2) February 2015

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STRUCTURE
A Joint Publication of NCSEA | CASE | SEI
February 2015 Steel/Cold-Formed Steel

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editorial ProFessional issues
7 Where We Go depends on 32 rainbows only Come
Where We aim after rain
By Barry Arnold, S.E., SECB By Ellen (Chuan-Hua) Kuo, P.E.
lessons learned struCtural rehaBilitation

9 unintentional Corrosion by 44 divine design: renovating
structural design and Preserving historic
By Julie Mark Cohen, Ph.D., P.E., SECB houses of Worship – Part 3
By Nathaniel B. Smith, P.E. and
enGineer’s noteBook Milan Vatovec, P.E., Ph.D.
13 Built-up Cold-Formed steel
STRUCTURE
®
Compression Member design historiC struCtures
February 2015
By Roger LaBoube, Ph.D., P.E. 48 Bollman truss at
harper’s Ferry
Code uPdates By Frank Griggs, Jr., D. Eng., P.E.
17 Changes to the 2015 Wood
Frame Construction Manual insiGhts 34
By John “Buddy” Showalter, P.E., 52 integral Crystalline Feature
Peter Mazikins, P.Eng and Waterproofing Bethel Park
Michelle Kam-Biron, S.E., P.E. By Alireza Biparva, M.A.Sc.
By Jacob Bice, Ph.D., P.E. and Dilip Choudhuri, P.E. In 2005,
a fire gutted the interior of this historic structure, collapsing the
struCtural desiGn eduCation issues interior framing and roof, leaving only the exterior masonry
20 Why it’s Good to be 55 leading the Charge walls in place. The structure sat exposed and abandoned
a lightweight By Uchenna T. E. Okoye, P.E. until 2009, when the City of Houston purchased the property
By Peter Debney, BEng(Hons), CEng and Eric Borchers, S.E. to convert the former church into a community park. Read
about testing of the remaining structural components and
development of strengthening solutions.
Guest ColuMn sPotliGht
24 the nisd difference 59 krishna P. singh Center
By Kerri Olsen for nanotechnology 40
By Brian Falconer, P.E., S.E., SECB Feature
struCtural liCensure
26 100 Years of structural struCtural ForuM
CFs transforms
engineering licensure 66 is structural engineering octagonal structure
By Gregg E. Brandow, Ph.D., P.E., S.E. education sustainable? into elliptical Curve
By Lawrence C. Bank, Ph.D., P.E.
By Jeffrey Kreinke, P.E., S.E., Karl Scherzer, P.E. and
struCtural testinG
Jamie John, E.I.T. This new indoor arena is a seven level
28 inside the Bridge concrete structure wrapped in a metal panel and glass curtain
inspection toolbox wall façade. The inner, octagonal concrete super structure
By Roger Roberts, Ph.D. is enclosed by cold formed steel framing, which transforms
corners of a rigid polygonal concrete structure of the outer
shape into a tri-radial ellipse.
On the cover The historic Bethel Baptist Church was destroyed after a fire gutted
the interior in 2005 and severely damaged its masonry walls. The design team co-
created an amazing community park from the ashes of the fire-damaged structure and
in everY issue
successfully restored aspects of its original historic splendor. Walter P Moore conducted
a comprehensive investigation, in-situ testing, and developed a repair protocol that
8 Advertiser Index
strengthened the walls in place. See feature article on page 34. 58 Resource Guide (Bridge)
60 NCSEA News
Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE® magazine does not constitute
endorsement by NCSEA, CASE, SEI, C 3 Ink, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors, and
62 SEI Structural Columns
advertisers retain sole responsibility for the content of their submissions. 64 CASE in Point
STRUCTURE magazine 5 February 2015

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Editorial Where We Go Depends On Where We Aim
new trends, new techniques and current industry issues
By Barry Arnold, S.E., SECB
U
nprecedented challenges face the structural engineering 2-day Strategic Planning Session. The input by the SEAs provided
profession in the years to come. Threats from foreign a valuable resource of relevant information considered significant
competition, opposition to structural licensure, dwin- by the SEAs.
dling profits, decline in ethics, and increased risk and
expectations are at our doorstep now. It has become obvious that Phase 3 – Develop a Mission
trying to maintain the status quo will only result in a decline in the
relevance of the profession. An idiom states that there are three types
and Vision Statement
of people: Those that are in the loop, those that are out of the loop, Based on the SEAs’ input, NCSEA created new Mission and Vision
and those that don’t know there is a loop. As licensed professionals, it Statements which better reflect the purpose and intent of the organization.
is imperative that we be ‘in the loop’, actively engaged in advocating NCSEA’s new Mission Statement: NCSEA advances the practice
for our profession, and working to forge a meaningful future for all of structural engineering by representing and strengthening its
present and future structural engineers. Member Organizations.
There are three ways to approach the future: We can actively plan NCSEA’s new Vision Statement: The National Council of Structural
and contribute to make the future we want a reality, we can sit idle Engineers Associations will be recognized as the leading advocate for the
and wait and see what happens or, when the future arrives, we can practice of structural engineering.
see what happens and adjust. The first option requires that we plan
and build the future we want, not unlike the planning, calculating,
and construction that goes into building a structure. The second and
Phase 4 – Form Focus Groups
third options require no planning, no effort, and no consideration Four focus groups were formed to undertake the following tasks
for the profession or the public. and make recommendations to help NCSEA meet its mission
To position itself to meet and address the present and future con- and vision statements: (i) Evaluation of NCSEA’s Organizational
cerns of the structural engineering profession, NCSEA has taken Structure, (ii) Examination of the current NCSEA–MO delegate
the initiative to create a four-phase strategic planning process. model and evaluation of the ways it can be modified and improved,
(iii) Exploration of new ways to improve MO communication
between all components of the organization, including Board,
Phase 1 – Determine Whom You Serve Staff, Committees, and Member Organizations, and (iv) Assessment
Marcus Buckingham declared in his book, The One Thing You of NCSEA’s financial sustainability, including evaluation of both
Need To Know, that the key to long term success is to know opportunities for additional revenue streams and threats to current
whom you serve. Knowing why your organization exists, who revenue streams.
your clients are, and what they want, is crucial to your long-term NCSEA’s Strategic Plan is an on-going process, based on feedback
success. After much thoughtful discussion, it was determined that from the SEAs. And because great organizations do more than just
NCSEA exists to represent and support the Structural Engineering collect feedback, NCSEA is putting the ideas, hopes, and dreams of
Associations (SEAs) in their effort to improve the profession and the MOs into the strategic plan by addressing their concerns.
protect the public. NCSEA needs to be strong and aimed in the right direction as
it advocates for the profession. It also needs to be nimble so it
can easily adjust to changes in our world and provide additional
Phase 2 – Collect Data emphasis in areas needing critical attention. NCSEA exists for
With clarity on whom NCSEA the SEAs, and the SEAs exist for their members. Their members,
serves, NCSEA sent a 3-ques- the structural engineers, exist to protect the public. We are all in
tion survey to the leadership of this together. We all need to be in the loop and actively engaged
®
structurE
the SEAs, asking them: First, in this important process.

what are the three most sig- NCSEA should aim high and set goals that will ultimately improve
nificant problems facing your the structural engineering profession and benefit the
a member benefit
member organization? Second, public. NCSEA’s aim must be true, so that the structural
what are the three things you engineering profession will remain relevant and vibrant
believe NCSEA is doing well? as it faces the challenges ahead.▪
Third, what could NCSEA do to
improve its support of your SEA?
Barry Arnold, S.E., SECB (barrya@arwengineers.com), is a Vice
Seventy-five percent of the
President at ARW Engineers in Ogden, Utah. He is a Past President
STRUCTURAL SEAs participated, providing a
ENGINEERING of the Structural Engineers Association of Utah (SEAU), serves as
INSTITUTE total of 291 responses, which
the SEAU Delegate to NCSEA, and is the NCSEA President and a
were reviewed by the 34 par-
member of the NCSEA Licensing Committee.
ticipants attending NCSEA’s

structurE
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Adaptive Reuse Investigation of Roof Framing CCFSS, Rolla, MO
By D. Matthew Stuart, P.E., S.E., SECB, January 2015 Brian J. Leshko, P.E.
HDR Engineering, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA
PROJECT UPDATE:
Brian W. Miller
Since Pennoni issued the report for this facility and submitted the article for publication, the Davis, CA
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immediately reroofing all of the buildings that had not already been reroofed at the time of The DiSalvo Engineering Group, Ridgefield, CT
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Property Manager serve to illustrate the proper approach to the ongoing use and renovation John “Buddy” Showalter, P.E.
of a vital historic facility. American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA
Amy Trygestad, P.E.

