually difficult to make and to justify. For ex-
ample, the problem of the localization of brain functions is of interest
not only for an understanding of human intellectual functioning, but also
because it has practical importance in the rehabilitation of brain-injured
people. Similarly, the practical use of tests for predicting educational or
vocational success throws theoretical light on the structure of mental
abilities by showing how differential aptitudes are related to significant
social behavior.
PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE
About one-fifth of America’s psychologists are employed primarily in
research. Whether their work is better called basic or applied is often dif-
ficult to decide, as the examples given here will make clear. Many psy-
chologists employed primarily in teaching or in practice spend some
time in the study of psychological problems or issues, although the ques-
tions asked, the methods used, and the types of data collected and
analyzed vary widely.
The Psychology of Memory

The psychology of memory, especially for highly emotional and pain-
ful events, has long held a special interest for psychologists. A primary
focus of Freud’s early work, for example, was to recover adult patients’
repressed memories of traumatic experiences, on the theory that these
experiences held the key to patients’ current suffering. He later con-
cluded that many of the “memories” were actually fantasies—unfulfilled
wishes related to “infantile sexuality” that were not permitted into the
stream of normal consciousness; this was one origin of his theory of neu-
rotic disorders. Modern findings about the frequency of child sexual
abuse has raised the question now for many psychologists of whether
Freud may have been too quick to hear these stories as fantasies—
perhaps they were painful memories struggling to be recalled. Some
therapists have thus been careful to consider all such memories by pa-
tients as potentially true unless there is strong reason to think they were
fabricated or imagined.
The question of accuracy in memory is of great importance when

there are allegations of sexual abuse of children. More than twenty thou-
sand children testify each year in abuse trials, and their testimony is usu-
ally considered to be truthful and accurate unless proven otherwise. But
research by Maggie Bruck at McGill University and Stephen Ceci at
Cornell University have called into question even this assumption about
memory. They found that persistent, repeated questioning on a particular
topic over a period of several weeks can lead young children (under six
years old) to “remember” events that never took place. Often child vic-
tims of suspected abuse are repeatedly asked about alleged events by a
parent, the police, and case workers. But a child in the study by Ceci and
his colleagues, for example, who had never been to the hospital, re-
counted a detailed, if somewhat disjointed, story about his visit to the
hospital after being questioned about it once a week for eleven consecu-
tive weeks. It seems that children normally construct their memories in
part from what they hear from adults about their own past experiences.
This new information about the way memory works in children makes
interesting science, but it also makes much more difficult the job of psy-
chologists and others who have the responsibility of investigating ques-
tions of abuse and protecting the children involved, as well as respecting
the rights of the accused. Ceci and Bruck, among others, have made sug-
gestions about improving the methods used in such investigations in or-
der to minimize the possibility of error.
The Psychology of Learning

The physiology of learning has long been a major topic of scientific
research in psychology. It was this interest that prompted much of the
well-known research on rats in mazes, and some of this research tried to
find out about how memories were formed in the neurons and chemicals
of the brain. Another line of investigation has advanced to the point that
a new technique is possible for promoting certain kinds of learning. This
technique is biofeedback, and the learning involves deliberate control
over bodily functions that were earlier thought to be uncontrollable. The
principle is a simple one: The behavior to be influenced—for example,
the heart rate—is monitored by an electronic device. A second piece of
apparatus signals by a light or a sound when the heart is going faster or
slower than some predetermined rate. The subject or patient can then
Psychology Today 7
learn to exercise some control over the heart rate in response to the sig-
nal. With such techniques people have been able to influence their own
heart rate, blood pressure, and even the brain waves associated with dif-
ferent states of consciousness. Recent discoveries concerning behavioral
aspects of heart disease raise new questions about the biosocial origins
of such disorders and suggest new avenues of research.
Research on biofeedback illustrates both the coherence of psychology
across specialties and the interplay between pure and applied science in
psychology. The techniques of biofeedback were developed by psychol-
ogists with backgrounds in both physiological and experimental psy-
chology and were quickly recognized by personality and clinical
psychologists, physicians, and others as potentially useful in the treat-
ment of some kinds of psychosomatic problems and psychological anxi-
eties. Recently there have been promising attempts at using biofeedback
as therapy for more traditional medical problems involving irregularities
of the heartbeat, gastric ulcers, asthma, and epilepsy. At the same time,
the results of this work are posing major new questions to other psychol-
ogists about theories of learning, psychophysiology, and personality and
mental functioning.
The Structure of Mental Ability

Another question faced by psychologists has been that of the structure
of mental ability. Is there such a thing as general intelligence, or is
intelligence actually made up of a number of special abilities? Theory
first described a number of distinct mental faculties, but intelligence
tests became possible only when a French psychologist, Dr. Alfred
Binet, abandoned the idea of separate faculties of mind and devised a
general intelligence test. Then other psychologists, in particular the late
Dr. L. L. Thurston of the University of Chicago, used improved tests, ex-
perimental designs, and statistical methods to break general intelligence
into a number of primary mental abilities, the number of which contin-
ues to increase with improved methods.
The nature and nurture of intelligence continues to attract psychological
researchers. Howard Gardner of Harvard University has organized evi-
dence that there are seven “intelligences,” not only the logical and linguis-
tic skills of traditional tests, but also musical intelligence, spatial
intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, the capacity to know oneself,
and the ability to understand others. In presenting his theory of multiple

intelligences, Gardner draws on research from neuropsychology, develop-
mental psychology, and metric psychology, as well as related fields in cog-
nitive science and anthropology.
It has often been assumed that tested intelligence of a high level is ge-
nius. But research by Drs. J. P. Guilford of the University of Southern
California, Paul Torrance of the University of Georgia, and Jacob W.
Getzels and Philip W. Jackson of the University of Chicago have made it
clear that genius consists of more than a higher level of intelligence as
measured by standard tests. Real genius also requires abilities and traits
that enable the individual to see the possibility of combining ideas or
things in new ways and thus come up with novel solutions to problems
or new uses for old materials.
Old ideas of group or racial superiority involve assumptions about the
abilities of people. A number of psychologists have therefore used their
knowledge and methods to study such claims. They are often joined in
this work by anthropologists and sociologists. Dr. Otto Kleinberg, a psy-
chologist who has pursued a distinguished career both at Columbia
University and at the Sorbonne in Paris, compared the tested intelligence
of African-Americans who remained in the South with that of African-
Americans who migrated to the North. He collected substantial evidence
to show that differences in environment, rather than in heredity, are the
important factors underlying the differences between the intelligence
test scores of African-Americans and Caucasians. Dr. Arthur Jensen has
questioned some aspects of this work and urges that possible racial dif-
ferences in mental functioning (which may, in fact, sometimes favor
Caucasians and sometimes African-Americans) should be given inten-
sive study. Most psychologists do not agree with his interpretations, and
controversy continues unabated over the cultural, social, nutritional, and
medical influences on intellectual development and performance, often
fed by people who generate more heat than light.
The debate does not take place only in the ivory tower, however. Be-
cause of the controversy over the appropriate use of intelligence tests with
persons from minority backgrounds, a legal suit was brought in California
to prevent I.Q. tests from being used in the school placement of African-
American children. Psychologists were involved in both sides of the legal
argument, which eventually resulted in a court injunction against using
I.Q. data to place minority children in special education classes.
Psychology Today 9
The Development of Morality

Some people develop a strong sense of conscience while others are
not so sensitive to right and wrong. Some people are more helpful than
others. Why? These questions have interested psychologists for a long
time, just as they have challenged philosophers, sociologists, and many
others. In order to answer such questions, personality psychologists have
studied how different types of families teach morality and social values;
developmental psychologists have investigated how children of different
ages think about moral questions and how they respond to the needs of
others; and social psychologists have collected and analyzed data on
how group pressures and situational factors affect moral behavior. Ev-
eryday life makes it obvious that no one has yet learned how to make
everyone perfect, but useful ideas have been developed about how to en-
courage the learning of constructive, helpful behavior. This continues to
be a lively field of research, especially as psychologists, like many other
citizens, respond to what they see as ethical problems related to war, vi-
olent crime, deceitful behavior in business and politics, and other ills
that are as numerous today as they were in ancient society. Some of the
most recent applications of these related bodies of work are taking place
in preventive programs for school-age children. One program in New
Haven, Connecticut, combines principles developed in cognitive psy-
chology, child development, and “person-centered” therapy to promote
social competence through a school-based program. Educational and
community psychologists in a number of cities are working on similar
programs to help children acquire the social and behavioral skills that
may help them avoid the dangers of drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, and
AIDS, as well as encourage constructive activity for the benefit of them-
selves and their communities.
PSYCHOLOGY AS PROFESSION
Half of America’s psychologists are employed primarily in profes-
sional activities, putting psychological knowledge to work in everyday
life. Psychologists often are thought of as test specialists, and many of
them are. One of the largest testing organizations is the Educational
Testing Service, headquartered in Princeton, New Jersey. Its staff mem-
bers develop tests that aid in the selection and guidance of students in
college and various professional schools. They also conduct research in

the development of new types of tests for educational selection and eval-
uation. The armed forces, the United States Civil Service Commission,
and many business and industrial organizations have similar staffs of
psychologists working on problems of testing and related procedures for
personnel selection and classification. Increasing awareness of the inap-
propriateness of some tests for minority group members, specifically
tests that are based on the common experiences of majority group
members, has made such applications both more difficult and more
important.
Assessment and Counseling

Assessment and counseling are other common functions of psycholo-
gists, in which the psychologist works with students or adult clients to
help them achieve better self-understanding, to make wise plans, and to
take steps toward self-fulfillment in college, at work, in the home, and in
the use of leisure time.
The diagnosis and modification of behavior, as well as emotional and
intellectual disorders, also are functions performed by psychologists.
Psychologists working in schools, psychological clinics, mental hygiene
clinics, and hospitals study children and adults by means of tests, play
techniques, and interviews to better understand their behavior. They also
help these people to modify their behavior by using various techniques
of play, discussion, and work.
Most often this work is carried out with careful planning in appropri-
ately designed institutions, but sometimes psychologists are called to
help in unusual crises. In 1987, for example, there was a major airplane
crash in Detroit that killed 153 people. A vice-president of the airline,
which had a twenty-five-year record of safety until then, asked James
Butcher at the University of Minnesota to organize immediate mental
health counseling for employees and victims’ families. In the next ten
days approximately twelve hundred people in six cities around the coun-
try were helped with the problems of depression, traumatic loss, guilt,
and anger. Individually and in groups, in offices, airport crew lounges,
and over the telephone, psychologists began a course of work that dealt
with the tragedy in an immediate and effective way in an unusual collab-
oration of corporation and university.
Psychology Today 11
Training and Group Processes

Psychologists help people not only through counseling and clinical
work, but also through the analysis and improvement of group proce-
dures, interpersonal relations, and organizational functioning. For exam-
ple, Dr. Alfred Marrow, textile corporation president and industrial
psychologist, became interested in what effects would be achieved if
workers discussed plans for new company policies before they are made,
as contrasted with setting policies and then telling workers about them.
He asked psychologists of the Research Center for Group Dynamics, lo-
cated at the University of Michigan, to conduct an experiment in one of
his plants in order to test these two methods of decision making. The
experiment showed more complete acceptance of policy changes and
more wholehearted cooperation when decision making was preceded by
worker discussion of facts and issues. Many consulting and some staff
psychologists now help industry use these methods.
The improvement of training or educational methods is an important
area of applied psychology. Many city school systems and universities
have bureaus of educational research, which employ educational psy-
chologists. These people work on problems of instructional methods, the
organization of subject matter, and the evaluation of instruction.
When training problems arise, whether in schools, colleges, business,
industry, government, or the armed forces, they may be solved by non-
psychologist practitioners, such as teachers, personnel people, and oth-
ers on the basis of general psychological knowledge or experience. On
the other hand, they may be solved with the assistance of psychologists
who are more expert in the psychology of learning and more experi-
enced in designing methods of ascertaining how well methods actually
work.
Not only do psychologists study, devise, and improve methods of train-
ing, they also work on methods of doing the work itself. Engineering psy-
chologists, like industrial engineers, work on such problems as the flow of
work and arrangement of the work area, the sequence of movements and
processes, and the design of the machine in relation to the person who
must operate it. Because of their knowledge of human abilities and behav-
ior, combined with training in experimental methods, psychologists are in
a position to make a special contribution to the adaptation of the machine
to the worker, as well as to the selection of the person for the machine.
How individuals learn to work in groups has long been a topic of ap-
plied psychological research. As with many other topics in psychology,
this one was given a strong start by the needs of the military during
World War II. The effective team functioning of bomber crews under
combat conditions was often critical to their success and survival. In or-
der to know better how to train crews—indeed, what to train them for—
their interactions during training and combat were studied. This was
done to ascertain the characteristics of effective and ineffective groups,
the characteristics and behavior of the members of each of these types of
groups, and the factors that make for the emergence and exercise of suc-
cessful leadership. The eventual success of this work significantly facil-
itated the training of air crews and saved many lives. This kind of work
continues. Several incidents during the Persian Gulf War, for example,
prompted a new task force for studying decision making under condi-
tions of extreme stress. Work at the Human Factors Division of the Na-
val Training Systems Center in Orlando, Florida, has focused attention
on the “mental models” used by team members and how the coordina-
tion of their understanding of each other’s jobs can minimize costly or
fatal errors in communication at critical moments.
Survey Techniques
The techniques of market research and public opinion polling are further
examples of the application of psychological techniques. Many psycholo-
gists are employed in consulting organizations, advertising agencies, and
survey centers, conducting studies of what the consumer wants and of
what the public thinks about various issues. Designing questions that will
get meaningful answers, conducting surveys in ways that will get cooper-
ation and a true sample of the public, and interpreting findings are activi-
ties that call for psychological training and skill. It has been shown, for
example, that opinion pollsters who use interview methods are more
likely to get frank responses if they are on the same social level and of
the same race as the person they are interviewing.
PSYCHOLOGY AS ACADEMIC PURSUIT

AND INSTRUCTIONAL FIELD
Many psychologists—about one-fifth of them—are primarily teach-
ers. A generation ago, more than half of America’s psychologists were
Psychology Today 13
primarily teachers, but research organizations and practice have ab-

sorbed the increasing numbers of young people who are entering the
profession. Although psychology is being introduced as a subject of
study in increasing numbers at high schools, the great majority of teach-
ing psychologists are employed in colleges and universities.
In high schools, community colleges, and liberal arts colleges, the
psychology instructor is concerned largely with the general educational
value of psychology for all students, in the belief that a better under-
standing of human behavior will be beneficial to everyone. In profes-
sional schools, psychology professors are concerned with helping future
and actual physicians, social workers, engineers, librarians, teachers,
businesspeople, and others understand and master appropriate psycho-
logical principles and techniques. In graduate schools, psychology
professors are concerned with the training of other psychologists for
teaching, research, and professional applications or practice. Emphasis
varies from one graduate school to another and even from one program
to another in the same psychology department, such as from a physio-
logical program to an organizational program.
PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC DEBATE

The results of psychological research are increasingly being applied
to public debates and the policy making in legislatures, executive offices,
courtrooms, school boards, and other arenas where competing ideas
about social reality and what to do about it come together. Nowhere is
this more evident than in discussions concerning new federal policies for
children and families. For example, Donna E. Shalala, Secretary of the
Department of Health and Human Services, has written and lectured ex-
tensively on the future of America’s children. In the quarterly newsletter
of the Child, Youth, and Family Services Division of the American Psy-
chological Association (Summer, 1993), Dr. Shalala discussed several
areas of government action: family leave (to provide job security to par-
ents who must take time off from work for the birth of a child, for
example); child maltreatment; welfare reform; the Head Start program;
and health care. On each of these topics there is psychological and be-
havioral research documenting the scope of the problems and the effec-
tiveness (or lack thereof) of various interventions. The Head Start
program, for example, was cited as “an American success story” for its
“proven record of giving children the foundation they need for long-term
success.” The program was initiated in part because of the concerns of
psychologists and educators in the 1960s; it was modeled on experimen-
tal programs designed by them. The first director of the Office for Chil-
dren, which started the program, was Professor Edward Zigler, a
psychologist on leave from Yale University, and the “proven record” Dr.
Shalala cites consists largely of tests and observations compiled by psy-
chological and behavioral researchers. This work has demonstrated so
effectively the educational, social, health, and economic benefits of such
programs—when they are carried out—that Head Start now enjoys the
strong support of legislators and citizens from all political parties and
across nearly all philosophies of government.
Sometimes in the process of policy formation psychologists are asked
to provide expert testimony to lawmakers or other officials. Dr. Ellen
Greenberger of the University of California at Irvine had one such experi-
ence. The Subcommittee on Labor Standards of the House of Representa-
tives was considering a proposal by President Reagan’s administration to
expand the number of hours that school-age children could be legally em-
ployed. The proposal was part of Reagan’s larger program to minimize
federal regulations in the national economy. It was opposed by labor orga-
nizations, partly for job-security reasons, and by many who were con-
cerned that the temptation of even minimum-wage jobs would interfere
with some children’s attention to properly completing their education. Dr.
Greenberger had recently completed a large study of high school students
and was able to present to the subcommittee factual data relevant to their
debate. In her work she found that fourteen and fifteen-year-olds who
worked long hours at outside jobs (fifteen hours a week or more), spent
less time on homework, received lower grades, enjoyed school less, were
less likely to eat dinner with their families, felt less close to their fami-
lies, and used more of such substances as tobacco, alcohol, and mari-
juana. As she presented these results to lawmakers, Dr. Greenberger was
careful to point out that the associations she found did not necessarily
prove causation, but she was able to bring into her testimony other re-
search findings and considerations that, together, were effective in helping
the committee members come to their own conclusions regarding the ad-
visability of the new proposal, which, in the end, was defeated.
Psychology Today 15
The topics of public debate addressed by psychological and behav-

ioral research are innumerable. They include issues such as recycling
used materials; discrimination in the workplace; promoting healthy be-
haviors, especially for those at high risk; the proper role of eyewitness
testimony; the alleged preventive effects of capital punishment; as well
as the more traditional topics of mental health and educational reform.
The recent growth of applying research results to policy matters re-
flects several trends. One is simply the accumulation of a much larger
body of knowledge than was available in previous decades. This in turn
is partly the result of the growing number of psychologists and other
behavioral scientists who have been trained in research. In addition, a
number of people and organizations (such as the American Psychologi-
cal Association) have made extensive efforts to bring this knowledge to
the attention of relevant groups of decision makers. Finally, the trend
probably also reflects the increasing sophistication of the American pub-
lic and their representatives with regard to the possibility of understand-
ing human behavior through scientific research.
PSYCHOLOGY’S PLACE IN SOCIETY

By now, it should be clear that psychology has an important place, or
perhaps many important places, in society. Psychology’s place is wher-
ever there are people, for wherever there are people there are problems
of organization, performance, and adjustment. Wherever there are peo-
ple there are problems of how to live and work together, how to learn or
how to function, and how to live with oneself.
Increased awareness of these problems generally means increased
willingness to provide funds for understanding and treating them. To
solve all of these problems, psychologists can contribute relevant princi-
ples for the guidance of policy or for decision making, techniques of in-
vestigation to get a better understanding of the problem or for the
evaluation of methods and results, and assistance in devising and trying
out solutions.
CHAPTER 2
SPECIALIZATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
As was pointed out earlier, psychology is somewhat unusual in that it
is both a science and a profession. Some psychologists are primarily sci-
entists, engaged in research work and perhaps in related administrative
and teaching activities. Others are primarily practitioners, engaged in the
application of psychology to practical problems of education, business,
industry, health, welfare, and everyday living. Although many of the sci-
entists also apply their knowledge of principles and methods, and many
practitioners carry on research, psychologists generally can be charac-
terized according to one of these functions.
Moreover, there is further specialization within the field of psychol-
ogy just as there is within the fields of physics and medicine. Just as the
science of physics can be divided into specialties, such as astrophysics
and nuclear physics, so the science of psychology can be divided into
specialties, such as experimental psychology, physiological psychology,
developmental psychology, personality, social psychology, abnormal
psychology, and psychometrics or measurement. Just as the profession of
medicine is divided into specialties, such as pediatrics and internal med-
icine, so the profession of psychology is divided into specialties, such as
clinical, counseling, school, engineering, personnel, and applied social
psychology (market research, propaganda, advertising, public opinion,
morale, group dynamics).
The American Psychological Association (APA) currently lists fifty-
two different divisions that represent the various specialized areas in the
field of psychology.*
1. Society for General Psychology
2. Society for the Teaching of Psychology
3. Experimental Psychology
*Reprinted with permission of the American Psychological Association.
16
Specializations in Psychology 17
4. There is no Division 4
5. Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics
6. Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology
7. Developmental Psychology
8. Society for Personality and Social Psychology
9. Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues—SPSSI
10. Psychology and the Arts
11. There is no Division 11
12. Society of Clinical Psychology
13. Consulting Psychology
14. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
15. Educational Psychology
16. School Psychology
17. Counseling Psychology
18. Psychologists in Public Service
19. Military Psychology
20. Adult Development and Aging
21. Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology
22. Rehabilitation Psychology
23. Society for Consumer Psychology
24. Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology
25. Experimental Analysis of Behavior
26. History of Psychology
27. Society for Community Research and Action: Division of Com-
munity Psychology
28. Psychopharmacology and Substance Abuse
29. Psychotherapy
30. Psychological Hypnosis
31. State Psychological Association Affairs
32. Humanistic Psychology
33. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities
34. Population and Environmental Psychology
35. Society for the Psychology of Women
36. Psychology of Religion
37. Child, Youth, and Family Services
38. Health Psychology
39. Psychoanalysis
40. Clinical Neuropsychology
41. American Psychology-Law Society

42. Psychologists in Independent Practice
43. Family Psychology
44. Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisex-
ual Issues
45. Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues
46. Media Psychology
47. Exercise and Sport Psychology
48. Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace
Psychology Division
49. Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy
50. Addictions
51. Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity
52. International Psychology
53. Clinical Child Psychology
54. Society of Pediatric Psychology
In this chapter we discuss more than a dozen of these fields in detail to
give you an idea of the duties, qualifications, places of employment, and
prospects of both doctorate and master’s level psychologists in each of
these specialties. It is well worth a visit, though, to the APA website to
see their complete specialization information, as well as career informa-
tion for psychology students (www.apa.org).
The focus of this chapter on specialties within psychology might leave
the impression that psychology is a field of specialties differing from
each other and lacking common ground. This impression is incorrect.
The American Psychological Association’s Education and Training
Board, other such committees, and most departments of psychology
have emphasized the importance of a firm grounding in the field of gen-
eral psychology. The object here is to underline the unity of psychology
while pointing out its special fields.
It also should be noted that the particular divisions of psychology used
as subfields are to some extent arbitrary and are the outcome of
historical—rather than purely logical—factors. In fact, the subfields,
like psychology as a whole, are constantly growing and changing, some-
times redefining themselves or combining so closely with other trends as
to become something new. The specialties listed here, however, are com-
monly recognized ones at present, and serve as a good orientation to the
larger profession.
EXPERIMENTAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

The fields of experimental and physiological psychology were once
the dominant areas of specialization in many psychology departments.
However, with the growth of health service provider specialties and
other fields, such as social and developmental, their role has changed in
several ways. The experimental method remains an important tool in all
areas of psychological science, but experimental psychology as a
subfield—with its focus on sensation, perception, and learning—has not
grown in recent decades with the vigor of some other fields. This is
partly because some of the newer areas also depend on other approaches
to the collection and analysis of data (for example, one cannot easily
conduct experiments on long-term questions about personality develop-
ment in children). On the other hand, physiological psychology—often
now called psychobiology or neuropsychology—has prospered dramati-
cally as it draws on and contributes to new techniques and discoveries in
biology, neurology, and endocrinology. The experimental method re-
mains at the core of this field, and the two areas—experimental and
physiological—are now often considered to be one.
Experimental Psychology
The field of experimental psychology is concerned with the processes
of sensation, perception, learning, and motivation. It studies problems of
seeing, hearing, feeling, perceiving, learning, and wanting. These can
best be studied in a laboratory situation and are basic to an understand-
ing of the processes of knowing, thinking, judging, and problem solving.
Experiments in the field of perception and cognition have made impor-
tant contributions to both theory and practice in psychology.
The work of experimental psychologists may involve studying how
people attend to and use different kinds of visual and auditory informa-
tion as well as how this processing of information is affected by what
they are looking or listening for. They also may study the differences in
thinking between novices and masters in chess; the ways that rats learn
to depend on their own efforts or on the efforts of others in getting food
from a vending machine; the effect of the judgments of others on an in-
dividual’s own judgment of the size of an object; or the effects of two
different arrangements of aircraft controls on pilot performance.
The training of experimental psychologists emphasizes undergraduate

preparation in mathematics and the natural sciences, including physics,
chemistry, and physiology. In graduate school, the stress is on experi-
mental methods, sense organ functions, analysis of the learning process,
and on the theories related to these. Much time is spent in designing and
conducting experiments as well as in constructing or becoming familiar
with the laboratory apparatus that is to be used. Some preparation in de-
velopmental, educational, abnormal, cognitive, or personnel psychology
or in personality theory usually is included. This is done to increase the
range of problem areas in which the experimental psychologist may con-
duct research as well as to prepare the psychologist to teach the variety
of courses usually required of instructors in small colleges and universi-
ties. Preparation below the doctorate generally is considered inadequate
for experimental psychology except in some lower level positions, and
these usually are held by persons working toward their doctorates.
Physiological Psychology
Physiological psychology is the study of how the physiology and
anatomy of the brain, its neural network, and the hormonal system it in-
teracts with control behavior, from eating and sex to reading and solving
puzzles and caring about other people. For obvious ethical reasons, most
of this work is carried out on animals, usually rats, cats, and monkeys.
(Thus some of this work is called “comparative psychology,” where the
results from different species can be compared.) Occasionally, however,
an accident in which a person’s nervous system is damaged in a certain
way, or an unusual case requiring neurosurgery, will stimulate an impor-
tant discovery in human physiological psychology.
Research on brain function has always involved psychologists with
specialists in such other fields as neurology, pharmacology, endocrinol-
ogy, biology, and ethology. All of these are rapidly growing fields, and
physiological psychologists contribute by working on issues that tie
them together. Indeed, subspecialties now can be identified in neuropsy-
chology, psychopharmacology, and other hybrid areas. Much of the
early work in physiological psychology focused on the control of eating
and drinking behavior in dogs and cats and added to general knowledge
of how the nervous system senses the body’s needs and directs their ful-
fillment. Recent work has tended to be in areas more obviously psycho-
logical, such as how the nervous systems of different species of animals

facilitate certain kinds of learning that are particularly relevant for their
survival, or exactly what the brain does as it constructs ideas from
patches of black ink on white paper. Another rapidly growing area is
called psychoneuroendocrinology, where researchers study the interac-
tions of personality, stress, bodily functions, and disease. The techniques
of such research range from surgery to carefully controlled environ-
ments, from simple observation to elegantly designed experiments.
The graduate training of a physiological psychologist naturally em-
phasizes the study of neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, animal behavior,
and laboratory techniques. Usually students work on their research with
assistance from one or two professors. A fortunate undergraduate may
have the opportunity to help in a professor’s research, but more often his
or her preparation consists of course work in biology and chemistry,
preferably also physics and electronics, and supplementing courses in
experimental psychology, personality theory, learning, and motivation.
The divisions of physiological, comparative, and experimental psy-
chology are some of the fastest growing areas. A recent survey suggests
that more than two-thirds of psychologists in these specializations are
employed in colleges and universities, where they teach and conduct re-
search. Some experimental and physiological psychologists work for
federal, state, or foundation research projects. Applied experimental
psychologists work in the field of engineering psychology in universities
and consulting organizations that have military or industrial contracts or
in government or industrial organizations.
ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY
Most engineering psychologists work in industry, generally as engi-
neering or “human factors” psychologists, but many are employed by the
government. The Navy employs them in research positions in the Office
of Naval Research and in other such installations. The Air Force em-
ploys a number who work on the design of equipment appropriate to hu-
man capacities.
Business and industry as well as the military have benefited from
recognition of what applied experimental psychology can contribute to
the design and use of equipment through the “human factors” approach.
It is not only military and spacecraft that present problems of the
arrangement and illumination of instruments and control panels, but also

commercial aircraft, automobiles, typewriters, and computers; all have
problems of access and control. In the case of computers, for example,
there are questions of brightness and contrast in the displays of monitors.
What characteristics cause problems of operator fatigue, and what kind
of lighting best combines visibility with restfulness? The arrangement of
the different types of office machines for their most effective use in tran-
scription, reproduction, and distribution has been another topic of ap-
plied research by human factors psychologists. They sometimes team
with personnel and organizational psychologists who focus more on in-
dividuals and groups than on equipment.
There are consulting firms that specialize in contract work of this
type, often coordinating with manufacturers’ staff psychologists. To the
surprise of some experimental psychologists, applied experimental or
engineering psychology became, during the two decades following
World War II, a “demand” field, but there is now no major shortage of
qualified persons because of lessened demand in industry, government,
and universities. Only a small percentage of psychologists identify
themselves as engineering psychologists.
Engineering psychology now has emerged as a distinct field, with
preparation similar to that of experimental psychology but stressing
industrial and military equipment and methods—human factors applica-
tions. Training is usually for the Ph.D., with work in experimental psy-
chology supplemented by organizational and personnel psychology.
Although not numerous, engineering and human factors psychologists
have developed considerable esprit de corps. In some metropolitan ar-
eas, they meet regularly for the exchange of information about research
problems, methods, and applications.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This field of psychology often is divided into the special areas of in-
fant, child, adolescent, adult, and old-age psychology, the last-named
field being known as gerontology. These specialties are increasingly
linked together as life-span developmental psychology. The field is con-
cerned with growth and development from the beginning of life until
death; because of the importance of the formative years, it generally has
concentrated on infancy, childhood, and adolescence. In recent years,
however, there has been increasing interest in the physiological, psycho-

logical, and adaptive problems of maturity and old age.
Child psychologists have studied children’s intellectual and emotional
development, reasoning, moral concepts, the beginnings of social behav-
ior in infancy, the development of language, the process of socialization
(learning society’s valued attitudes and behaviors), the origins of atti-
tudes toward self and others, awareness of the self, the effects of day
care, and many other aspects of development. Such knowledge is impor-
tant because it provides an understanding of the origins of behavior and
processes of growth and contributes to the planning of programs of child
rearing, education, and recreation.
Students of the psychology of adolescence have been concerned with
similar problems at a higher age level. Thus, at this age level they are
concerned with developmental tasks of adolescence such as advancing
toward intellectual maturity, developing emotional independence of the
home and family, making the transition from economic dependence on
the home to being a self-sustaining and responsible individual in adult
society, and approaching courtship and marriage.
Developmental psychologists concerned with adulthood have studied
the adjustments typical of the prime of life, including the problems that
confront people whose children have grown up and left home and those
of men and women who, in mid-career, find themselves questioning
their roles and their goals. Psychologists interested in old age have been
concerned with the aging process, the effects of aging on the self-
concept, the effects of retirement, the relationship between pattern of life
and work before retirement, the nature of the changes taking place in ap-
titudes and interests in old age, and other similar questions.
Many of the questions asked by developmental psychologists have
implications for programs and policies in institutions such as hospitals
and schools as well as more widely in the community. Those who are
particularly interested in these issues have begun to conceptualize a new
subdiscipline of “applied developmental psychology” to focus efforts to-
ward a developmental perspective on challenges such as minimizing the
distress of hospitalized children, promoting healthy parent-child rela-
tions, and preventing teenage drug abuse and violence.
The developmental psychologist may conduct research in hospital
newborn nurseries, day care centers, elementary or high schools, adult
education centers, and homes for the aged. Playgrounds, scout meetings,
a street corner meeting place, or a sandlot baseball field may also pro-
vide the locale for research. The developmental psychologist only rarely
works in industry and is more often found in the community at large or
in a specially equipped university laboratory.
The training of developmental psychologists includes the usual core
studies in general, and experimental and theoretical psychology. Some
of these courses may be taken at the undergraduate level together with
work in biology, sociology, and cultural anthropology. In addition, the
developmental psychologist will take specialized courses in the psychol-
ogy of childhood and adolescence and the psychological problems of
adulthood and old age, supported by considerable work in personality,
theoretical, educational, and social psychology. Observational methods,
measurements, and fieldwork also play an important part in training. The
doctorate is necessary for employment above the assistant or technician
level.
Developmental psychologists are often employed in colleges and uni-
versities, particularly in departments of education and teachers’ colleges.
Their principal function is teaching, although they may conduct research
either as part of their work or on their own. Developmental psycholo-
gists also hold research positions in institutes devoted to child welfare,
old age, or educational research. These institutes frequently are attached
to universities, such as the Universities of Iowa, Minnesota, Florida, and
California. Developmental psychologists may work in research laborato-
ries connected with hospitals or homes for the aged. There also have
been openings in parent education work and in writing and editing.
The emphasis on understanding infant, child, and adolescent develop-
ment has led to a demand for psychologists with this type of training.
The study of infants at risk from particular problems has linked develop-
mental psychology to pediatrics. Interest in the educational implications
of the theories of Jean Piaget and more recent cognitive studies has made
for a greater relationship between child, experimental, and educational
psychology. There is renewed concern with adult development, joining
not only developmental psychology with other specialties such as per-
sonality psychology and counseling, but also academic insights with
business and management. And finally, a growing elderly population has
promoted greater interest in their functioning and needs.
New Doctorates in Psychology by Subfield: 1997

Seventy percent of new doctorate recipients earned degrees in the health service
provider subfields—clinical, counseling, school, and other practice-related sub-
fields. Thirty percent of new doctorates were earned in a variety of research
fields. The largest single proportion of new doctorates work in human service
settings (hospitals and clinics, etc.) followed by higher education.
Counseling 12%
School 6%
Other Pract. 5%
Developmental 4%
Educational 3%
Clinical 47% I/O 5%
Exp'l./Comp./ Phys./Cog. 7%
Social/Personality 6%
Other Research 5%
Source: Draft Preliminary Data. 1997 Doctorate Employment Survey, APA Research Of-
fice, 1999. Note. These data include both Ph.D.s and Psy.D.s.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The field of educational psychology is not easy to define, for while it
is concerned with some problems that are most appropriately its own, it
partly overlaps certain other fields. A number of specialty fields, such as
measurement, counseling, and school psychology, have largely broken
away from it. Remaining in it are teaching and research in the psycho-
logical problems of the educational process. Human learning is one of
the primary interests of the educational psychologist as is the field of in-
dividual differences in abilities and interests. Both of these are obviously
basic to education. Also basic to education is (a) developmental psychol-
ogy, because education is concerned with guiding and promoting devel-
opment; (b) social psychology, because children and adolescents are
social creatures; and (c) the psychology of personality, because educa-
tion is concerned with the development of the whole person, with adjust-
ment as well as with the acquisition of skills.
When the educational psychologist applies his or her knowledge to in-

dividual children or adults, he or she draws on the knowledge and tech-
niques of the school psychologist, the counseling psychologist, or the
clinical psychologist. The distinguishing characteristic of the educa-
tional psychologist is a primary concern for psychological principles and
techniques that have significance for educational problems. The educa-
tional psychologist is a student of educational problems, such as ability
grouping and the education of the gifted, the handicapped, and the disad-
vantaged. A primary interest is in the implications of such problems as
they relate to educational policies and processes.
It is clear that the educational psychologist must be a well-trained sci-
entific and professional worker. Undergraduate work should be broad,
stressing education and the social sciences. Good grounding in the basic
fields of psychology—particularly learning theory—is essential as is
advanced work in developmental psychology, social psychology, per-
sonality theory, and measurement, including courses in which these
fields are drawn together and applied to education.
The educational psychologist must be familiar with the principles and
techniques of counseling and guidance, have some orientation toward
clinical psychology, and be very competent in evaluation and measure-
ment. It is desirable to have acquired some competence and experience
as a practitioner in one of these fields and to be familiar with a variety of
educational institutions and programs.
Research training and experimental design are especially important in
this field. However, of crucial importance is the ability to understand
classroom problems and communicate about these with teachers and
administrators. This can come only with experience gained as a classroom
teacher before, during, or after advanced study. Without this understand-
ing, the psychologist’s influence probably will not be significant.
Educational psychologists usually work in colleges and universities or
in city, county, state, and federal boards of education. In colleges and
universities, they are engaged in teaching educational psychology, mea-
surement, individual differences, mental health, and related courses to
prospective teachers and to teachers already in service. They also fre-
quently supervise and conduct research with graduate students or a re-
search institute.
In school systems, educational psychologists generally are employed
in research bureaus. Here they may conduct routine operations in study-
ing the abilities and achievements of pupils or, with increasing fre-
quency, plan and carry out—cooperatively with curriculum and
instruction specialists—studies in various methods of organizing and
conducting classroom work.
The growth of developmental and counseling psychology, combined
with the emphasis on mental health and on clinical psychology, has left
educational psychologists somewhat uncertain as to the extent of their
field and the nature of their contribution. Some have stressed theory and
have thus identified with developmental psychology or learning theory.
Others with more applied interests have tended to become measurement
specialists, mental health workers, or counseling psychologists. Still
others have directed their knowledge and skills into the field of curricu-
lum development and instruction.
There are indications that what is now—in a strict sense—the field of
educational psychology may subdivide into two specialties. One spe-
cialty will be concerned with the development of learning abilities, an
area that is basic to educational philosophy and methods. The other spe-
cialty will be primarily interested in new ideas and in the ways and
means of getting these innovations into the mainstream of educational
practice. Both instructors and research workers have been finding chal-
lenging opportunities in these areas in recent years, not only at the doc-
toral level, but also at the M.A. level in positions as research assistants.
Recent reductions in federal funding of educational research and innova-
tion have reduced the number of such opportunities, but have not elimi-
nated them.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY

The field of personality, either as a research area or as a focus of atten-
tion in educational and clinical practice, remains a popular and active
field of psychology today. A large number of students in graduate
schools take courses and specialize in this field. In addition, many psy-
chologists originally trained in other specialties have shifted their atten-
tion to this field and the kindred applied field of clinical psychology.
With social psychology and psychometrics, the psychology of personal-
ity is the main area of scholarship and investigation basic to such service
fields as clinical, counseling, and school psychology. There is much
research going on in the psychology of personality, and many books are

being published on this vital subject.
While psychologists historically have had some interest in the organic
or physical bases of personality, their major concern in recent years has
turned to its social aspects. They have studied the ways in which behavior
is learned; the processes of conditioning and perception as they affect per-
sonality growth and functioning; the development of self-awareness and
the enhancement and defense of the self; the influences on personality of
various kinds of group memberships; the relationship between personality
and culture; and the processes of personality integration and disintegra-
tion. Current projects in research and theory construction include the anal-
ysis of personality structure as a whole made up of interacting traits; the
study of the need for selfhood as an integrative force in personality devel-
opment; and investigation of the characteristic motives, perceptions, and
actions by means of which a person interacts with others.
The work of the psychologist interested in personality may involve
conducting research on certain narrowly defined problems, or it may
concentrate on synthesizing the results of research in a variety of fields
of psychology as they bear on theory of personality. Most theoretical
treatises on the psychology of personality have been written by psychol-
ogists of the latter type or by theoretically inclined clinicians, in whose
working lives research activities played a relatively small part. This sep-
aration of theory and research diminished somewhat during the years
when research funds were made progressively more available to psy-
chology as a field.
Personality theorists have studied the effects of infantile experience
on the adult behavior of rats, the effects of social casework treatment on
welfare families, the use of such drugs as alcohol and marijuana and the
effects of these drugs on attitudes and behavior, and the development of
selfhood as shown in school children’s essays on what they like and dis-
like about themselves. One group of psychologists explored the charac-
teristics of the authoritarian personality. Others have concentrated on the
statistical analysis of personality ratings in attempts to determine the ba-
sic dimensions of personality. Others have tried to understand the limita-
tions of a concept so broad as “personality,” that is, to look for the
predictable inconsistencies in behavior as well as the consistencies that
reflect personality.
Psychologists specializing in the field of personality should have—in

their undergraduate education—considerable work in both the biological
and social sciences, particularly the latter. Mathematics through the
study of calculus is important. A broad background in literature and his-
tory also helps give the perspective on people needed by a professional
student of personality. Such preparation is more important than an exten-
sive undergraduate background in psychology.
Graduate preparation should proceed to the doctorate and include the
basic courses in psychology. These courses should stress personality the-
ory and developmental, social, and abnormal psychology with consider-
able work in measurement and research methods. Supplementary work
in cultural anthropology and sociology is essential. Some experience and
skill in clinical and counseling methods generally has been considered
useful in personality research. A period of time spent in full-time re-
search after the completion of the doctorate is a highly desirable and in-
creasingly common way of developing the research habits and insights
necessary to continuing productivity in this important field.
Personality psychologists and social psychologists together constitute
a small percentage of all doctoral psychologists. Few personality psy-
chologists have only a master’s degree. The jobs held by personality
psychologists are largely in universities, involving both teaching and re-
search responsibilities. There also are a number of positions at all pro-
fessional levels in government service, such as the United States Public
Health Service and the Office of Naval Research.
Some private social service agencies have established long-term re-
search projects in personality and related areas. These sometimes are fi-
nanced by grants from public funds as well as from foundations.
This is an important and established field in psychology, though not a
large one as a specialty. There is much new interest in it, and there is a
great need for really creative research workers and theorists trained at
the highest levels. The prospects are that it will become more important
as improved theory and techniques make new insights possible.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology has been defined as the study of the interaction of
individuals, of how individuals function in society and respond to the
group. It is concerned with how they become socialized, how they utilize
social patterns in the world about them, how they develop within them-
selves the social attitudes they find in family and neighborhood groups,
how they participate in community life, and how they affect the person-
ality patterns of those with whom they come in contact.
Social psychologists study such subjects as the social behavior of
children, focusing on the development of different types of social inter-
action as children mature; the relationship of interpersonal relations in
the home to interpersonal relations in school and club groups; personal
and social factors related to the development of cooperative and compet-
itive behavior; bargaining in conflict situations and international ten-
sions; social attitudes such as bias, their origins, and their relationship to
social behavior; voting habits and factors related to them; and the roles
of individuals in groups, the personal and social situational factors re-
lated to these roles, and the effects of changing situations on roles.
Applied social psychology is concerned with the applications of the
principles and techniques of the field to practical situations and problems.
It embraces activities of such seemingly divergent nature as propaganda,
housing, community organization, community attitudes and relations,
advertising, market research, public opinion polling, morale, communi-
cation, and group dynamics. Although the applications are quite differ-
ent, the principles and procedures underlying these activities actually
overlap considerably. They all pertain to the study of groups and to the
behavior of individuals in groups.
Applied social psychologists work on such problems as the study of
national characteristics as a guide to psychological warfare and the
maintenance of peace; the effectiveness of public relations and advertis-
ing; the analysis of consumer buying habits; public opinion; studying at-
titudes toward minority groups and the ways in which they are affected
by living in segregated and nonsegregated neighborhoods; measuring
changes in morale with changes in working conditions; ascertaining how
a group learns to work as a team rather than as a collection of individu-
als; how members of a jury relate to each other as deliberations proceed;
and devising and evaluating methods of leadership in group activities.
The list of applications is long, varied, vital, and fascinating. This field is
involved in business, industry, social agencies, schools, community situ-
ations, the armed forces, and in every kind of situation where groups of
men and women are found.
The training of the social psychologist is somewhat similar to that of

the personality psychologist described previously. There is less empha-
sis on abnormal psychology and on clinical and counseling principles
and techniques. There is more emphasis on social interaction, the analy-
sis of group behavior, social roles, perception, and communication pro-
cesses. A period of postdoctoral experience as a full-time researcher,
even when the ultimate objective is graduate-level teaching, is highly
profitable and increasingly common. A person aiming at undergraduate
teaching would find this less important but nonetheless helpful.
Positions in social psychology, like those in personality psychology,
tend to be in universities, research institutes connected with universities,
nonprofit organizations, government agencies such as the Department of
Agriculture and the Department of Defense, and public opinion and mar-
ket research consulting firms. The distinction between science and pro-
fession often breaks down here, some jobs in the area being largely
scientific or theoretical in nature, some largely applied, and some a
combination.
There has been rapid growth in this field of psychology ever since
1940, following less dramatic but solid growth during the 1930s. Social
trends, such as public concern with issues of race and discrimination, en-
vironmentalism, war and peace, and the lag of social understanding be-
hind such technical developments as the Internet and the use of atomic
energy have accented the need for research, knowledge, and application
in the social sciences. Social psychology therefore has come into its
own. This trend can be expected to continue, and there will be a demand
for able research workers, teachers, and consultants.
PSYCHOMETRICS AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS

The field of psychological measurement is one which, perhaps more
than any other, has established psychology’s place in the public’s mind.
The term I.Q. has become a household word, and the most common as-
sociation with the word psychological would probably be the word test.
Psychometrics is the science of measuring human intellectual, emo-
tional, and social characteristics and behavior, although the term socio-
metrics is more properly applied to measuring some aspects of social
behavior.
The field is concerned with the identification of characteristics that

can be measured and with the development of methods for measuring
them. Its next concern is with the adaptation or development of statisti-
cal methods for the treatment of measurement data gathered, the refine-
ment of measures, and the testing of their value as measures in relation
to what they are supposed to measure.
The field overlaps with all of those that have been described so far, for
its concern is the development of theories and the provision of instru-
ments that can be used by these fields in their work. There are therefore
metric psychologists who work in the fields of experimental, develop-
mental, educational, personality and social, and abnormal psychology.
The peculiar subject matter of psychometrics is measurement and statis-
tical method, always with the objective of ultimate application to the
content of some other field or fields, although at the particular moment
the work is being done it may be strictly theoretical.
Some confusion may arise from the fact that the term psychometrist or
even psychometrician is applied to technicians who use psychometric in-
struments and not to the psychologist who specializes in the science of
psychometrics. The difference between the pursuit of the science and the
application of the techniques is considerable.
Psychologists specializing in the science of measurement work on
problems such as devising suitable tasks, questions, or other procedures
for the evaluation of intellectual, personality, educational, or social char-
acteristics; creating methods of combining these elements into scales or
tests that differentiate between varying amounts of the characteristic in
question; determining the consistency and independence of the measures
obtained; and ascertaining their relationship to other characteristics and
to subsequent behavior. Other quantitative psychologists devise and
work with new methods for studying changes in psychological function-
ing over time and new programs for statistical analysis.
If the psychologists’ work involves devising new types of procedures
and instruments for the measurement of previously unidentifiable char-
acteristics, they are engaged in the science of psychometrics. If, on the
other hand, they are engaged in the construction of additional measures
of characteristics already in existence, they belong more in the applied
field. The two types of work are, of course, frequently combined. At the
Educational Testing Service, for instance, some staff members work
largely on the development of new types of measures or new ways of
handling data, while others are concerned primarily with the production
of new forms of existing tests.
Specialists in psychometrics, perhaps more than most other psycholo-
gists, may resemble the popular description of the Ph.D., one who
“knows more and more about less and less,” for their field is one of
methodology rather than of content. However, as their methods are ap-
plied to a variety of substantive fields, those who work on applications
find it essential to become very broad in interest and knowledge. Good
undergraduate grounding in mathematics is essential—at least through
calculus—supplemented by work in the physical, biological, and social
sciences. At the graduate level there should be good grounding in basic
psychology, supplemented by work in developmental, personality, so-
cial, and educational psychology, with intensive study of individual dif-
ferences. They should also study various types of tests, measurement
principles and methods, statistics, and mathematical statistics. Of
course, a knowledge of computer applications is essential.
The field of measurement and evaluation is the applied branch of the
more purely scientific field of psychometrics. Measurement psycholo-
gists are specialists in psychometrics who are more concerned with the
application of existing techniques than with the theory of measurement
or with the development of new kinds of statistical methods.
Applied measurement is concerned with selecting, constructing, and
applying tests or other measures to problems such as finding out how ef-
fective a training program is; with constructing, applying, and evaluating
tests and other devices, such as interview procedures, for the selection,
evaluation, and upgrading of students or employees; and with develop-
ing tests for use in counseling and guidance. The work of measurement
psychologists differs from that of specialists in psychometrics mainly in
its emphasis on applications rather than on theory, and on the use of tests
and test items rather than on statistical methods of treating test data.
Not many psychologists consider this their specialty, even when de-
voting themselves to it full-time, for they tend to view themselves as ed-
ucational, industrial, or other substantive types of psychologists. In one
survey, about 1 percent of psychologists gave this as their specialty;
about half of these had a doctoral degree.
Metric psychologists are employed in a great variety of situations,
wherever behavior has to be measured and measures have to be devel-
oped. They teach measurement courses and related subjects in colleges
and universities and they work in educational and psychological re-

search institutes connected with universities or schools. They are found
in medical and social welfare research organizations that need assistance
in developing and applying measures of the effectiveness of their work
or in studying trends involving their service populations. They are em-
ployed in federal, state, and local government agencies concerned with
selecting personnel, evaluating training, or studying attitudes. They
work in business and industry in the study of personnel selection, em-
ployee morale and training, or in market and public opinion research.
They find employment wherever other types of psychological specialists
are found.
Jobs held by measurement psychologists are generally in the same
settings as those of psychometricians. They include teaching related
courses in colleges and universities. Test development and publishing
companies, such as the Psychological Corporation and the Educational
Testing Service, consulting firms, and research bureaus, such as those of
large school systems and universities, often have measurement psychol-
ogists on their staffs to direct and carry out technical aspects of their
work. There is no specialty certification by professional associations in
this field.
Psychometricians and measurement specialists have made highly vis-
ible contributions to military functioning ever since the selective service
tests used during World War II. Despite extensive cutting of federal,
state, and local funds for education, and despite the tendency of business
and industry to reduce its support for personnel research in times of re-
cession, psychometrics continues to be a field in which there is some de-
mand for specialists at all of the levels of postgraduate training.
As better methods of measuring characteristics are devised, more peo-
ple want more things measured. Whereas psychometrics was confined
largely to the laboratory or to the school or college a generation ago, it
now has an important place in business, industry, government, the armed
forces, medicine, and social welfare. The theoretical and applied often
merge in this field, as in social psychology. A growing number of psy-
chologists develop computer programs to help interpret test results.
Today, widespread concern for the appropriateness of standardized
tests for members of minority and special groups, combined with ques-
tioning of the use of certain kinds of personal data for personnel selec-
tion, inhibits work on testing in some organizations and encourage

innovative work in others.
In addition to the pressures resulting from an increased awareness of
minorities and of related measurement problems, the so-called “truth-in-
testing” movement has resulted in new work for measurement special-
ists. This consists to some extent of making sure that tests and test items
can be justified logically and empirically to official bodies and to the in-
quiring public. This increases the need to demonstrate the usefulness of
tests; to reconcile data collection with disclosure regulations, thus mak-
ing the ability to answer correctly universal and nonpredictive; and to re-
quire more time from test experts in keeping the public properly
informed.
The well-trained psychological measurement technician with an M.A.
degree finds some demand for his or her services, and the well-educated,
versatile, and personally effective metric psychologist with the doctorate
is in demand and will continue to be.
INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Industrial, organizational, and personnel psychology is the study of
people at work and how they relate to work. The objective of this
specialty—or constellation of specialties—is to develop and apply pro-
cedures that will result in the better utilization of personnel, the better
functioning of organizations, and the maximum well-being of the
worker. In this applied field, the principles and techniques of develop-
mental, educational, personality, social, and measurement psychology
are brought to bear on the problems of people in work situations. Also of
concern to these psychologists is the human factor in production meth-
ods. The focus is on understanding the work situation, developing proce-
dures, and applying principles and procedures necessary to the wise
selection, effective placement, training, upgrading, and successful super-
vision, management, and organization of employees. Individual differ-
ences, motivation, morale, the organization of groups, the functioning of
individuals in groups, and measurement are subjects of what has been
called industrial or personnel psychology. With the emergence of engi-
neering or human factors psychology as a special field, industrial and
personnel psychology has come to be known somewhat inappropriately
as industrial and organizational psychology. A more accurate name
might be organizational—or perhaps organizational and personnel—

psychology.
For nearly three generations, personnel psychologists have worked on
the techniques used to select people for various types of jobs. They have
concerned themselves with the development of interview and rating pro-
cedures and with tests that examine intelligence, aptitudes, interests, per-
sonality, and proficiency. It also is their responsibility to evaluate the
effectiveness of these tests. The Army Alpha is the oldest known test of
this type. The General Aptitude Test Battery and the various special bat-
teries of the United States Employment Service are among the newer of
the widely used personnel selection tests. However, most such tests are
custom-built, that is, developed for use in a specific concern, and are
kept confidential as part of its stock-in-trade as well as to keep the con-
tents from being spoiled by becoming known to job applicants.
Some psychologists engaged in work of this type are measurement psy-
chologists. But some in this field are personnel psychologists, that is, they
are prepared for and engage in types of psychological work. Because of
their demonstrated usefulness in employee selection, industrial and per-
sonnel psychologists have become involved in the development and evalu-
ation of training methods of workers, as well as job analysis and
evaluation. In addition, they conduct in-service training for employees,
evaluate employees for promotion, ascertain the nature of effective su-
pervision and leadership, study management communication methods,
study the underlying factors that relate to good or poor employee mo-
rale, evaluate the effectiveness of methods and programs designed to im-
prove morale, and, finally, relate such factors to production.
Organizational psychologists most frequently have a background in
social psychology or have added that to their competencies in industrial
psychology. They, too, work on problems of morale, leadership, and the
organization of work. There has been considerable interest in recent
years on worker participation in management or in management deci-
sions having direct impact on them and their work. The solutions found
by organizational psychologists are, understandably, more often in group
functioning than they are in selection or training. There has, however,
been a renewed interest in training and in counseling due in part to the
rediscovery of such phenomena as “midcareer crises” and “burnout” and
to acknowledge the importance of preparing for a good transition to re-
tirement for our aging population.
To be effective in a business setting, the industrial psychologist must

have a rather rare combination of qualities. In addition to being inter-
ested in research and psychology as a science, the industrial psycholo-
gist must be able to use psychological skills in practical situations. He or
she must be able to communicate an understanding of a situation to peo-
ple of widely varying backgrounds in order to win their confidence and
thus establish effective working relationships with all levels in the orga-
nizational structure. These abilities require social and emotional matu-
rity and a wide background of practical experience, particularly in the
business world.
For these reasons, it is desirable that the potential organizational or
personnel psychologist have had actual work experience in an industrial
or business organization. This experience will give firsthand knowledge
of the way an organization functions. However, personnel psychologists
do go directly from undergraduate training to full-time doctoral pro-
grams; such programs should then include a supervised internship.
The education of organizational and personnel psychologists at the
undergraduate level should, like that of other psychologists, be broad. It
should include work in the social and biological sciences, education, and
preferably a major in psychology. A background in business administra-
tion or engineering is helpful, but in such instances more supplementary
graduate work is needed in the fields already mentioned. At the graduate
level, it is possible to obtain technical competence in some personnel
functions with one year of specialized training leading to the M.A. de-
gree. Such training qualifies one as a personnel technician and stresses
work in individual differences, the psychology of personality, statistics,
testing, interviewing, and job analysis, with some study of labor eco-
nomics and personnel administration.
More advanced educational preparation for work in personnel psy-
chology, generally leading to a doctorate degree, involves studying the
basic psychology courses. This is essential to a person who wants to
qualify as a psychologist and is not possible in the brief technicians’
training program. It is also important for the future organizational and
personnel psychologist to study both basic and advanced courses in de-
velopmental psychology, the psychology of personality, social psychol-
ogy, educational psychology, measurement, and group development.
Various aspects of these fields are studied further in advanced courses in
vocational, personnel, organizational, or industrial psychology. Some
supplementary study of the sociology of industry, labor economics, and