Chase Engineering, LLC, New Prague, MN
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STRUCTURE magazine 8 February 2015 the publisher.
“Put away your swords. They will get rusty in the dew.”
– Othello, Act 1, Scene 2, by William Shakespeare, circa 1603 Lessons
C Learned
orrosion has been a problem since This article presents two examples of corrosion
the beginning of the Iron Age, circa that were unintentional byproducts of structural
1200 BC. Before the Industrial designs. The first example, electric power trans-
Revolution, corrosion was recognized mission towers constructed from weathering steel,
problems and solutions
and respected in hand-produced objects, such describes uniform or general attack corrosion. The
as weapons. After the advent of machinery that second example, stress corrosion with hydrogen encountered by practicing
was used to fabricate metal alloys for structural embrittlement, entails the design of a cofferdam structural engineers
framing members and components exposed to the and its waler bolts.
elements, corrosion found new targets. The metal
alloys include but are not limited to wrought
iron, cast iron, hot-rolled steel, and stainless steel.
Example 1
Corrosion of metals is caused by either a chemi-
Aesthetics versus Durability: Premature Use
cal reaction or electrification, in which the base
of Weathering Steel
metal is changed and eaten away. An example of
chemical interaction is the oxidation of iron in The stage for the first example – a corrosion prob-
the presence of water by an electrolytic process lem, specifically the formation of rust within
to form iron oxide (i.e., rust). An example of structural joints – was set circa 1965-1966,
electrification is a rapid-transit system, in which when structural engineers
stray direct currents (DC) can corrode rails and began selecting weathering
nearby metallic infrastructure components, such
as buried pipelines and cables.
steel for bolted structural
members, typically angles,
Unintentional Corrosion
Corrosion has eight unique forms, which are
more or less interrelated. These include the follow-
in electric power transmis-
sion towers.
by Structural Design
ing in no particular order: (1) uniform or general Weathering steel is a high-
attack, (2) galvanic or two-metal corrosion, (3) strength, low-alloy steel that forms a tightly-
crevice corrosion, (4) pitting, (5) intergranular adhering “patina” during its initial exposure to By Julie Mark Cohen, Ph.D., P.E.,
corrosion, (6) selected leaching or parting, (7) moisture and oxygen. The patina, an oxide film of SECB
erosion corrosion, and (8) stress corrosion. corrosion by-products, formed early on between
Today, rusted vehicles no longer litter the land- bolted plate elements of the angles and contin-
scape. From this, casual observers and perhaps ued to grow as “pack-out” rust. This rust, which
some structural engineers may not realize that decreased the cross-sectional area of the bolted
these vehicles have been recycled, and that techno- members, forced bolted plate elements apart.
logical advancements have ameliorated nearly all On some occasions, bolts have fractured from
rust in modern-day vehicles. Some may also con- excessive axial tensile stress.
clude that rust and various types of corrosion are When the transmission towers were designed,
no longer of concern, because they see essentially no guidelines existed for bolting weathering steel Julie Mark Cohen, Ph.D., P.E.,
no rust in the landscapes; but rust and corrosion structural members that were exposed to the SECB (jmcohen@jmcohenpe.com),
in general have by no means disappeared. elements. After corrosion was observed, design is a consulting structural and forensic
Corrosion, although touted as “a natural but guidelines were developed and published. They engineer and published fiction
controllable process,” is an ultra-expensive nem- provided information for bolt spacing, edge writer in Latham, New York. This
esis of steel and reinforced concrete structures. distance, and clamping forces to minimize article constitutes a small part of
In 1998, direct corrosion costs were approxi- the possibility of formation of “pack-out” rust her research, entitled Structural
mately $276 billion or 3.1% of the GDP. The between bolted plate elements, such as angles. Engineers: Constraints on Design
costs included but were not limited to utilities, Transmission towers that were adversely affected Decisions and Subsequent, Costly
drinking water and sewer systems, gas distribu- still exist and/or are being replaced in at least Failures 1950-2014.
tion, waterways and ports, and highway bridges. Virginia and New York.
A recent publication stated, “In the 15 years
that have passed since the [NACE] study was
released, inflation has driven both the direct
Example 2
and indirect costs of corrosion over $500 billion
Caveat Emptor: Misuse of ASTM A722
annually, totaling over $1 trillion in 2013 …
At 6.2% of GDP, corrosion is one of the largest A second example is the result of U.S. manufac-
single expenses in the US economy yet it rarely turers misusing an ASTM standard. This problem
receives the attention it requires. Corrosion costs has gone unrecognized by structural engineers, The online version of this
money and lives, resulting in dangerous failures even though failures have occurred. Specifics of article contains several
and increased charges for everything from utilities nearly all of these failures are not in the public detailed references. Please visit
to transportation and more.” domain. This example is presented by using a www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
STRUCTURE magazine 9
fictitious scenario of the design of a marine reviewing Elliot’s work, but had no com- 6. An article in a steel industry
structure, specifically a cofferdam. However, ments, not even minor ones. publication about specifying proper
the impetus for misuse is factual, and the risk The construction of the new cofferdam com- materials (Anderson and Carter
of subsequent failures is real. menced in mid-summer and was completed 2012) does not mention ASTM
in late fall 2014. A barely measurable out-of- A722 for structural fasteners.
Design of a Fictitious Cofferdam
plumbness was introduced into the sheet piles, However, one of the authors
Elliot Buyer is a 40-year-old structural engi- but Elliot was confident that it was within (Anderson 2011) previously stated,
neer who earned a bachelor’s degree in civil acceptable levels and that the conservative “To properly use an unlisted material,
engineering and a one-year project master’s waler bolt design was more than adequate. one must evaluate its various
degree, both with honors, and easily passed characteristics in relation to the
Cofferdam Failure
the FE, PE, and SE exams. He works in the contemplated uses for it ...”
century-old, well-respected firm, Clev-R At dawn on New Year’s Day, January 2015, the 7. ASTM A722/A722M: Standard
Structural Engineers. cofferdam failed: the sheet piles tilted toward Specification for Uncoated High-Strength
In February 2014, Elliot procured a project the ocean, and the soil sank behind them. By Steel Bars for Prestressing Concrete.
from an international corporation to replace a 10 a.m., Elliot, Denis, and Roger Clevstone a. Originally approved in 1975.
71-year-old, 650-foot-long cofferdam in the III (RC III), grandson of the founding prin- b.Dimensions given for Type I (plain)
local ocean harbor. He felt comfortable work- cipal, were poring over Elliot’s calculations, bars and Type II (deformed) bars.
ing single-handedly, because he had designed construction documents, reports by an inde- No threaded rods.
dozens of large, complicated retaining walls pendent inspector, and photographs taken c. Finished bars shall have a minimum
in highly saturated soils, none of which had during construction. The manufacturers’ ultimate tensile strength of 150 ksi.
ever shown signs of distress. catalogs sat at the bottom of a stack at the d. Minimum yield strength given for
Recalling that Clev-R worked on another end of the conference room table. The men Type I and II bars as a percentage
cofferdam project in the early 1990s, Elliot were mystified. of ultimate strength.
searched his office’s library. He ignored an e. Minimum elongation is given for
Preparation of Deposition Questions
unlabeled manila folder with a plastic-lam- Type I and II bars, which is much
inated article entitled “Atoms Villain in The client, a private corporation, hired Quinn smaller than for RCSC- and AISC-
Culvert Collapse” that discussed the failure Santiago, Esq., an attorney who was well- accepted A490 steel.
of A490 bolts. The failure was attributed to known for winning lawsuits on failing to f. Also, AASHTO M 275M/M 275
hydrogen embrittlement, “a phenomenon meet the standard of care. In his thirty years (same title).
occasionally experienced in metallurgy but of litigation, he had seen dozens of highly- 8. ASTM A143/A143M: Standard
never before known to have occurred in trained professionals who did not realize that Practice for Safeguarding Against
highway culvert construction.” The article they lacked the knowledge to make informed Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized
stated that the following three factors must design decisions. Structural Steel Products and Procedure
be simultaneously present for hydrogen In turn, Quinn hired Abigail Sorrel, a con- for Detecting Embrittlement.
embrittlement to occur: stress, susceptibil- sulting structural and forensic engineer, who a. Originally approved in 1932.
ity, and a wet environment. was well-respected for what others called a b.“In practice, hydrogen
Next to the manila folder, Elliot found a “multi-disciplinary” approach to problem- embrittlement of galvanized steel
sheet pile design manual published by United solving. She fought against this designation, is usually of concern only if the
States Steel. Near the manual, he discovered contending that any knowledge needed to steel exceeds approximately 150
a binder, labeled Supplements to the Sheet Pile solve a particular discipline’s problem is req- ksi in ultimate tensile strength, or
Design Manual, that was initialed by RC III. uisite to that discipline. if it has been severely cold worked
The binder included examples of waler designs The reports from three independent metal- prior to pickling.”
with top and bottom channels stitched lurgists were telling. From these findings, 9. ASTM F2329: Standard Specification
together, soil gravity loads on walers, and Abigail organized information with which she for Zinc Coating, Hot-Dip,
approximate analyses for continuous walers. would assist Quinn in developing questions Requirements for Application to Carbon
He also discovered calculations for a smaller for the depositions of Elliot and Denis. Her and Alloy Steel Bolts, Screws, Washers,
cofferdam’s waler bolts and tie-back rods preliminary list included the following items: Nuts, and Special Threaded Fasteners
using ASTM A325 material. In addition, he 1. Metallurgists’ consensus: Hydrogen a. Originally approved in 2005.
observed that the waler bolts were designed embrittlement and fracture of b.“For high strength fasteners (having
for axial tension plus bending, “just in case waler bolts. a specified minimum product
the walers rotate downward.” 2. Ocean cofferdam. Salt water hardness of 33HRC), there is a risk
Elliot quickly realized that he would need environment. of internal hydrogen embrittlement.”
high-strength steel for the waler bolts and 3. 150-ksi steel, hot-dip galvanized, 10. Before Elliot’s design, Caltrans
tie-back rods. He searched the internet and threaded bolts and rods. issued the following amendments
learned that U.S. manufacturers were sell- 4. U.S. manufacturers selling ASTM to the AASHTO LRFD: “...ASTM
ing ASTM A722 threaded rods with the A722, hot-dip galvanized threaded A722 bars shall not be galvanized”
option of hot-dip galvanizing. He prepared rods and bolts. and “Galvanization of ... ASTM
a thorough, well-documented calculation 5. Neither RCSC (2009) nor A722 bars is not permitted due to
package and requested an in-house peer AISC (2010) specify ASTM hydrogen embrittlement.”
review from a more seasoned colleague, A722 as a material to be used for Abigail also noted that sheet pile, waler
Denis L’Accord. Denis spent two days structural fasteners. bolt, and tie-back designs followed the

state-of-practice. However, overstrength (a or geotechnical engineers. Thesis-based
higher factor of safety) and redundancy were two-year curricula rarely allow a structural
not considered. She noted that, even if they engineering graduate student to enroll in a
had been considered, they were unlikely to materials engineering course. The curricula
have been helpful, since all of the waler bolts for doctoral students are almost always as
were equally susceptible to two interdependent narrowly focused as those for two-year CONSTRUCTION CEMENT
FASTE R
cracking phenomena, tensile stress corrosion master’s degrees.
in salt water and hydrogen embrittlement. Licensure for professional engineers and,
where applicable, for structural engineers,
as well as SECB certification, do not require
Structural Engineers, Their
Knowledge Base and
that applicants and exam-takers possess
any level of knowledge about corrosion
STRONGER
Design Decisions of steel, or even an awareness of relevant
ASTM standards. Continuing education
MORE DURABLE
Structural engineers hail from two different courses reflect licensure. Consequently,
professional traditions. First, for centuries,
civil engineers who worked on military and
structural engineers are asked to solve
practical problems for which their edu-
3000 PSI IN 1 HOUR
public works projects required the services cational and practical backgrounds may
of specialists who would later be known as be inadequate. They may not be properly
“structural engineers.” Second, since the aware of their limitations.
mid-1880s when architects relinquished
their responsibilities for structural design,
they have required the services of structural
Concluding Remarks
engineers who specialized in building proj- Confucius said, “To know what you know and
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ects. Regardless of the project type, for well what you do not know, that is true knowledge.”
over a century, structural engineers have In the first example, design criteria were not Specified
been providing specialized technical services developed before a new material, weathering Worldwide
not strictly through their own profession, steel, was used for bolted structures exposed
but under the broad umbrella of the civil to the elements.
engineering profession. In part as a result of In the second example, the knowledge
this history, the undergraduate and graduate base had been well-developed, but was not
educations of these engineering specialists, recognized by structural engineers. Clearly,
mentoring in practice, licensure, and continu- the (fictitious) cofferdam failure described
ing education for licensure are not without above could have been prevented if Elliot
their flaws and deficiencies. and his colleagues had taken a moment
In the United States, ABET (2014) to look up the title of ASTM A722 and
provides requirements for baccalaureate read the words “uncoated,” “bars,” and
engineering education. Although civil engi- “prestressing,” which should have raised
neering has been a long-established and a red flag. Unfortunately, across the U.S.,
accredited undergraduate major, structural structural engineers are specifying hot-dip
engineering has never been recognized as a galvanized, threaded rods that are sold by ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
separate degree program. Structural engi- manufacturers as compliant with ASTM
neering courses are offered as a “technical A722 for cofferdams, underground pipes, • High bond strength
area” within civil engineering curricula. bridge components, and other structures
ABET’s requirements do not require solv- whose steel components are exposed to salt • Low shrinkage
ing problems that deal with microscopic water environments. • High sulfate resistance
behaviors of steel (e.g., fracture and corro- The intention of this article is to leave the
sion). Senior-level capstone courses rarely, readers with three questions: • Great freeze thaw durability
if ever, include collaboration with seniors 1) How does a structural engineer
studying materials engineering. From this, recognize when his/her knowledge • Long life expectancy
civil engineering students may receive the base is insufficient? • 65% lower carbon footprint
impression that such consultation with 2) When should a structural engineer
materials engineers is not necessary once employ the services of a collaborator,
they are practicing. such as a materials engineer? Available in
Structural engineers who receive one- 3) What, if anything, should be done,
or two-year master’s degrees in structural and by whom, to ensure that structural Bags and Bulk
engineering are also at a disadvantage. engineers possess an adequate
One-year curricula tend to focus solely knowledge base to develop designs
on structural engineering, often with a that provide reliable, predictable, and 800-929-3030
project in collaboration with civil and/ durable performance?▪
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B EnginEEr’s
uilt-up cold-formed steel compression where
members are commonly used as shear wall
( ) √( ) ( )
2 2
KL KL a
chord members, and at openings of doors = +
r r o ri
notEbook
m
and windows (stud packs) to resist the
additional load transferred from an opening header. (KL/r)o = Overall slenderness ratio of entire
The provisions in North American Specification for section about built-up member axis
the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, a = Intermediate fastener or spot weld
AISI S100 Section D1.2 are limited to concentrically spacing
aids for the structural
loaded compression members composed of two ri = Minimum radius of gyration of full
shapes joined together at discrete points along the unreduced cross-sectional area of an engineer’s toolbox
axis of the member. Thus, the AISI S100 provisions individual shape (single C-section) in
are limited to either an I-shaped cross section or a a built-up member
box-shaped cross section. Note, the modified slenderness ratio is only
Today there are various assumptions employed applied to the buckling axis that requires the
when designing the stud packs. An often employed interconnecting fasteners to transfer shear. For
assumption by inexperienced cold-formed steel an I-shaped section, this means the (KL/r)y axis is
design engineers is that each stud in a stud pack the slenderness ratio to be modified. The (KL/r)x
has the same tributary area as a typical wall stud. axis is not modified.
What this assumption consists of is adding studs When applying the modified slenderness ratio,
to the stud pack equal to the number of studs the following additional the fastener strength [resis-
displaced by an opening. Thus, the stud pack is tance] and spacing shall be satisfied:
not engineered but, in fact, is simply assembled to 1) The intermediate fastener
provide an equal number of studs as if the opening or spot weld spacing,
did not occur. This assumption can be both uneco-
nomical and can result in poor framing designs as
a, is limited such that
a/ri does not exceed
Built-Up Cold-Formed
illustrated by Figure 1. one-half the governing Steel Compression
slenderness ratio of the
built-up member. Member Design
2) The ends of a built-up
compression member By Roger LaBoube, Ph.D., P.E.
are connected by a weld having a length
not less than the maximum width of
the member, or by connectors spaced
longitudinally not more than 4 diameters
Figure 1. apart for a distance equal to 1.5 times the
maximum width of the member.
Another questionable assumption made by 3) The intermediate fastener(s) or weld(s) at
inexperienced cold-formed steel design engi- any longitudinal member tie location are
neers is that the axial load is shared equally capable of transmitting required strength
to each individual member of the stud pack, [factored forces] in any direction of 2.5 Roger LaBoube, Ph.D, P.E.
and each member’s strength is based on the percent of the available axial strength (laboube@mst.edu), is Curator’s
behavior as a discrete member. Making this [factored resistance] of the built-up member. Teaching Professor Emeritus of
assumption can lead to a suspect load path or AISI S211 requires that if the above criteria are Civil Engineering and Director
an uneconomical, design as any synergy of the not met, the design strength of the built-up of the Wei-Wen Yu Center for
individual stud pack members is not accounted member shall be taken as the sum of the indi- Cold-Formed Steel Structures
for in the design. vidual members of the built-up section. at the Missouri University of
The following discussion introduces design con- AISI S100 Section D1.2 imposes stringent connec- Technology. Roger is active in
cepts and practical considerations for built-up tion requirements for the ends of built-up members several professional organizations
member design, for which AISI S100 and AISI (requirement 2 above). However, based on research, and societies, including the
framing standards, AISI S211 North American the following provision has been adopted for the American Iron and Steel Institute’s
Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing – Wall next edition of the AISI framing standards which Committee on Specifications and
Stud Design have specific design provisions. will combine the current framing standards into Committee on Framing Standards.
one document, North American Standard for Cold- He also serves on STRUCTURE’s
Formed Steel Structural Framing AISI S240: Editorial Board.
Design Methodology Exception: Where a built-up axial load bearing
Built-up compression members interconnected section comprised of two studs oriented back-
at discrete points have a reduced shear rigidity to-back forming an I-shaped cross-section is
which reduces the buckling stress of the member. properly seated in a track in accordance with
To reflect the reduced shear rigidity, AISI S100 the requirements of Section C3.4.3, and the
Section D1.2 requires the use of a modified slen- top and bottom end bearing detail of the studs
derness ratio, (KL/r)m as follows: consists of full support by steel or concrete
components with adequate strength and A design consideration is the spacing of the and bottom, thus by utilizing the
stiffness to preclude differential end slip web connectors which will influence both provision of AISI S240, additional
of the built-up studs, the compliance with load capacity and economics as summarized: fasteners are not required.
the end connection provisions of AISI 3) The intermediate fastener(s) or weld(s)
“a” “Pa”
S100 Section D1.2(b) is not required. at any longitudinal member tie
(inches) (kips)
The current framing standards are a free location are capable of transmitting
24 13.85
download from www.aisistandards.org. required strength [factored forces]
18 14.50
in any direction of 2.5 percent of
12 14.99
the available axial strength [factored
Example Problem The design engineer should carefully consider if resistance] of the built-up member.
Studs – back to back the increased load will provide the most economi- Using No. 12 self-drilling screws, the
cal design solution because of the added labor nominal shear capacity of a screw is
Reinforcing track (no shear expense of providing screws at a closer spacing. 1.29 kips. The available strength of a
connection top and bottom) When creating built-up sections, orienta- screw is 1.29 kips/3.0 = 0.86 kips per
tion of the individual members should be screw. Where 3.0 is the safety factor.
Figure 2. considered. For example, if two 600S162- 2.5% x 13.85 kips = 0.35 kips <
54 (50 ksi) sections were oriented in a box 0.86 kips, Okay!
A typical 9-foot jamb stud as shown consisting configuration (Figure 3), with the toe-to-toe
of two 600S162-54 (50 ksi) sections intercon- welds spaced 24 inches on center, the available
nected by two self-drilling screws 24 inches strength, Pa, is 16.92 kips vs 13.85 kips for
Practical Considerations
on center in the web (Figure 2). The track the I-section configuration. Furthermore, the Specific design methodology for two members
section is not considered to be a structural I-section configuration requires the additional interconnected is presented here, but in many
member to resist axial loads, but is needed to track section for the jamb closure. cases more than two members are used to
create a closure for the opening at the door create a stud pack. The following are design
or window. Weak axis bracing (in the plane thoughts offered by several experienced cold-
of the wall) is provided at 4-foot intervals. Studs – toe to toe formed steel design engineers:
• The design varies from job-to-job
Lx = 9 ft, Ly = Lt = 4 ft
based on the contractor preference
Properties: and politics (e.g. on some union jobs,
Single 600S162-54, ry = 0.5699 inch Figure 3. the cold-formed steel contractor can’t
install HSS thicker than 1/8-inch – iron
Double 600S162-54, rx = 2.2677 inches,
Check the following additional the fastener worker vs carpenter unions).
ry = 0.7042, a = 24 inches (center to center
and spacing requirements: • Where we see a pair of 97-mil,
spacing of web fasteners)
1) The intermediate fastener or spot S200 or bigger studs, our firm starts
KL/r for the y-axis, weld spacing, a, is limited such that thinking HSS. The cost of buying
a/ri does not exceed one-half the two (2) heavy studs and then welding
( ) √( ) ( )
2 2
KL KL a governing slenderness ratio of the them together seldom makes sense
= +
r m r o ri built-up member. when compared to buying a tube.
a/ri = 24/0.5699 = 42.11 • Our firm is not a big fan of triple or
= [(48/0.7042)2 + (24/0.5699)2 ]0.5 = 80.12
0.5(KL/r) = 0.5 (80.12) = 40.06 more built-ups both due to cost and, in
KL/r for the x-axis, Although the a/ri is 5% larger than one- the case of jamb stud packs, the notion
half the governing slenderness ratio of that equal load-sharing is questionable
(KL/r)x = (9 x 12)/2.2677 = 47.63
the built-up member, the 24-inch spac- for the studs away from the opening.
The y-axis slenderness ratio controls the ing is deemed to be acceptable. This • Our firm limits studs to a maximum
axial capacity. criteria is to ensure that the individual of three (3) in a stud pack because of
π2E member will not buckle prior to overall concern that equal load sharing does
Fe = = 45.35 ksi
(KL/r)2 buckling of the built-up member. The not occur as well as the economics of
additional track section, as well as fabricating the stud pack. Our firm
Fy
√
sheathing attached to both flanges of uses a light-weight welded I-section
λc = = 1.05
Fe the individual member, will enhance its whenever three (3) studs are not
buckling strength. adequate. Also, we do not change
For λc ≤ 1.5 2) The ends of a built-up compression the thickness of the stud in the panel
2 member are connected by a weld to create a stud pack. If the panel
Fn (0.658λ c )Fy = 31.52 ksi
having a length not less than the consisted of 6-inch 54 mil studs, we
The effective area, Ae, is computed at f = Fn, maximum width of the member, or limited the stud pack to three 6-inch
Ae = 0.7010 square inches by connectors spaced longitudinally 54 mil studs; we did not up the
not more than 4 diameters apart thickness of the column studs.
Pn = Fn Ae = 31.52 ksi x 0.7010 in2 =
for a distance equal to 1.5 times the Giving consideration to load path and fabrica-
24.93 kips
maximum width of the member. tion costs can help cold-formed steel design
Available Strength, Pa = Pn/Ω = 24.93 kips/ The built-up member will be engineers to develop the most efficient cold-
1.80 = 13.85 kips properly seated in track sections top formed steel wall framing assembly.▪

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Code
Updates
code developments
and announcements
Figure 1. 2015 WFCM in 2015 IBC/IRC. Figure 2. ASCE 7-10 wind, seismic,
and snow loads used.
T
he 2015 Edition of the Wood Frame • 110-195 mph 700-year return period
Construction Manual (WFCM) for 3-second gust basic wind speeds
One- and Two-Family Dwellings (ANSI/ • Seismic Design Categories A-D
AWC WFCM-2015) was approved on Additional information concerning changes to
October 10, 2014 as an ANSI American National snow, wind, and seis-
Standard (Figure 1). The 2015 WFCM was devel- mic loads in ASCE
oped by the American Wood Council’s (AWC)
Wood Design Standards Committee and is refer-
7-10 compared to
ASCE 7-05 is dis-
Changes to the 2015 Wood
enced in the 2015 International Residential Code
(IRC) and 2015 International Building Code (IBC).
cussed in a paper titled
2012 WFCM Changes
Frame Construction Manual
Primary changes to the 2015 WFCM are listed (STRUCTURE® maga-
here and are subsequently covered in more detail: zine, August 2014). By John “Buddy” Showalter, P.E.,
• Tabulated spans for lumber framing members Peter Mazikins, P.Eng and
now reflect changes to design values for visual Michelle Kam-Biron, S.E., P.E.
grades of Southern Pine as referenced in the
Lumber Framing Spans
2015 National Design Specification® (NDS®) Tabulated spans for lumber framing members
for Wood Construction Supplement: Design now reflect changes to design values referenced
Values for Wood Construction. in the 2015 National Design Specification® for
• New tables provide prescriptive wood-frame Wood Construction Supplement: Design Values
solutions for rafters and ceiling joists in for Wood Construction. Notably, the 2015 NDS
response to new live load deflection limits Supplement incorporates new design values for
for ceilings using flexible finishes (including visually-graded Southern Pine. The American
gypsum wallboard) or brittle finishes Lumber Standard Committee (ALSC) Board John “Buddy” Showalter, P.E.
(including plaster and stucco) as adopted in of Review approved changes to these design is Vice President of Technology
the 2015 IRC. values for all grades and all sizes of visually- Transfer, Peter Mazikins, P.Eng
• Header spans revised to reflect L/240 graded Southern Pine and Mixed Southern Pine is Senior Manager of Engineering
live load deflection limits for members lumber, with a recommended effective date of Standards, and Michelle Kam-
supporting only a roof and ceiling as June 1, 2013. Biron, S.E., P.E. is Director of
shown in IRC and IBC tables. Education with the American
The WFCM includes prescriptive and engi- Rafters and Ceiling Joists Wood Council. Contact Mr.
neered design provisions for wood wall, floor, Showalter (bshowalter@awc.org)
and roof systems and their connections. A range
with Brittle Finishes with questions.
of structural elements are covered, including sawn Tables for ceiling joist spans/capacities, rafter
lumber, structural glued laminated timber, wood spans/capacities, and hip and valley beam capac-
structural sheathing, I-joists, and trusses. ity requirements have been revised to clarify the
live load deflection basis of these deflection cri-
teria, and to associate live load deflection limits
ASCE 7-10 Load Provisions to cases with “no ceiling attached” and ceilings
Tabulated engineered and prescriptive design pro- with “flexible finishes” and “brittle finishes.”
visions in WFCM Chapters 2 and 3, respectively, Tables are added to address deflection criteria
are based on the following loads from ASCE 7-10 of L/ΔLL=360 for brittle finishes (Figure 3, page The online version of this
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other 18). Flexible finishes are denoted as “(including article contains detailed
Structures (Figure 2): gypsum board)” and brittle finishes are denoted references. Please visit
• 0-70 psf ground snow loads as “(including plaster and stucco).” www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
continued on next page
Header Spans Supporting
Roof and Ceiling
Roof header span tables have been revised to be based
on L/ΔLL=240 instead of L/ΔLL=360. The L/ΔLL=240
deflection limit basis is consistent with deflection limits
for members supporting roofs and ceilings as shown in
IRC Table R802.5.1 and IBC Table 2308.7.2 for rafters
with ceilings attached to rafters and IRC Table R802.4
and IBC Table 2308.7.2 for ceiling joists, respectively.
Applicability to
Non-Residential Structures
New language in IBC 2309 allows for use of the WFCM
for non-residential structures within its scoping limitations:
(IBC) 2309.1 Wood Frame Construction
Manual. Structural design in accordance with
the AWC WFCM shall be permitted for buildings
assigned to Risk Category I or II subject to the lim-
itations of Section 1.1.3 of the AWC WFCM and
the load assumptions contained therein. Structural
elements beyond these limitations shall be designed
in accordance with accepted engineering practice.
WFCM 1.1.3 references Table 1 Applicability Limitations
(Figure 4) which outlines building dimensions and load
assumptions. While WFCM provisions are intended
primarily for detached one-and two-family dwellings
due to the floor live load assumption associated with
those occupancies, many of the WFCM provisions for
specific geographic wind, seismic, and snow loads may
be applicable for other buildings. For example, wind
provisions for sizing of roof sheathing, wall sheathing,
fastening schedules, uplift straps, shear anchorage, shear
wall lengths, and wall studs for out of plane wind loads
are included in the WFCM and are applicable for other
use groups within the load limitations of the WFCM
tables. Similarly, roof rafter size and spacing for heavy
snow, and shear wall lengths and anchorage for seismic,
are applicable within the load limitations of the WFCM
tables. Examples of non-residential applications include
single-story wood structures or top stories in mixed use
structures in Risk Categories I or II.
Applications outside the scope of the WFCM tabulated
requirements, such as floor joist design for floor live
loads greater than 40 psf and design of supporting grav-
ity elements for the additional floor live load is beyond
the applicability of the WFCM and must be designed
in accordance with accepted engineering practice. This
parallels the approach taken in Section R301.1.3 of the
IRC, which permits unconventional elements of one
and two-family dwellings to be designed per the IBC.
WFCM Availability
The 2015 WFCM is currently available for purchase in elec-
tronic format (PDF) only. Once the WFCM Commentary
is updated (which is to be included with the WFCM) Figure 3. Excerpt from 2015 WFCM Table 3.25B2 for common lumber ceiling joist spans.
printed copies will be available for purchase. Once the
WFCM Commentary is complete, those who purchased

electronic versions of the 2015 WFCM will receive
the WFCM Commentary in electronic format at no
additional charge.
Conclusion
With more governmental focus placed on “commu-
nity resiliency,” design tools such as the Wood-Frame
Construction Manual become more relevant. The
Manual equips designers with engineered construc-
tion methods that result in buildings better able to
withstand damage, and protect occupants should
disaster strike. Since the WFCM was first published
in 1995, AWC has been providing a solution for
design of wood-frame structures to resist natural
disasters. Each successive edition of the standard
continues to provide solutions to more severe events
as required by building codes.
The 2015 WFCM represents the state-of-the-art
for design of one- and two-family dwellings for
high wind, high seismic, and high snow loads.
Its reference in the 2015 IBC and 2015 IRC will
allow for its use in those jurisdictions adopt-
ing the latest building code. However, building
officials often accept designs prepared in accor-
dance with newer reference standards even if
the latest building code has not been adopted in
their jurisdiction. IBC 104.11 and IRC R104.11 Figure 4. Reproduction of 2015 WFCM Table 1 Applicability Limitations.
for alternate materials and design provides the
authority having jurisdiction with that leeway.▪
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Structural T
raditional structures are linear, stiff,
restricted, heavy, and inefficient; light-
weight structures, on the other hand
DeSign
– whether in fabric, cable, timber, con-
crete or stone – are nonlinear, long-spanning,
flexible, highly efficient, and environmentally
friendly. This series shows how, when form follows
force as well as function, the result is a structure
design issues for
that soars. The first article was published in the
structural engineers November 2014 issue of STRUCTURE®. This
second article looks at compression structures and Figure 1. Westminster Abbey.
form-finding techniques for getting the optimum
structural form. It will also look at the important means that if the compression structure deflects
step of optimizing the geometry for lightweight too much, it will snap, while a tension structure
structures. will adjust itself instead. In a masonry structure,
where the tension capacity is minimal, buckling
is prevented by keeping the line of thrust – which
Compression Structures is the moment divided by the axial load – in the
Compression-only structures take the familiar middle third of the element, thus ensuring that no
form of walls, arches, shells and grid shells. Unlike part is in tension. Some masonry design guides,
tension-only structures that deflect to balance the such as The Stone Skeleton by Jacques Heyman
loads, compression-only (1995), say that in certain circumstances the
structures do not have this structure is fine as long as the thrust line remains
Why It’s Good to luxury, as any movement
increases the risk of buck-
within the overall section. This implies that there
is considerable tension or cracking in the sec-
be a Lightweight ling. This is a major risk
for masonry structures,
tion, but it remains stable. The medieval builders
ensured that this would happen by increasing the
as they have little or no axial load on the buttresses by means of sculptures
Compression and bending capacity other than that provided by the and pinnacles; ornamentation can be functional!
compression thrust. For the Gothic cathedrals of (Figure 3) Reinforced concrete or steel structures
Form Finding old, the soaring columns needed stabilizing with on the other hand can resist this with their innate
flying buttresses (Figure 1). tension capacity.
By Peter Debney, BEng(Hons),
Compare this to the Sagrada Familia cathedral While flexible tension structures can readjust
CEng, MIStructE
by the Catalonian architect/engineer Antonio themselves to maintain equilibrium with the
Gaudí. Here the columns are angled so as to take loads, masonry has much less scope to do this,
the loads in direct compression and thus avoid but more than is commonly realized. Arches can
the horizontal reactions that would necessitate remain stable even after the joints open as the line
buttressing. The end result is something much of arching action moves, as long as things do not
more natural-looking (Figure 2). move too much (Figure 4).
Peter Debney, BEng(Hons), Note that while the arch is uncracked, the cen-
CEng, MIStructE, is a troid of resistance remains in the middle of the
Chartered Structural Engineer
Arches arch and it behaves in a linear fashion. Once
and software specialist with The overall forms may be the same, but the com- it cracks, the centroid of resistance moves to
experience specializing in pression structure tends to be much thicker than the other side of the line of thrust – assuming
computing applications. He is an the tension structure because it also has to resist
application specialist for Oasys buckling; or to put it another way, tension struc-
(www.oasys-software.com), tures are in a stable equilibrium, but compression
concentrating on structural and structures are in an unstable equilibrium. This
crowd simulation software.
Figure 2. Sagrada Familia. Figure 3. ©J E Gordon, Structures, or Why Things