personnel management also is essential. While working toward a doctor-
ate, it is highly desirable that the student experience a period of field
work or internship. This experience is advantageous partly because it
orients the student to a work situation and partly because it makes the
problems being studied more meaningful.
Jobs for organizational and personnel psychologists are found in busi-
ness and industry, in colleges and universities, in government and the
armed forces, and in consulting firms. Many psychology professors in
this specialty do consulting work, either as a part of their university work
or independently. Some have consulting firms of their own. Noneduca-
tional employers of personnel psychologists are numerous.
The demand for highly trained organizational and personnel psychol-
ogists has continued because the problems of recession as well as growth
require knowledgeable advice in making personnel and organizational
changes. Positions for M.A.s have not been numerous, relatively speak-
ing, but there has been sufficient demand to absorb most people quali-
fied at this level. Many beginning jobs are filled by persons trained at the
bachelor’s level, but the competition for these jobs is great. Being placed
in these jobs depends less on training than on practical experience, con-
tacts, and personal characteristics. The outlook for this field is that there
will continue to be a steady, even though reduced, demand for qualified
men and women.
The American Board of Examiners in Psychology issues a Diploma in
Industrial and Organizational Psychology to psychologists meeting its
educational and experience requirements. These requirements include a
doctorate, five years of appropriate experience, and passing written, oral,
and practical examinations.
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
Counseling psychology is the study of people as individuals, with the
objective of helping them develop as fully as possible by making the best
use of their abilities, interests, and opportunities. It is concerned with the
development of principles, methods, and techniques that will be helpful
in this work and in their application to people who might benefit from
help in self-fulfillment. As an applied field, counseling psychology
draws heavily on the basic fields of developmental, educational, person-
ality, social, and metric psychology. It has much in common with per-
sonnel psychology on the one hand and with clinical on the other. It
brings standard principles and techniques to bear on problems of under-
standing and helping individuals, and it supplements them with research
on problems that are either peculiar to or highlighted in counseling.
Counseling psychologists interview high school and college students,
employees, persons in need of vocational rehabilitation, and people in
general who have problems concerning personal, social, educational,
and vocational development and adjustment. In addition to the interview
technique, they use tests and observational methods to collect additional
information about their clients as individuals, in groups, and in the envi-
ronments where they live and work. All of this is done to help their cli-
ents develop more fully and make better adjustment. They carry on
research in the development and improvement of appraisal methods and
counseling techniques. They study resources that may be helpful to their
clients in improving social or vocational adjustments, and they may
supervise the work of other counseling psychologists who are less expe-
rienced or less highly trained.
The training of counseling psychologists has been studied by commit-
tees of the professional association concerned with education below and
through the doctorate. The counselor trained in psychology who special-
izes in vocational guidance should have at least two years of graduate
training, although nonpsychologically trained school counselors now
typically have one year of graduate preparation. However, training to the
doctorate opens up a greater variety of higher level opportunities.
The undergraduate program should be broad, with work in the social
and biological sciences including psychology and education. The coun-
selor’s graduate training should include work in developmental, educa-
tional, personality, social, and measurement psychology. It should also
include courses designed to bring the principles of these fields to bear on
problems of personal, marital, social, and vocational development and
counseling. It should include some study of sociology, economics, the
type of institutional setting in which the counselor will work, and partic-
ularly educational and occupational information and other resources
helpful in counseling. There also should be training in the techniques of
appraisal and counseling, with provision for some supervised experience
in the use of these methods with clients. The American Board of Exam-
iners in Psychology issues a Diploma in Counseling Psychology to
psychologists with appropriate doctoral training and five years of experi-

ence who pass special written, oral, and practical examinations.
Doctoral education goes beyond the lower-level programs in providing
the student with a better grounding in basic psychology, more advanced
work in relevant psychological theory and counseling techniques, and
particularly familiarity with and training in research that is essential to
creative work in the field and to the progress of the profession. It covers
a total of four years and includes a year of internship either on a full-time
basis in the third year of graduate study or on a half-time basis during the
last two years of graduate work.
Counseling psychologists and vocational counselors work in colleges
and universities, usually in university counseling centers such as those at
Minnesota, Ohio State, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, California,
UCLA, and Stanford, often teaching as well as counseling. They are
found in community guidance centers such as those in Cleveland, St.
Louis, and New York; in employment bureaus and such social agencies
such as the YMCA and the Jewish Welfare Agencies; in rehabilitation
centers like New York’s Institute for the Crippled and Disabled; in pub-
lic and private hospitals; in the Veterans Administration; in the armed
forces; and in a limited number of business and industrial organizations.
A significant number are employed in consulting firms, sometimes to do
counseling and sometimes to do executive evaluation work (the clinical
study of persons in or being considered for key executive positions). An
increasing number are in the full-time private practice of counseling psy-
chology, partly because of the increasing recognition of the role that
trained counselors can play in helping with situational problems relating
to families, communities, and work and partly because the clinical com-
petencies of those trained to the doctoral level lead to private practice in
therapeutic counseling. When demand and interest result in such work,
the distinction between counseling and clinical psychologists becomes
difficult to make, despite counseling’s emphasis on developmental and
educational work as contrasted with remedial or reconstructive work.
Counseling psychology, combined with clinical and school psychol-
ogy, makes up the largest percentage of doctoral level psychologists—70
percent.
The demand for the services of counseling psychologists has soared
toward the end of each war (World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Persian
Gulf) with the increase of work needing to be done with returning ser-
vicemen and servicewomen, the shifting of war-industry workers, and
the need to rehabilitate numbers of wounded and emotionally disturbed
veterans. Former veterans’ guidance centers generally were converted
into permanent college or community counseling services, employing
well-prepared counseling psychologists and vocational counselors. It
was found in many situations that a staff composed of men and women
trained at both the M.A. and Ph.D. or Ed.D. levels worked very effec-
tively, setting a pattern now widespread in community colleges, four-
year arts and engineering colleges, and universities.
Colleges and universities have employed counseling psychologists in
other aspects of student personnel work, such as testing programs, disci-
pline, mental health, student activities, and the direction of student ser-
vices. Public school systems increasingly are seeking counseling
psychologists with high school teaching experience as directors of guid-
ance, and community guidance centers steadily have raised their stan-
dards and increased in number.
Antipoverty projects added new opportunities for leadership in the de-
velopment of counseling and training programs and services. The budget
cuts of the early 1980s reduced these community services and the pro-
fessional opportunities associated with them, but there is still some con-
tinuing demand.
Counseling psychologists have taken on new roles in evaluating the
employability of adults for the Social Security Administration and for
Vocational Rehabilitation. The extension of insurance coverage, both
governmental and private, to cover psychotherapy and, in some instances,
vocational counseling designed to restore or to improve employability,
also has opened new opportunities for counseling psychologists.
The Veterans Administration and the Rehabilitation Services Admin-
istration followed and assisted in these developments by raising stan-
dards, by supporting training programs in cooperation with a number of
universities, and by employing a large number of well-trained counsel-
ing psychologists. Despite budget cuts, counseling psychology contin-
ues to offer opportunities in the services and programs of colleges,
schools, community agencies, hospitals, and industries staffed by both
M.A.s and Ph.D.s.
CLINICAL AND ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

Clinical psychology is the study and treatment of emotionally dis-
turbed or intellectually deficient individuals. The disturbance may be
slight, as in normal development, or serious, as in psychoses. The defi-
ciency may also be minor, as in some learning disabilities, or serious, as
in severe mental retardation. These people are studied to determine their
actual and potential levels of functioning (in terms of both accomplish-
ment and happiness) and to help them make adjustments appropriate to
their capacities and opportunities. Clinical psychology is the field of
psychology most concerned with the development of principles, meth-
ods, and techniques to be applied to disturbed and handicapped people.
In making these applications, clinical psychology draws heavily on the
basic fields of abnormal, developmental, personality, social, and metric
psychology together with neurology, physiology, genetics, and sociol-
ogy. It synthesizes them in the study of emotional disturbance and men-
tal deficiency and adds to the relevant store of knowledge and tools by
conducting its own research on its own peculiar problems.
Abnormal psychology is the study of mental and emotional disorders.
It is concerned with the development, manifestations, and treatment
methods of personality deviations and intellectual defects, both organic
and functional. It is an important part of the scientific basis of clinical
psychology and psychiatry and contributes to the understanding of the
normal personality.
Psychologists working in this field may study the relationships be-
tween the structure and nature of family relationships and the incidence
of schizophrenia; specific language dysfunctions caused by different loci
of brain injury; and the differences in the responses of various types of
disturbed individuals (for example, schizophrenics and brain damage
cases) to psychological tests. These are also the research activities of
clinical psychologists; most persons conducting research in or devoting
most of their time to teaching abnormal psychology are clinical psychol-
ogists. There are a few exceptions, particularly experimental or physio-
logical psychologists or students of personality, who have directed their
research activities into this area and who make a special contribution
through the use of concepts and methods most highly developed in their
fields.
A clinical psychologist interviews a patient to get an understanding of

the patient’s background and status, or the psychologist may rely on case
reports if the patient is too disturbed, young, or deficient to be inter-
viewed. Clinical psychologists may interview relatives or associates to
see the patient as others do. They administer tests to obtain a more ob-
jective and well-rounded picture of the patient and write diagnostic re-
ports concerning the patient. They may discuss the patient with
psychiatrists, social workers, pediatricians, judges, and other specialists
who refer cases for diagnostic study or with whom they work in a team
relationship. They may consult with parents, teachers, or physicians.
They may counsel the patient, provide psychotherapy, or refer the pa-
tient to another type of service. They may supervise other psychologists
with less experience and training. They may conduct research in psy-
chodiagnosis and psychotherapy and teach related courses.
Standards for the doctoral training of clinical psychologists were es-
tablished in 1947 by a committee of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation and have been reaffirmed since then by its Education and
Training Board. Undergraduate recommendations by the APA include
psychology, biological and physical sciences, mathematics and statis-
tics, education, social sciences, history of culture, psychology as re-
vealed in literature, and languages. The objective is not to specify
courses and credits but to ensure a broad liberal education with work in
certain areas necessary for graduate work in psychology.
In graduate training, the objective in most universities is to produce a
psychologist who is acquainted with the basic areas of psychological
theory, research, and methods. This should embrace such subjects as
general psychology (physiological and comparative, history and schools
of psychology, developmental psychology and psychopathology), diag-
nostic methods, therapy, research methods, and related disciplines
(physiology, related medical information, social organization and social
pathology, and cultural anthropology). In a few programs, there is less
emphasis on general psychology and research, with the objective of pre-
paring practitioners. The program may take four years and includes a
full-time internship during the third year or a half-time internship during
both the third and fourth years.
There has been much discussion of the need for standards in the train-
ing of clinical technicians below the doctoral level. Some colleges and
universities offer an M.A. in clinical psychology. Unlike the field of
counseling psychology, however, clinical psychology has as yet reached

no agreement to standardize such programs, much less their content. The
American Board of Examiners in Psychology issues a Diploma in Clini-
cal Psychology to highly qualified clinicians comparable to those given
in industrial and counseling psychology.
Another important trend in the development of clinical psychology—
arising from interest in practicing rather than in doing research and a
sometimes associated belief that research training is irrelevant to or in-
terferes with training in psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy—has
been the development of schools of professional psychology (meaning
clinical, generally disregarding counseling, industrial and organiza-
tional, engineering, and school psychology). These have grown up
largely on the West Coast but a few also have started on the East Coast.
They give a practitioners’ degree, usually the Psy.D. For admission they
adhere to the usual undergraduate degree with an emphasis on psychol-
ogy, but they are generally less influenced by traditional standards than
are the graduate schools of the stronger universities.
As a result of the emphasis on doctoral education and the uncertain
status of subdoctoral training in clinical psychology, the best positions in
this field tend to be open only to people with the doctorate. Clinical psy-
chologists with the Ph.D., Psy.D., or Ed.D. are employed in universities
accredited for graduate training in this field and in other colleges and
universities as instructors in this specialty. They also work in university
clinics, medical schools, and hospitals as clinicians and research work-
ers. They are employed in the Veterans Administration, the United
States Public Health Service, and the armed forces.
Many also work in institutions for the delinquent or mentally defec-
tive, in prisons, in public and private hospitals, in mental health or child
guidance clinics, and in psychological clinics sponsored by community
organizations. Others are employed in consulting firms doing executive
evaluation (clinical personnel) work. Finally, there are many in private
practice (more than one-third). Some of these work in cooperation with
other practitioners, such as psychiatrists, pediatricians, and social work-
ers; others work independently. Clinical psychologists without the doc-
torate are most generally employed in junior staff positions or in
institutions that are unable to compete for fully qualified clinicians.
The demand for clinical psychologists increased beyond all precedent
or expectation toward the end of World War II and surged again after
other major military efforts. This increase is partly because of the great
volume of work to be done with emotionally inadequate or disturbed
members of the service and partly because of an increased public aware-
ness of the importance of human resources and human adjustment. In or-
der to meet this need, large-scale programs were set up by the Veterans
Administration and the United States Public Health Service after World
War II and a smaller program by the army for the training of clinical psy-
chologists at the doctoral level. Furthermore, the American Psychologi-
cal Association assumed the responsibility of evaluating and accrediting
graduate training in clinical psychology, a move that has since been ex-
panded to include concern for psychological training in all applied areas.
Actual accrediting is done only when requested by outside fund-granting
agencies for such fields as clinical, counseling, and school psychology,
and upon request of the university.
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
School psychologists often have functioned as clinical psychologists
in an educational setting. They are concerned with problems of adjust-
ment, mental health, and school achievement, primarily in elementary
schools. School psychology has therefore drawn on the basic fields of
developmental, personality, social, and metric psychology together with
physiology, sociology, social work, educational psychology, and educa-
tional philosophy. It makes its own synthesis of these other fields to un-
derstand children who have problems adjusting to school. It endeavors to
help them directly as well as through their parents and teachers to make
better adjustments and get the most from their educational opportunities.
In the process, school psychologists conduct research to make better ap-
plications of their techniques and to provide themselves with more effec-
tive working tools.
More than ever before, school psychologists have a broad responsibil-
ity for the educational adjustment and mental health of students. They
work with teachers, administrators, and parents to develop healthy emo-
tional and effective learning experiences for children. School psycholo-
gists may work with a group of teachers on a problem such as the
psychological factors involved in the poor scholastic achievement of
bright children. They also may work as members of teams in clarifying
procedures related to the classification of pupils, the development of a
desirable program for induction of children into kindergarten, a survey

of progress in particular fields of academic achievement, or the evalua-
tion of a new program. Intensive study is made into any troublesome
area involving a student’s personal development when requested by the
principal, teacher, or supervisor.
School psychologists also administer group and individual tests to
schoolchildren to ascertain their intellectual and proficiency levels and
to locate areas in which they need special help. They interview children
and may conduct play therapy with them for diagnostic purposes. They
interview parents and teachers to round out their pictures of the children.
They also may observe the children in work and play situations. They
write up diagnostic reports and case studies in special instances and then
discuss these with other specialists at child guidance clinics, at health
centers, or in staff conferences in the school.
School psychologists generally refer those children who require psy-
chotherapy to other agencies, although in some instances they may con-
duct it themselves. In addition, they may do some parent counseling.
Increasingly, school psychologists work through classroom teachers to
bring about better adjusted children. In addition, school psychologists
may supervise remedial teaching or special classroom work for slow
learners or handicapped children. More and more, they act as staff con-
sultants and contribute to the study and solution of curricular and in-
structional problems that involve psychological understanding or
techniques.
The principal emphasis in the education of school psychologists today
is on working effectively with teachers and helping them improve their
handling of children’s problems. Increasingly, school psychologists are
expected to assume leadership in helping teachers, administrators, and
curriculum workers develop programs in accordance with sound learn-
ing and developmental principles and to be a force in helping the com-
munity understand and accept needed school changes.
The education of most school psychologists, like that of many clinical
psychologists and most vocational counselors, until recently has ended
at the master’s degree level. As in other specialties, however, the need
for higher standards has become evident. Therefore, an increasing num-
ber of school psychologists are earning doctoral degrees. When the
school psychologist was little more than a mental and educational tester,
a year of preparation seemed sufficient. Now, however, the school psy-
chologist plays a more important role in education as a diagnostician,

therapist, supervisor of child development and remedial education, cur-
riculum consultant, and participant in the program of in-service educa-
tion for teachers. The importance of more advanced training is obvious,
and the demand for more highly trained people is greater.
The American Psychological Association’s Education and Training
Board and its Division of School Psychologists, with financial aid from
the United States Public Health Service, have studied educational stan-
dards in this field. They recommended two preparatory programs for
people who wish to become school psychologists. The first is a two-year
training program, open only to teachers who have taught in elementary
or secondary schools. The other is a three-year doctoral program. On the
undergraduate level, work in education is preferred. On the graduate
level, the work should stress developmental, educational, personality,
social, and measurement psychology with supporting work in physiol-
ogy, sociology, and education. In addition, there should be intensive
work in the diagnostic and therapeutic techniques involved in this area of
psychology. This in turn should be supplemented by supervised practice
in individual work with children in schools and clinics and in consulting
with teachers and school administrators. The advantage of doctoral work
is that it permits the inclusion of more work in diagnostic and treatment
techniques, personality theory, research, and practical experience.
While most school psychologists have a doctorate, a larger number of
school psychologists have training only at the master’s level. Like edu-
cational psychology, school psychology has traditionally attracted many
women; unlike it, it employs many M.A.s. This may become less true as
consulting and program evaluation roles expand.
School psychologists work in public and private schools and occa-
sionally in school psychological clinics. Usually, however, especially in
the case of public schools, they work at the board of education of a par-
ticular school district, making visits to individual schools. Those with
doctoral training frequently transfer to teaching positions in colleges and
universities.
Those who remain with a board of education may advance to director
of guidance or supervisor of psychological services for a school system.
This is particularly true of those school psychologists whose education
and experience have given them training in counseling psychology and
those who have worked with adolescents. School psychologists who
have had extensive experience with exceptional children often will ad-
vance to administrative positions in special education programs.
If employed by a public school system, school psychologists must be
certified in the state in which they work. The requirements for certifica-
tion vary from state to state. They can, however, usually be met in one
year of properly planned graduate work. Students should check the re-
quirements of the states in which they expect to be employed. A program
of study should be planned with these requirements in mind. There is no
specialty certification in this field by professional associations.
The demand for well-trained and effective school psychologists is
considerable. The development of special programs for disadvantaged
and special needs children highlights this need.
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
Sports psychologists are concerned with the psychological stimuli
that affect and improve athletic performance. They also look at the ef-
fects of exercise and physical activity on psychological adjustment and
health. Sports psychologists typically work in academic settings and/or
as consultants for sports teams. They often work in conjunction with
sports medicine professionals.
EMERGING SPECIALTIES, RELATED FIELDS,

AND INTERDISCIPLINARY BRIDGES
As the specialties of psychology mature and branch out to meet new
challenges, several new centers of interests—emerging specialties,
really—have developed. Most of these involve building bridges to other
disciplines, usually around applied issues. One of the most attractive at
present is health psychology, a field that combines aspects of physiolog-
ical, social, counseling, and clinical psychology. Health psychologists,
who may be either practitioners or researchers, focus their work on the
role of psychological functioning in the promotion of health and the pre-
vention and treatment of illness. Thus their research or applied work
may focus on the origins or treatment of obesity, smoking, and cardio-
vascular disease, or on the management of stress and adherence to a pre-
scribed program of medication and exercise. Doctoral programs in
health psychology have started at a number of universities, and their

continued growth is widely anticipated in light of scientific progress and
available research funds.
Somewhat related is pediatric psychology. In this field, clinical and
developmental psychologists conduct research on aspects of medical
practice that are unique to children, such as the optimal policy on a par-
ent staying overnight in a hospital with a young patient, or how to help a
child with leukemia adapt to the difficult medical regimen and the mas-
sive disruption of daily life. Pediatric psychologists who actively work
with patients are initially trained as clinicians, and they have taken addi-
tional practical or internship training to specialize.
Another specialty is family psychology, which is concerned with the
understanding and improvement of family dynamics and individual de-
velopment within the family. Again, both research and applied issues
dominate discussion in this field, and family psychologists might be pri-
marily researchers or clinicians trained in family therapy.
Forensic psychology is another rapidly growing area of specialization.
It consists of the theoretical and applied study of psychology and the law
in such areas as investigating the mental competence to stand trial of
persons accused of criminal acts, assessing neuropsychological damage
of persons involved in accidents, and evaluating the relative strengths
and weaknesses of two divorcing parents who each want custody of a
child. Specialization in psychology and the law is usually achieved
within another, more traditional program (such as clinical or social psy-
chology), often with postdoctoral training.
Cross-cultural psychology is a focus for some psychologists. Some of
the impetus for this comes from a theoretical appreciation of culture as
an organizing context for the development and regulation of behavior,
and some from the increasing international communication of psycholo-
gists around the world. What was in the 1950s a near monopoly by
American scientists has now become global in its application and activ-
ity, and cross-cultural psychology attempts to understand the diversity of
results around the world—indeed within many countries, such as the
United States—and use this perspective to improve our theories of hu-
man behavior. There are at present no doctoral programs in cross-
cultural psychology, and the specialty is usually achieved in conjunction

with a more traditional field such as social or developmental psychology.
In all of these areas, psychologists find themselves working with and
drawing on the literature of colleagues in anthropology, law, medicine,
biology, and other related fields. Innovations in these fields are often ex-
citing and productive, and some are attracting significant research funds.
They are some of the most rapidly growing areas and among the most
appealing to students.
CHAPTER 3
PROSPECTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment of psychol-
ogists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations
through 2008. Employment in health care will grow fastest in outpatient
mental health and substance abuse treatment clinics. Job opportunities
also will arise in schools, public and private social service agencies, and
management consulting services.
Companies will use psychologists’ expertise in survey design, analy-
sis, and research to provide marketing evaluation and statistical analysis.
The increase in employee assistance programs, which offer employees
help with personal problems, should also spur job growth.
Opportunities for people holding doctorates from leading universities
in areas with an applied emphasis, such as clinical, counseling, health,
and educational psychology, should have particularly good prospects.
Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods
and computer science may have a competitive edge over applicants with-
out this background.
MASTER’S DEGREE HOLDERS

Graduates with a master’s degree in psychology qualify for positions
in school and industrial-organizational psychology. Graduates of mas-
ter’s degree programs in school psychology should have the best job
prospects, because schools are expected to increase student counseling
and mental health services.
Master’s degree holders with several years of industrial experience can
obtain jobs in consulting and marketing research. Other master’s degree
51
holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in the community mental

health field, which often requires direct supervision by a licensed psychol-
ogist. Still others may find jobs involving research and data collection and
analysis in universities, government, or private companies.
BACHELOR’S DEGREE HOLDERS

As is expected, very few opportunities directly related to psychology
will exist for bachelor’s degree holders. Some may find jobs as assistants
in rehabilitation centers, or in other jobs involving data collection and
analysis. Those who meet state certification requirements may become
high school psychology teachers.
RAPID GROWTH
The great majority of American psychologists belong to the American
Psychological Association (APA), although there still are many persons
trained or functioning as psychologists who do not belong to their major
professional association. The growth of this professional association
parallels the growth of the field. In 1920, there were approximately 400
APA members; in 1940, there were about 2,500; in 1950, the number
was approximately 7,500; in 1960, they numbered some 18,000; in
1975, about 40,000; and now there are more than 159,000 members. The
increase in the number of psychologists was slow and steady from 1900
to 1920, somewhat more rapid from 1920 to 1940, and extremely rapid
after 1945. It still increases, as psychology continues to be one of the
most popular undergraduate and graduate fields of study.
The mere fact of increase in the number of psychologists is important,
but not sufficient for someone considering the opportunities in the field.
The next question is, what are they doing? What proportion of them are
employed, and where are they employed? How much do they earn?
One outcome of the recent rapid growth of psychology is of passing
interest: it is a profession of relatively young men and women. The ste-
reotype of the gray-bearded professor practitioner is no longer, if it ever
was, justified. Nearly one-third of the members of the American Psycho-
logical Association are less than forty years of age, and most psycholo-
gists have earned their doctorates during the past twenty years.
Prospects in Psychology 53
Primary Full-time Employment Settings

of Doctorate Recipients in Psychology: 1997
Data on Education and Employment—Doctoral
The largest single proportion of new doctorates was located in human service
settings (hospitals and clinics, etc.) followed by higher education. The business
and industry setting here does not include those in private or group practices.
60 Health Service Provider

50 Research/Other
40
Percent
30
20
10
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Reprinted with permission from the APA.
WHERE PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK

Colleges and universities employ about 35 to 40 percent of America’s
doctoral psychologists. This percentage was lower during the postwar
expansion of applied psychology, and then increased, peaking in the
early 1970s. It has declined during past years as shrinking university and
college enrollments lead to static or reduced faculties and as more
psychologists seek or make employment elsewhere. The academic psy-
chologists of today, unlike those of a generation or two ago, devote more
time to research and to practice than did their precursors. More than one-
fourth of them also do some outside consulting work. Psychologists
typically work about forty-five hours per week, and more than one-fifth
work over fifty-five hours per week. There is moonlighting in psychol-

ogy, as in other fields, and professors, more than those in most fields,
carry their work over into their free time, not only for remuneration, but
also out of sheer interest, as shown in a number of studies of the person-
alities of psychologists and other academics.
Private practice in clinical psychology on a full-time basis is the sec-
ond largest employment setting for doctoral psychologists. This is a con-
siderable increase in numbers during the past decade. There are
currently far more professional psychologists in private practice in large
cities, such as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, than ever before.
Apparently, the general increase in the demand for psychological ser-
vices, along with changes in the opportunities for insurance reimburse-
ment, has resulted in an increased demand for private consultation
services. This, in turn, has resulted in an increased interest on the part of
psychologists to meet this demand. This need is also being met in part by
academically employed psychologists who have a part-time clinical
practice.
Hospitals and clinics employ about 30 percent of doctoral psycholo-
gists. The demand for clinical and counseling psychologists has been so
great during the last generation that the Veterans Administration, the
United States Public Health Service, and the United States Army have
long subsidized the doctoral education of about five hundred psycholo-
gists each year. The numbers and financial resources of such arrange-
ments have declined in recent years; however, some do continue, and the
needs of federal agencies merely reflect the continuing general demand
for people in clinical and counseling psychology in other types of hospi-
tals, clinics, educational institutions, and social agencies as well as busi-
ness and industry.
Responses to the health care crisis that became a major focus of policy
debate in the early 1990s will have a significant effect on psychologists
in private practice and in hospitals and clinics. Under programs of man-
aged care, such as health maintenance organizations and preferred pro-
vider organizations, there is a financial incentive for preventive care and
early intervention. Psychologists have a central role in the mental health
aspect of managed care, and they are often involved in evaluation and
utilization studies as well, in which scientists and administrators track
and analyze how patients use the services that are offered and whether
these services are as efficient and effective as possible. Although there
are a number of issues to be resolved as new organizations and new roles

are worked out, it appears that the private practitioner model will be-
come more rare in the future, with a much larger number of psycholo-
gists working in, or affiliated with, networks of managed care.
Public schools and other nonprofit organizations employ another 67
percent of doctoral psychologists. Programs for the preparation of
school psychologists now receive federal subsidies, as do clinical and
counseling programs. Despite the surpluses of graduates in most teach-
ing fields and the pressures on school budgets, specialties such as this
still thrive, especially when they include competence in dealing with
learning disabilities and high level consultant skills.
Business and industry employ about 20 percent of doctoral level psy-
chologists. Between 1973 and 1997 the decline in the proportion of psy-
chologists in academic settings and the increase in business/industry
were the result of a large increase in psychologists in the health service
provider subfields (clinical, counseling, school), coupled with increasing
opportunities for work in for-profit and business settings.
Government agencies also employ about 10 percent of America’s doc-
toral psychologists. Psychologists are employed in agencies such as civil
service commissions, employment services, and departments of educa-
tion. Openings of this type had been numerous until recent cutbacks, but
even now there is a demand in some areas; advertisements in the Ameri-
can Psychological Association’s APA Monitor evidence this fact.
Federal and state support of educational research, development, and
demonstration work has increased the size and number of organizations—
both governmental and nonprofit—employing specialists (M. A. and
doctoral) in developmental, educational, measurement, and social
psychology.
Statistics vary depending on the source and factors studied. The previ-
ous numbers were based on APA findings in 1997. The Occupational
Outlook Handbook, complied by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, offers
these 1998 figures—the most recent available:
Psychologists held about 166,000 jobs in 1998. Educational institu-
tions employed about four out of ten salaried psychologists in positions
other than teaching, such as counseling, testing, research, and adminis-
tration. Three out of ten were employed in health services, primarily in
hospitals, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes,
and other health facilities.
Government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels employed

about 17 percent. Governments employ psychologists in hospitals, clin-
ics, correctional facilities, and other settings. The Department of Veter-
ans Affairs and the Department of Defense employ a majority of the
psychologists working for federal agencies.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
While discussing the number of psychologists, it may be helpful to
add a few words about their geographic distribution. As a relatively new
science and profession, psychology is more in demand in the highly de-
veloped parts of the country than in those areas that are less advanced
economically and technologically. Psychologists tend to be found
largely in the centers of population, and particularly in cities in the
Northeast, the Midwest, and the Pacific Coast. New York and California
lead with about 11 percent of the country’s psychologists each, Pennsyl-
vania and Texas are next, while Alaska, North Dakota, Wyoming, and
Delaware have the fewest psychologists. Of course the population as a
whole has a somewhat similar distribution across the country, but there
are still considerable geographic differences in the ratio of psychologists
to the general population.
WOMEN AND MINORITIES IN PSYCHOLOGY