Don’t Fall Down (1978).
20 February 2015
Figure 5. 1939 Cement Hall.
Figure 4. Thrust lines and collapse mechanism for a masonry arch (Heyman 1995).
a reasonably high stiffness – which actively When the shell is constructed from a gril-
resists that thrust. This illustrates a feature lage or lattice, often of timber, then it is
of many nonlinear systems; they are self-sta- referred to as a gridshell. The nature of these
bilizing as long as the perturbation is within structures enables very organic forms to be Figure 6. Mannheim World Garden Exhibition.
certain limits. produced; a well-known example being the Courtesy of Arup.
Mannheim World Garden Exhibition build-
ing (Figure 6). Like all nonlinear analyses, one must remem-
Shells ber to evaluate all load combinations together.
Incredibly thin arches and shells are achiev- Masonry often resists imposed loads with its self-
able when they are geometrically optimised,
Analysis weight, so the dead load increases the moment
such as Robert Maillart’s 1939 Cement Hall Masonry can behave differently from other capacity by reducing or negating the induced
from the Zurich National Exhibition. The engineering materials, such as steel and con- tension. Also, due to its tendency to crack, the
door openings on the bridge indicate both crete. It is both orthotropic and nonlinear with load paths through a masonry structure can vary
the scale and the thinness of this reinforced little tensile capacity, but finite element analysis with the applied loads and support conditions.
concrete shell (Figure 5). can be very useful if employed with care. continued on next page
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Figure 7
Analysis stage: 2 : fixed
Scale: 1:10.31
Moment, Myy: 1.000 kNm/pic.cm
Torce Lines, -ve thrust (at structure scale)
Case: A4 : Analysis Case 1 [1]
y x
Figure 7. Circular arch.
Figure 9. GSA model of Westminster Abbey. Figure 10. Thrust lines from FEA principal stresses.
Form Finding taut. The engineer must also decide on the

form-finding properties and loads that will
Physical models are still incredibly useful, at least
push or pull the model into shape. These will
for the initial design, as they are very quick to
vary depending on the selected form-finding
give results in a form that is tangible. The author
Figure 8. Flip-Flap arch analysis. method; some might be calculated, and some
has personally found physical models especially
be an initial guess.
useful for tensegrity structures. Physical models
Consider an arch. Here one might model have the limitation, though, that they are dif-
one-dimensional (1D) beam elements to carry ficult to take measurements off and very poor for Force Density Form-Finding
the load, then use the combination of the quantitative analysis. The good news is that there
Force Density is one of the earliest and quickest
bending moments and axial loads to check are now a number of computational methods
of the numerical form-finding methods, but
that the eccentricity is within limits. Some available to determine the geometry such that
it is a little abstract. A 2D element’s area is set
programs include this calculation in the the model can be analyzed. Note that these
proportional to its stress, and a bar element’s
post-processor, possibly described as Thrust methods are called “form-finding,” as they are
length is set proportional to its force. This
or Torce lines. If the Torce line remains within searching for the optimum form, not calculat-
means that a longer element will have a reduced
the middle third of the section, then no ten- ing it; this means that they can sometimes get
force density, and vice-versa (Figure 13).
sion is induced (Figure 7 ). One can improve lost on their journey, and might need guiding
The end result should not only be a balanced
the behavior of the arch through geometric to the desired result.
geometry, but also a set of forces that may need
optimization, also known as form-finding, A close look reveals that the Sagrada Familia
to be scaled to the desired pretension values.
which will be discussed below. (Figure 2) is essentially the same as that of
Like many nonlinear structures, the load Cement Hall, which is the form of a parabola,
path through cracked masonry will change the ideal shape for an arch under uniform
with the load and movement. One can load. This shape was determined in the 17th
model this within an arch by using two- century by Robert Hooke, who realized that
dimensional (2D) elements and what are the perfect arch exactly mirrors the catenary
known as “flip-flap” joints – compression- shape of a hanging chain.
only strut elements – in the arrangement Gaudi made use of this phenomenon
shown in (Figure 8). Like all masonry analy- when designing his cathedrals (Figure 11).
ses, it is important to model the support He determined the overall form by model-
stiffness accurately, as this has a major effect ing the columns and arches with chains and
on the end result. superimposed loads with weights (Figure 12).
For more complex models, such as a cross- Frei Otto used physical models for the Munich
section through Westminster Abbey (Figure Olympic structures prior to numerical analysis.
9), you can use a full 2D mesh to analyze Another famous example is the gridshell for the
the lines of principal force, shown here in Mannheim World Garden Exhibition by Ted
green for compression and red for tension. Happold and Ian Liddell while they were at
This analysis assumes that the masonry is Arup, prior to their forming of Buro Happold.
uncracked, so is only suitable if the stresses Creating a model for form-finding requires
remain low. You can get a good idea of the first establishing the boundary conditions,
line of thrust from the flows of compression which are the fixed points, as well as any fabric
lines, as well as locations of likely cracking edges, which need either a flexible preten-
(Figure 10). sioned cable or solid member to pull them Figure 11. Colònia Güell Crypt.

Force Density is called Spacers that are there just to ensure that
a quick way to get the nodes are equally spaced out.
results, but it may While the method requires more work than
require some experi- Force Density, the major advantage of Soap
mentation to get the Film is that it specifies the target prestresses
desired form. It is quite rather than the more arbitrary force per length
good for cable nets, but or area, and thus provides a more logical con-
not as good for fabric trol over the final form, as well as probably
structures as there resulting in a structure with less material.
cannot be different Another advantage of Soap Film over Force Figure 13. Force Density form-finding.
prestresses in the two Density when using certain form-finding
orthogonal directions, programs is that one can specify different grid shells, replicating a hanging chain physi-
Figure 12. Antonio restricting the forms warp and fill (weft) prestresses, which is cal model, and for determining locked-in
Gaudi’s hanging chain. that can be achieved. extremely useful for conic fabric structures, stresses from construction sequencing.
as they generally need a relatively higher As an example, Buro Happold’s London
radial prestress, and can be beneficial for 2012 Olympic Main Stadium design used
Soap Film Form-Finding other forms as well. Normal Properties form-finding to analyse
The Soap Film method of form-finding the locked-in construction stresses in the
replicates the minimum surface inclina- Normal Properties compression ring, and then Soap Film form-
tions of soap bubbles, by replacing the 1D finding for the roof cables and infill fabrics.
bars and 2D fabric elements with elements
Form-Finding
that have a constant stress but zero stiffness. Normal Properties form-finding literally uses
Conceptually, this is similar to soap bubbles the normal properties of the elements. This
Conclusion
edged by elastic bands. means changing the structural geometry to Compression structures may not be the most
Because there is no stiffness in the system, the deflected shape, rather than just determin- obvious candidates for lightweight options,
apart from restraint points and beam ele- ing how the given structure will deflect, with but whether tensile or compressive, light-
ments, the nodes are free to move anywhere the possible option of locking in the resulting weight structures can soar over space to create
and so can possibly get in a muddle. This forces and distortions. This means that it is iconic and efficient buildings. It is just a
requires the addition of form-finding elements both an excellent method for form-finding matter of getting the shape right.▪
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Guest D
esigners, fabricators and other indus-
try partners tend to believe that the
Common Approval
shop detail drawings are all cre- Submittal Problems
Column
ated the same. What is often not
Sending out shop detail drawings for approval
understood is that the manner by which the
prior to checking and not ready for fabrication
steel detailers conduct their work, and how their
is a common industry problem. This is a practice
information is presented on the shop detail and
often caused by the general contractor pressuring
erection drawings, are what create the difference
dedicated to the dissemination the fabricator to get shop drawings out faster. But,
between shop detail drawings which are easy to
of information from other in fact, it slows down the shop detail drawing
use and encourage correct fabrication as opposed
organizations development and approval process altogether.
to those which do neither.
Further, this practice may prevent the production
There is a faulty idea in the industry that how
of subsequent drawing submittals while the first
the fabrication information is presented on the
batch is being completed and checked.
shop drawings does not matter, as long as the
The contractor’s pressure on the steel fabricator
information is correct. It is like saying we don’t
to produce speedy detail drawing approval sub-
care how the car runs as long as it gets us to where
mittals induces the steel fabricator to then force
we are going.
the detailer to submit the shop detail drawings for
The truth is that the shop detail and erection
approval unchecked and possibly incomplete. The
drawings are a key element to steel fabrication
steel detailer, with the incomplete and unchecked
and steel installation. Shop drawing develop-
drawings out for approval, will then return to
ment, level of completion and detail presentation
complete the drawing development for those
is paramount to the success of
same sheets. Upon receipt of the engineers’ review
every project.
comments, the questions, answers and verifica-
The NISD Difference Industry Professionals
tions will be incorporated. The steel detailer has
now developed the drawings to three completion
levels. The fourth completion level will be the
are Unaware checking and then the fifth level will be the final
By Kerri Olsen
Steel detailers and steel fabricators with years scrub for approval verification.
of practice may not know about correct shop Forced submittals of partial and incomplete steel
detail and erection drawing production and pre- shop detail drawings by the general contractors
sentation because they have never been exposed and steel fabricators intent upon getting quick
to the difference themselves. Often, these same approval, actually slows down the shop detail
steel detailers and fabricators blame other sources drawing production, and is in strong contrast to
as the cause of problems, and thus, the cycle is the NISD suggested practice.
never broken.
This lack of understanding by both steel fab-
ricators and steel detailers can cause problems
The Designer’s Problem
for reviewers in verifying that the shop draw- The designers are the first to notice the level of
ings follow the original intent of the design shop detail drawing development while they
Kerri Olsen is the Marketing Chair
drawings. Failure to follow industry standards struggle during the approval process to see how
of the NISD. She may be contacted
for shop drawing presentation may cause parts the application of their design intent has been
at kerriolsen@steeladvice.com.
to be fabricated and installed incorrectly, even presented. The steel detailer’s questions and veri-
The NISD may be contacted at
though the information shown on the drawings fication requests will be included on the detail
www.nisd.org.
may be correct. drawings, with the expectation of answers from
the designers on the return approval. Multiple
drawing approval submittals will be required.
Presentation Matters Shop fabrication delays may result, erectors may
The manner by which the fabrication informa- be delayed by fabrication errors and then produc-
tion is presented in the shop detail and erection tion schedules are pushed out. This inefficient
drawings determines the flow of the work for process can continue until the last refabricated
all who use them. Properly developed shop piece of steel has been placed.
detail and erection drawings promote efficiency This is the normal process for many and it does
for the designers, the shop fabricator and the not have to be so. The National Institute for Steel
field erector, which in turn creates confidence Detailers (NISD) was born out of the need for a
in their accuracy. better way to produce steel shop drawings. The
Problematic shop detail and erection drawings NISD continues to support the construction indus-
are often a result of the steel detailer’s focus on the try by promoting the proper method of shop detail
steel fabricator’s wants and needs only. Thus, the drawing development and production. The NISD
information shown will sometimes be confusing Industry standard publication provides informa-
to others, and may not be complete and accurate tion and encourages sound project management
upon the first approval submittal. procedures conducive to successful projects.
24 February 2015
The NISD Mission Statement detail drawings are developed and produced detail views are correct and consistent, elimi-
using a careful review, and correct applica- nating confusion for the reviewers, fabricators
The following paragraph is the mission state-
tion of the design drawings together with and erectors.
ment at the center of the entry web page for
only essential RFI requests. Shop detail NISD members and NISD Certified steel
The National Institute of Steel Detailing:
drawings are not submitted for approval detailers are encouraged to perform every job
Founded in 1969, The National Institute
until the shop detail development is com- with an emphasis on accuracy, clarity in pre-
of Steel Detailing or NISD is an organiza-
plete and the drawings have been checked sentation, consistency in format, and endeavor
tion which fosters a professional approach
and are fabrication ready. to never waiver from that commitment.
to doing business as a steel detailer in the
In most cases, shop detail and erection draw- That is the NISD Difference – using quality
construction industry. The mission of the
ing presentation is provided in a manner that procedures and certified detailers. Such a stan-
group is to create a better understanding of
promotes ease of review using cross reference dard will always increase speed and efficiency
the importance of steel detailing services,
details and notes leading back to the design for all who use NISD produced shop detail
by advocating improved quality, educa-
drawings as appropriate. Section cuts and and erection drawings.▪
tion and certification.
What does this statement mean to NISD
member detailers? What about to those
who are not members? Let’s break this
down by parts and review what is meant YOU BUILD IT.
by each sentence. WE’LL PROTECT IT.
“The National Institute of Steel Detailing
or NISD is an organization which fosters
a professional approach to doing business
SEISMIC PROTECTION
as a steel detailer.” FROM TAYLOR DEVICES
The goal of the NISD is to encourage and Stand firm. Don’t settle for less than the seismic protection
support steel detailers, their fabrication of Taylor Fluid Viscous Dampers. As a world leader in
partners and other trades people by pro- the science of shock isolation, we are the team you
moting a professional approach to steel want between your structure and the undeniable forces
detailing. This is achieved through the of nature. Others agree. Taylor Fluid Viscous Dampers
active execution of the other half of the are currently providing earthquake, wind, and motion
mission statement.
protection on more than 550 buildings and bridges.
‘The mission of the group is to create a
From the historic Los Angeles City Hall to Mexico’s
better understanding of the importance