A 1999 APA survey shows that 49.1 percent of psychologists are
women. This is a huge gain in the last decade. A 1991 survey showed
that only 35 percent of psychologists were women. But in spite of this
gain, there is still a long way to go.
Women typically hold lower ranks in universities and colleges. An-
other 1999 APA survey reveals that 70 percent of male psychologists on
the faculty of universities and colleges are tenured. That means that only
30 percent of tenured faculty are women, yet women represent approxi-
mately half the faculty on the tenure track as well as nontenure track
faculty.
Of the top two ranks, approximately 75 percent of full professors are
men; and approximately 58 percent of associate professors are men.
Women make a few strides at the assistant level position, at 52 percent,
and are in the majority—approximately 65 percent—at the lowest level

of lecturer.
In general, women also hold lower ranking positions in other settings.
In the practice of clinical psychology, most clients are women, but most
clinical psychologists are men.
Ethnic minorities have been minorities indeed in psychology. APA
membership in 1991 included 1,353 members of Hispanic origin; 1,173
African-Americans; 890 Asian Americans; and 332 Native Americans.
In 1991 about 75 percent of APA members were non-Hispanic Cauca-
sian, a disproportionate number, but a situation typical of the scientific
community and many other professions.
In 1999 the APA member demographics show some improvement. Of
the 159,000 APA members, 83,186 responded to the survey. Of those,
366 are Native Americans; 1,178 are Asian; 1,605 are Hispanic; 1,322
are African-American; 434 list themselves as “other”; and 59,133 are
non-Hispanic Caucasian—71.1 percent.
Other surveys show a steady growth of new doctorates awarded to
women and minorities. One consequence of the increase in women and
minority psychologists is the new perspectives lent to the field and
APA’s desire to be responsive to new interest areas. They have estab-
lished new divisions within APA, new committees, and new boards.
Many university programs also have been established with the aim of at-
tracting women and minorities to psychology.
CHAPTER 4
THE REWARDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The rewards of psychology are both tangible and intangible. Tangible
rewards include earnings and the fringe benefits that go with them, such
as housing, medical care, and retirement provisions. Intangible rewards
include the satisfaction that comes with doing something that one likes,
considers important, and that others value. Psychological studies of job
satisfaction and morale have amply demonstrated the importance of both
types of rewards.
FINANCIAL REWARDS
In 1999 the APA conducted extensive salary surveys among its doc-
toral-level members. The salary range is wide and varies depending
upon work setting and number of years’ experience. The new graduate
working a nine-month contract at the bottom of the university hierarchy
might start out at $32,000. At the top of the ladder salaries exceed
$70,000; university researchers earn close to $100,000, and those in
business and industry well over $100,000.
In general, salaries in the field of psychology compare well with those
for chemists and engineers and are superior to those of social workers
and teachers. Financially, psychologists are in the top 10 percent of the
employed population.
Recent salary levels for doctoral-level psychologists working in dif-
ferent settings with different levels of experience are summarized in Ta-
ble 1, and salary levels for master’s degree holders in Table 2.
58
The Rewards of Psychology 59
Table 1: 1999—Average Salaries of Doctoral-Level

Psychologists in Various Positions
Position Annual Average Salary
ACADEMIC FACULTY
Assistant Professor $40,757
Associate Professor 53,060
Full Professor 76,178
RESEARCH POSITIONS
Private Research
2–4 years $58,143
5–9 years 58,500
15–19 years 86,333
University Psychology Dept.
2–4 years $28,429
University Research Center
2–4 years 46,429
10–14 years 60,500
Government Research
20–24 years 81,400
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Elementary/Secondary
20–24 years $87,000
Public General Hospital
5–9 years 56,400
Private General Hospital
5–9 years 59,917
10–14 years 72,000
VA Hospital
5–9 years 61,111
Individual Private Practice
2–4 years $75,600
10–14 years 83,711
20–24 years 89,282
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY

University/College Counseling Center
5–9 years $45,500
10–14 years 51,357
25–29 years 62,889
VA Hospital
5–9 years 60,000
2–4 years 49,833
10–14 years 56,750
20–24 years 81,673
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

Elementary/Secondary School
5–9 years $53,857
10–14 years 66,800
School System District Office
20–24 years 60,667
10–14 years 79,400
20–24 years 122,200
ADMINISTRATION OF HUMAN SERVICES

University/College Counseling Center
2–4 years $42,333
5–9 years 58,111
10–14 years 58,444
Public General Hospital
15–19 years 72,750
Business/Industry
15–19 years 141,800
25–29 years 122,500
Nonprofit Organization
10–14 years 79,500
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY—INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL
Consulting Firm
2–4 years $59,111
5–9 years 101,222
15–19 years 109,000
20–24 years 180,200
Business/Industry
2–4 years 70,200
5–9 years 84,000
15–19 years 123,167
Table 2: 1999—Average Salaries of Master’s-Level Psychologists

in Various Positions
Position Annual Average Salary
ACADEMIC FACULTY
University Psychology Department
Assistant Professor $36,000
Two-Year College
Full Professor $49,889
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

10–14 years $74,000
15–19 years 52,857
Criminal Justice System
5–9 years $44,200
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY

5–9 years $46,000
10–14 years 47,800
DIRECT HUMAN SERVICES—SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

Elementary/Secondary
2–4 years $41,200
15–19 years 61,400
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY—INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL
Consulting Firm
2–4 years $52,000
5–9 years 73,692
In 1999 doctoral-level psychologists who worked in business and in-

dustry, whether for a corporation or self-employed as a consultant, were
the best paid, along with clinical psychologists in private practice. The
lowest paid were master’s degree holders working in academic institu-
tions. Ph.D.s also were paid the least in academic institutions.
What all these figures add up to is simply this: Psychologists, espe-
cially those with the doctorate degree, make as good a living as most
other professional men and women. Despite differences between their
pay and that of some other professional groups, despite salary differ-
ences depending on where they work and what their specialties are, psy-
chologists earn enough to lead interesting lives and to raise their families
according to good standards. Few acquire wealth, but few suffer hard-
ship. Moreover, what they do is useful to society.
Material rewards for psychologists vary with the type of organization.
In private practice or consulting work, psychologists obviously must
provide themselves with retirement benefits, medical care, housing, and
the like. They also will receive social security benefits after retirement.
At the other extreme, psychologists commissioned in one of the armed
forces have the benefits of medical care, retirement, housing, and com-
missary facilities traditionally available to military personnel. Colleges,
hospitals, social agencies, school systems, and business and industry fall
somewhere in between as to the type and number of benefits they pro-
vide. With respect to the nonsalary rewards, psychologists are just like
physicians, engineers, lawyers, machinists, truck drivers, and janitors;
what they receive depends on where they work.
INTANGIBLE REWARDS
Now let us look at the intangible rewards, the work satisfactions, and
the way of life that a psychologist enjoys. These fall into a twofold clas-
sification: those that are associated with being a psychologist and those
that are associated with working in institutions and organizations where
psychologists are employed. Let us look at the former first, since it is
more peculiar to psychology.
The work satisfactions of psychologists come from the application of
scientific methods to the understanding of human behavior and to the so-
lution of problems of human relations and personal adjustment. Psychol-
ogists’ work combines in a unique way the methods of science and the
subject matter of human relations. They are in a position to obtain the in-
tellectual satisfactions of discovery, understanding, and invention at the
same time that they experience the emotional satisfaction of working
with and for people. Depending on the field of specialization, psycholo-
gists can emphasize or minimize the extent to which they do any one of
these.
An experimental psychologist may have relatively brief and transient
contacts with people in the course of work, and the helping of people
may be very indirect. However, the experimental psychologist’s intellec-

tual satisfaction in understanding the principles of behavior, the develop-
ment of theory, and the design of experiments and equipment may be
great.
Clinical or counseling psychologists may combine the intellectual sat-
isfaction of understanding the behavior of individuals and of exploring
the many partially understood aspects of personality. They have the
emotional satisfaction of helping people function more effectively and
achieve self-fulfillment.
The research psychologist in a large organization, whether educa-
tional, industrial, military, or health, has the intellectual satisfaction de-
rived from applying experimental methods to problems of the
development and use of human resources. This is combined with the
emotional satisfaction of making the people with whom he or she works
more effective, thus contributing to the strength of our country’s educa-
tional systems, economy, welfare, or defense.
The instructor in a college or university combines the intellectual sat-
isfaction of organizing, sharing with others, and perhaps adding to the
store of knowledge concerning human behavior, along with the emo-
tional satisfaction of working with students and guiding their growth and
early professional development.
Interviewing workers, teaching classes, planning statistical analyses,
designing learning experiments, interpreting personality tests, reading
research reports, writing texts, watching rats in a maze, teasing out the
meanings of a variety of case materials, observing the behavior of chil-
dren in play—these and the myriad other things psychologists do are
time-consuming, often slow, sometimes tedious, rarely easy; but for
many persons these can be thrilling activities.
To think up a neat and convincing design for an experiment that will
put some theory to the test; to find the underlying trends that make the
seemingly discordant elements of a client’s personality form a meaning-
ful whole; to help a patient or client develop more effective behavior pat-
terns or find better outlets for his or her talents; to organize the findings
of a number of discrete research studies into a chapter in a book that
makes useful to others a new principle or an important diagnostic tech-
nique; to share with others the results of new research that has been well
conceived and executed—these are deeply satisfying activities in which
psychologists engage. They are exciting events when they happen, and
they do not pall with age and experience. If anything, time makes them
more enjoyable and more rewarding.
Psychologists enjoy a comfortable lifestyle. They may not have a
wealth of material things, but neither do they suffer any hardship. Psy-
chologists do not stand at the top of the social prestige ladder, but they
are high enough to be respected by all and low enough to be acceptable
to most. Their work brings them in contact with other educated persons
with whom they can share the intellectual and aesthetic interests that
usually develop during the course of college and graduate education.
The psychologist’s income is sufficient to indulge these interests, share
them with neighbors, and rear children to appreciate and enjoy them.
SOME DISADVANTAGES
Along with the advantages, the disadvantages of being a psychologist
should be commented on here. But whenever these terms are used, one
must ask, “advantages and disadvantages for whom?” It is an old saying
that one person’s meat is another person’s poison. Each reader of such a
book as this must ask whether the type of work and the way of life de-
scribed is appealing, whether it will enable the attainment of valued
goals, and whether it will provide the opportunity to be the kind of per-
son one would like to be. The young man or woman who is more inter-
ested in the things that money will buy than in the things done to earn the
money will find some disadvantages in psychology as a profession.
While we have seen that psychologists earn as much as most profes-
sional groups, they earn less than people in other fields such as medicine
and the higher levels of business, and the work is intellectually and often
emotionally demanding.
The young woman or man who enters psychology will find that there
are certain drawbacks associated with the type of institution or enter-
prise in which she or he works. In an educational institution, the psy-
chologist probably will have too little clerical assistance. In a mental
hospital or school for the mentally retarded, social life will probably be
rather limited, for there is a tendency for staff members of such an insti-
tution to live on or near the isolated grounds and to become a little com-
munity of their own.
In a business organization, the young psychologist will lead a life like
that of an office clerk if he or she is employed at the technician level, and
like that of an executive if employed in a position of leadership. In the

former case, the psychologist may feel like an insignificant cog in a big
machine. In the latter instance, he or she may find it necessary to keep up
with the Joneses, buying more expensive clothes and generally engaging
in the socially competitive activities of the “status seekers.” As a behav-
ioral scientist, the psychologist is likely to consider such competition su-
perficial and perhaps unhealthy, although some view it simply as a game
one plays.
The work satisfactions and way of life associated with working in the
organizations where psychologists find employment are not peculiar to
the field. Psychologists who work in schools share the satisfactions,
problems, and the way of life of teachers. Those who work in hospitals
share satisfactions and problems similar to those of physicians, nurses,
occupational therapists, and others who also work there. Psychologists
who work in colleges or graduate schools share the work satisfactions
and living conditions common to college professors. Those who work in
business in many ways resemble businessmen and businesswomen, for
they share their work and their social lives, even while maintaining a
professional identity.
In choosing the type of organization in which to work, the psycholo-
gist also chooses the type of community in which to live, the friends with
whom to associate, the kind of home to have, and the children with
whom his or her children will grow up and go to school.
WHO SHOULD ENTER PSYCHOLOGY?

So far we have seen something of the status and prospects of the field
of psychology and something of the nature of the psychologist’s work.
In the next chapter, we shall look further into the field of psychology, ex-
amining its special branches before taking up the subject of the psychol-
ogist’s education and training. First, however, let us take a moment to
ask what sort of person should enter this field.
To be fully trained as a psychologist, one must have a doctorate, and
to be employable as a technician in psychology, a master’s degree is
highly desirable. This means that a young man or woman considering
the field should have at least enough academic ability to be capable of
graduate study at a university. If one aspires to a position of leadership,
one should be capable of the advanced study and research necessary for
a Ph.D., Psy.D., or Ed.D. degree.
Psychology is a scientific profession devoted to the study of human
behavior and the improvement of human adjustment. This means that
the student of psychology should be a person who believes that knowl-
edge is important, that time and energy should be spent in finding out
what is true, and that principles and facts should be put to work in the in-
terest of human welfare. It means that the student should consider
knowledge and welfare ultimately more important than one’s own mate-
rial well-being, prestige, or aesthetic values, although these, too, have
their proper place in one’s life.
Psychology involves careful and precise work with large numbers of
detailed observations concerning human or animal behavior, bringing to-
gether and understanding these data by statistical or other methods, read-
ing widely and deeply in theoretical and applied subjects, and dealing
with people as colleagues, clients, subjects, and students. The extent to
which a given psychologist does each of these things depends partly on
his or her specialty and partly on the kind of institution or organization
in which he or she carries on the work of his or her special field.
But all psychologists need to be interested in the careful study of be-
havior and in collecting, organizing, and understanding data on behav-
ior. All need scholarly interests and work habits. Interest in working with
people may vary considerably, for in some specialties the psychologist
may deal only indirectly with people other than professional colleagues
or students. In other specialties the psychologist works closely with peo-
ple of varied backgrounds and personal characteristics.
The personality requirements of psychology are to some extent sug-
gested by the interest requirements. Psychologists need patience and
persistence in working with varied and complex data, coupled with the
ability to work toward remote goals that are difficult to attain. If they are
employed in the applied or professional specialties, they need to be tol-
erant of individual differences and personality deviations in others. In
clinical, counseling, and especially school psychology, a wholesome
personal adjustment and a genuine acceptance of and interest in others
are crucial.
As a social science that has contributed greatly to the understanding of
bias and prejudice, psychology is an occupation that is relatively free of
bias as to sex, race, religion, or physical handicap. Female psycholo-
gists, for example, occupy a number of important positions in psychol-

ogy, including president of the national American Psychological
Association, although proportionately fewer than their share. This may
be true because they have done proportionately less research and writ-
ing, are less favored for administrative positions (particularly in busi-
ness), and travel less. These differences are themselves influenced by
sex-role stereotyping, which many organizations and individuals are ac-
tively working to change. In psychology, women have experienced less
bias than in most professions, and recognition generally has been given
readily and freely to anyone who has earned it. In the past, discrimina-
tion against African-Americans and Hispanics has gone unnoticed, but
here, too, corrective steps have been taken.
CHAPTER 5
EDUCATION AND TRAINING

During the twentieth century, preparation for employment in a profes-
sion had become increasingly a matter of graduate study. First medicine
and dentistry, then law and social work shifted their professional training
from the undergraduate to the graduate level. College teaching long has
required from one to three years of graduate preparation. The profes-
sions that do not require graduate preparation have been raising their
standards in such ways as to suggest that graduate study will soon be a
requirement. For example, high school teachers in some states are now
required to include a year of graduate study in their preparation; engi-
neering schools increasingly require five years of preparation, of which
the first two are in the liberal arts; and architecture in some universities
is an undergraduate program, in others a mixture of undergraduate and
graduate study, and in still others (including some of the most distin-
guished), exclusively a graduate offering.
As a profession that was long dominated by college teachers, psychol-
ogy since its beginnings has shared in the tradition and practice of gradu-
ate education. As increasing numbers of psychologists became engaged
in applying psychological principles and methods in institutions and en-
terprises other than colleges, the tradition of graduate preparation was
reinforced by the need for breadth of understanding combined with mas-
tery of a substantial body of technical knowledge. Thus psychologists
employed in medical settings found that if their special skills and instru-
ments were to be used effectively, they themselves had to be more than
technicians. They had to be professional workers with the depth and
breadth of understanding of psychology, behavior, and physiology that
enabled them to work with physicians as their peers.
68
Education and Training 69
Psychologists working in schools and colleges in nonteaching capaci-

ties found that if they were to make a contribution to education, they had
to be more than measurement specialists. They had to be students of
people and of society with a broad understanding of educational prob-
lems and processes. Psychologists engaged in the application of psy-
chology to business and industry found that they, too, had to be more
than technicians. It was necessary for them to be scientific and profes-
sional workers with considerable training if they were to have any suc-
cess in putting psychology to work.
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
For these reasons, undergraduate education in psychology is consid-
ered nonprofessional in nature. The position of the American Psycho-
logical Association, as expressed by various committees, conferences,
and its Education and Training Board is that the undergraduate study of
psychology has general educational value that gives it an important
place in college curricula but that it cannot and should not attempt to
prepare people for work as psychologists, except in laying a foundation
for a higher degree.
Some colleges and universities do offer undergraduate courses that are
professional in nature, but this practice is frowned upon. Instead it is rec-
ommended that undergraduate courses in psychology provide some of
the theoretical understanding that is essential to the wise and effective
use of professional techniques and that tool courses, such as those in in-
telligence testing, be offered only to persons who have the background
necessary for the wise use of these tools. Furthermore, the need is
stressed for the potential psychologist to include basic courses in other
fields while an undergraduate, so that he or she will have the broad un-
derstanding needed as a foundation for professional education and for
effective scientific and professional work.
Undergraduate study leading to career preparation as a psychologist
should include a substantial amount of work in psychology (not neces-
sarily a major). Such a program of study should be designed to give the
student a fair acquaintance with the content of the field, both in its gen-
eral and in its laboratory aspects. Courses in general, experimental,
physiological, developmental, personality, social, educational, and met-
ric psychology are desirable together with some work in the history of
psychology. The emphasis and selection of these courses should vary

with the theoretical or applied interests of the student, but there should
be no heavy concentration at this stage.
The undergraduate who plans to become a psychologist should in-
clude in the program a substantial amount of work in the natural sci-
ences, particularly in biology (including genetics). Some work in
chemistry and physics also should be included, but the amount should
vary with the ultimate objectives of the student and with the amount of
physical science studied in high school. College work in mathematics
and statistics, emphasizing principles, also should be included.
The social sciences should occupy an important part of the student’s
undergraduate program. Some students will emphasize natural science
and others social science if they have clear ideas as to the field of psy-
chology in which they will later specialize. For example, the future clin-
ical psychologist may emphasize the biological sciences, the future
counseling psychologist may stress the social sciences, and the future
experimental psychologist may give equal emphasis to physiology and
physics as a foundation for this specialty. All psychologists, however,
should be well grounded in each of these fields. In the social sciences,
sociology and anthropology seem most important, but economics, polit-
ical science, and history also are relevant.
Literature, art, philosophy, and religion should not be neglected. Al-
though these fields were somewhat looked down on by many psycholo-
gists a generation ago when psychology was striving to establish itself as
a science, contemporary psychologists have become increasingly inter-
ested in what one can learn from these subjects about the needs and
strivings of people. Humanistic psychology is one of the results of this
interest. A good foundation in the humanities not only helps toward un-
derstanding human behavior but also enriches the life of the individual
by adding to his or her personal resources.
Good writing and speaking skills are of vital importance. A psycholo-
gist, whether planning to be a teacher, research worker, clinician, or per-
sonnel administrator, must know how to organize and present facts and
ideas in ways that are readily understood by and are interesting to a vari-
ety of audiences.
Finally, the student’s undergraduate program should include experi-
ences that help him or her to develop into an effective and interesting
person. These experiences will vary widely because of differences in
personality, interests, and abilities. They should include activities that

enable the student to develop and use social skills in small groups, larger
groups, and interpersonal relations. In addition, there should be activities
that enlarge horizons and give familiarity with new fields of knowledge
and new ways of life. Such an education will be useful whether or not
the undergraduate eventually becomes a psychologist.
GRADUATE PREPARATION
Becoming a psychologist involves getting over a number of hurdles.
The first of these is getting into college, and the second is graduating
from college. Next comes getting into a graduate school, perhaps as a
candidate for a master’s degree, then obtaining the master’s degree (a
step skipped by many who aspire, on completing the B.A., to move di-
rectly to the doctorate). Then one must be accepted as a candidate for the
doctorate, progress over several hurdles while in the doctoral program,
and then pass a comprehensive examination, complete a doctoral disser-
tation or research project, and finally, in most universities, defend the
doctoral dissertation in an oral examination. The number of people over-
coming each hurdle gets smaller as the hurdles get higher. Several of
these hurdles are more difficult to surmount than others, specifically, ac-
ceptance to a Ph.D., Psy.D., or Ed.D. program; passing the comprehen-
sive examination for the doctorate; and completion of the doctoral
dissertation. It is at these points that most of the candidates who do not
succeed are dropped from the training programs.
Universities generally try to weed out the intellectually and emotion-
ally unqualified as early as possible. They attempt to select only those
students who are considered, at the time, likely to complete their studies.
Moreover, the better universities seek to admit only as many students as
can be handled effectively and, on completion of their studies, can be
placed in appropriate jobs. Within these objectives, however, methods
vary considerably, and it is well for the prospective student to know how
the institution he or she is considering operates.
Selection of students for admission to master’s and doctoral programs
is based partly on intellectual ability as shown by college grades,
achievement examinations, and scholastic aptitude tests. The Graduate
Record Examination (achievement and aptitude) and the Miller Analo-
gies Test (aptitude) were devised especially for these purposes. Ratings
by college teachers also are used in an attempt to assess intellectual char-

acteristics such as originality, resourcefulness, judgment, industrious-
ness, motivation, and scholarliness.
Candidates for training in most of the applied or professional fields
also are evaluated on their interest in people as individuals rather than as
subjects for study. In addition, candidates are evaluated on their sensitiv-
ity to social situations, warmth, tact, insight, emotional stability, ethical
standards, and other characteristics deemed especially important in
fields in which the psychologist has considerable responsibility for and
impact on people.
Candidates who are considering the teaching of psychology are likely
to be judged by their obvious desire to share their knowledge with oth-
ers, their skill in doing so, and their interest in keeping up with new
developments.
Psychology students who are preparing for primarily scientific posi-
tions are generally judged by their interest in theory, that is, in the how
and why of things. They also are judged on their concern for facts and on
their skill and creativity in defining problems, in designing research, and
in applying scientific methods to solutions.
Evidence of these characteristics generally is gathered during the
course of graduate study as well as during undergraduate work. The first
year often is designed partly to provide appropriate opportunities for
judging. Undergraduate teachers also often know students well enough
to make judgments concerning promise and performance in these areas
and are skillful in setting up situations in which students can demon-
strate these characteristics.
MASTER’S PROGRAMS
The degree Master of Arts (or Science or Education) requires one or
two years of graduate study, varying with the institution or department.
Most institutions believe that only average or better-than-average col-
lege students should be admitted to work for the M.A. Some institutions,
however, admit any college graduate, and a few admit only potential
doctoral candidates.
In the first two types of graduate schools, the master’s program may
be perceived as a proving ground for doctoral candidates in which stu-
dents have a chance to show what they can do. It may be planned as a
terminal program, designed to prepare students for work in some spe-

cialty. Or it may attempt to do both things at once. Many institutions that
offer the master’s degree do not offer programs for the doctorate. In this
case, the student who wants to continue must apply to another institution
and transfer on completion of the degree.
With such variations in M.A. programs, the student of psychology
should know the program and policy of the institution being considered.
First, does admission mean that one has been carefully screened and is
considered a good doctoral risk? Does it mean that one’s record has been
evaluated and that one is considered a good risk for the M.A., with the
idea that time will tell about the doctorate? Or does it merely mean that
one is being allowed to find out whether or not one is really master’s
caliber?
Additionally, is one embarking on a program that will prepare the stu-
dent for employment on completion of the M.A., or does the program have
professional value only if the doctorate is completed? If the former is true,
is the specialty one in which the student will be satisfied and in which em-
ployment prospects for M.A.s are good? As we have seen in Chapter 2,
there are differences between fields: a master’s degree in counseling,
school psychology or measurement, for example, is more marketable
than one in experimental or social psychology. If the latter is the case
(and this is true of some excellent programs), what percentage of stu-
dents completing the M.A. are able to continue toward the doctorate?
Which type of program will be best for this student?
DOCTORAL PROGRAMS
The degree Doctor of Philosophy (or Psychology or Education) gen-
erally requires three or four years of graduate study, including the M.A.,
and often takes five years because of the time required for completing a
research project. As already pointed out, completion of the M.A. is by no
means a guarantee of admission to a doctorate program. In fact, admis-
sion to a doctorate program probably is the most difficult hurdle of all to
surmount, and more would-be students are eliminated at that point than
at any other. In fields such as clinical and counseling psychology, the ra-
tio of applicants to openings ranges from 10 to 1 to as many as 40 to 1.
While some institutions consider it wise to use the master’s program
as a proving ground for doctoral work, most of the better universities
consider it unwise to admit large numbers of candidates and weed out

some during the first year of graduate study. Instead they prefer to admit
as doctoral candidates only those whom they think are likely to complete
their program of studies and to have them begin their graduate work as
doctoral students. Transferring from an M.A. program to a Ph.D. pro-
gram is difficult, if not impossible, in such institutions. Even then, the
comprehensive examination still screens out some, and a few others fail
to complete a dissertation. However, the student who is unsure of doc-
toral aspirations and abilities and who applies to a doctorate-granting in-
stitution for admission as a master’s candidate (assuming it gives the
M.A.) has the advantage of making his or her abilities known to the in-
stitution early in the course of graduate work. This makes possible more
confident decisions concerning doctoral candidacy and may be better
than applying with an M.A. from another institution. But the student
who wants a doctorate and who is admitted directly to the program of a
selective institution has a greater advantage: That student should be able
to earn the degree and move directly toward that goal.
Doctoral programs, like master’s programs, vary somewhat from one
university to another. Some departments of psychology, for example,
have long emphasized experimental psychology. In the past, some staff
have contended that this should be the training of all psychologists, no
matter what the later field of application is to be. On the other hand,
other universities have for an equally long time emphasized the prepara-
tion of students equipped for intensive work in some of the special fields
of psychology and thus have APA-approved programs in most of the
applied fields.
These variations really are not as great as such a statement may make
them seem. It is generally recognized that a psychologist should, first of
all, be a psychologist and that specialization should represent expertness
in—rather than limitation to—a special field. Thus the type of doctoral
program approved by the Education and Training Board of the American
Psychological Association today is one in which all doctoral candidates
in psychology are well grounded in the basic courses and in which spe-
cialists in such fields as clinical, counseling, and school psychology are
offered appropriate opportunities for the more advanced and intensive
study of their specialties. These various fields of psychology, with the
special training required, were described in Chapter 2.
POSTDOCTORAL PROGRAMS
Postdoctoral preparation in psychology has existed for many years in
informal and unsystematic ways, but now it is formalized and more com-
mon in some specialties. College psychology teachers who wanted to
shift to research or applied positions occasionally sought and obtained
such positions at nominal salaries and with supervision, thus mastering
the special skills and acquiring the special knowledge of the field to
which they were changing. Today, postdoctoral training in clinical psy-
chology is provided at centers such as the Postgraduate Center for Men-
tal Health in New York and the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, in
shorter courses given at some universities, and in connection with the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association.
Postdoctoral training in research is offered by a number of research
institutes, many of them located at universities. The Social Science Re-
search Council and the National Research Council have offered fellow-
ships for a number of years for postdoctoral research training. The Ford
Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and the Office of Educa-
tion have contributed more recently to developments of this type. Simi-
lar developments are taking place in other special fields, but not as yet to
the same extent as in clinical and experimental psychology, educational
measurement, and research.
At all levels, students in the applied fields need opportunities to apply
their knowledge and use their skills under expert supervision. This su-
pervised experience is known as practicum training and generally is re-
quired in clinical, counseling, school, personnel, and applied social
psychology. In many of the theoretical fields, such experience also is
considered necessary, as in the laboratory work of the experimental psy-
chologist, the nursery school and elementary school observation of the
developmental psychologist, the field studies of the social psychologist,
and the apprentice teaching of the graduate student with a teaching
assistantship. While the American Psychological Association has not,
through its Education and Training Board, recommended the inclusion
of practicum training in many fields, the trend is very definitely in the di-
rection of providing such training.
A student deciding on a university for graduate education should
find out what types of practicum training (including research) are
available. In the field of clinical psychology, for example, practicum
training normally is preceded by laboratory training at the university in

the use of psychological tests, interviewing, and observational tech-
niques. It includes clerkship-level training in the application of these
techniques to patients or clients who are being studied by fully quali-
fied psychologists.
The second level of practicum training is internship experience in
which the student studies and works with patients in a way which, by the
end of the internship, approximates that of a junior staff member. In all
of these activities, the work should be supervised; that is, the early test-
ing should be observed and the test protocols corrected; later diagnostic
reports should be reviewed and edited; psychotherapeutic work should
be discussed (this last takes one-half hour or more of supervisory time
for each hour spent with a patient); and relationships with clients and
professional colleagues should be observed and reviewed.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
Psychologists, like professionals in many other areas, increasingly are
interested in brief, intensive courses or workshops that are classified as
“continuing education.” Such programs may consist of a weekend semi-
nar on new statistical techniques or an afternoon session on the psychol-
ogist’s role in legal issues of criminal insanity. Many psychologists find
continuing education workshops an efficient way to keep up with recent
developments and acquire new skills. In addition, a certain number of
hours at certified sessions is required by many states for keeping a valid
license to practice psychology.
INSTITUTIONS OFFERING GRADUATE STUDY

IN PSYCHOLOGY
One way to find out which institutions offer good programs of educa-
tion for a science or profession is to get a list of those that have been ac-
credited by the appropriate scientific or professional association. The
scientific and professional association of psychology is the American
Psychological Association. It has an Education and Training Board that
coordinates the work of a number of committees dealing with special as-
pects of psychological training. One of these committees, created in
1947, formulated standards for the education of clinical psychologists
because of requests from the United States Public Health Service and
from the Veterans Administration. This committee then evaluated inter-
ested universities and prepared an approved list that these agencies could
use in granting funds and in setting up training programs.
It has been the policy of the APA to evaluate and certify university de-
partments of psychology only at the request of some outside organiza-
tions and cooperating universities. For this reason, there currently is no
list of universities approved for the study of psychology in general. In-
stead there are lists of universities with approved doctoral programs only
in clinical psychology, counseling psychology, and more recently,
school psychology. While it is true that a department cannot be approved
for training in these fields unless there is adequate supporting work in
the basic fields, it is quite possible for a university to have excellent
work in the basic fields and in some applied fields without offering a
doctoral specialty in others.
Another way to evaluate universities would be by the number of de-
grees granted in the field of interest. Presumably a university that
granted many degrees in psychology would necessarily be a university
from which many people wanted degrees in psychology. But what peo-
ple want depends partly on what they can get. Therefore, some universi-
ties award many degrees because their degrees are sought, while others
awarding similar numbers may do so because they have low standards
and admit many less able students. Similarly an institution granting few
degrees may do so because of high standards, which lead it to accept
only a few students to whom it offers superior resources, or it may grant
few degrees because few people want a degree from that institution.
Furthermore, even within institutions there are differences, as shown
by the fact that several universities have more than one department of
psychology. In some of these universities, more than one department and
in others only one department, are on approved lists. The larger number
of degrees granted by a given university may then actually indicate that
it has some good offerings and some poor offerings.
CHOOSING A GRADUATE SCHOOL

How then is the student to choose a university for graduate work in
psychology? First, the student can use the APA-approved lists as guides
for work in clinical, counseling, and school psychology and as
indications that the institutions approved for work in these fields also
have adequate supporting work in the basic fields. One should remember
that some of the best work in fields other than the three evaluated fields
is offered by universities that do not have applied psychology programs.
Second, one can judge also by the general reputation of the university
in question as a graduate school, ascertaining its reputation among col-
lege faculty members of one’s acquaintance and among psychologists
with whom he or she has contact.
Third, one can use the Directory of the American Psychological Associ-
ation or the American Psychological Society. They provide geographical
directories that group psychologists by institutions; with the aid of these
lists, one can look up individual psychologists in the alphabetical part of
the directory in order to ascertain their training and experience levels.
American Men and Women of Science can be used to check the published
work of those prominent enough to be included in that directory.
Fourth, one can consult entries in the APA’s Graduate Study in Psy-
chology, published annually, to ascertain fields of specialization, finan-
cial aid, and other information about each university.
Fifth, one can browse through the American Psychologist and the APA
Monitor, particularly the news items, in order to find out what is happen-
ing at various universities, who is conducting research projects, and
where research grants are being funded. Presumably, foundations and
the government give money and contracts to universities they have eval-
uated and found good for their purposes.
Sixth, one can look at the Psychological Bulletin, the Annual Review
of Psychology, Contemporary Psychology, Psychology Today, and other
psychological magazines and journals, reading reviews of research,
book reviews, and other articles to see what kind of work is being done
by university staff members and what other psychologists think of it.
The approved lists of the APA are published each year in the Ameri-
can Psychologist; these data usually are included in the November issue.
The Graduate Study in Psychology publishes related data, such as the
numbers of each kind of degree granted, the fields in which work is of-
fered, admission procedures, and fellowships and stipends.
FINANCING GRADUATE EDUCATION

Finding the funds to finance from one to five years of graduate educa-
tion often seems like a formidable task. With tuition ranging up to
$15,000 per year or more, and the cost of room, meals, laundry, clothing,
transportation, books, and supplies added to that, even the cost for one
year easily amounts to $20,000 or more. One way of cutting down costs
is, of course, to obtain a full-time job at or near the university and to go to
classes on a part-time basis. This method, however, has the disadvantages
of extending the amount of time you must spend on your education and
preventing you from concentrating as only a full-time student can. Fel-
lowships, loans, and assistantships generally are the answer. Institutions
offering graduate work usually have a number of scholarships, fellow-
ships, teaching assistantships, and research assistantships open to gradu-
ate students, as well as loan funds available without collateral. Some
departments admit only students whom they can, in effect, support.
Scholarships and fellowships must be applied for in advance, usually
in December, January, or February. They are awarded on a competitive
basis, merit being judged by grades, examinations, and recommenda-
tions. They range from small scholarships granting exemption from tu-
ition to more generous fellowships that provide full—if modest—
support. These last fellowships are, of course, relatively scarce and much
sought after. Information concerning such awards is given in university
catalogs and is announced along with assistantships each year in Gradu-
ate Study in Psychology published by the APA. The university to which
one is applying may be a very helpful source of information.
The United States Public Health Service has provided fellowships in
clinical, child, physiological, and social psychology with stipends that
vary with the level of training, plus tuition and fees. The Veterans Ad-
ministration appoints students of clinical and counseling psychology to
training positions in which they give about half time to a VA internship
and half time to graduate study at stipends that also depend on training
and experience. This does not include tuition. The Rehabilitation Ser-
vices Administration provides traineeships for master’s as well as for
doctoral candidates at similar levels, with extras for tuition, fees, and de-
pendents. These appointments are made by the university departments
after the student has been admitted as a doctoral candidate. The National
Science Foundation fellowships (for the basic fields in psychology) also
provide good stipends, plus tuition, fees, and dependents’ allowances.

Application for these fellowships is made directly to the NSF.
Teaching assistantships usually are open only to students already in
residence at a university and often are for small sums only. They may in-
volve grading papers for a course with a stipend of a few hundred dollars
for the semester. On the other hand, they may involve teaching sections
of a large course at a stipend of several thousand dollars, sometimes with
tuition exemption. In the long run, the experience often is as important
as the stipend. It brings the student into more intimate contact with fac-
ulty members and introduces the student to the teaching profession.
Research assistantships sometimes are open to new students, but more
often they are available only to those already in residence at a university.
The duties involve working with faculty members and other research
staff on research projects. These projects may be financed by grants
from foundations, by institutional funds, or by industrial or government
contracts. Half-time stipends range from $2,500 to $5,000 or more, often
with free tuition. This type of financial assistance, like teaching assis-
tantships, can have considerable educational value.
Loan funds exist at most universities and are often a crucial help dur-
ing the first and last years of a student’s work. During the first year, a
student may need help while learning how to make ends meet; during the
last year, financial help may enable the student to give the maximum
possible amount of time to studies and research. Student loan funds usu-
ally have generous terms and are a good investment in a professional
future.
Perhaps one of the most important facts to be remembered about fi-
nancing advanced study is that an able student who has some resources
for emergencies and something with which to start the academic year
generally can find some way of financing graduate education, although
changing government regulations for student loans have made this in-
creasingly difficult. Nevertheless, over two-thirds of doctoral students in
psychology received some kind of financial support for their studies.
A student will have to look well ahead of time into scholarships, fel-
lowships, and teaching and research assistantships; the student may fall
back, after registration, on part-time work; he or she may have to bor-
row; and many married students have been largely financed by a work-
ing spouse. It sometimes proves wise to work full-time for two or three
years after the B.A. while saving funds for later full-time graduate study.
CHAPTER 6
A CAREER IN PSYCHOLOGY
A career, as defined by vocational psychologists (who may be coun-
seling, clinical, or organizational in their professional affiliations), is not
an occupation; it is a sequence of positions occupied by a person. Occu-
pations are sets of tasks organized to constitute positions, with similar
positions grouped to constitute an occupation. Occupations exist
whether or not there are people to fill them, for they mean that a certain
kind of work needs to be done to produce certain kinds of goods or ser-
vices. Careers exist only in the lives of individuals. A career begins with
education and the occupation of the position of student; it continues with
work and the occupation of a sequence of positions that may or may not
be substantively related. Thus a career in journalism may, and often used
to, begin with employment as a copywriter and continue with promotion
to reporter, then perhaps to editor or columnist. It now often begins with
university study of English or journalism.
The current awareness of “mid-career crises,” men’s and women’s oc-
cupational changes, and women’s re-entry into the world of work after a
period of full-time homemaking has made most people much more
aware of career development problems and of the desirability of a
longer-term perspective on career planning. This chapter, therefore, fol-
lows the chapter on education and training with discussions of getting
started, getting ahead, and keeping up. It ends with a very brief consider-
ation of eventual retirement, for in career development, it is usually
“later than you think.”
GETTING STARTED
Anyone aspiring to a profession should know what the profession is,
what sort of work is done, where the work is done, what the future
81
prospects are for the field, what kind of training will be needed to enter
the profession, and where to get this training. In addition, he or she also
must know how to get started and become established in the chosen
profession. The majority of these topics—job analysis and description,
social and economic trends, training—are relatively objective and hence
easily dealt with. But getting started and getting established in a profes-
sion is another matter. It is a social and psychological process with many
variations and is much more difficult to observe and to analyze.
Those who engage in an occupation are often somewhat reluctant to
look at it objectively, because a careful analysis may make certain as-
pects appear in an unfavorable light. Furthermore, not all writers on
occupations are trained and experienced in the methods of observing and
analyzing human behavior. In recent years, psychologists and sociolo-
gists have been paying more attention to the process of entering and
gaining a foothold in an occupation.
It is therefore possible at present to describe some of the principal
methods for making a place for oneself in a profession such as psychol-
ogy. The reader of this description should not, however, get the impres-
sion that psychologists are any more success-minded than other
professional groups. Each occupation has its own version of the ways of
getting ahead described here. The emphasis on success is as much a part
of our civilization as is the emphasis on human welfare. Psychologists as
a group tend to emphasize human values rather than material values.
This is exemplified by their code of ethics, which stresses their obliga-
tions to society more than their obligations to each other. The code is not
a means of defending the selfish interests of the profession, but rather it
is one method of protecting the genuine interests of the public.
Personal Evaluation
The student of psychology who is about to complete formal profes-
sional education, whether at the M.A. or Ph.D. level, is a merchandiser
about to put a new product on the market. The new psychologist has a
product to sell: oneself, or rather, one’s professional services. The new
psychologist must analyze this product to see what there is about it peo-
ple might want, find a market that wants this product, and find out how
to get this product to that market in a way that makes people want it.
A Career in Psychology 83
In analyzing the product, a budding psychologist should review edu-

cational, avocational, and vocational experiences to see what he or she
can offer in the way of psychological services that other people want.
What, as a teacher, researcher, clinician, counselor, or administrator does
the prospective applicant have in the way of assets? Has the student been
a graduate assistant with teaching responsibilities? If so, this is a voca-
tional asset. Was the teaching assistantship in association with a psy-
chologist who had something of a reputation as a teacher? If the answer
is yes, perhaps the student caught some of the sponsor’s inspiration, and
this, too, is an asset to be used. Did the student participate in any
research activities independently of the thesis? These should be consid-
ered as a sign of breadth of experience, originality, and research ability.
Were these research activities carried on in collaboration with a famous
research psychologist, and did they result in publication? More assets!
Did the student have an internship in a clinic or research institute with a
reputation for high standards and good work? Did he or she win the es-
teem of supervisors and colleagues during this internship? This also is
something that may have market value. Did the student participate in any
nonpsychological activities that might show creative ability, leadership,
or culture? These things are valued in college teachers, research work-
ers, clinicians, and administrators.
The purpose of listing assets is, of course, to examine them to see to
whom they might be of value and how. They may point up college teach-
ing (the successful teaching assistant), public school work (the former
teacher), market research (the former business major), research on inter-
national communication (the social psychologist who spent time in the
Far East), or counseling in a community agency (the homemaker who
raised a family, was active in the PTA, and served on social agency
boards). The wise student has, of course, planned his or her education
and training with a special market in view so that when he or she pre-
pares to seek a position, it is done with knowledge of self and knowledge
of the market.
A survey of the job market can be accomplished easily after a student
has analyzed his or her training and experience. A job aspirant can locate
potential positions by reviewing items in professional journals such as
the American Psychologist and the APA Monitor, by noting items
concerning employing agencies in the general news, and by talking with
faculty members, practicum supervisors, and friends about develop-

ments that may have significance for employment.
Good examples of such developments are the prestige of the military
psychology programs in World War II, combined with the obvious con-
tributions of research in the physical sciences, which made it almost
inevitable that psychologists who combined research and administrative
ability with military experience would find a ready market for their ser-
vices in government research after the war. The Korean and Vietnam
Wars meant a strengthening of the Veterans Administration vocational
counseling program in regional offices and contract centers. The
strengthening of higher education in the South has provided more
positions for well-trained college teachers whose southern connections
make it likely that they will be glad to find a worthwhile career there
rather than stay (as all too frequently happens) in the northern institu-
tions in which psychologists have tended to do their graduate work. The
proliferation of community colleges means that more teachers, counse-
lors, and deans will be required. The development of the antipoverty
programs added greatly to the demand for educational, social, counsel-
ing, and measurement psychologists. The rapid growth of human ser-
vices has prepared openings for large numbers of psychologists
providing health services.
An informal survey of developments in psychology, education, wel-
fare work, medicine, industry, government, and the armed forces yields
suggestions as to where the young psychologist finishing graduate stud-
ies may best market his or her services.
Making oneself available is done in a variety of ways, some subtle,
some obvious, all appropriate in their proper places. The less obvious
ways consist of publishing minor research and reading papers at psycho-
logical meetings while still a student; taking on short-term and vacation
jobs that bring one in contact with potential employers and with people
who know employers; attending professional meetings and taking ad-
vantage of (without abusing) the occasional opportunities that arise to
increase one’s acquaintance among psychologists; and getting to know
the members of one’s own department as well as possible so that one is
thought of when openings are available.
One psychologist employed in a large-scale research program was of-
fered his position because of a paper he read at a national convention
while a graduate student. This paper caught the attention of the psychol-
ogist who later headed up the research program. Another obtained her
position as a college professor because, at another convention, she
joined a friend at breakfast. This friend happened to be sitting with a
third psychologist who was looking for a new assistant professor. Still
another psychologist is director of a college counseling center because
he accepted a minor assistantship while a graduate student. He carried
out his routine duties in a way that made him stand out in the minds of
the faculty as a person of unusual ability. Finally, a young woman in the
male-dominated field of industrial psychology got her start in industry
by working on a professor’s research, which took them into several busi-
ness organizations.
Placement Services
Registering with a placement service is another, more obvious, and
very acceptable method of making oneself available to employers. Most
universities operate placement offices in which student and alumni
records are kept and to which employers write about openings. Many
faculty members operate informal placement services, keeping lists or
sets of resumes of students and former students interested in jobs. Some
professors, research workers, and practitioners with reputations receive
many requests for nominations to jobs from employers who know them
or their work. Having papers on file in the placement office makes it
easy for a professor to recommend someone with supporting evidence.
The American Psychological Association operates a placement ser-
vice, listing positions available and positions wanted in a monthly em-
ployment section of the APA Monitor, which is sent to all members and
to many libraries. The Observer of the American Psychological Society
also lists employment openings. Large professional meetings, such as
the annual national convention of the American Psychological Associa-
tion, also provide placement services and facilitate interviews. The state
employment offices in some states operate placement services for psy-
chologists in their professional divisions. Finally, federal and state civil
service examinations offer another means for the psychologists in search
of employment. There often are openings in the federal civil service for
research psychologists with physiological, experimental, social, psycho-
metric, personnel, clinical, and counseling specialties.
Resumes and Applications

A final technique for finding employment is the preparation of a re-
sume. The resume should include the psychologist’s education and expe-
rience and be designed so as to point up suitability for a certain type of
employment. This resume may be mailed with a cover letter to selected
potential employers, but such mailing must be handled very selectively
and sometimes is better done by a professor in the student’s major area
than by the student. More importantly, however, the major route of job
application in the past decade or two has become formal response to
public notice of openings in, for example, the placement services noted
above and through college and university placement offices. This trend
toward announcement and response, rather than solicitation and invita-
tion, is primarily the result of equal opportunity legislation and changing
ethics. However, the supply and demand ratio, tipping more heavily to-
ward supply, has had an effect as well. In any case, the resume is an im-
portant introduction to the potential employer, to be used in making
applications and seeking positions. A number of books on job-seeking
deal with the techniques of preparing resumes so that the product is ef-
fectively introduced to the prospective buyer.
Personal Interviews
Techniques of applying for positions in person also are dealt with in
such manuals, but there are certain customs in the employment of psy-
chologists that the student should be aware of. Colleges and universities
like to observe certain traditions of gentility, even though they may actu-
ally engage in hard-headed bargaining. For example, the major universi-
ties have a way of not putting themselves in the position of being turned
down by candidates for employment. They sometimes achieve this by
asking the candidates, late in the explorations, whether, if offered the po-
sition at such and such a salary, they would accept.
The colleges expect the applicants, too, to be above bargaining. The
applicants achieve this by knowing ahead of time what salary they can
command and what salary the college is likely to be able to pay. Candi-
dates also let the college know in various subtle ways that they know
what they are worth. The university is likely to offer a position to a can-
didate in the first place only if it has been led by its own analysis to be-
lieve that what it is interested in paying is what the candidate believes he

or she is worth or feels forced by circumstances to accept.
The hiring processes in medical, social work, governmental, and in-
dustrial settings are different in some respects from those in colleges and
universities. They are generally more formalized; salaries in governmen-
tal organizations are more pre-set, in business more negotiable.
A Good Start
Getting off to a good start in the new position, like applying for the
position, requires a knowledge of and respect for ways of doing things.
The psychologist working in governmental or industrial bureaucracy
must know the official channels through which business is transacted.
The researcher who works in a large insurance company must know in
which of the company dining rooms to eat and not be overly bothered by
social stratification. The college instructor must be able to see a chal-
lenge rather than an insult in the immaturity of some of the students.
And each type of situation has its “uniform,” be it a sober business suit
or blue jeans.
The undergraduate student may have limited horizons and lack intel-
lectual curiosity. The business executive may be interested in answers
that give results rather than in methods that give answers. The military
officer may desire results immediately if not sooner. The patient may
refuse to conform to textbook types. The medical specialist may have
more confidence in the conclusions that he or she reached after working
with one case than in those that someone else drew from a statistical
analysis of one hundred cases. These are just a few of the more serious
and more constant challenges that the newly employed psychologist
must accept graciously and learn to handle to keep the job and render the
type of service that will make the job worth keeping.
GETTING AHEAD
Once the psychologist is at work on the new job and has made the ini-
tial adjustments to become part of the institution in which he or she
works, the next problem to be faced is that of getting ahead. It probably
is desirable to remain in a position for at least two or three years to dem-
onstrate that one is stable and dependable as well as to provide some real
service to the employer to justify the expense of “breaking in.” At the

same time, the employee should plan some activities that will pave the
way for promotion or for offers of better positions. If one plans wisely,
doing justice to the job, to the profession, and to the public, one also will
add to one’s professional stature. For example, like other scientists and
professional people, the psychologist has a responsibility for keeping up
with new developments in the field. The rapid progress being made by
psychology makes this a real chore; the volume of newly published re-
search is great. It is the responsibility of the psychologist to read, inter-
pret, and apply this new knowledge at work.
The means most typically used by psychologists to bring about ad-
vancement are teaching, writing, research, practice (application), profes-
sional activity (committee work and office holding), and popularization.
These are not all equally effective nor equally esteemed, but all are used.
Teaching
In a field that includes both pure and applied science, university con-
nections and university teaching confer prestige. Universities tend to
seek faculty members who have excelled in some aspect of their scien-
tific or professional work. These are presumably the women and men
who have something to contribute to students, who will attract new stu-
dents, and who will in other ways help build up the institution. Reason-
ing conversely, having a teaching appointment in a university is often
assumed, rightly or wrongly, to be a sign of attainment.
The prestige of university connections makes part-time teaching ap-
pointments a means by which psychologists working in clinics, hospi-
tals, counseling centers, schools, industry, and government agencies
advance in their fields. Those who can teach others well to do what they
have done well add to their professional stature and make themselves
known to a larger audience of psychologists and other consumers of psy-
chological knowledge. They make their wisdom and skill known to oth-
ers in a highly acceptable way. They also tend to enjoy sharing their
knowledge with interested students.
Psychologists who are full-time instructors or professors are in a posi-
tion to build reputations as teachers. They are able to organize and con-
duct courses in such a way as to attract students who will want to study
with them because their instruction is meaningful and helpful. In some
institutions it may be that attracting large numbers is important, for num-

bers mean fees and financial support to poorly endowed institutions. In
others it is not so much quantity as quality that counts, and the teacher
who attracts outstanding students, students who make their mark on the
field, is the teacher who comes, in due course, to be valued. Such in-
structors get recognition and advancement when other universities and
institutions bid for their services and when their own institutions try to
keep them.
Good teaching does not just happen, and good teachers are not all
good in the same way. The ability to synthesize and interpret the knowl-
edge of one’s field, both theory and research, is an important component.
Well-motivated students will learn from a good synthesizer, even though
he or she may be a boring lecturer. The ability to present knowledge,
whether in lectures, projects, or other less traditional ways also is an im-
portant quality in teaching. Although the substance of a field may be
well learned in graduate school, the ability to teach too often is not de-
veloped in doctoral programs, nor is it acquired automatically by obser-
vation. This is especially true if role models are not the best and if, no
matter what their quality, available role models are not studied with im-
provement or emulation in mind. Graduate students are graded on their
command of the substance and methodology of their field, not on their
ability to teach them; they therefore concentrate on substance and on sci-
entific or professional methods.
A wise student pays some attention to how professors teach, finds op-
portunities to assist in teaching, and seeks suggestions and criticism of
his or her performance with an eye to improvement. Psychologists who
win distinction as teachers do so only with some effort and after a period
of unofficial internship in teaching, including their first years as teach-
ers. Obtaining class evaluations, very common since the late 1960s, pro-
vides helpful material, especially if one recognizes that good teaching
for one student may not be good teaching for another. The evaluation of
fellow instructors also can be helpful.
The ability to synthesize and present in the classroom or laboratory
can contribute to one’s reputation not only on the campus but beyond it;
some of the best and most widely used textbooks have been produced by
instructors who developed their own materials, tried them out on their
own students, improved them with field trial, and then published them
with resulting national recognition.
However, superior teaching, important as it is to colleges and univer-

sities, often is not enough to bring advancement. A teacher’s reputation
generally does not spread rapidly, and when it does spread it is in quiet
ways that may not come immediately to the attention of administrators.
Unless offers from other institutions are forthcoming, good teaching
brings promotion slowly.
Publication
Publication, on the other hand, whether in the form of textbooks, re-
search monographs, articles in professional and scientific journals, or
papers at scientific meetings, attracts attention more rapidly. It is tangi-
ble, and its results can be brought together and examined for quantity
and quality. A study that is frequently quoted in textbooks, a text that is
used in many institutions, or even a number of journal articles that may
have limited intrinsic value, have the effect of publicizing both the insti-
tution at which the psychologist works and the psychologist personally.
The psychologist thus becomes well known, and if the publications have
been genuine contributions rather than chaff, this reputation brings stu-
dents, clients, grants, contracts, offers of positions, and promotions. For
academic psychologists, those in research positions, and those employed
in medical, community, governmental, or industrial settings, this is a su-
perior and satisfying way in which to develop a reputation among other
psychologists and among kindred professionals and executives.
Research
Research is closely related to publication as a means of advancement.
Research usually will result in publication, but it is different in some re-
spects. Developing a reputation as a writer may be achieved through
textbooks, reviews, or other contributions not based on original research
or experimentation. Research may lead only to rare monographs, arti-
cles, and papers, but it may be so important that its impact is great. The
nature and scope of a project may capture the imagination of others. Its
planning may be so well conceived and its initial stages so well carried
out that the psychologists involved in the project will acquire reputations
as research workers even before any significant publications result from
their work.
The emphasis on scientific method and the interest in functioning as a

scientific profession that characterize modern psychology tend to make
research and writing the methods par excellence for establishing a repu-
tation and for advancing in the field. They are methods that are very sat-
isfying to an intellectually curious, research-minded person.
Development Work
The practice of psychology is another means of advancement that is
becoming increasingly important as the demand for psychological
services increases and as the number of psychological practitioners
becomes greater. Engineering, measurement, school, counseling, per-
sonnel, or applied social psychologists who are especially effective in
development work in business, the armed forces, or education find their
services very much in demand.
The term development may need a little explanation. It frequently is
used in connection with the term research. The development of a profi-
ciency examination for policemen or for computer programmers, for ex-
ample, is not research in the strict sense of the word. It involves no new
contributions to knowledge but is simply the application of existing
techniques to a slightly different problem. It is, however, a task best car-
ried out or supervised by persons with a research background and re-
search skills.
Similarly, making a follow-up study of students who have left high
school in order to get data for use in revising the offerings of the school
involves no new techniques and contributes no new fundamental knowl-
edge. It is, again, the kind of project to which a research-trained educa-
tional, counseling, or personnel psychologist can contribute a great deal
in rationale, method, and interpretation.
A number of consulting organizations and research institutes special-
ize in this type of work, and many college teachers are active consultants
on such projects. Those who are skillful in working with others to put
existing knowledge to work find themselves valued as staff members
and as consultants, and thus they become established rapidly.
Clinical and Counseling Work