Torre Mayor and the new Shin-Yokohama High-speed
of steel detailing services, by advocat-
Train Station in Japan, owners, architects, engineers,
ing improved quality, education and
certification.’ and contractors trust the proven
The NISD provides guideline documen- technology of Taylor Devices’
tation, in both CD format and written Fluid Viscous Dampers.
materials, which is information on pro-
viding a professional approach to steel
detailing for their members. These training
CDs, guides and informational materials
all focus on the best business practices
for creating complete and accurate shop
detail drawings following industry stan-
dard procedures.
Advanced steel detailers working on
structural steel buildings and bridges
may be NISD tested and certified. NISD
members and certified steel detailers are
sought out by designers and steel fabrica-
tors wanting complete and accurate steel Taylor Devices’ Fluid Viscous Dampers give you the seismic protection
shop fabrication and erection drawings. you need and the architectural freedom you want.
The Supporting
www.taylordevices.com
Business Practice
The business practice promoted by the
NISD, NISD members and NISD cer-
tified detailers provides a much more North Tonawanda, NY 14120 - 0748
Phone: 716.694.0800 • Fax: 716.695.6015
rigorous process regarding shop detail
drawing approval submittals. Steel shop
TAYOR-004938 Seismic Prot StrctrMag.indd 1 8/29/14 10:15 AM

STRUCTURE TAY24253
magazine YoiurselfFebruary
Brace 25 2015
Ad Structure Magazine October 2009 Half-Page Island 5” x 7.5”
Structural
licenSure
issues related to the regulation
of structural engineering practice
Chicago skyline at sunrise. Courtesy of Daniel Schwen.
G
rowing up with a father who was began to refine more elegant and taller buildings
a structural engineer, I learned at and longer bridges.
an early age about the impressive
Illinois Structural Engineers’ Act of 1915
buildings in Los Angeles that he
was responsible for engineering, but never put The first efforts to regulate the practice of struc-
much thought into his professional title, “S.E.” tural engineers started in 1908 when the Western
Following in his footsteps, I quickly learned the Society of Engineers began negotiations with
academic requirements, and soon after completed the Illinois branch of the American Institute of
the examination and experience that it took to put Architects and the Illinois Society of Architects
“S.E.” after my own name. The phrase, “protect- to support and establish a state building code and
ing the public,” and the provide a licensing law for structural engineers.
challenges of designing The architects had been successful in creating the
100 Years of Structural structures to withstand
“nature’s fury,” especially
1897 Architectural Act in Illinois, which gave
them the exclusive right to design and supervise
Engineering Licensure earthquakes in California,
put the responsibility that
building construction. However, in 1913, efforts
to establish a state building code failed to gain
goes with holding the title enough support. Architects’ support for engineer-
Looking Back, of “Structural Engineer” into perspective. ing laws waned, and it took another two years of
My structural engineering practice began as bitter debate before passage of the new Structural
Looking Forward a kid when I would lay a wooden plank over Engineers’ Act in 1915.
the wash to serve as a bridge. Fortunately, the The motivation to regulate the practice of struc-
By Gregg E. Brandow, Ph.D.,
public did not use my bridges, because some- tural engineering in Illinois was the rapid growth
P.E., S.E.
times they would fail. Nobody said that I had of downtown Chicago, which resulted in the
to be licensed to engineer my bridge. The same construction of “skyscrapers” like the world had
problem occurred in Wyoming back in 1907, never seen before. These taller, more complex
when water and irrigation required engineering, and higher-occupancy buildings drew the atten-
and anybody could provide such services. From tion of the state legislature, which saw a need to
this unruly situation came the first state law regulate the profession responsible for designing
Gregg E. Brandow, Ph.D., P.E., to regulate the practice of engineering. Today, them. As the late Gene Corley related to me, the
S.E. (brandow@usc.edu), is every state has statutes that “protect the public” legislature was compelled to keep “the fools and
Professor of Engineering Practice by regulating the practice of engineering in the rascals from building unsafe structures.” As we
at the University of Southern built environment and the use of the title of begin 2015, we celebrate 100 years of structural
California in Los Angeles. He is “Professional Engineer” (P.E.). engineering licensure that began with the first
also a Principal at Brandow & As I look back and look forward, I realize that Structural Engineers Act in Illinois. The skyline
Nastar, Inc. Structural Engineers. I am part of a profession that is well established of Chicago is a testament to the accomplishment
in some states, in desperate need of recognition of structural engineers over that century.
in other states, and embraces licensure that varies
California Title Authority of 1931
significantly from state to state.
In California, the cities of San Francisco and
Los Angeles were growing and developing
Looking Back their own skylines, and the structural engineer-
The history of structural engineering dates back ing profession was faced with the additional
to at least the time of the Egyptian pyramids, challenges of building on ground that was
where structural form and stable construction susceptible to violent shaking. The great 1906
were planned and achieved. For the next 4,000 San Francisco Earthquake and the 1925 Santa
years, engineers built large and impressive struc- Barbara Earthquake were very destructive. Civil
tures without beam theory, Euler’s equation or engineers managed to get a Civil Engineering
the computer software that we have today. The Registration Law passed in the California leg-
20 th-century structural engineer became equipped islature in 1929, but structural engineers were
with new tools, such as moment distribution, and unsuccessful in achieving a separate practice act.
26 February 2015
They tried to gain the support of architects, a standard for experience, education and historically been opposed to our efforts.
but in 1931 amended the Civil Engineering examination requirements. To facilitate The next 100 years of structural engineer-
Registration Law to include regulation of comity and mobility, NCEES established ing licensure will depend upon our efforts.
the title of “Structural Engineer” or “S.E.” a Records Program for MLSEs. Structural Recent successes occurred in two states,
without restricting any class of buildings to engineers can now establish MLSE records Utah and Washington, where legislation
the exclusive purview of those authorized with NCEES, and this information can be was passed for partial structural engineer-
to use it. used to apply for comity in states that rec- ing practice acts with the restriction that
The 1933 Long Beach Earthquake caused ognize structural engineers. “significant structures” can only be designed
widespread damage to, and the collapse of, by licensed Structural Engineers. In both
NCEES 16-Hour Structural
many masonry school buildings through- of these states, provisions for transitioning
Engineering Exam
out Southern California. If this earthquake Professional Engineers currently practicing
had occurred during school hours, it could The SEERTF recognized the need for a structural design into the new S.E. license
have resulted in an unimaginable loss of life. single national exam with the adoption of without having to take another exam was
The legislature passed the Riley Act, which the International Building Code (IBC) in an important aspect of gaining wide sup-
required seismic design, and the Field Act, all states. The SEERTF convinced NCEES port. Other states are currently undertaking
which required that school buildings be engi- to develop a new exam based on the new similar efforts.
neered by licensed Structural Engineers. Years IBC, which replaced the three previous With 100 years of history and a lot of pas-
later, hospitals were added. Even without the national building codes that had been sion, the structural engineering profession
legislative requirement, the vast majority of adopted in various states. A subsequent needs to recognize that we are part of a
California’s significant structures are designed NCEES task force developed a test plan larger community of Professional Engineers
today by a licensed Structural Engineer. and exam format, and created and imple- in many disciplines, all as dedicated as we
Progress in enacting legislation recognizing mented a new NCEES 16-hour exam that are to the protection of the public. We must
and regulating structural engineers in other all states agreed would be the standard for keep this in mind as we work with NCEES
states has been slow. Only a handful have minimum competency for structural engi- to develop a consistent structural engineering
structural engineering practice restrictions neering licensure. All states that recognize licensure format, especially when interacting
within the P.E. practice acts, while a few structural engineers adopted this new exam, with organizations like the National Society
have separate structural engineering prac- and most of the other states allow engineers for Professional Engineers (NSPE), which
tice acts, and a few more have structural to take this exam. for many years was opposed to our efforts
engineering title restrictions. because of their concern about fracturing
SELC Unites Structural Engineers
the wider engineering profession. We need
NCEES Model Law Structural Engineer
The Structural Engineering Licensure to convince them and others that we all have
In 2001, the National Council for Examiners Coalition (SELC, www.selicensure.org) the same goals of protecting the public, and
for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES, was created in 2012 to be a single voice that establishing a uniform S.E. licensure
www.ncees.org), which is the organization for structural engineers to advocate the program across the country will enhance the
of state licensing boards for engineers and advancement of structural engineering public’s recognition of all engineers, whether
land surveyors, established the Structural licensure. According to its position state- they call themselves Structural Engineers or
Engineering Examination/Recognition Task ment, its goal is protection of the public Professional Engineers.
Force (SEERTF) to address issues regarding through the implementation of minimum I can now design a bridge across a wash or
structural engineering licensure. The NCEES standards for the practice of structural engi- a high-rise building, and the public, seeing
President, Ted Fairfield from California, neering in every jurisdiction by enacting the a “S.E.” after my name, will be confident
saw this national effort as a way to enhance national minimum standards (MLSE) and that I meet the minimum qualifications to
public recognition of structural engineer- using the minimal competency 16-hour be a Structural Engineer. Let us continue as a
ing and to standardize the requirements for NCEES SE exam with a consistent licensure profession to promote structural engineering
professional practice. format in each state. licensure for our second 100 years.▪
The national structural engineering orga- The SELC is a coalition of SEI, NCSEA,
nizations – SEI, NCSEA, and CASE – and the Structural Engineering Certification
NCEES have all recognized that structural Board (SECB) and CASE. The SELC rec-
Attention Bentley Users
engineering lacks national recognition, uni- ognizes that the missing piece of the puzzle is
formity of requirements, and a means to to establish a structural engineering licensure
Have you received your automatic
facilitate comity and mobility. In addition, the format – practice restriction, title restriction
quarterly invoice from Bentley?
NCEES national two-day competency exam or partial practice restriction – that can be
for structural engineers was not used uni- adopted by NCEES as a standard and a guide Would you like to reduce or eliminate
formly – for example, some states used only for states to use. these invoices?
the first day – and the states of California,
Oregon and Washington used different addi- Use SofTrack to control and manage
tional examinations.
Looking Forward
Calendar Hour usage of your Bentley
I served as chair for the SEERTF, and we If the structural engineering profession SELECT Open Trust Licensing.
recognized that no uniformity existed in wants to be recognized nationally and have
the states that recognized structural engi- consistent licensure requirements across the Call us today, 866 372 8991 or visit us
neers. In response, the SEERTF created the states, we need to build support both inside www.softwaremetering.com
Model Law Structural Engineer (MLSE), our profession and among those who have

Structural
teSting
issues and advances related
to structural testing
Figure 1. NDT testing procedure, called hammer sounding, using an acoustical representation to identify
areas of delamination.
A
ccording to the American Society of from state to state – and different states tend to have
Civil Engineers (ASCE), approximately particular biases and preferences. Some states are
25 percent of the nation’s bridges progressive, using the latest technology or combina-
remain structurally deficient or function of technologies. Many states see the benefits
tionally obsolete. The 2013 edition of ASCE’s of NDT methods as a way to reduce the amount
Report Card for America’s of work that is required, and as a way of ensuring
Infrastructure warns that condition assessment data is most accurate.
Inside the Bridge more than two hundred
million trips are taken
Here is a quick overview of the pros and cons
of the key inspection techniques engineers have
Inspection Toolbox daily across deficient
bridges in the nation’s
in their toolbox.
Acoustical techniques are typically performed
largest metropolitan using a chain drag or a hammer, where the human
Ground Penetrating regions. One in nine of the nation’s bridges are ear discerns changes in the sound or pitch made
rated as structurally deficient, and the average by the chain or hammer being moved over the
Radar Yields Benefits age of the nation’s 607,380 bridges is currently surface. The goal is to detect delamination, which
42 years – many around the country are sixty to refers to the separation of a coating from a sub-
By Roger Roberts, Ph.D.
eighty years old. strate or the splitting of a structure into layers.
The report states, “The challenge for federal, Delamination in bridge decks is caused by the
state, and local governments is to increase bridge corrosion of reinforcing steel bar (rebar) and/or
investments by $8 billion annually to address freezing and thawing. Delamination can often
the identified $76 billion in needs for deficient only be detected by nondestructive tests, includ-
bridges across the United States.” ing hammer sounding or chain dragging.
Bridge inspection is of fundamental importance The advantage of acoustical methods is that
Roger Roberts, Ph.D., is a Senior in meeting that challenge. For bridges that were they are inexpensive and easy to do with lim-
Software Engineer for Geophysical built in the 1960s, which have been deteriorating ited training. Typically, the worker will locate
Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI). or been repaired throughout the years, how do areas of deterioration just by the change in
Roger’s specialty is using ground responsible authorities prioritize which need to be tone and will mark the extents of the area with
penetrating radar for transportation repaired and which need to be replaced? How do spray paint; the areas are then recorded later by
infrastructure applications. they know which can wait until next year? How another employee who will take a photograph
do they arrive at appropriate budgets? or lay out a grid to map them. The technique
The answers lie in understanding and selecting is basically designed to get “real time” answers
the right combination of bridge inspection tools, to delamination locations.
which can provide information relative to the
condition assessment of the bridge structures.
Range of Bridge Inspection Tools