The practice of psychology, however, is not limited to development
work. In fact, it is the clinical and counseling applications of psychology
that traditionally have been best known. They, too, have been very much
in demand; as a result, competent clinicians and counselors have found
ample opportunity to advance to responsible positions or to develop pri-
vate practices.
The practicing clinical or counseling psychologist, like other psychol-
ogists, may build a reputation partly through publication, research, and
teaching, but in practice these are incidental or peripheral activities.
Their principal functions are diagnosis, assessment, psychotherapy, and
counseling. The practitioner therefore develops a reputation among pro-
fessional colleagues and among clients by establishing and maintaining
good interpersonal relations, by becoming a skillful diagnostician, by
doing an effective job of counseling or psychotherapy, and by communi-
cating with colleagues in psychology and in the related professions in
ways that are meaningful to them. The practitioners’ services are valued
because social workers find that their case summaries provide a sound
and clear basis for child placement, because pediatricians find them
good team members in working with difficult children and parents, be-
cause psychiatrists find their diagnostic summaries perceptive and to the
point, and because teachers feel that they understand school problems
and help show how classroom situations can be used to help children. It
is those who are effective in this type of work who are offered opportu-
nities for supervisory and administrative responsibility.
Committee Work
Committee work often proves to be an important means of bringing to
light a psychologist’s ability and contributions. This is especially true in
the case of teachers whose superior teaching builds reputations rather
slowly, and in the case of clinicians and counselors whose effective work
with clients and professional colleagues may remain known only in the
relatively limited circles of their institutions. The American Psychologi-
cal Association, the American Psychological Society, the various state
psychological associations, and some city associations have a large
number of active committees working on a variety of scientific and pro-
fessional problems. The burden of committee work falls heavily on those
who have the ability and the motivation to work, so that new talent is
eagerly sought and soon given responsibility.
Popularization
Popularization (writing or talking about psychology for the general
public) is another method that sometimes is used by psychologists to
build reputations and to advance. Traditionally, however, this has not
been viewed very favorably by the profession unless it is incidental to
substantive contributions or done by professional writers. The fact that
psychology has a strong popular appeal makes for quite a demand for
popularization in widely read magazines, popular books, newspaper sto-
ries, radio, television, and public lectures. The very nature of the appeal,
however, often results in the distortion of psychological data, selection
of the sensational, and catering to unhealthy needs and interests.
Popularization of a type that is in the public interest requires a great
deal of skill, time, and strength of mind on the part of the psychologist.
Many popularizers have found their best efforts frustrated by a sales-
minded publisher or TV producer. An occasional psychologist has vio-
lated the APA’s Code of Ethics and fallen from grace because the lure of
easy money through popular writing and lecturing led the psychologist
to cater to publicity and sales departments. Another important factor is
the tendency of scientists to be skeptical of popularizers, even though it
is in the interest of a science or a profession to have its work understood
and supported by the public. The American Psychological Association
and the American Psychological Society are very much aware of the
need for good popularization, and publishers, press, radio, and television
are receptive to good popularization. There is growing interest in psy-
chology for these media, but abuses still make it a rather difficult way for
a young psychologist to make a solid reputation or to win advancement.
MOVING AHEAD
The American dream has always been to find something better. Mov-
ing from one place to another, from one job to another, even from one
occupation to another often has been viewed as the means. Even if one
really likes the present job, the present institution or organization, and
the present place of residence, distant pastures may seem greener.
Americans were a very mobile people during the decades immedi-
ately following each major war, and the tradition of mobility persists
even during periods of recession and depression. One good reason for
doing graduate work in a university other than that in which the bache-
lor’s degree was earned is that one can thus get a broader perspective on
higher education as a place of employment. Similarly one good reason
for field work and internship is to learn in greater depth what psycholo-
gists do in a variety of settings.
Mobility is not necessarily a good thing, but having other employers
want to hire one often does help to make a person seem valued at one’s
own institution or organization. The potential of mobility is good, pro-
vided it does not make one restless and distracted from the work at hand.
The means of making oneself wanted already have been discussed. In
this section, attention is paid to the types of mobility that are typical of
psychologists.
Academic Networks
Each graduate school tends to have its network of communicating,
mutually respecting, and accepting institutions. The foundations of these
networks are partly geographic, for people from neighboring institutions
meet more readily, for example, at the annual Eastern, Southeastern,
Midwestern and Western Psychological Association meetings. They are
partly affiliational, for people tend to maintain contact with their former
professors, their fellow graduate students, and their own former stu-
dents. And they are partly hierarchical—prestige-based—for the famous
universities tend to place their graduates in other well-known institu-
tions, and the universities with local reputations, no matter how good,
tend to place their graduates in nearby, often lesser, institutions.
There are thus several academic networks, and movement tends to be
within the network in which one starts academic work. People do move
from higher-level networks to lower, sometimes because of the attrac-
tions of less famous but in other ways very attractive colleges or univer-
sities, or sometimes because of the lack of openings in the favored
network. Movement from a lower-level network to a higher one is less
common and is most likely to be the result of unusually good research or
writing. In the applied fields, and this is less often the case, it may be the
result of unusual contributions in the development of service programs
or in professional committee work. Some graduate schools make a prac-
tice of employing their best graduates in junior positions after they get
their degrees—a help in getting teaching experience—while others pre-
fer to see them go elsewhere and prove their worth in the field before
considering them for teaching appointments. Those who stay at their
alma mater too often have a rude awakening when they are pushed out of
the nest after four or five years of service to make room for another,
newer, candidate for whom tenure will not be a question for several
years. The possibilities of getting tenure are important in considering a
first regular academic appointment, and getting onto a tenure track at
least one or two years after receiving a graduate degree generally is wise
in academia.
Practitioner Networks
Careers in private practice may, of course, involve consultation either
with individuals (clinical or counseling) or organizations (industrial and
organizational, including assessment, counseling, and organizational
and group development). Practitioners not only work alone, as has so
commonly been true of physicians and dentists, but often in groups as
has been true of lawyers and is increasingly true of physicians. It is clini-
cians and counselors who are most likely to eventually work on their
own with private patients or clients, while some, like most industrial and
organizational psychologists who engage in consulting work, do so
within an organizational framework. The common pattern for those in-
terested in being practitioners is to start in a junior staff position in such
an institutional or organizational setting, partly to develop expertise and
partly to accumulate evidence of legitimacy and competence. From a
university, business, industrial, or consulting firm base, the neophyte de-
velops not only competence and contacts but also the maturity essential
for public confidence. If interested, they then can move to full-time prac-
tice on their own or in higher-level organizational work.
Reputations as practitioners develop largely through word of mouth,
personal contacts, training workshops, and work well done. Getting
ahead is measured first in the type of work that one is assigned, then in
terms of the type of problems on which one is asked to consult and on
the volume of work or business that one develops, whether within the
framework of an organization or on one’s own.
It may at first seem odd that clinical and industrial practice are dealt
with together, as they are here. The reason lies not only in the fact that
both are applied fields, but also because people in either clinical or
industrial practice do need to start in an institutional setting, unless they

can gamble for some time while building a practice. The networks are
distinct, but their patterns are similar.
THINK TANKS, RESEARCH INSTITUTES, AND FREELANCE

A small but growing number of psychologists carry out research out-
side the academic setting in think tanks or research institutes such as the
American Institutes for Research, or freelancing on their own. Such
work is similar in many ways to academic research, often resulting in
professional publication as well as a final report to the client (a govern-
ment funding agency, private foundation that supports research, or per-
haps a business firm). Usually the research is directed to specific
problems in the nonacademic world. In many ways, however, psycholo-
gists in these networks forge careers that resemble those of practitioners;
their work is oriented to a “product” rather than teaching and pure
knowledge, and their networks of colleagues and potential employers
again are distinct. This group of hybrid occupations has emerged for a
variety of economic and structural reasons and is still in the process of
defining its niche between the academic and the traditional practice.
The Linkage Systems

Linkages between the academic, practitioner, and research networks
are limited once the graduate student has left the university, and they are
infrequently used; it is essentially a one-way street. Academic psycholo-
gists who, because of their research, writing, or teaching, are perceived
by business, industry, institutes, or government as having contributions
to make to practice may develop part-time consulting work and perhaps
be in a position to receive or seek offers of positions. An occasional
practitioner (whether clinical, counseling, or industrial and organiza-
tional) or researcher may be offered an academic post so that students
can have the benefit of one or more full-time professors with strong ap-
plied backgrounds. But such instances are exceptional.
The higher incomes of successful practitioners do sometimes tempt
the academics. Conversely, the greater security of academe sometimes
tempts the psychologist in business or industry. The greater freedom of
university work may tempt the industrial, business, or government em-
ployee or other practitioner who feels tied down by office hours. Or the
risks and challenges of applied work may tempt the teacher tired of grad-
ing papers or of degree seekers who are not interested in knowledge.
Each person considering a career in psychology should take into account
that this great variety of options is available and that what is a wise
choice for one person may not be a wise choice for another. Exploration
of the possibilities is called for while still in college and graduate school
so that the graduate program can be planned with emphases that qualify
one for the desired type of career in psychology.
THE LAST STAGE OF A CAREER: RETIREMENT

People rarely, if ever, choose a career because of its retirement possi-
bilities, but it is good to have some notion of what they may be.
As members of a profession, psychologists have access to the same
types of retirement benefits that other professionals have: Social Security,
self-financed retirement annuity plans, the Carnegie-founded Teachers
Insurance Annuity Association and related funds if employed by a uni-
versity, and other organizational retirement plans if employed by busi-
ness, industry, or government.
Psychologists also share with other scientists and professionals inter-
ests that not only find expression in their work but also frequently and
readily find outlets in their hobbies and leisure-time activities. These can
carry over into retirement whether as work or play. This is of consider-
able psychological importance and has been related to longevity. The
pursuit of such activities often develops enduring friendships. Thus part-
time work, hobbies, and friendships give life after retirement continued
meaning and provide the raison d’etre that leads to a long and enjoyable
life after retirement.
CHAPTER 7
SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
For more than one hundred years, the primary professional and scien-
tific association for psychologists in North America has been the Amer-
ican Psychological Association (APA). (There is also a much younger,
Canadian Psychological Association, but many Canadian psychologists
also belong to the American association.) There are a number of smaller,
more narrowly focused associations, such as the Psychonomic Society,
and many psychologists also belong to related professional societies
such as the American Educational Research Association—some of these
are listed later in this chapter.
The American Psychological Society (APS) was formed largely by
members of the APA who were unhappy with what they perceived as a
slighting of scientific concerns in favor of professional or health pro-
vider ones. The APS has grown rapidly and developed a number of new
activities. At the same time, the APA has responded innovatively to
many of the criticisms from academic psychologists and has maintained
its high level of professional representation in the public domain, espe-
cially with regard to health care policy reform. Many psychologists are
members of both organizations.
THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

The American Psychological Association has its headquarters in its
own building at 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242. The
APA also has an extensive website at www.apa.org. There you’ll find in-
formation on the APA and its divisions and also the following information:
98
Scientific and Professional Organizations in Psychology 99
accredited schools/programs
boards and committees
books
careers
conferences
continuing education
conventions
international affairs
jobs
journals
licensure
pamphlets
position papers
publications and communications
research funding
research office
salary surveys
state associations
But that doesn’t even scratch the surface. A visit to the APA website is a
must for any potential psychology major.
The APA has a staff consisting of a full-time executive secretary, a
managing editor for its journals, and others concerned with professional
education and placement. Its affairs are directed by an elected president,
other officers, and a board of directors. In addition, there is a larger
council of representatives elected by the various divisions of the associ-
ation. Much of the association’s work is carried out by boards and com-
mittees, some of which are listed here.
Selected Boards and Committees of the

Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest
Board of Convention Affairs
Board of Educational Affairs
Board of Professional Affairs
Board of Scientific Affairs
Election Committee
Ethics Committee
Finance Committee
Membership Committee
Committee on Accreditation
Committee on Aging
Committee on Animal Research and Ethics
Committee on Children, Youth, and Families
Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology
Committee on Division/APA Relations
Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs
Committee on International Relations in Psychology
Committee on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Concerns
Committee on Professional Practice and Standards
Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment
Committee on Rural Health
The special interests of psychologists in the American Psychological
Association are served by fifty-three divisions. Each division is con-
cerned either with a special aspect of psychology as a science, with the
applications of psychology in some special field, or with the interests of
psychologists employed in a particular type of setting.
There are currently more than 159,000 members of the American Psy-
chological Association, much greater than ten years ago. The increase
has resulted largely from the rapid growth of psychologists providing
health services. But the growth and particularly the shift toward psychol-
ogy as a health profession created great tensions within the association
about how best to organize its affairs for promoting both the science and
the practice of psychology. As a result, a large number of psychologists
formed the new American Psychological Society. Many of these were
based in university or research institutions and were oriented to the
science side of psychology, although many of them also had applied, if
not clinical, interests. A large number maintain membership in both
organizations.
Members of the American Psychological Association may be either
associates, members, or fellows. Associates must have completed either
two years of graduate study in psychology in a recognized graduate
school or one year of graduate study plus one year of experience in work
that is psychological in nature. In both cases, at the time of application
they must be devoted full-time to professional or graduate work that is

psychological in nature. Associates do not vote or hold office.
Members must have a doctorate in psychology based in part on a psy-
chological dissertation or from a program primarily psychological in
content and obtained at a recognized graduate school.
Fellows of the APA must have a doctoral degree based in part on a
psychological dissertation conferred by a graduate school of recognized
standing. They must have been members for at least a year, must have
had five years of acceptable professional experience after receiving the
doctorate, and must, after nomination by a division of the APA, present
evidence of unusual and outstanding contribution or performance in
psychology.
Dues to the association range from $54 to $215 a year. Students are eli-
gible for special affiliation at greatly reduced rates. These dues include a
subscription to the official journal of the APA, the American Psychologist,
and the APA Monitor (monthly newspaper). In addition, other regular sci-
entific and professional journals are published. Annual conventions are
held in a different city each year in late August or early September.
In addition to the national association, there are regional, state, and lo-
cal associations that meet regularly to hear scientific papers, to discuss
problems of common interest, and occasionally to take action on profes-
sional matters. The regional and state associations usually limit their ac-
tivities to one meeting each year.
The American Psychological Association also can provide informa-
tion about related groups within psychology that focus on special con-
cerns. Contact the appropriate office, c/o American Psychological
Association, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242 or visit
www.apa.org.
THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The American Psychological Society was founded in 1988 and now
has more than fifteen thousand members. It currently publishes three
journals, Psychological Science, which carries articles on research,
theory, and applications in psychology and related behavioral, cognitive,
neural, and social sciences; Current Directions in Psychological Sci-
ence, which features summaries and reviews of recent trends and
controversies in a manner that is accessible to a wider audience of

readers both within and outside the discipline; and Psychological Sci-
ence in the Public Interest, published twice a year as a supplement to
Psychological Science. The APS also publishes a monthly newsletter,
the Observer. There is an annual meeting of the society, at which numer-
ous symposia and reports of scientific studies are presented. The soci-
ety’s headquarters and editorial offices are at 1010 Vermont Avenue NW,
Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005-4907. Their website is located at
www.psychologicalscience.org.
THE AMERICAN BOARD OF EXAMINERS

IN PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology is ap-
pointed from a list of leading psychologists nominated by the American
Psychological Association. It is separately incorporated. The board is
responsible for examining and certifying psychologists in the profes-
sional fields and issues diplomas in clinical, counseling, and industrial
psychology.
Diplomates, as the holders of these diplomas are called, must have
held a doctorate in psychology with appropriate specialization for at
least five years. In addition, they must have experience in their specialty,
meet high ethical standards, and pass written, oral, and practical exami-
nations in the general field of psychology and in their specialty.
The work of this board, therefore, makes it easy for the public to iden-
tify practicing psychologists who are clearly recognized by their fellows
as having attained a high level of competence and who have adhered to
high levels of ethical standards. The publication of a directory of ap-
proved psychological service centers is the function of the American
Board for Psychological Services. Several other boards exist for special
purposes.
PSI CHI
Psi Chi is the national honor society in psychology with chapters on
the campuses of many colleges and universities. It holds meetings like
those of the state and local associations and helps with the orientation of
psychology students to their field, but its main purpose is to encourage
students to maintain excellence in psychology and advance the science

of psychology. For information about activities and membership, write
to Psi Chi, 825 Vine Street, Chattanooga, TN 37403-0709 or visit
www.psichi.org/content.
RELATED ASSOCIATIONS
There are a number of other scientific and professional societies that
include psychological divisions or in which psychologists and members
of related fields meet. These include the following:
The American Association for the Advancement of Science
The American Association on Mental Deficiency
The American Educational Research Association
The American Management Association
The American Orthopsychiatric Association
The American Personnel and Guidance Association
The Association for the Advancement of Psychology
The Canadian Psychological Association
The International Association of Applied Psychology
The International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
The International Society of Political Psychology
The National Association of School Psychologists
The National Education Association
The Psychonomic Society
STATE LICENSING AND CERTIFICATION BOARDS

All states and Canadian provinces have laws for the licensing or certi-
fication of psychologists. A licensing law requires that anyone perform-
ing certain types of services be licensed by the state. A certification law
prohibits anyone from using a specified occupational title unless he or
she has been certified as qualified by the state.
The states of California, Georgia, Kentucky, Minnesota, Tennessee,
and Virginia are among those that have licensing laws for psychologists
or for certain specialists in psychology. Connecticut, Kansas, and New
York are examples of states that have certification laws.
A board of psychologists appointed by the governor, on recommenda-
tion of the state department, handles certification and licensing and
reviews and examines applicants. Psychologists expecting to work in a

given state should ascertain the status of licensing in that state, the nature
of the requirements where such exist, and the procedure for complying.
Such information is usually available from state departments of education
and also may be obtained from the secretaries of the state psychological
associations. The American Psychological Association and its Biographi-
cal Directory are sources of such information. Also contact the Associa-
tion of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 4589,
Montgomery, AL 36103-4589 or visit their website at www.asppb.org.
THE COUNCIL FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HEALTH

SERVICE PROVIDERS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Since 1975 the council, an independent corporation, has published the
National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology. This is a
voluntary listing of psychologists who meet specified criteria as health
service providers, but it is emerging as a valuable central registry of hu-
man resources in the converging specialties that constitute “health psy-
chology” (primarily clinical, counseling, and school psychology). The
Register lists more than fifteen thousand psychologists who are certified
or licensed for independent practice in their states and who are duly
trained and experienced in the delivery of direct, preventive, assessment,
and therapeutic intervention services to individuals whose growth, ad-
justment, or functioning is actually impaired or is demonstrably at high
risk of impairment.
APPENDIX A
RECOMMENDED READING
The following books are published by the American Psychological Asso-
ciation. For complete book descriptions and ordering information visit the
APA website at www.apa.org/books/students.html or call 1-800-374-2721.
Career Paths in Psychology: Where Your Degree Can Take You, by Robert J.
Sternberg, 1997.
Critical Thinking About Research: Psychology and Related Fields, by Julian
Meltzoff, 1998. Equips you with the tools needed to identify errors in others’
research and to reduce them to a minimum in your own work.
Dissertations and Theses from Start to Finish: Psychology and Related Fields,
by John D. Cone and Sharon L. Foster, 1993.
Encyclopedia of Psychology: 8 Volume Set, by Alan E. Kazdin, Ph.D., Editor-in-
Chief, 2000. Definitive guide to every area of psychological theory, research,
and practice.
Getting In: A Step-by-Step Plan for Gaining Admission to Graduate School in
Psychology, 1993. Competition is fierce and admission standards are high.
Getting In reduces the stress of applying and increases applicants’ chances of
being accepted in the programs of their choice. Applicants are provided with
manageable goals and the tools to achieve them. Among the tools are a
monthly timetable for completing application tasks, concrete information
about career options in psychology, descriptions of graduate specialty
options, and detailed worksheets for selecting the best program matches.
Graduate Study in Psychology: 2000 Edition. Print and electronic versions.
Offers practical information about more than five hundred psychology
programs in the United States and Canada. This edition provides current facts
about programs and degrees offered, admission requirements, application
information, financial aid, tuition, and housing.
105
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fourth Edition,

1994. This new edition, the first revision since the 1983 edition, offers
updated information in four key areas: reporting statistics, writing without
bias, preparing manuscripts with a word processor for electronic production,
and publishing research in accordance with ethical principles of scientific
publishing.
The following books are published by VGM Career Books, a division of

The McGraw-Hill Companies. Write to VGM Career Books at 4255 West
Touhy Avenue, Lincolnwood, IL, 60712-1975, or call 1-800-323-4900.
Great Jobs for Psychology Majors, by Julie DeGalan and Stephen Lambert.
On the Job: Real People Working in the Helping Professions, by Blythe
Camenson.
APPENDIX B
APA-ACCREDITED DOCTORAL
PROGRAMS IN PROFESSIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
The Committee on Accreditation of the American Psychological As-
sociation approved in 1996 the doctoral programs in clinical, counsel-
ing, school, and combined professional-scientific psychology that are
conducted by the institutions listed below. In the institutions listed, the
approved programs are directed by the department of psychology unless
otherwise indicated. Programs that have not requested evaluation and
programs that have been evaluated but not approved are not included in
the list.
There are three categories of accreditation. Full accreditation is
granted to any program that meets the criteria in a satisfactory manner.
Provisional accreditation is granted to programs making initial applica-
tion that do not meet all the criteria but for which the committee believes
there is a reasonable expectation that they will be met within a foresee-
able period of time. Probation is the category into which a fully accred-
ited program is placed when the committee has evidence that it is not
currently in satisfactory compliance with the criteria. (Provisional or
probationary accreditation is indicated for any such programs in the fol-
lowing list. All other programs are fully accredited). The criteria for
evaluating these programs can be obtained from the Accreditation Office
of the American Psychological Association.
Inclusion of an institution in this list indicates approval of doctoral
programs in clinical psychology, counseling, school psychology, or
107
combined professional-scientific psychology only. Inclusion or nonin-

clusion carries no implications for other graduate programs in psychol-
ogy or for programs of graduate education in other disciplines.
The first date provided is the original date of accreditation.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Adelphi University Allegheny University of the Health
Derner Institute of Advanced Sciences (formerly listed as
Psychological Studies Hahnemann University and
Garden City, NY 11530 Medical College of
April 1, 1957 Pennsylvania)
Next site visit scheduled 2006 Department of Clinical and Health
Psychology
Adler School of Professional Philadelphia, PA 19102-1192
Psychology (Psy.D.) January 15, 1991
Chicago, IL 60601-7203 Next site visit scheduled 2003
November 13, 1998
Next site visit scheduled 2002 American School of Professional
Psychology Hawaii Campus
University of Alabama (Psy.D.)
Department of Psychology Honolulu, HI 96816
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0348 June 16, 1998
February 1, 1959 Next site visit scheduled 2003
Next site visit scheduled 2000
American School of Professional
University of Alabama at Psychology Virginia Campus
Birmingham (Psy.D.)
Medical Psychology Program Arlington, VA 22209
Birmingham, AL 35294 November 30, 1999
March 20, 1985 Next site visit scheduled 2002
American University
University at Albany/State University Department of Psychology
of New York (formerly listed as Washington, DC 20016
State University of New York at March 1, 1972
Albany) Next site visit scheduled 2005
Department of Psychology
Albany, NY 12222
May 16, 1979
APA-Accredited Doctoral Programs 109
Antioch New England Graduate May 12, 1981

School (Psy.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2003
Department of Clinical
Psychology Biola University (Ph.D., Psy.D.)
Keene, NH 03431 Rosemead School of Psychology
July 15, 1986 La Mirada, CA 90639
Next site visit scheduled 2005 May 23, 1980
University of Arizona
Department of Psychology Boston University
Tucson, AZ 85721 Department of Psychology
March 1, 1962 Boston, MA 02215
Next site visit scheduled 2003 October 1, 1948
Arizona State University
Department of Psychology Bowling Green State University
Tempe, AZ 85287 Department of Psychology
January 21, 1977 Bowling Green, OH 43403
Next site visit scheduled 2000 November 1, 1970
University of Arkansas
Department of Psychology Brigham Young University
Fayetteville, AR 72701 Department of Psychology
April 1, 1966 Provo, UT 84602
Next site visit scheduled 2004 March 1, 1971
Auburn University
Department of Psychology University of British Columbia
Auburn University, AL 36849- Department of Psychology
5214 Vancouver, British Columbia
November 17, 1976 Canada V6T 1Y7
Next self-study review 2001
Baylor University (Psy.D.)
Department of Psychology University at Buffalo/State
Waco, TX 76798-7334 University of New York
April 26, 1976 (formerly listed as State
Next site visit scheduled 2003 University of New York at
Buffalo)
Binghamton University/State Department of Psychology
University of New York Buffalo, NY 14260
(formerly listed as State November 18, 1949
University of New York at Next self-study review 2000
Binghamton)
Binghamton, NY 13902-6000
University of California, Berkeley April 23, 1991

Department of Psychology Next site visit scheduled 2001
Berkeley, CA 94720-1650
February 1, 1948 California School of Professional
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Psychology–San Diego
San Diego, CA 92121
University of California, Los Angeles May 6, 1980
Los Angeles, CA 90024
February 1, 1948 California School of Professional
Next site visit scheduled 2006 Psychology–San Diego (Psy.D.)
San Diego, CA 92121
California School of Professional May 26, 1994
Psychology–Alameda Next site visit scheduled 2000
Alameda, CA 94501
March 21, 1984 Carlos Albizu University Miami
Next self-study review 2002 Campus (Psy.D.) (formerly
listed as Caribbean Center for
California School of Professional Advanced Studies–Miami
Psychology–Alameda (Psy.D.) Institute of Psychology)
Alameda, CA 94501 Professional School of Psychology
February 28, 1995 Miami, FL 33166
California School of Professional
Psychology–Fresno Carlos Albizu University San Juan
Fresno, CA 93727 Campus (formerly listed as
March 28, 1984 Caribbean Center for Advanced
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Studies)
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00902-3711
California School of Professional September 23, 1994
Psychology–Fresno (Psy.D.) Next site visit not yet scheduled
Fresno, CA 93727
June 3, 1994 Carlos Albizu University San Juan
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Campus (Psy.D.) (formerly
listed as Caribbean Center for
California School of Professional Advanced Studies)
Psychology–Los Angeles San Juan, Puerto Rico 00902-3711
Alhambra, CA 91803-1360 September 23, 1994
March 21, 1978 Next self-study review 2001
Case Western Reserve University
California School of Professional Department of Psychology
Psychology–Los Angeles Cleveland, OH 44106
(Psy.D.) February 1, 1948
Alhambra, CA 91803-1360 Next site visit scheduled 2000
Catholic University of America Concordia University

Department of Psychology Center for Research in Human
Washington, DC 20064 Development
February 1, 1948 Montreal, Quebec
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Canada H3G 1M8
April 1, 1984
Central Michigan University (Psy.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2004
Mt. Pleasant, MI 48859 University of Connecticut
February 9, 1990 Department of Psychology, U-20
Next self-study review 2000 Storrs, CT 06269-1020
December 19, 1951
Chicago School of Professional Next site visit scheduled 2003
Psychology (Psy.D.)
Chicago, IL 60605 Dalhousie University
October 6, 1987 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2002 Halifax, Nova Scotia
Canada B3H 4J1
University of Cincinnati January 16, 1996
Cincinnati, OH 45221-0034
February 1, 1948 University of Delaware
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Department of Psychology
Newark, DE 19716
City University of New York at City November 1, 1971
College Next site visit scheduled 2000
New York, NY 10038 University of Denver
December 1, 1968 Department of Psychology
Accredited, on probation Denver, CO 80208
Clark University
Department of Psychology University of Denver (Psy.D.)
Worcester, MA 01610 Graduate School of Professional
February 1, 1948 Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Denver, CO 80208-0208
May 15, 1979
University of Colorado at Boulder Next site visit scheduled 2006
Boulder, CO 80309 DePaul University
January 12, 1949 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Chicago, IL 60614
May 11, 1976
University of Detroit Mercy October 28, 1983

Detroit, MI 48219-0900
June 3, 1988 University of Florida
Accredited, on probation Department of Clinical and Health
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Psychology
Gainesville, FL 32610
Drexel University January 1, 1953
Department of Psychology, Next site visit scheduled 2000
Sociology, and Anthropology
Philadelphia, PA 19104 Florida Institute of Technology
January 31, 1997 (Psy.D.)
Next self-study review 2000 School of Psychology
Melbourne, FL 32901-6988
Duke University April 26, 1983
Durham, NC 27708-0085
February 23, 1948 Florida State University
Tallahassee, FL 32306-1051
Emory University January 1, 1954
Atlanta, GA 30322
March 1, 1968 Fordham University
Bronx, NY 10458
Fairleigh Dickinson University February 26, 1948
School of Psychology Next site visit scheduled 2000
Teaneck-Hackensack Campus
Teaneck, NJ 07666 Forest Institute of Professional
October 21, 1986 Psychology (Psy.D.)
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Springfield, MO 65807
October 14, 1994
The Fielding Institute Next site visit not yet scheduled
Santa Barbara, CA 93105 Fuller Theological Seminary
July 17, 1991 Graduate School of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Pasadena, CA 91101
December 5, 1972
Finch University of Health Sciences/ Next site visit scheduled 2006
Chicago Medical School
(formerly listed as University of Fuller Theological Seminary (Psy.D.)
Health Sciences/Chicago Graduate School of Psychology
Medical School) Pasadena, CA 91101
Department of Psychology December 5, 1972
North Chicago, IL 60064 Next site visit scheduled 2006
Gallaudet University March 5, 1991