Inspection methods are usually divided between
destructive methods, like coring and chipping,
and non-destructive testing (NDT) methods –
those that evaluate the properties of a material,
The online version of this component, or system without causing damage.
article contains detailed There is a wide array of bridge inspection tools
references. Please visit used around the country. Options can be used alone Figure 2. Simplified diagram of how ground
www.STRUCTUREmag.com. or in combination. The preferred techniques vary penetrating radar technology works.
28 February 2015
The drawbacks to the method include the fact that it
does not work on bridges with asphalt overlays (built-in
boundary layer), and that different users may provide dif-
ferent delamination maps due to hearing biases. Outside
noise, for example, traffic, can affect the results. It is
not possible to get 100 percent repeatable results with
different people conducting the inspections. Also, the
technique only produces a map of existing delamination,
which occurs after the rebar is significantly corroded.
Deterioration that has not yet led to delamination is
not mapped, rendering the technique inappropriate for
planning more proactive repairs. Figure 3. Data collection using GPR.
Half-cell potential – This is a method of assessing rebar
corrosion by measuring the voltage between
the rebar in the concrete and a reference
electrode placed on the surface of the con-
crete. The advantage of this approach is
that it is more sensitive to rebar corrosion
than acoustical sounding, so it can detect
corrosion before it has progressed to the
point where it has caused delamination.
Unfortunately, this method also cannot be
performed on bridges with asphalt overlays,
as bare concrete is required. In addition, the
method requires closing down the bridge
deck, which can have a negative effect on
traffic. It also requires quite a bit of time
to complete, as discrete measurements are
obtained on a grid pattern. This method is
probably best used when you already know
the bridge deck requires repairs, and you are

trying to determine where repairs are needed
and what kind of repair is necessary. It can
help determine if you need to totally remove
the deck or do in-place cut and patch repairs.
Infrared – This method relies on changes
in infrared radiation from the surface of
concrete that are indicative of delamina-
tion. The method can be performed quickly
and with a moving vehicle, minimizing
bridge downtime and maximizing human
safety. However, it requires that data be
obtained at specific times when there is a
large thermal gradient between the bridge
temperature and the ambient temperature.
Once again, this method cannot be per-
formed on bridges with asphalt overlays.
Visual inspection – This “low tech”
method calls for surface mapping cracks,
spalling, and potholes on bridge decks
that can be seen with the naked eye. It
is a straightforward approach that allows
inspectors to map areas that are in imme-
diate need of repair. The down side is that
it is not possible to obtain a condition
assessment of the interior of the concrete.
Visual inspection is also the least efficient
maintenance method, since it addresses
problems only after they have resulted in
damage and cost the most to repair. It is
analogous to a leaky roof or water pipe

there are rules of thumb for choosing the
relative change in rebar reflection, which
is indicative of deterioration that requires
maintenance. Often the GPR practitioner
will map surface defects and map the corro-
sion evident from staining on the underside
of the bridge deck to help fine-tune the
deterioration threshold value.
Figure 4. GPR software denoting areas of concrete deterioration.
GPR can also be used for quality assurance/
quality control (“QA/QC”) of the concrete cover
– it is best to repair the roof or pipe before examination). All this is useful information on new bridge decks to determine whether the
the leaking water ruins everything around it. beyond what the NDT methods provide. depth of the rebar meet the proper specifications.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) – GPR Of course, aside from being destructive, Concrete cover measurements are most often
uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. This there is a relatively higher cost factor associ- obtained during QA of the bridge deck after
NDT method uses electromagnetic radiation ated with each core, so the goal is to minimize it has been poured to ensure the top rebar
in the microwave band (UHF/VHF frequen- the number of cores required to give the mat is at the depth range specified in the
cies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the owner assurance that the results are correct. bridge plans. The measurements involve col-
reflected signals from subsurface structures. lecting data with a ground-coupled antenna
GPR can be used in rock, soil, ice, fresh water, Using GPR for along one or more profile lines to record the
pavements and structures. The reflected sig- arrival time of the rebar reflections. Then, a
nals are used to detect objects, changes in
Bridge Inspection core is drilled at one of the rebar locations to
material, voids and cracks. GPR is used for As noted, GPR can be an excellent tool and is measure the rebar depth. This is input into
assessing the quality and uniformity of an used for condition assessment, concrete cover, the processing software, which calculates the
asphalt or concrete highway surface, and and concrete inspection. Typically, a cart-based radar wave velocity. This information is then
detecting deterioration on bridge decks. system is used, in which data is collected at a used to obtain the depths of the rebar.
The two most common types of GPR for walking pace (or a vehicle traveling about 5 This is a straightforward procedure that pro-
bridge surface measurement are ground- miles per hour). The equipment will include vides a very accurate measure of rebar depth. The
coupled and air-launched. Ground-coupled the antenna and a controller. The radar tech- user should select a rebar near the beginning or
systems rely on an antenna that is placed nology looks for weakness in the returning end of the profile line for the calibration core to
very close to the roadway/surface while air- radar signal from the reinforcing steel; the ensure that the rebar depth can be matched up
launched systems use directional antennas weaker the signal, the more deteriorated the with the same rebar that generated the reflection
aimed at the surface from a height of 12-20 concrete. The technology can show the location detected in the GPR data.
inches. Ground-coupled antennas have a and depth of rebar, tie bars, and dowel bars. One example of GPR technology used
reputation of being less prone to radio fre- Figure 3 (page 29) shows the system being used around the country is the BridgeScan™
quency interference (RFI) from cell towers in the field on a bridge deck. system, a structured approach to collecting,
and TV broadcasting, but typically operate Condition assessment can be performed processing and interpreting GPR data for
at very slow speeds that are below normal using both air-launched horn antennas and bridge deck condition assessment, developed
highway minimums. Air-launched antennas, ground-coupled antennas. The ground- by GSSI. The procedure provides a map of
even when travelling at 65 mph, are located coupled antennas provide better horizontal rebar reflection amplitudes.
at a safe distance from the surface. resolution, which is sufficient to enable imag- As shown in Figure 4, the areas with the
There are a number of advantages of GPR ing of individual rebar in the top mat, lowest rebar reflection amplitudes (yellows
technology for bridge inspection, and the typically not possible with horn antennas. and reds) correspond to portions of the bridge
method is particularly well-suited to prioritiz- This is one of the major reasons why ground- deck containing the most distress in terms of
ing for budgeting purposes. Whereas acoustical coupled antennas provide higher quality data concrete deterioration and/or rebar corrosion.
methods are very subjective, GPR data is quan- than air-launched antennas. Ground-coupled ASTM standard D 6087 is used to assess the
titative. Noise does not affect radar technology. antennas are used to collect densely spaced range of reflection amplitudes that correspond
Coring and chipping – Even if NDT meth- measurements along lines that are oriented so to expected bridge maintenance. Assessment of
ods are used, a certain amount of coring they cross over the top rebar in the upper mat the maintenance requirements indicated by the
(drilling a hole to view the concrete and at right angles (or close to a right angle if the GPR data is augmented by visual inspection
rebar condition) and chipping (actually chip rebar are skewed). The amplitude of the radar and other accessory condition information,
the cover away to be able to view the rebar) wave reflection from each rebar is recorded such as previous maintenance records.
may be required to justify the deterioration versus its location on the bridge. Relative
that was mapped using NDT techniques. changes in the rebar reflection amplitudes
Corroborating results of NDT methods with are typically indicative of the condition of
Inspecting the Future
coring/chipping increases confidence levels. the rebar and/or the concrete cover above. Bridge inspection techniques and equipment
Cores can also be obtained to measure the For maximum accuracy, rebar reflections have come a long way, and the development
mechanical properties of the concrete – the arriving from rebar positioned at different of improved GPR technology has enhanced
compressive and shear strength, as well as the depths may need to be corrected, depending inspection results substantially. GPR is grad-
chemical properties of the concrete – chlo- on the depth difference. This can be tricky ually becoming a mainstream application
ride ion content and presence of alkali-silica as variation in concrete moisture can lead in the toolbox of methods used to evaluate
reaction (in conjunction with petrographic to the illusion of depth variation. Also, bridge conditions.▪

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Professional F
orming a Young Members Group receive new perspectives and creative concepts
(YMG) has altered my professional that inspire them to reevaluate the longstanding
vision and influenced the lives of many status quo and organizational approach.
issues
others. In 2010, shortly after attain- Society is often resistant to change, and some
ing my master’s degree, I joined the Structural organizations may be hesitant to implement
Engineers Association of Massachusetts new plans – in this case, a new committee
(SEAMASS) and have been actively involved group. In the start-up stage, there are hurdles
ever since. However, I soon noticed that there that must be overcome by both the established
issues affecting the structural
were hardly any young registered members or senior members and the joining young mem-
engineering profession event attendees. Observing other young profes- bers. Convincing others to believe in us and
sionals in my network, I noticed that young to fight this uphill battle can be difficult. That
engineers lacked a cohesive network of resources said, we, both senior and junior members, must
which we could use to seek answers to entry be resilient and perseverant if we wish to build
level questions (which some find difficult to ask something truly significant.
at work), and have our opinions and concerns
addressed through an established avenue. A Reciprocal Relationship
In 2012, Sofia Zamora and I took the initiative to
establish a Young Members Group of SEAMASS,
(Mentorship)
with the goal of supporting young engineers in I believe that a reciprocal relationship is just one
the Massachusetts structural engineering commu- of many advantages created from establishing
nity, particularly in aiding their transitions from and maintaining a YMG. In the structural engi-
school to professional life. neering context, reciprocal relationships allow
Establishing a new group young engineers to apprise senior engineers of
Rainbows Only Come was quite a challenge, but
not nearly as difficult as
the latest industry trends and new methods, while
senior engineers continue to foster the profes-
After Rain justifying the importance
of the YMG to the local
sional development of young engineers in the
traditional mentorship mold. In order to properly
structural engineering implement reciprocal mentorship, we must first
The Importance of a community. We found that this initial position ask ourselves, “How is the industry different today
was somewhat common among other NCSEA from what it was in the past?”
Young Members Group state affiliates. I am sure that there remain some The college curriculum for the LRFD genera-
who believe that a YMG cannot contribute as tion varies considerably from the curriculum of
By Ellen (Chuan-Hua) Kuo, P.E.,
much to the profession as senior members, and the ASD generation 20 years ago, when those
LEED AP BD+C
it is my goal to change their minds. who are now the experienced, senior engineers
As the SEAMASS YMG continued to thrive, received their educations. Many experienced
members of the SEAMASS Board applauded our engineers adopted the rule-of-thumb methods
efforts and achievements, and began to embrace that they learned from their own mentors and
the germination of a reciprocal relationship. Upon practice with formulas from old codes, short-
receiving proposals from the YMG, SEAMASS ening design times while staying adequately
Ellen (Chuan-Hua) Kuo, P.E., has been investing in us, allowing us to explore conservative. However, methods that were once
LEED AP BD+C, is a structural different group activities, host creative topics that commonly used are no longer efficient today, or
engineer with Symmes Maini & are geared toward young professionals, and build applicable to modern structural shapes and the
McKee Associates in Cambridge, a vibrant community for the future. SEAMASS constantly changing codes.
Massachusetts. She is Co-Founder YMG creates avenues for young members to grow Reciprocal mentoring would help to bridge the
of SEAMASS YMG and the in areas outside of the customary technical pre- knowledge gap between generations of engineers,
Resource Guide Administrator sentation setting. allowing both parties to increase their knowledge
of NCSEA YMG Support We want to further prepare young engineers base. Younger engineers could brief the experi-
Committee. She may be reached for their careers in many aspects in addition to enced engineers on the latest design technology
at ekuo@smma.com. technical knowledge. SEAMASS YMG provides options and industry trends, while simultane-
hands-on learning experiences, such as touring ously learning to ply their trade from the more
facility plants and construction sites, training experienced minds.
programs and study groups, community out- This relationship would lead senior engineers
reach opportunities, as well as soft-skills building. to consider more factors (such as unforeseen
Many of the young engineers that come to YMG software constraints and limited resources)
events to network and learn in a more casual when they estimate project budgets and required
environment ultimately become a part of the hours. Consequently, accurate projections would
team, further benefiting the member organization increase the efficiency and competitiveness of
(MO). Not only does the member organization their work. In return, young members will
benefit from the increased number of members receive lessons learned from individual senior
and a great contribution of novel ideas from the engineers and collective structural knowledge
YMG, but also senior board members of the MO within the MO.
32 February 2015
Planting the Seeds
The focus of nurturing a young commu-
nity, which is oftentimes undervalued or
overlooked, is the key to a better future. It
is very important for experienced engineers
to be aware of the frustration that exists in
the industry today – acknowledging the
dynamic role of today’s young engineers
and the importance of their roles in the
structural community. Planting the YMG
seed is one solution to sustain the growth
of engineers, to increase competency and State-of-the-Art Products
competitiveness in the industry, to develop
STRUCTURAL TECHNOLOGIES provides a wide range of custom
leadership and management skills early,
and to learn what it takes to create and designed systems which restore and enhance the load-carrying
complete a job. capacity of reinforced concrete and other structure types, including
Young members should no longer be masonry, timber and steel. Our products can be used stand-alone or
thought of as just individuals taking up
seats in the structural community; rather, in combination to solve complex structural challenges.
they should be thought of as individuals
with extensive, growing networks who
exchange information and cultivate one V-Wrap™
another to be future leaders. At the 2014 Carbon Fiber System

NCSEA conference held in New Orleans,
the regular attendees must have noticed an
obvious change in the NCSEA community. DUCON®
There were 10 times more young profession- Micro-Reinforced Concrete Systems
als attending the conference compared to
just two short years ago. In addition, the
NCSEA Young Members Group Support
Committee was in charge of one of this VSL
year's conference sessions, deliberating External Post-Tensioning Systems
challenges that the industry is facing, rec-
ommending strategies to mitigate them,
and working together to solve problems.
Great things take time and energy to bring
Tstrata™
Enlargement Systems
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from the community, this LRFD gen-
eration will soon be capable of assessing, Engineered Solutions
creating, and forecasting new solutions and
Our team integrates with engineers and owners to produce
opportunities for development of a greater
community, and to further improve the high value, low impact solutions for repair and retrofit of existing
practice and the standard of this profession. structures. We provide comprehensive technical support services
By planting the seeds now to germinate including feasibility, preliminary product design, specification
tomorrow’s success, we ask you to help us
grow the YMG network, so that those who support, and construction budgets. Contact us today for assistance
are following in your footsteps can receive with your project needs.
some of the advantages that you can only
wish you had.
The successful launch of the Young Members
Group of SEAMASS was due in large part to the
resources and guidance offered by the NCSEA
Young Members Group Start-Up (Resource)
www.structuraltechnologies.com
Guide. The 2014 version of the NCSEA
YMG Resource Guide, compiled by Heather +1-410-859-6539
Anesta (heather.anesta@stantec.com) and To learn more about Structural Group companies visit www.structuralgroup.com
Ellen Kuo (ekuo@smma.com), can be found DUCON® trade names and patents are owned by DUCON GmbH and are distributed exclusively in North America
by STRUCTURAL TECHNOLOGIES for strengthening and force protection applications.
at www.ncsea.com/resources/documents.
VSL is the registered trademark of VSL International Ltd.
We look forward to hearing your feedback and
suggestions about the Young Members Group!▪

Restoration of
Historic Fire-Damaged
Masonry Walls
By Jacob Bice, Ph.D., P.E. and Dilip Choudhuri, P.E.
Figure 1.

Figure 2. Figure 3.
B
ethel Missionary Baptist Church was founded in the nine- Determining Basis for Design
teenth century by Reverend Jack Yates, an early leader
The biggest challenge in any restoration project is developing infor-
of Houston’s African American community. Located in
mation about unknown conditions. Once the walls were stabilized, a
Freedmen’s Town, a post-Civil War Houston neighbor-
comprehensive visual condition assessment was performed to docu-
hood founded by freed slaves, the church was the first constructed
ment the distress conditions for repair and understand the wall
by former slaves, with the earliest portion constructed in the 1890s.
construction. Given the fire-damaged state of these walls, under-
The first two church buildings were destroyed, and in 1923 a third
standing the appropriate masonry strength to use in design was
single story church building was erected. In 1950, second and third
fundamental. A combination of flat-jack tests and unit compressive
stories were added. The sanctuary was designed by James M. Thomas,
strength tests were utilized to determine the masonry material capaci-
a prominent architect of African American churches. In January
ties needed for design.
2005, a fire gutted the interior of the historic structure, collapsing
Flat jack testing is a nondestructive technique where masonry com-
the interior framing and roof, leaving only the exterior masonry walls
pressive and shear strengths are evaluated in-situ. When measuring
in place. The structure sat exposed and abandoned until 2009, when
compressive strengths, the test consists of routing out a horizontal
the City of Houston purchased the property to convert the former
mortar joint to allow a calibrated steel bladder to be inserted into the
church into a community park (Figure 2).
joint. For shear strength tests, a vertical joint is tested. Linear variable
The remaining walls consist of two distinct constructions. The 1923
differential transformers (LVDTs) are mounted to wall surface and
single story is a reinforced concrete frame in-filled with structural clay
the bladder then “inflated” hydraulically (Figure 4). The hydraulic
tile with a brick veneer. These walls were present at the base of the
pressure and displacements are measured and a stress-strain relation-
east, west, and south walls. In 1950, when the second and third stories
ship is developed.
were added, the north wall of the building was re-clad with a concrete
The laboratory testing data showed that the historic brick had a
masonry unit (CMU) and brick cavity wall system, and the new north
compressive strength of 1,600 psi. The modern brick in the building
façade was increased to a height of 50 feet. The CMU and brick cavity
had a compressive strength of 2,000 psi, which is consistent with the
walls were also constructed on top of the existing 1923 walls on the
minimum compression strength for Grade S-I, S-II bricks, while
east, west, and south elevations during the 1950 renovation.
Before Restoration, Protection

Walter P Moore of Houston, Texas, was initially retained to provide
nondestructive testing services to evaluate the conditions of the exist-
ing masonry walls and develop strengthening solutions as necessary.
However, once an initial site visit was conducted, the first challenge of
the project became evident; access into the site to evaluate the masonry
walls was nearly impossible due to the collapsed framing and debris that
still remained from the 2005 fire, and a large crack in the 50-foot tall
brick veneer running from the base of the wall to the top was visible at
the northeast corner of the building (Figure 3). The deteriorating façade
immediately adjacent to the pedestrian sidewalk posed a potential risk
to public safety. Before any assessment could be performed, the engi-
neering team made recommendations to the City to immediately close
the street to traffic and temporarily brace the existing walls. Emergency
shoring and bracing was designed and installed within a 24-hour period
to protect the public and the structure. Figure 4.

Grade N-1 and N-2 bricks commonly used in modern construction
have a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi.
In historic preservations, the designer always has to specify mate-
rials that conform to, or are as close as possible to, those used in
the original construction. For this project, it was anticipated that
repointing deteriorated mortar joints would be necessary, so a
mortar analysis was performed. Three mortar samples were excised
from the structure and analyzed by acid digestion of the binder
and sieve analysis of the aggregate in accordance with ASTM
C136. This analysis determined the starting proportions for the
mortar specified in the design documents should be 1: 1¼: 5½
(Portland cement : lime : aggregate). In addition, the color and
Figure 5.
gradation of the mortar aggregate were determined, which allowed
the contractor to closely match the original mortar properties and would minimize the extent of replacement in the building veneer. To
aesthetics (Figure 5). accomplish this objective, the design team proposed a galvanized steel
frame that would visually recall the original gabled roof lines of the
church, with new metal panels and poly-resin glass panels installed in
Wall Strengthening in Plain Sight the existing windows and door openings (Figure 1, page 34).
The engineering assessment program determined that the CMU The existing walls would have to be strengthened to span between
back-up walls and structural clay tiles were in poor condition as the girts of the new frame for the loads imposed by the 110-mph
a result of the fire, resulting in a dangerous condition. Significant hurricane wind speeds required by the building code (IBC 2006
cracking was evident throughout the back-up wall system, and large modified with City of Houston amendments). This design require-
portions of the wall were unreinforced, including the 50-foot tall ment alone would be challenging enough for a heavily damaged
north wall. At several locations, the brick ties that anchor the brick masonry structure. However, because the walls themselves would be
veneer to the back-up wall, installed during the 1950 construction, exposed and without interior finishes, strengthening would need to
had corroded and failed. Failure was likely prior to the fire and be “hidden in plain sight” to community park patrons while not vis-
was due to the age of the building, but resulted in veneer that was ibly altering the appearance of the walls. The design team developed
separating from the back-up. a repair solution that consisted of strengthening of the back-up wall
In keeping with the historic nature of the walls, a strengthening solu- and pinning the existing brick veneer to the strengthened back-up.
tion had to be designed that would not alter the existing aesthetics and With this strengthening accomplished, a ferrocement finish was
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applied that provided additional strengthening and added to a clean
appearance for the interior of the park.
At the base of the walls in the 1923 construction, a new, rein-
forced CMU back-up wall was constructed to “sandwich” the existing
structural clay tile in-fill; removing this infill could have potentially
compromised portions of the wall supported above it. Stainless steel
helical anchors were then driven through the existing veneer, the
existing structural clay tile, and into the new back-up wall beyond.
In the 1950 construction, the existing CMU back-up walls were
reinforced by removing the interior shell of the CMU and grout-
ing in new vertical reinforcing bars doweled into the existing grade
beams. Large cracks in the existing CMU back-up were reinforced by
routing out the horizontal grout and installing stainless steel helical
ties across the crack. Once this crack reinforcement was installed,
the grout line was re-pointed and the crack itself was then grouted.
Cracks through the exterior brick were also treated in this manner,
and the brick veneer then pinned using helical anchors back to the
Figure 6.
strengthened back-up wall.
A ferrocement coating was then applied to provide lateral rein- While this strengthening ensured that the historic walls would stand
forcement to the CMU back-up wall and provide a uniform finish through the hurricanes that are possible in the Houston area, a number
to the interior of the park walls (Figure 6 ). Galvanized welded wire of other details were required to enhance the appearance of the park
reinforcement was pinned to the interior faces of the walls, and a and preserve key architectural elements of the walls. Cast stone panels
2-inch thick shotcrete coating was applied. At window openings and installed in the north wall required patches to repair spalls and restore
the tops of the walls, the ferrocement coating was extended around these panels. Existing lintels over door and window openings in the
the edges of the openings to provide clean and aesthetically pleasing 1923 construction were removed and replaced since corrosion of the
terminations. The ferrocement was given a drag finish for a relatively original lintels had resulted in rust-jacking and cracking.
smooth wall surface that resembled a stucco wall finish. A cream Once construction began, it became evident that each wall opening
colored elastomeric finish coating was specified by the design team varied from the next. Each new fenestration required special detailing
to brighten the interior finish and contrast against the new multi- to connect to the existing walls. To anchor the new window and door
colored fenestrations. panels, structural clay tile had to be removed between the new CMU
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back-up wall and the existing brick veneer. Helical anchors were then
installed between the brick and the CMU back-up, and the cavity
filled as a part of the ferrocement construction. This provided a solid
substrate into which anchors for the new panels could be installed.
Coordination between the City, the design team and the contractor
was a fundamental component to successfully delivering this project.
Mock-ups of the ferrocement installation, coatings, and window
terminations were constructed at key milestones in the project. These
mock-ups allowed the design team and the Owner to meet, and review
with the Contractor, issues related to aesthetics and constructability
before getting approval by the Owner and design team. In addition,
routine field observations by the design team throughout construc-
tion identified unknown conditions and developed alternate repairs
and details as needed.
All told, the construction lasted just over one year, with the ribbon
cutting for the new park on December 15, 2013. The completed
Bethel Park features concrete and brick walkways, installation of an
artificial turf interior courtyard, and site amenities including raised
fountains, seat walls, benches, lighting, fencing, landscaping and
irrigation. A particular highlight of the park is the historic education
panels mounted throughout the space.
Conclusion
Figure 7.
Severely damaged by fire, abandoned, but not forgotten by its com-
munity and congregation, Bethel Park preserves an important part
of Texas and African-American history. Preserving heavily damaged,
unreinforced masonry walls, protecting the public safety, and creat-
ing a new community space in which the original church walls were
integrated were significant challenges for the design team. The unique
strengthening techniques made it possible to have exposed masonry
walls that contribute to the overall park aesthetic (Figures 7 and 8).
The total project cost with property acquisition, bracing,
design and park development was $4.7 million. The cost
of strengthening the structure was $2.1 million, about
half the total construction cost.▪
Jacob Bice, Ph.D., P.E., is a Senior Associate and Senior

Project Manager in Walter P Moore Diagnostics Group. Dr.
Bice conducts structural health monitoring and nondestructive
evaluations such as GPR, impact echo, impulse response, UPV
and half-cell corrosion potential on existing structures. Jacob can
be reached at jbice@walterpmoore.com.
Dilip Choudhuri, P.E., is a President and CEO of
Walter P Moore Diagnostics. Dilip can be reached at
dchoudhuri@walterpmoore.com.
Project Team
Owner: City of Houston – Parks Department, Houston, TX
Structural Engineer for Masonry Wall Repairs: Walter P
Moore, Houston, TX
Structural Engineer for Structural Steel Framing: Henderson
+ Rogers, Inc., Houston, TX
Architect of Record: PGAL, Houston, TX
General Contractor: JE Dunn, Houston, TX
Masonry Subcontractor: United Restoration & Preservation,
Houston, TX
Landscape Architect: White Oak Studios, Houston, TX
Figure 8.

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structural fuses are designed to bear the brunt of lateral forces at strongtie.com/softstory.
during an earthquake, isolating damage within the frame and keeping
the structural integrity of the beams and columns intact.
“The structural fuses connect the beams to the columns. These fuses
are designed to stretch and yield when the beam twists against the
column, rather than the beam itself, and because of this the beams can
be designed without bracing. This allows the Strong Frame to become
a part of the wood building and perform in the way it’s supposed to,”
Soft-story retrofit using
said Steve Pryor, S.E., International Director of Building Systems at
Strong Frame® special moment frame
Simpson Strong-Tie. “It’s also the only commercially-available frame
that bolts together and has the type of ductile capacity that can work
inside of a wood-frame building.”
©2015 Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc.
CFS Transforms
Octagonal
Structure into
Elliptical Curve Figure 1. Pinnacle Bank Arena rendering.
Pinnacle Bank Arena, Lincoln, Nebraska

By Jeffrey Kreinke, P.E., S.E., Karl Scherzer, P.E. and Jamie John, E.I.T.
T
hrough the use of cold formed steel (CFS) framing, the
corners of a rigid polygonal concrete structure can be
smoothed and transformed into the gentle curve of an
ellipse, enlivening the architect’s vision and creating a
landmark structure in an up-and-coming neighborhood.
Project Overview
Constructed as part of Lincoln’s West Haymarket Redevelopment
Project, the new Pinnacle Bank Arena was completed August 2013.
The 470,400 square foot multi-use event complex will not only serve
as the new host for the University of Nebraska’s men’s and women’s
basketball games, but also as a venue for year-round entertainment.
Concerts, touring acts, and family productions will utilize the arena’s
three public concourses and seating capacity for up to 15,900 guests.
The new indoor arena is a seven level concrete structure wrapped
in a metal panel and glass curtain wall façade. The inner, octagonal
concrete super structure is enclosed by cold formed steel framing,
which transforms the outer shape into a tri-radial ellipse. The facility
combines “space-frame” panelized walls at the upper collar section
with “stick-framed” walls at the lower collar area. Adjacent CFS
framing with long span sloping walls were also “stick built” due to
size and site constraints. Figure 2. Typical CAD wall section showing “Space Frame” at upper collar.