Washington, DC 20002-3695
October 20, 1995 University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI 96822
George Fox University (Psy.D.) March 1, 1972
Graduate School of Clinical Next site visit scheduled 2000
Psychology
Newberg, OR 97132-2697 University of Houston
August 21, 1998 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Houston, TX 77204-5341
January 1, 1959
George Mason University Next site visit scheduled 2006
Fairfax, VA 22030-4444 Howard University
May 15, 1987 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Washington, DC 20059
George Washington University April 7, 1987
Washington, DC 20052
University of Illinois at Chicago
April 1, 1970
Chicago, IL 60680
University of Georgia March 1, 1972
Athens, GA 30602
January 14, 1966 University of Illinois at Urbana-
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Champaign
Georgia School of Professional Urbana, IL 61801
Psychology (Psy.D.) February 1, 1948
Atlanta, GA 30328 Next site visit scheduled 2004
April 28, 1994
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Illinois Institute of Technology
Georgia State University Chicago, IL 60616
Department of Psychology April 30, 1982
Atlanta, GA 30303-3083 Next self-study review 2001
November 28, 1973
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Illinois School of Professional
Psychology Chicago (Psy.D.)
University of Hartford (Psy.D.) Chicago, IL 60603
Graduate Institute of Professional February 19, 1985
Psychology Next site visit scheduled 2003
Hartford, CT 06105
Illinois School of Professional University of Kansas

Psychology Rolling Meadows Department of Psychology
(Psy.D.) Lawrence, KS 66045
Rolling Meadows, IL 60008 January 9, 1949
February 26, 1999 Next site visit scheduled 2000
Kent State University
Immaculata College (Psy.D.) Department of Psychology
Department of Graduate Kent, OH 44242
Psychology December 1, 1968
Immaculata, PA 19345-0500 Next site visit scheduled 2006
April 29, 1999
Next site visit scheduled 2004 University of Kentucky
Indiana State University (Psy.D.) Lexington, KY 40506-0044
Terre Haute, IN 47809 Next site visit scheduled 2006
June 21, 1985
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Loma Linda University
Indiana University Loma Linda, CA 92350
Department of Psychology November 13, 1998
Bloomington, IN 47405 Next site visit scheduled 2001
February 1, 1948
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Loma Linda University (Psy.D.)
Indiana University of Pennsylvania Loma Linda, CA 92350
(Psy.D.) November 13, 1998
Indiana, PA 15705
November 3, 1987 Long Island University
Indiana University–Purdue Brooklyn, NY 11201
University Indianapolis April 1, 1974
Indianapolis, IN 46202-3275
Long Island University/C. W. Post
December 6, 1996
Campus (Psy.D.)
University of Iowa Brookville, NY 11548
Department of Psychology May 10, 1994
Iowa City, IA 52242 Next site visit scheduled 2004
February 7, 1948
Louisiana State University University of Massachusetts at

Department of Psychology Amherst
Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Department of Psychology
February 24, 1956 Amherst, MA 01003-0034
Next self-study review 2001 December 18, 1957
University of Louisville
Department of Psychology University of Massachusetts at
Louisville, KY 40292 Boston
January 19, 1973 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2001 Boston, MA 02125-3393
October 1, 1993
Loyola University of Chicago Next site visit scheduled 2000
Chicago, IL 60626 Massachusetts School of Professional
April 2, 1959 Psychology, Inc. (Psy.D.)
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Boston, MA 02132
November 10, 1987
University of Maine Next site visit scheduled 2000
Orono, ME 04469-5742 McGill University
March 1, 1975 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Montreal, Quebec
Canada H3A 1B1
University of Manitoba April 1, 1968
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R3T 2N2 The University of Memphis
October 6, 1972 (formerly listed as Memphis
Next self-study review 2000 State University)
University of Maryland College Park Memphis, TN 38152
Department of Psychology March 1, 1972
College Park, MD 20742 Next site visit scheduled 2004
October 1, 1963
Next site visit scheduled 2001 Miami University
University of Maryland Baltimore Oxford, OH 45056
County February 1, 1972
Baltimore, MD 21228
February 9, 1990
University of Miami University of Montana

Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Coral Gables, FL 33124-8185 Missoula, MT 59812
December 1, 1966 March 13, 1970
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Next site visit scheduled 2003
University of Michigan University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1346 Lincoln, NE 68588-0308
March 2, 1948 December 14, 1948
Michigan State University University of Nevada, Reno

East Lansing, MI 48824-1117 Reno, NV 89557
March 2, 1948 March 1, 1972
University of Minnesota University of New Mexico

Minneapolis, MN 55455-0344 Albuquerque, NM 87131
February 13, 1948 November 20, 1973
Minnesota School of Professional The New School for Social Research

Psychology (Psy.D.) Department of Psychology
Bloomington, MN 55437 New York, NY 10003
January 5, 1993 June 2, 1981
University of Mississippi New York University

University, MS 38677 New York, NY 10003
November 6, 1973 February 24, 1948
Next self-study review 2000 Next site visit scheduled 2001
University of Missouri-Columbia University of North Carolina at

Department of Psychology Chapel Hill
Columbia, MO 65211 Department of Psychology
January 24, 1958 Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3270
Next site visit scheduled 2000 February 12, 1949
University of Missouri–St. Louis
Department of Psychology University of North Carolina at
St. Louis, MO 63121 Greensboro
May 3, 1977 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2006 Greensboro, NC 27412-5001
July 10, 1981 Ohio State University

Columbus, OH 43210-1222
University of North Dakota February 27, 1948
Grand Forks, ND 58202-8380
November 1, 1969 Ohio University
Next self-study review 2002 Department of Psychology
Athens, OH 45701-2979
University of North Texas April 11, 1968
Denton, TX 76203
December 5, 1978 Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74078
Northern Illinois University February 1, 1971
DeKalb, IL 60115
April 1, 1972 University of Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403-1227
Northwestern University March 20, 1958
Evanston, IL 60208-2710
May 16, 1986 University of Ottawa
Next site visit scheduled 2004 School of Psychology
Ottawa, Ontario
Northwestern University Medical Canada K1N 6N5
School November 22, 1985
Department of Psychiatry and Next site visit scheduled 2002
Behavioral Sciences
Division of Psychology Pacific Graduate School of
Chicago, IL 60611 Psychology
March 1, 1972 Palo Alto, CA 94303-4233
Nova Southeastern University
Center for Psychological Studies Pacific University (Psy.D.)
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 School of Professional Psychology
October 30, 1981 Forest Grove, OR 97116
Next site visit scheduled 2000 April 3, 1990
Nova Southeastern University
(Psy.D.) University of Pennsylvania
Center for Psychological Studies Department of Psychology
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 Philadelphia, PA 19104
March 15, 1983 February 7, 1948
Pennsylvania State University Rutgers, The State University of New

Department of Psychology Jersey
University Park, PA 16802 Department of Psychology
February 24, 1948 Graduate School of Arts and
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Sciences
Busch Campus
Pepperdine University (Psy.D.) Piscataway, NJ 08855
Department of Psychology January 8, 1965
Culver City, CA 90230 Next site visit scheduled 2004
June 21, 1990
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Rutgers, The State University of New
Jersey (Psy.D.)
University of Pittsburgh Department of Clinical
Department of Psychology Psychology
Pittsburgh, PA 15260 Graduate School of Applied and
February 20, 1948 Professional Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Piscataway, NJ 08854-8085
April 1, 1977
Purdue University Next site visit scheduled 2004
Department of Psychological
Sciences San Diego State University/
West Lafayette, IN 47907 University of California, San
February 26, 1948 Diego
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Joint doctoral program in clinical
psychology
Queen’s University San Diego, CA 92182-4913
Department of Psychology June 26, 1990
Kingston, Ontario Next site visit scheduled 2000
Canada K7L 3N6
June 17, 1992 University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
University of Rhode Island Canada S7N 5A5
Department of Psychology May 18, 1990
Kingston, RI 02881 Next site visit scheduled 2003
April 1, 1972
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Simon Fraser University
Psychology Department
University of Rochester Burnaby, British Columbia
Department of Clinical and Social Canada V5A 1S6
Sciences in Psychology March 28, 1985
Rochester, NY 14627 Next site visit scheduled 2003
March 2, 1948
University of South Carolina St. Louis University

Columbia, SC 29208-0182 St. Louis, MO 63103
October 1, 1969 May 22, 1964
University of South Dakota Stony Brook University/State
Department of Psychology University of New York
Vermillion, SD 57069 (formerly listed as State
November 1, 1971 University of New York at
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Stony Brook)
University of South Florida Stony Brook, NY 11794-2500
Tampa, FL 33620 Next site visit scheduled 2006
November 1, 1975
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Syracuse University
University of Southern California Syracuse, NY 13244-2340
Department of Psychology October 30, 1956
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1061 Next site visit scheduled 2000
February 20, 1948
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Teachers College, Columbia
University
Southern Illinois University Department of Counseling and
Department of Psychology Clinical Psychology
Carbondale, IL 62901-6502 New York, NY 10027
December 1, 1961 February 27, 1948
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Accredited, on probation
University of Southern Mississippi Next site visit scheduled 2001
Department of Psychology Temple University
Hattiesburg, MS 39406-0036 Department of Psychology
April 27, 1979 Philadelphia, PA 19122
Next self-study review 2000 March 18, 1958
Spalding University (Psy.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2004
Department of Psychology University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Louisville, KY 40203 Department of Psychology
June 20, 1989 Knoxville, TN 37996-0900
Next self-study review 2002 February 9, 1949
St. John’s University Next site visit scheduled 2002
Department of Psychology Texas A&M University
Jamaica, NY 11439 Department of Psychology
October 30, 1984 College Station, TX 77843-4235
University of Texas at Austin Vanderbilt University

Austin, TX 78712-7789 Nashville, TN 37240
February 1, 1949 February 22, 1952
University of Texas Southwestern Vanderbilt University

Medical Center at Dallas Department of Psychology and
Division of Psychology Human Development
Dallas, TX 75235-9044 George Peabody College for
January 17, 1986 Teachers
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Nashville, TN 37240
April 1, 1959
Texas Tech University Next site visit scheduled 2004
Lubbock, TX 79409-2051 University of Vermont
Next site visit scheduled 2001 Burlington, VT 05405
November 12, 1973
University of Toledo Next site visit scheduled 2003
Toledo, OH 43606 University of Victoria
June 1, 1979 Department of Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Victoria, British Columbia
Canada V8W 3P5
University of Tulsa January 12, 1993
Department of Psychology Next self-study review 2002
Tulsa, OK 74104
January 18, 1991 University of Virginia
Next self-study review 2002 Department of Human Services
Curry School of Education
Uniformed Services University of the Charlottesville, VA 22903-2495
Health Sciences November 4, 1988
Department of Medical and Next site visit scheduled 2006
Clinical Psychology
Bethesda, MD 20814-4799 University of Virginia
Next self-study review 2000 Charlottesville, VA 22903
October 25, 1988
University of Utah Next site visit scheduled 2004
Department of Psychology (The doctoral programs in clinical
Salt Lake City, UT 84112 psychology at the University of
December 8, 1954 Virginia were formerly part of a
Next site visit scheduled 2000 single program at the Institute of
Clinical Psychology cosponsored by
the Curry School of Education and Wayne State University

the Department of Psychology, Department of Psychology
College of Arts and Sciences. They Detroit, MI 48202
are now separate programs.) August 1, 1960
Virginia Commonwealth University
Department of Psychology West Virginia University
Richmond, VA 23284-2018 Department of Psychology
April 1, 1975 Morgantown, WV 26506-6040
Next site visit scheduled 2004 January 1, 1966
Virginia Consortium for Professional
Psychology (Psy.D.) Western Michigan University
Virginia Beach, VA 23452 Department of Psychology
December 16, 1982 Kalamazoo, MI 49008
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University of Western Ontario
State University Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology London, Ontario
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0436 Canada N6A 5C2
April 17, 1980 September 26, 1986
University of Washington
Wheaton College (Psy.D.)
Seattle, WA 98195
Wheaton, IL 60187-5593
March 3, 1948
May 1, 1998
Washington State University
Department of Psychology Widener University (Psy.D.)
Pullman, WA 99164-4820 Department of Psychology
February 14, 1956 Institute for Graduate Clinical
Chester, PA 19013
Washington University July 1, 1989
St. Louis, MO 63130
February 20, 1948 University of Windsor
Windsor, Ontario
University of Waterloo Canada N9B 3P4
Department of Psychology July 26, 1988
Waterloo, Ontario Next site visit scheduled 2000
Canada N2L 3G1
March 1, 1970
University of Wisconsin–Madison February 1, 1948

Madison, WI 53706
February 12, 1948 Yeshiva University (Psy.D.)
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Ferkauf Graduate School of
Psychology
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Albert Einstein College of
Department of Psychology Medicine Campus
Milwaukee, WI 53201 Bronx, NY 10461
October 14, 1980 November 7, 1985
The Wright Institute (Psy.D.)
Department of Psychology York University
Berkeley, CA 94704 Department of Psychology
March 10, 1998 Toronto, Ontario
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Canada M3J 1P3
March 31, 1994
Wright State University (Psy.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2002
School of Professional Psychology
Dayton, OH 45435 York University
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Toronto, Ontario
Canada M3J 1P3
University of Wyoming May 28, 1999
Laramie, WY 82071 (This program in clinical psychology
December 8, 1972 is separate from the other accredited
Next site visit scheduled 2003 program in clinical psychology in
York University’s Department of
Yale University Psychology. That program provides
Department of Psychology training in clinical psychology with a
New Haven, CT 06520-8205 developmental emphasis.)
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
The University of Akron State University of New York at

Department of Psychology Albany)
Department of Counseling and Department of Educational and
Special Education Counseling Psychology
Akron, OH 44325 Division of Counseling
April 13, 1990 Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Albany, NY 12222
May 8, 1980
University at Albany/State University Next site visit scheduled 2005
of New York (formerly listed as
Arizona State University (This program is no longer admitting

Division of Psychology and students and is scheduled to be
Education phased out. The program is being
Tempe, AZ 85287-0611 replaced by an accredited program in
April 1, 1972 combined professional-scientific
Next site visit scheduled 2006 psychology.)
Auburn University Colorado State University

Department of Counseling and Department of Psychology
Counseling Psychology Fort Collins, CO 80523
Auburn University, AL 36849 March 1, 1970
May 6, 1988 Next site visit scheduled 2000
University of Denver
Ball State University School of Education
Department of Counseling Denver, CO 80208
Psychology and Guidance May 16, 1986
Services Next site visit scheduled 2000
Muncie, IN 47306
May 4, 1982 University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611-2250
Boston College January 15, 1954
Department of Counseling, Next site visit scheduled 2003
Developmental, and
Educational Psychology Fordham University
Chestnut Hill, MA 02167 Division of Psychological and
May 7, 1982 Educational Services
Next site visit scheduled 2000 New York, NY 10023
April 19, 1990
Boston University (Ed.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2003
Department of Developmental
Studies and Counseling University of Georgia
Boston, MA 02215 Department of Counseling
May 11, 1982 Psychology
(This program is no longer admitting Athens, GA 30602
students and is scheduled to be April 3, 1984
phased out.) Next site visit scheduled 2003
University of California, Santa Georgia State University

Barbara Department of Counseling and
Department of Education Psychological Services
Santa Barbara, CA 93106 Atlanta, GA 30303
May 1, 1981 May 1, 1984
University of Houston Kent State University

Department of Educational College of Education
Psychology Kent, OH 44242
Houston, TX 77204-5874 March 14, 1989
April 14, 1987 Accredited, on probation
Next site visit scheduled 2003 (This program is no longer admitting
University of Illinois students and is scheduled to be
at Urbana–Champaign phased out.)
Department of Educational University of Kentucky
Psychology Department of Educational and
Champaign, IL 61820 Counseling Psychology
November 8, 1985 Lexington, KY 40506-0017
Indiana State University Next site visit scheduled 2004
Department of Counseling
Lehigh University
Terre Haute, IN 47809
Counseling Psychology, School
May 6, 1980
Psychology, and Special
Education
Indiana University Bethlehem, PA 18015-4792
Department of Counseling and December 3, 1993
Educational Psychology Next self-study review 2001
Bloomington, IN 47405-1006
June 23, 1988 University of Louisville
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Department of Educational and
Counseling Psychology
University of Iowa Louisville, KY 40292
Division of Psychological and November 18, 1999
Quantitative Foundations Next site visit scheduled 2004
Iowa City, IA 52242-1316
May 13, 1980 Loyola University of Chicago
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Department of Counseling
Psychology
Iowa State University Chicago, IL 60091
Ames, IA 50011-3180 Next site visit scheduled 2003
March 1, 1973
University of Maryland College Park
University of Kansas Department of Counseling and
Department of Psychology and Personnel Services/Department
Research in Education of Psychology
Lawrence, KS 66045-2338 College Park, MD 20742
March 1, 1971 April 16, 1953
The University of Memphis April 29, 1953

(formerly listed as Memphis Next site visit scheduled 2004
State University)
Department of Counseling, University of Missouri–Kansas City
Educational Psychology, and Division of Counseling
Research Psychology and Counselor
Memphis, TN 38152 Education
October 17, 1989 Kansas City, MO 64110
University of Miami
Department of Educational and University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Psychological Studies Department of Educational
Coral Gables, FL 33124 Psychology
February 7, 1989 Lincoln, NE 68588-0345
Michigan State University
Department of Counseling, New Mexico State University
Educational Psychology, and Department of Counseling and
Special Education Educational Psychology
East Lansing, MI 48824 Las Cruces, NM 88003-0001
April 8, 1977 May 2, 1995
University of Minnesota New York University

Counseling and Personnel Department of Applied
Psychology Program Psychology
Department of Educational New York, NY 10003
Psychology April 17, 1981
Minneapolis, MN 55455 Next self-study review 2000
April 8, 1965
Next site visit scheduled 2001 University of North Dakota
Department of Counseling
University of Minnesota Grand Forks, ND 58202-8255
Minneapolis, MN 55455 Next site visit scheduled 2000
December 15, 1952
Next site visit scheduled 2003 University of North Texas
University of Missouri–Columbia Denton, TX 76203-3587
Department of Educational and December 5, 1978
Counseling Psychology and Next site visit scheduled 2003
Columbia, MO 65211
University of Northern Colorado January 12, 1955

Division of Professional Next site visit scheduled 2001
Psychology
Greeley, CO 80639 Our Lady of the Lake University
April 4, 1995 (Psy.D.)
Next site visit scheduled 2003 School of Education and Clinical
Studies
Northwestern University San Antonio, TX 78207-4689
Department of Counseling May 12, 1995
Evanston, IL 60208
Pennsylvania State University
March 3, 1988
Division of Counselor Education,
(This program is no longer admitting Counseling Psychology, and
students and is scheduled to be Rehabilitation Services
phased out.) University Park, PA 16802
November 12, 1982
University of Notre Dame Next site visit scheduled 2006
Notre Dame, IN 46556 University of Pittsburgh
March 1, 1972 Psychology in Education
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Pittsburgh, PA 15260
April 13, 1990
Ohio State University Next site visit scheduled 2002
Columbus, OH 43210-1222 (This program is no longer admitting
December 15, 1952 students and is scheduled to be
Next site visit scheduled 2004 phased out.)
University of Oklahoma University of San Francisco (Psy.D.)

Department of Educational Department of Counseling
Psychology Psychology
Norman, OK 73019-0260 San Francisco, CA 94117-1080
October 25, 1988 April 22, 1994
Oklahoma State University (This program is no longer admitting
Applied Behavioral Studies in students and is scheduled to be
Education phased out.)
November 20, 1992 Seton Hall University
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Department of Professional
Psychology and Family
University of Oregon Therapy
Department of Applied Behavioral South Orange, NJ 07079-2685
and Communication Sciences October 22, 1999
Eugene, OR 97403-5251 Next site visit scheduled 2006
University of Southern California Texas A&M University

Division of Counseling and Department of Educational
Educational Psychology Psychology
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031 College Station, TX 77843-4225
March 19, 1993 December 8, 1981
Southern Illinois University University of Texas at Austin
Department of Psychology Department of Educational
Carbondale, IL 62901 Psychology
December 1, 1961 Austin, TX 78712
Next site visit scheduled 2000 January 12, 1953
Next site visit not yet scheduled
University of Southern Mississippi
Department of Psychology Texas Tech University
Hattiesburg, MS 39406-5012 Department of Psychology
June 29, 1979 Lubbock, TX 79409
Next site visit not yet scheduled April 24, 1964
Stanford University
School of Education Texas Woman’s University
Stanford, CA 94305 Department of Psychology and
April 19, 1985 Philosophy
Next site visit scheduled 2003 Denton, TX 76204
June 20, 1995
Teachers College, Columbia Next site visit scheduled 2005
University (Ph.D., Ed.D.)
Department of Counseling and University of Utah
Clinical Psychology Department of Educational
New York, NY 10027 Psychology
January 1, 1952 Salt Lake City, UT 84112
Next self-study review 2000 March 1, 1957
Temple University
Department of Psychological Virginia Commonwealth University
Studies in Education Department of Psychology
Philadelphia, PA 19122 Richmond, VA 23284-2018
January 30, 1973 October 28, 1980
University of Tennessee, Knoxville Washington State University
Department of Counseling, Department of Educational
Deafness, and Human Services Leadership and Counseling
Knoxville, TN 37996 Psychology
April 18, 1980 Pullman, WA 99164-2136
Next site visit not yet scheduled September 29, 1989
West Virginia University University of Wisconsin–Madison

Department of Counseling, Department of Counseling
Rehabilitation Counseling, and Psychology
Counseling Psychology Madison, WI 53706
Morgantown, WV 26506-6122 October 29, 1985
January 13, 1989 Next site visit scheduled 2006
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Western Michigan University Department of Educational
Department of Counselor Psychology
Education and Counseling Milwaukee, WI 53201
Psychology October 14, 1996
Kalamazoo, MI 49008 Next self-study review 2001
February 12, 1993
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
University at Albany/State University University of California, Berkeley

of New York (Psy.D.) (formerly School of Education
listed as State University of Berkeley, CA 94720
New York at Albany) November 25, 1980
School of Education Accredited, on probation
Albany, NY 12222 Next site visit not yet scheduled
September 18, 1992
Next site visit scheduled 2005 University of Cincinnati
School Psychology, Division of
University of Arizona Human Services
College of Education Cincinnati, OH 45221-0002
Tucson, AZ 85721 February 9, 1983
October 19, 1979 Accredited, on probation
Arizona State University University of Florida

College of Education Department of Educational
Tempe, AZ 85287-0611 Psychology
April 30, 1982 Gainesville, FL 32611-7047
Next site visit scheduled 2005 October 28, 1997
Ball State University Fordham University
Department of Educational Division of Psychological and
Psychology Educational Services
Muncie, IN 47306 New York, NY 10023
May 3, 1985 October 25, 1983
University of Georgia Kent State University

Department of Educational Department of Educational
Psychology Foundations and Special
Athens, GA 30602 Services
September 27, 1983 Kent, OH 44242
Next site visit scheduled 2005 May 1, 1984
Georgia State University
Department of Counseling and University of Kentucky
Psychological Services Department of Educational and
Atlanta, GA 30303 Counseling Psychology
May 1, 1979 Lexington, KY 40506-0017
Illinois State University
Department of Psychology Lehigh University
Normal, IL 61790-4620 Department of Education and
April 7, 1998 Human Services
Next self-study review 2001 Bethlehem, PA 18015-4792
Indiana University October 12, 1990
School of Education Next site visit scheduled 2006
Bloomington, IN 47405
April 20, 1983 University of Maryland College Park
Next site visit scheduled 2005 Department of Counseling and
Personnel Services
Indiana State University College Park, MD 20742-1125
Department of Educational and February 28, 1984
School Psychology Next self-study review 2000
Terre Haute, IN 47809
June 20, 1980 University of Massachusetts at
Next site visit scheduled 2001 Amherst
Department of Student
University of Iowa Development and Pupil
Psychological and Quantitative Personnel Services
Foundations Amherst, MA 01003
Iowa City, IA 52242 April 8, 1992
March 31, 1992 Next self-study review 2000
McGill University
University of Kansas Department of Educational and
Department of Psychology and Counseling Psychology
Research in Education Montreal, Quebec
Lawrence, KS 66045 Canada H3A 1Y2
March 9, 1983 May 22, 1998
Michigan State University New York, NY 10003-6674

Department of Counseling, April 26, 1985
Educational Psychology, and Next site visit scheduled 2006
Special Education
East Lansing, MI 48824 University of North Carolina at
October 25, 1985 Chapel Hill
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Division of Organizational and
Psychological Studies
University of Minnesota Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500
College of Education June 5, 1979
Minneapolis, MN 55455 Next site visit scheduled 2004
May 1, 1972
Next site visit scheduled 2003 North Carolina State University
Mississippi State University Raleigh, NC 27695-7801
Department of Counselor April 10, 1987
Education and Educational Next site visit scheduled 2000
Psychology
Mississippi State, MS 39762-5740 University of Northern Colorado
December 10, 1996 Division of Professional
Greeley, CO 80639
University of Missouri–Columbia June 25, 1981
Department of Educational and Next site visit scheduled 2000
Counseling Psychology
Columbia, MO 65211 Oklahoma State University
February 5, 1999 School of Applied Health and
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Educational Psychology
University of Nebraska–Lincoln October 28, 1997
Department of Educational Next site visit scheduled 2000
Psychology
Lincoln, NE 68588 University of Oregon
December 5, 1980 Department of Special Education
Next site visit scheduled 2003 and Community Resources
Eugene, OR 97403-5261
New York University June 1, 1994
Department of Applied Next site visit scheduled 2006
Psychology
New York, NY 10003-6674 Pennsylvania State University
April 13, 1979 Division of Educational and
Next self-study review 2000 School Psychology and Special
Education
New York University (Psy.D.) University Park, PA 16802
Department of Applied June 19, 1978
University of Rhode Island Program in Applied Educational

Department of Psychology Psychology
Kingston, RI 02881 New York, NY 10027
November 1, 1975 March 31, 1988
Rutgers, The State University of New (This program originally offered both
Jersey (Psy.D.) the Ph.D. and the Ed.D. Currently
Department of Applied only the Ed.D.degree is being
Psychology offered.)
Graduate School of Applied and
Professional Psychology Temple University
Piscataway, NJ 08854-8085 Department of Psychological
April 1, 1977 Studies in Education
Next site visit scheduled 2004 Philadelphia, PA 19122
April 4, 1978
University of South Carolina Next site visit scheduled 2003
Columbia, SC 29208 University of Tennessee, Knoxville
February 1, 1974 Psychoeducational Studies
Next self-study review 2002 Knoxville, TN 37996
April 23, 1991
University of South Florida Next site visit scheduled 2000
Department of Psychological and
Social Foundations Texas A&M University
Tampa, FL 33620 Department of Educational
November 20, 1998 Psychology
Next site visit scheduled 2003 College Station, TX 77843
October 29, 1985
University of Southern Mississippi Next site visit scheduled 2003
Hattiesburg, MS 39406-5025 University of Texas at Austin
September 27, 1983 Department of Educational
Austin, TX 78712
Syracuse University February 1, 1971
Syracuse, NY 13244-2340
April 26, 1988 Tulane University
New Orleans, LA 70118
Teachers College, Columbia August 9, 1991
University (Ed.D.) Next site visit scheduled 2000
Department of Health and
Behavior Studies
University of Utah February 27, 1986

Department of Educational Next site visit scheduled 2004
Psychology
Salt Lake City, UT 84112 University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
January 14, 1983 Department of Educational
Milwaukee, WI 53201
University of Washington October 14, 1996
Area of Educational Psychology Next self-study review 2001
Seattle, WA 98195
October 25, 1991 Yeshiva University (Psy.D.)
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Department of School Psychology
Ferkauf Graduate School of
University of Wisconsin–Madison Psychology
Department of Educational Bronx, NY 10461
Psychology November 7, 1985
Madison, WI 53706 Next site visit not yet scheduled
COMBINED PROFESSIONAL-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
University at Buffalo/State December 7, 1990

University of New York Next site visit scheduled 2006
(formerly listed as State
University of New York at Florida State University (counseling/
Buffalo) (counseling/school) school)
Department of Counseling and Department of Human Services
Educational Psychology and Studies
Buffalo, NY 14260 Tallahassee, FL 32306
October 6, 1978 December 8, 1995
(This program previously was listed Hofstra University (clinical/school)
as an accredited program in Department of Psychology
counseling psychology. It has since Hempstead, NY 11550
incorporated a school component and October 16, 1973
is now an accredited program in Next site visit scheduled 2005
combined professional-scientific
psychology.) James Madison University (Psy.D.)
(clinical/counseling/school)
University of California, Santa
School of Psychology
Barbara (clinical/counseling/
Harrisonburg, VA 22807
school)
October 29, 1996
Department of Education
Santa Barbara, CA 93106
University of Massachusetts at September 27, 1996

Amherst (school/counseling) Next site visit scheduled 2000
School of Education
Amherst, MA 01003 University of Pennsylvania
April 8, 1992 (counseling/school)
Psychology in Education Division
(This program is no longer admitting Philadelphia, PA 19104
students and is scheduled to be February 1, 1981
phased out.) Accredited, on probation
Northeastern University (counseling/ (This program is no longer admitting
school) students and is scheduled to be
Department of Counseling, phased out. Probation status resulting
Psychology, Rehabilitation, and from the program not admitting
Special Education students for two consecutive years.)
Bouve College of Pharmacy and
Health Sciences Utah State University (clinical/
Boston, MA 02115 counseling/school)
Next site visit scheduled 2000 Logan, UT 84322
February 1, 1975
Pace University (Psy.D.) (school/ Next site visit scheduled 2004
clinical)
Department of Psychology Yeshiva University (Psy.D.) (school/
New York, NY 10038 clinical)
November 4, 1988 Ferkauf Graduate School of
(This program previously was listed Bronx, NY 10461
as an accredited program in school October 23, 1998
psychology. It has since incorporated Next site visit scheduled 2003
a clinical component and is now an
accredited program in combined
professional-scientific psychology.)
University of Pennsylvania (clinical/
school)
Psychology in Education Division
Philadelphia, PA 19104
APPENDIX C
APA-ACCREDITED PREDOCTORAL
INTERNSHIPS FOR DOCTORAL TRAINING
IN CLINICAL AND COUNSELING
PSYCHOLOGY
In 1996, the Committee on Accreditation of the American Psycholog-
ical Association approved for doctoral training in professional psychol-
ogy the internships offered on the following pages. There is no longer a
distinction, as there once was, between clinical and counseling intern-
ship programs.
There are three categories of accreditation. Full accreditation is
granted to any program that meets the criteria in a satisfactory manner.
Provisional accreditation is granted to programs making initial applica-
tion that do not meet all the criteria but for which the committee believes
there is a reasonable expectation that they will be met within a foresee-
able period of time. Probation is the category into which a fully accred-
ited program is placed when the committee has evidence that it is not
currently in satisfactory compliance with the criteria. The criteria for
evaluating these programs can be obtained from the Accreditation Office
of the American Psychological Association.
Alabama Arizona
University of Alabama at University of Arizona College of
Birmingham Medical Center Medicine
Central Alabama Veterans Health Arizona State University Counseling
Care System (formerly listed as and Consultation
Veterans Affairs Medical Center) Carl T. Hayden Veterans Affairs
Medical Center
134
APA-Accredited Predoctoral Internships 135
Phoenix Psychology Internship resulting from the program not

Consortium c/o Carl T. Hayden having interns in training year
Veterans Affairs Medical Center 1997–1998.)
Southern Arizona Psychology University of California, Santa Cruz
Internship Consortium Counseling and Psychological
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Services, Cowell Student Health
Center
Arkansas California State University, Long
University of Arkansas for Medical Beach–Counseling and
Sciences Psychological Services
Arkansas Mental Health Services Central California Psychology
Division Internship Consortium
John L. McClellan Memorial Child and Family Guidance Center
Veterans Hospital (formerly listed as San Fernando
Valley Child Guidance Clinic)
California
Children’s Hospital of Orange
Atascadero State Hospital
County–Health Psychology
University of California, Berkeley
Department
Counseling and Psychological
Didi Hirsch Community Mental
Services Center
Health Center
University of California, Davis
Greater Long Beach Child Guidance
Counseling Center
Center, Inc.
University of California, Irvine
The H.E.L.P. Group
Counseling Center
Jerry L. Pettis Memorial Veterans
University of California, Los
Affairs Hospital
Angeles–Student Psychological
Kaiser Permanente Medical Care
Services
Program–Department of
University of California, Los Angeles
Psychiatry
School of Medicine
Kaiser Permanente Medical Care
University of California, San Diego
Program–Department of
Psychological and Counseling
Psychiatry and Addiction
Services
Medicine
University of California, San Diego
The Metropolitan Detention
Psychology Internship
Center–Federal Bureau of Prisons
Consortium, Department of
Napa State Hospital
Psychiatry
Naval Medical Center, San Diego
University of California, San
Pacific Clinics
Francisco School of Medicine
Packard Children’s Hospital at
University of California, Santa
Stanford/The Children’s Health
Barbara Counseling and Career
Council
Services (Probation status
Patton State Hospital Connecticut

Richmond Area Multi-Services, Inc. Connecticut Valley Psychology
San Bernardino County Department Internship Program (formerly
of Mental Health listed as Connecticut Valley
Sharp HealthCare Hospital)
Shasta Community Mental Health Greater Hartford Clinical Psychology
Center Internship Consortium
University of Southern California Institute of Living/Hartford
Student Counseling Services Hospital’s Mental Health Network
St. John’s Child and Family VA Connecticut Health Care System
Development Center (formerly (formerly listed as Veterans
listed as St. John’s Child Study Affairs Medical Center)
Center) VA Connecticut Healthcare System-
VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare Newington
System (formerly listed as The Village for Families and
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Children, Inc.
and as Veterans Affairs Outpatient Yale Child Study Center
Clinic) Yale University School of
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Medicine–Department of
Veterans Affairs Northern California Psychiatry
Health Care System
Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Delaware
Care System (formerly listed as Alfred I. Dupont Institute of the
Veterans Affairs Medical Center) Nemours Foundation–Department
of Pediatrics
Colorado University of Delaware Center for
Adams Community Mental Health Counseling and Student
Center Development
The Children’s Hospital
University of Colorado Health District of Columbia
Sciences Center Children’s National Medical Center
Colorado Mental Health Institute at (formerly listed as Children’s
Fort Logan Hospital, National Medical
Colorado State University Center)
Counseling Center Georgetown University Child
University of Denver Counseling and Development Center (formerly
Behavioral Health listed as Georgetown University
Denver Health Medical Center Hospital)
(formerly listed as Denver General George Washington University
Hospital) Counseling Center
Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Government of the District of Nova Southeastern University

Columbia–Department of Human Community Mental Health Center
Services University of South Florida
Howard University Counseling Counseling Center for Human
Service–Division of Student Development
Affairs University of South Florida/Louis de
Howard University Hospital la Parte Florida Mental Health
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Institute
Walter Reed Army Medical Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Center–Department of Psychology
Georgia
Florida Bradley Center of St. Francis
The Children’s Psychiatric Center, (formerly listed as Bradley Center,
Inc. Inc.)
Federal Correctional Institution Dwight D. Eisenhower Army
University of Florida Counseling Medical Center
Center (formerly listed as Emory University Counseling Center
University of Florida Emory University School of
Psychological and Vocational Medicine/Grady Health Systems
Counseling Center) Hospital Department of Psychiatry
University of Florida Health Science (Psychology)
Center (formerly listed as University of Georgia Counseling
University of Florida–J. Hillis and Testing Center
Miller Science Center) Georgia State University Counseling
Florida State Hospital Center
James A. Haley Veterans Affairs Medical College of Georgia/VAMC
Hospital Psychology Residency (formerly
Mailman Center for Child listed as Medical College of
Development–University of Georgia/VAMC Internship
Miami School of Medicine Consortium)
University of Miami Counseling U.S. Penitentiary–Atlanta, GA
Center Veterans Affairs Medical Center
University of Miami/Jackson (Atlanta)
Memorial Medical Center Veterans Affairs Medical
North Florida/South Georgia Center–Augusta
Veterans Health System (formerly
listed as Veterans Affairs Medical Hawaii
Center) University of Hawaii Center for
Northwest Dade Center, Inc. Counseling and Student
Development
Tripler Army Medical Northwestern University Medical

Center–Clinical Psychology School/Northwestern Memorial
Service Hospital Division of Clinical
Veterans Affairs Outpatient Clinic Psychology
Oak Forest Hospital–Psychology
Illinois Department
Advocate Health Care–Family Care Ravenswood Hospital Community
Network–Department of Clinical Mental Health Center
and Educational Services Rush-Presbyterian/St. Luke’s
Allendale Association Medical Center
Cermak Health Services of Cook Southern Illinois University at
County Carbondale Counseling Center
University of Chicago Medical Turning Point Behavioral Health
Center–Department of Psychiatry Care Center
Chicago–Read Mental Health Center VA-Edward Hines, Jr., Hospital
Children’s Memorial Hospital Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Department of Child and Adolescent West Side Veterans Affairs Medical
Psychiatry Center
University of Illinois at Champaign
Counseling Center Indiana
University of Illinois at Chicago Ball State University Counseling and
Counseling Center Psychological Services Center
University of Illinois at Chicago, Butler University/BehaviorCorp
Department of Psychiatry/ (formerly listed as Butler
Psychiatric Institute (formerly University Counseling Center)
listed as Illinois State Psychiatric Center for Behavioral Health
Institute) (formerly listed as South Central
Illinois Masonic Medical Center Community Mental Health Center,
Illinois State University Student Inc.)
Counseling Services (formerly Evansville Psychology Internship
listed as Illinois State University Consortium
Counseling and Career Services) Hamilton Center, Inc.
Institute for Juvenile Research Indiana University Health
La Rabida Children’s Hospital and Center–Counseling and
Research Center Psychological Services
The Menta Group Indiana University School
Michael Reese Hospital and Medical of Medicine
Center University of Notre Dame
Northern Illinois University Counseling Center (formerly listed
Counseling and Student as University of Notre Dame
Development Center Counseling Center/Oaklawn
Psychiatric/Community Mental Jefferson County Internship

Health Center) Park Center, Inc. Consortium
Quinco Behavioral Health Systems University of Louisville School of
(formerly listed as Quinco Medicine
Consulting Center, Inc.) Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Southlake Center for Mental Health
Tri-City Community Mental Health Louisiana
Center Central Louisiana State Hospital
The Louisiana School Psychology
Iowa Internship Consortium
Des Moines Child and Adolescent Louisiana State University School
Guidance Center, Inc. (formerly of Medicine
listed as Des Moines Child Southern Louisiana Internship
Guidance Center, Inc.) Consortium
University of Iowa Counseling Tulane Medical School (formerly
Service listed as Tulane University School
Iowa State University Student of Medicine)
Counseling Service
VA Central Iowa Health Care Maine
System, Knoxville Division University of Maine Counseling
(formerly listed as Veterans Center
Affairs Medical Center)
Maryland
Kansas Baltimore Area VA Residency
Colmery-O’Neil Veterans Affairs
Training Program (formerly listed
Medical Center
as Baltimore Area Veterans Affairs
Dwight D. Eisenhower Veterans
Medical Center)
Affairs Medical Center
Crownsville Hospital
University of Kansas Counseling and
Center–Department of Health and
Psychological Services
Mental Hygiene
Kansas State University Psychology
The Kennedy Krieger
Internship Program
Institute–Department of
Wichita Collaborative Psychology
Psychology
Internship Program–Counseling
Malcolm Grow USAF Medical
and Testing Center
Center
Kentucky University of Maryland Counseling
East Kentucky Rural Psychology Center
Predoctoral Internship–ARH University of Maryland School of
Psychiatric Center Medicine–Department of
Federal Medical Center Pediatrics, Division of Behavioral
and Developmental Pediatrics
University of Maryland School of Children’s Hospital/Judge Baker

Medicine–Department of Children’s Center)
Psychiatry Harvard Medical School/
National Naval Medical Massachusetts General Hospital
Center–Psychology Department Harvard Medical School/
Regional Institute for Children and Massachusetts Mental Health
Adolescents Center
Spring Grove Hospital Center University of Massachusetts at
Springfield Hospital Center Amherst Center for Counseling
Towson University Counseling and Academic
Center (formerly listed as Towson Development–Division of
State University Counseling Counseling Psychology Services
Center) University of Massachusetts Health
VA Maryland Health Care Services–Mental Health Division
System–Perry Point Division McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical
(formerly listed as Veterans School (formerly listed as McLean
Affairs Medical Center) Hospital)
South Shore Mental Health Center,
Massachusetts Inc.
Beth Israel Hospital–Department of Suffolk University Counseling Center
Psychiatry Tewksbury Hospital–Hathorne
Boston Consortium in Clinical Mental Health Units
Psychology (formerly listed as Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Tufts University School of Westborough State Hospital
Medicine/Boston Veterans Affairs Westfield Area Mental Health Clinic
Psychology Internship Worcester State Hospital
Consortium) Worcester Youth Guidance Center
Boston Medical Center (formerly
listed as Boston City Michigan
Hospital)–Center for Multi- Children’s Hospital of Michigan
Cultural Training in Psychology Community Mental Health Board
The Cambridge Hospital DMC Sinai-Grace Hospital (formerly
Department of Psychiatry listed as Sinai Hospital of Detroit)
The Danielsen Institute at Boston Grand Valley State
University University–Career Planning and
Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Counseling Center
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Henry Ford Hospital Health Sciences
Franciscan Children’s Hospital and Center (formerly listed as Henry
Rehabilitation Center Ford Hospital)
Harvard Medical School/Children’s
Hospital (formerly listed as
Henry Ford Wyandotte Hospital University of Minnesota

(formerly listed as Wyandotte Psychology Internship
Hospital and Medical Center) Consortium)
John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs University of St. Thomas Counseling
Medical Center (formerly listed as and Career Services
Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center,
Allen Park, MI) Psychology Service (116B)
University of Michigan Institute for
Human Adjustment Mississippi
University of Michigan Internship University of Mississippi Medical
Consortium Center/VA Medical Center
Michigan State University Consortium (formerly listed as
Counseling Center University of Mississippi Medical
Pine Rest Christian Mental Health Center/VA Medical
Services Center–Jackson)
Veterans Affairs Health System Mississippi State Hospital
(formerly listed as Veterans Southern Mississippi Psychology
Affairs Medical Center) Internship Consortium–University
Wayne State University School of of Southern Mississippi
Medicine–Department of Counseling Center
Psychiatry and Behavioral VA Gulf Coast Veterans Health Care
Neurosciences System (formerly listed as
Western Michigan Veterans Affairs Medical Center)
University–University Counseling
Missouri
and Testing Center
Burrell Behavioral Health (formerly
Minnesota listed as Burrell Center)
Children’s Hospitals and Clinics Children’s Mercy Hospital
(formerly listed as Minneapolis University of Missouri–Columbia
Children’s Medical Center and as Counseling Service
Children’s Health Care, Inc.) Missouri Health Sciences Psychology
Federal Medical Center–U.S. Consortium (formerly listed as
Department of Justice, P.O. Box Mid-Missouri Psychology
4600 Internship Consortium)
Hennepin County Medical Center University of Missouri–Kansas City
Human Services, Inc., in Washington Counseling and Testing Center
County–Mental Health Division U.S. Medical Center for Federal
University of Minnesota Counseling Prisoners
and Consulting Services Veterans Affairs Medical Center
University of Minnesota Medical Western Missouri Mental Health
School (formerly listed as Center
Montana Southwest Consortium Predoctoral

Montana State University Counseling Psychology Internship–Veterans
and Psychological Services Affairs Medical Center
Nebraska New York

Nebraska Internship Consortium in Albany Psychology Internship
Professional Psychology Consortium–Department of
Norfolk Regional Center Psychiatry–Albany Medical
College
Nevada Albert Einstein College of
Ioannis Lougaris Veterans Affairs Medicine–Bronx Psychiatric
Medical Center Center
Association for the Help of Retarded
New Hampshire
Dartmouth Medical School Children
University of New Hampshire The Astor Home for Children
Counseling Center Beth Israel Medical Center
Riverbend Community Mental University at Buffalo/State
Health Services University of New York (formerly
Seacoast Mental Health Center, Inc. listed as State University of New
York at Buffalo)
New Jersey The Center for Preventive Psychiatry
CPC Behavioral Healthcare The Children’s Village
Elizabeth General Medical Columbia-Presbyterian Medical
Center–Department of Psychiatry Center–New York State
Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital Psychiatric Institute
Jersey Shore Medical Center Creedmoor Psychiatric Center
University of Medicine and Dentistry Crestwood Children’s Center
of New Jersey Dutchess County Department of
Monmouth Medical Center Mental Hygiene
Trenton Psychiatric Hospital Gouverneur Hospital–Department of
Veterans Affairs New Jersey Health Behavioral Health
Care System Hudson River Regional Psychology
Internship Program
New Mexico Hutchings Psychiatric Center
University of New Mexico Health Jewish Board of Family and
Sciences Center (formerly listed as Children’s Services, Inc.
University of New Mexico School Jewish Child Care Association of
of Medicine) New York
Karen Horney Clinic
Kings County Hospital Center
Lenox Hill Hospital VA Hudson Valley Healthcare

Lincoln Medical and Mental Health System (formerly listed as
Center Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Long Island Jewish Medical Center Veterans Affairs Hospital)
Maimonides Medical Center Westchester Jewish Community
Manhattan Psychiatric Center Services, Inc.
Mount Sinai Medical Center
Nassau County Medical Center North Carolina
New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Broughton Hospital
Center Duke University Counseling and
New York University–Bellevue Psychological Services
Hospital Center Duke University Medical Center
New York University Medical Federal Correctional Institution
Center–Rusk Institute of University of North Carolina School
Rehabilitation Medicine of Medicine
North Bronx Healthcare Network Veterans Affairs Medical Center
(formerly listed as North Central
Ohio
Bronx Hospital)
University of Akron Counseling and
North Shore University
Testing Center
Hospital–Cornell University
Applewood Centers, Inc.–Center for
Medical College
Research, Quality Improvement,
Pace University–Counseling Center
and Training
Postgraduate Center for Mental
Child and Adolescent Service Center
Health
Children’s Hospital, Inc.
Queens Children’s Psychiatric Center
Children’s Hospital Medical Center
University of Rochester Counseling
University of Cincinnati
and Mental Health Services
Psychological Services Center
University of Rochester School of
Louis Stokes Cleveland Department
Medicine and Dentistry
of Veterans Affairs Medical Center
State University of New York Health
(formerly listed as Veterans
Science Center at Syracuse
Affairs Medical Center)
St. Luke’s/Roosevelt Hospital Center
Miami University Student
St. Mary’s Children and Family
Counseling Service
Services
Northeastern Ohio Universities
Stony Brook University/State
College of Medicine
University of New York (formerly
Ohio State University Counseling
listed as State University of New
and Consultation Services
York at Stony Brook)
Wright-Patterson USAF Medical
Sunset Park Mental Health Center
Center
Wright State University–School of Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric

Professional Psychology–Ellis Institute/Allegheny University of
Institute the Health Sciences and as
Medical College of Pennsylvania
Oklahoma at Eastern Pennsylvania
Children’s Medical Center Psychiatric Institute) (Accredited,
Northeastern Oklahoma Psychology on probation status resulting from
Internship Program the program not having interns in
Oklahoma Health Consortium 1999–2000.)
(formerly listed as Oklahoma State Friends Hospital–Department of
Department of Health) Clinical Services
University of Oklahoma Health Norristown State
Sciences Center Internship Hospital–Psychology Department
Consortium Penn State Geisinger Medical Center
(formerly listed as Geisinger
Oregon
Medical Center)
Morrison Center
University of
Oregon Health Sciences University
Pennsylvania–University
Child Development and
Counseling Service
Rehabilitation Center
Pennsylvania Hospital (formerly
University of Oregon University
listed as Institute of Pennsylvania
Counseling Center
Hospital)
Tualatin Valley Mental Health Center
Pennsylvania State University Center
for Counseling and Psychological
Pennsylvania Services
Allegheny General Philhaven Hospital
Hospital–Department of University of Pittsburgh Counseling
Psychiatry Center
The Child Guidance Center of the Pittsburgh Veterans Healthcare
Children’s Hospital of System Internship (formerly listed
Philadelphia (formerly listed as as Pittsburgh Veterans Affairs
Philadelphia Child Guidance Psychology Internship
Clinic) Consortium)
Children’s Seashore House of CHOP The Reading Hospital and Medical
The Devereux Foundation–Institute Center
of Clinical Training and Research Sarah A. Reed Children’s Center
Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric St. Francis Medical
Institute, MCP Hahnemann Center–Department of Psychology
University (formerly listed as (Accredited, on probation status
resulting from the program not listed as Memphis State University

having interns in 1999–2000.) Center for Student Development)
Temple University Medical School University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Western Psychiatric Institute and Student Counseling Services
Clinic–Department of Psychiatry/ Center
University of Pittsburgh School of University of Tennessee Professional
Medicine Psychology Internship Consortium
Widener University Vanderbilt University–Veterans
Internship–Institute for Graduate Affairs Medical Center
Clinical Psychology Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Rhode Island Texas

Brown University Clinical Austin State Hospital
Psychology Internship Consortium Baylor College of
Medicine–Department of
South Carolina Psychiatry and Behavioral
Medical University of South Sciences
Carolina/VAMC Central Texas Veterans Health Care
Consortium–Department of System (formerly listed as Olin E.
Psychiatry Teague Veterans Affairs Center)
University of South Carolina Child and Family Guidance Center
Counseling and Human (formerly listed as Dallas Child
Development Center Guidance Clinic)
William S. Hall Psychiatric Institute Cypress-Fairbanks Independent
School District–Department of
South Dakota
Psychological Services
Veterans Affairs Black Hills Health
Dallas Public Schools (formerly
Care System (formerly listed as
listed as Dallas Independent
Fort Meade Veterans Affairs
School District)
Medical Center West River Mental
Federal Medical Center (formerly
Health Center Psychology
listed as Federal Correctional
Internship Consortium)
Institution)
Tennessee Fort Worth Independent School
The Guidance Center (formerly listed District
as Rutherford County Guidance University of Houston Counseling
Center) and Psychological Services
James H. Quillen Veterans Affairs Houston Independent School District
Medical Center South Texas Veterans Health Care
University of Memphis Center for System (formerly listed as Audie
Student Development (formerly
L. Murphy Memorial Veterans Virginia

Hospital) Alexandria Mental Health Center
Texas A&M University Student Eastern Virginia Medical
Counseling Service School–Department of Psychiatry
University of Texas at Austin and Behavioral Sciences
Counseling and Mental Health Federal Correctional Institution
Center (formerly listed as McGuire Veterans Affairs Medical
University of Texas–Austin Center
Counseling, Learning, and Career Medical College of Virginia/Virginia
Services) Commonwealth University
University of Texas Health Science Mount Vernon Center for Community
Center at San Antonio Mental Health
The University of Texas Medical Naval Medical Center, Portsmouth
Branch at Galveston Veterans Affairs Medical Center
University of Texas Medical School Virginia Beach City Public
at Houston Schools–Psychological Services
University of Texas Southwestern Programs for Exceptional
Medical Center at Dallas Children
Texas Tech University Counseling University of Virginia Center for
Center Counseling and Psychological
Texas Woman’s University Services
Counseling Center Virginia Commonwealth University
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Counseling Services
Wilford Hall Medical Center Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
(formerly listed as Wilford Hall State University–University
USAF Medical Center) Counseling Center
Virginia Treatment Center for
Utah Children
Brigham Young University Woodburn Center for Community
Counseling and Development Mental Health
Center
Primary Children’s Medical Center Washington
University of Utah University Spokane Mental Health (formerly
Counseling Center listed as Spokane Community
Valley Mental Health (formerly listed Mental Health Center)
as Salt Lake Valley Mental Health) Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health
Veterans Affairs Medical Center Care System–American Lake
Division
Vermont Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health
Fletcher Allen Health Care Care System–Seattle Division
Psychology Internship
(formerly listed as Veterans Wyoming

Affairs Medical Center) University of Wyoming Counseling
University of Washington School of Center
Medicine–Clinical Psychology Wyoming State Hospital
Internship Program
Washington State University Canada
Counseling Services
Western State Hospital–Department Alberta Children’s Hospital
of Psychology Calgary, Alberta
Alberta Hospital Edmonton/Glenrose
West Virginia Rehabilitation Hospital
Federal Correctional Internship (formerly listed as
Institution–U.S. Department of Alberta Hospital Edmonton)
Justice Edmonton, Alberta
West Virginia University Carruth British Columbia Children’s Hospital
Center for Counseling and Vancouver, British Columbia
Psychological Services Centre for Addiction and Mental
West Virginia University Health Health, Clarke Division
Sciences Center–Department of (formerly listed as The Clarke
Behavioral Medicine and Institute of Psychiatry)
Psychiatry Toronto, Ontario
West Virginia University—Robert C.
Children’s Hospital of Eastern
Byrd Health Sciences Center
Ontario
(formerly listed as West Virginia
Ottawa, Ontario
University School of Medicine)
Grand River Hospital (formerly listed
Wisconsin as Kitchener-Waterloo Hospital)
Aurora Behavioral Health Services/ Kitchener, Ontario
Sinai Samaritan Medical Center IWK-Grace Health Centre (formerly
Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs listed as IWK Children’s
Medical Center Hospital)
Ethan Allen School–Department of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Health and Social Services London Health Sciences Centre
Mendota Mental Health Institute London, Ontario
Milwaukee County Mental Health
University of Manitoba Counseling
Complex
Service
University of Wisconsin Center for
Winnipeg, Manitoba
the Health Sciences
University of Wisconsin–Madison University of Manitoba Faculty of
Counseling and Consultation Medicine
Services Winnipeg, Manitoba
McGill University Psychology The Royal Ottawa Health Care Group

Internship Consortium Ottawa, Ontario
Department of Psychology Royal University Hospital–
Montreal, Quebec Department of Clinical Health
University of Ottawa Psychology
Centre for Psychological Services Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
School of Psychology Vancouver Hospital and Health
Ottawa, Ontario
Sciences Centre–UBC Hospital
The Ottawa Hospital–General Site (formerly listed as University
(formerly listed as Ottawa Hospital–University of British
General Hospital) Columbia Site)
Ottawa, Ontario Vancouver, British Columbia
Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Workers Compensation Board of
Centre (formerly listed as Camp British Columbia
Hill Medical Centre) Vancouver, British Columbia
Halifax, Nova Scotia

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VGM Opportunities Series

Charles M. Super, Ph.D.

4. The Rewards of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

opment in Britain. He has authored or coauthored several widely used

Joanne E. Callan, Ph.D.

Dan Matthews, Ph.D.

THE THREE PSYCHOLOGIES

synthesized into theories and “schools of thought” for communication

trained in the principles and techniques of a special field of knowledge

AN OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY SPECIALTIES

mental disorders; there are personnel psychologists, who apply their

sion of some of the scientific questions studied by psychologists follows,

The Psychology of Memory

The question of accuracy in memory is of great importance when

The Psychology of Learning

The Structure of Mental Ability

and the ability to understand others. In presenting his theory of multiple

The Development of Morality

college and various professional schools. They also conduct research in

Assessment and Counseling

Training and Group Processes

PSYCHOLOGY AS ACADEMIC PURSUIT

primarily teachers, but research organizations and practice have ab-

PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC DEBATE

The topics of public debate addressed by psychological and behav-

PSYCHOLOGY’S PLACE IN SOCIETY

*Reprinted with permission of the American Psychological Association.

41. American Psychology-Law Society

EXPERIMENTAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

The training of experimental psychologists emphasizes undergraduate

logical, such as how the nervous systems of different species of animals

arrangement and illumination of instruments and control panels, but also

however, there has been increasing interest in the physiological, psycho-

New Doctorates in Psychology by Subfield: 1997

When the educational psychologist applies his or her knowledge to in-

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY

research going on in the psychology of personality, and many books are

Psychologists specializing in the field of personality should have—in

The training of the social psychologist is somewhat similar to that of

PSYCHOMETRICS AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS

The field is concerned with the identification of characteristics that

and universities and they work in educational and psychological re-

tion, inhibits work on testing in some organizations and encourage

INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

might be organizational—or perhaps organizational and personnel—

To be effective in a business setting, the industrial psychologist must

supplementary study of the sociology of industry, labor economics, and

psychologists with appropriate doctoral training and five years of experi-

CLINICAL AND ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

A clinical psychologist interviews a patient to get an understanding of

counseling psychology, however, clinical psychology has as yet reached

desirable program for induction of children into kindergarten, a survey

chologist plays a more important role in education as a diagnostician,

EMERGING SPECIALTIES, RELATED FIELDS,

health psychology have started at a number of universities, and their

cultural psychology, and the specialty is usually achieved in conjunction

MASTER’S DEGREE HOLDERS

holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in the community mental