Project Challenges/Solutions
Various architectural design considerations, structural requirements,
and construction obstacles had to be addressed throughout the
cold formed steel design process to keep the project on schedule
and on budget:
• Tri-Radial Elliptical Façade
• Panelized Space Frames
• Special Construction Loading Requirements
• Sloping Wall Studs
• Staggered Openings at Bypass Wall Conditions
• Connection Requirements
• Large Duct Opening within Space Frame Panels
The use of cold formed steel space frames was determined to be the
best method to accommodate the changing radius of the elliptical
façade and to address the sloping exterior at the upper collar. Each Figure 3. Staggered stick-framed openings at the west building elevation.
frame was modeled and analyzed at its maximum and minimum
offset distance (from the building super structure) using RISA 3D.
Various load cases and load combinations were applied to the space
frames per ASCE 7-05. Special construction loading considerations
were necessary for this project due to the volume of cold formed
steel framing required, the duration of time to install and enclose
the building, and the limited access to the exterior cold formed
steel façade throughout construction. During the construction
process, the building would only be partially enclosed for a sub-
stantial period of time, making it necessary to engineer the space
frames to withstand the higher wind loads associated with this type
of exposure. Each space frame was designed to support temporary
construction platforms located on the horizontal frame members.
The platforms were necessary to provide access to the outside of
the wall studs until the exterior was completed. The frames were
designed to be constructed into wall panels and lifted into place
by crane (Figure 4 ). As a result, the space frame panels had to be
analyzed with reactions at the crane “pick points,” in addition to
the standard reactions at building supports. Another construction
complication was the large offsets between the concrete super
structure and the outside face of the exterior wall studs. Each space
frame panel was 50 feet tall by 12 feet wide with offsets varying in
depth from 6 feet to 20 feet. Frames were spaced at 16 inches on
center throughout, with of a variety of stud depths and thicknesses
depending upon location (Figure 2).
The lower building collar has portions of curved, sloping walls that
bypass the structure. Within these walls, staggered windows of differ-
ent lengths and elevations require this section to be stick framed in
a more traditional manner, in lieu of panelization. Engineering the
framing around each of these window openings is difficult since the
windows are positioned in locations that do not allow the jamb studs Figure 4. Installed CFS wall panel.
to run continuous from top to bottom; jambs are often interrupted
by another window opening above or below (Figure 3). To accurately stick framed walls at the lower collar, the bypass connections to
engineer the headers, jambs, and sills at these misaligned openings the super structure are made with vertical slide clip connections
requires intricate load trace calculations. Large concentrated loads on at all levels above the main concourse (Figure 2). The vertical slide
headers and sills from adjacent jamb reactions caused the opening clip (VSC) connections allow each level to deflect independently
framing to be heavier than typical when compared to openings in a under gravity loading without any vertical load transfer to the
stacked configuration. attached framing.
The building’s super structure was engineered to laterally support The large facility requires systems of an equal scale to meet its high
the exterior building façade; however, all gravity loads needed to electrical, mechanical and plumbing demands. To avoid possible
be transferred and relieved at the main concourse level. The cold conflicts with various systems’ piping and ductwork, BIM software
formed steel space frame construction at the upper collar allows was used during the design phase to coordinate CFS framing with
for the transfer of gravity loads through trussed sloping members the building systems and provide clash detection prior to instal-
down to the base connection without gravity loading intermediate lation. This extra measure enabled multiple disciplines to work
levels. For both the space frame panels at the upper collar and the together and provide solutions in the early stages of the project,

Figure 5. BIM rendering of Pinnacle Bank Arena upper seating bowl. Figure 6. “Jig Table” used for on-site panel construction.
preventing delays during the construction space frame wall panels. The panels were lifted importance of proper material selection.
phase. One specific item discovered using by a crane via engineered pick points, clipped When selecting building construction mate-
BIM was interference between the space to the super structure and lapped on to previ- rials, consideration should be
frames and a large ventilation duct in the ously installed vertical stud framing. A total given not only to achieving the
upper seating bowl of the arena (Figure 5). of 96 space frame wall panels were required desired building aesthetics, but
This discovery resulted in the addition of to complete the construction of the structure’s also to project constructability.▪
structural steel during the design phase, upper collar.
to allow for CFS space frame attachment Jeffrey Kreinke, P.E., S.E., is a project
around the ducts, avoiding potential costly manager and structural engineer at Excel
field modifications during construction.
Conclusion
Engineering, Inc. in Fond du Lac, WI. He
The unique and complex layout of the arena The ideal combination of construction served as the principal cold formed steel
also had an impact on the construction meth- materials, along with coordination of engineer for the Pinnacle Bank Arena. He
ods used. The space frame wall panels were multiple disciplines, ensured the Pinnacle can be reached at jeff.k@excelengineer.com.
constructed on a “jig table” during the day, Bank Arena was successfully completed on
Karl Scherzer, P.E., is a principal and
and lifted into place by crane in the evening. A time. The use of innovative design concepts
structural engineer at Excel Engineering,
concrete slab was poured on-site to create a jig and construction practices were valuable in
Inc. in Fond du Lac, WI. He can be
table large enough to layout four panels at one addressing a challenging building design
reached at karl.s@excelengineer.com.
time (Figure 6 ). Each panel was constructed and keeping the project on schedule. The
of ten individual frames, which were tied CFS framing was utilized to accommodate Jamie John, E.I.T., is a senior technician
together with cold rolled channel to create the ever-changing slopes of the exterior at Excel Engineering, Inc. in Fond du
metal wall panels and the tri-radial curve Lac, WI. She can be reached at
of the building’s footprint. Its lightweight jamie.j@excelengineer.com.
Attention Bentley Users characteristic allowed contractors to more
easily build and transport large CFS wall

assemblies, lending favorably to wall
Project Team:
Have you received your automatic
panelization. As demonstrated during
quarterly invoice from Bentley? Owner: PC Sports
construction of the Pinnacle Bank Arena,
Structural Engineer of Record: Buro
Would you like to reduce or eliminate specialized and complex panel framing
Happold Consulting Engineers PC
these invoices? can be constructed in a controlled envi-
Architect of Record: DLR Group
ronment, then lifted, and connected to
Construction Manager: Mortenson
Use SofTrack to control and manage the structure. Benefits of the panelized
Construction
Calendar Hour usage of your Bentley construction method include increased
Specialty Structural EOR for CFS
SELECT Open Trust Licensing. quality assurance, decreased production
Framing: Excel Engineering, Inc.
time, and overall project safety.
Wall Panel Fabricator/CFS
Call us today, 866 372 8991 or visit us Innovative designs often require engi-
Framing Contractor: Falewitch
www.softwaremetering.com neers and contractors to utilize building
Construction Services, Inc.
materials in new ways, reinforcing the

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Structural T
his series of articles discusses some of
the commonly encountered structural
issues during the renovation and res-
rehabilitation
toration of historic buildings of this
type, and provides guidance on ways to address
them. Parts one and two of this series focused on
foundation and wall systems, respectively. This
part focuses on roof structures.
renovation and restoration of
existing structures General Description of Typical
Timber Roof Systems
One of the most common types of structural roof
systems found in historic houses of worship in
the United States is the heavy timber truss, which
has been used to frame and support the roofs of
these structures for centuries. Over time, many
different truss geometries and configurations have
evolved and were successfully used: king post,
queen post, scissor trusses, hammer beam, as well Heavy timber roof framing.
as a number of various combinations involving
trusses and other heavy Unfortunately, this level of inspection and
timber frames. While the maintenance is commonly overlooked, or not
Divine Design: Renovating trusses are typically the
main structural support
continuously performed, and may ultimately lead
to ineffective load transfer through the connec-
and Preserving Historic for the roof, the remain-
der of the roof system is
tions, excessive truss deflections, or redistribution
of loads to other members causing overstresses.
Houses of Worship typically constructed of As heavy timbers dry and shrink, checks and
wood decking supported other drying defects may also form. Checks are
by a system of wood raf- commonly mistaken for structural cracks, and
ters and purlins that span between or parallel to are automatically assumed to be detrimental to
Part 3: Roof Structures the trusses. Heavy timber roof trusses typically the timbers. Checking is a normal part of the
bear directly on the exterior masonry walls, and drying process, and, unless severe, it may not
By Nathaniel B. Smith, P.E. and
will either span clear from wall to wall, or rely on drastically affect the capacity of the timber ele-
Milan Vatovec, P.E., Ph.D.
interior columns to provide intermediate support. ments. In fact, modern design practices account
for the presence of checks, and design reduction
factors have been established to account for this
Joints and Connections phenomenon. Nonetheless, checks and splits,
The type and configuration of connections found especially when they extend through the entire
Nathaniel B. Smith, P.E., is a in timber structures are numerous and can vary cross-section of the member, will affect member’s
Senior Project Manager at Simpson significantly depending on the age of the struc- flexural capacity and should be evaluated on a
Gumpertz & Heger’s office in New ture. In older structures, they may include mortise case by case basis. If a significant reduction in
York City. He can be reached at and tenon joints, shear keys, bolted connections member capacity is suspected, various reinforce-
nbsmith@sgh.com. (with or without external steel hardware), or a ment options are available to restore the needed
number or other combinations of the above. capacity (installation of straps, dowels, sister
Dr. Milan Vatovec is a Senior
Newer timber trusses, post World War I, may members, plates, etc.). More critical, however,
Principal at Simpson Gumpertz &
also feature shear plate or split-ring connectors. is the potential presence of checks or splits near
Heger Inc. He can be reached at
Regardless of their type, due to lack of redundancy member ends, where connections are expected
mvatovec@sgh.com.
and ductility, or their often concealed nature and to transfer internal forces through the structure.
susceptibility to deterioration and/or distress, Many localized joint failures and slippages, and
truss connections are usually the structural weak sometimes roof-structure collapses, initiate at the
link in timber-framed roof systems. Several typical checks or splits, where the dowel-bearing strength
issues encountered in practice are described below. of the bolts can be significantly compromised
Timbers were typically green (moisture content (especially if the joint configuration features insuf-
greater than 19%) when originally installed. As ficient bolt end distance). Gusset plates, external
they dried in service, the associated shrinkage tie rods, or other joint-reinforcement details are
may have caused the joints to loosen or open available as joint strengthening options.
with time. Typical truss maintenance should In some cases, slipped (open) joints need to be
therefore include inspection and occasional closed (tightened) and the resulting excessive truss
tightening of the bolted connections, aimed at deflection “removed” prior to installing the perma-
maintaining their serviceability and effectiveness. nent strengthening detail. This can be accomplished
44 February 2015
by pulling the members back together using a consequences, including partial or full col-
system of come-a-longs, pulleys, or by shoring lapse of the roof structure.
and jacking the truss upward. However, great Periodic inspections of roof framing need to
care needs to be taken during this process to be performed to locate and address areas of
prevent damage to the timbers or to other por- potential deterioration before they become a
tions of the structure. This work should only significant hazard. Wood-educated inspectors
be performed by an experienced contractor should have the ability to recognize tell-tale
working with an engineer knowledgeable in signs associated with fungal decay and insect
heavy-timber truss behavior. Closing a single attack, although it is less common in roof
joint on a truss may require manipulating the structures. This is especially important in situ- Opening of joint due to shrinkage.
adjacent trusses, and a good understanding of ations where the most vulnerable portions
the load paths and the expected behavior of of timber members are concealed (e.g. by and probing inspections alone are often not
the structure is paramount. Careful monitoring masonry), and where the exposed portion of enough to fully assess the remaining strength
of movements needs to be performed to verify the member does not exhibit any apparent of the member, appropriate experience with
that the structure is behaving as intended. or visual signs of deterioration. However, if timber structures and associated ability to
In general, special expertise and knowledge the concealed member end is wet, chances holistically and realistically assess the effects
of wood behavior is needed to differentiate are that the decay process is on-going, and of decay is often key in such situations. After
between normal checking and severe cracking even the apparently healthy-looking exposed safety is assessed and addressed, the next step
that could pose a serious structural concern. wood may already have lost a portion of its should be to determine the source of moisture
Consulting with a wood-science expert can help strength due to decay. Often inspections must and if it is still active. Repairing deteriorated
to determine what, if any, repair or strengthen- rely on considering secondary effects of dete- timber (the symptom) without addressing the
ing work may be needed. Proper assessment of rioration (e.g. staining of masonry), minute moisture source (the underlying cause) will
the issue at hand may significantly reduce the characteristics of timber grain appearance, or not be effective; further deterioration after
amount of needed remedial work. even sampling and subsequent microscopic repairs are made can be expected. Only once
laboratory investigation. the moisture issue is addressed and further
If deterioration is found, some level of repair exposure eliminated (through appropriate
Fungal Deterioration or strengthening is typically required. Shoring waterproofing detailing or treatment), reme-
Moisture is probably the single most det- may be required as well if deterioration or its dial or strengthening solutions (discussed in
rimental factor affecting wood structural effects are deemed to significantly affect mem- subsequent sections) will be effective.
members. Moisture-related deterioration of bers’ abilities to support loads. Because visual continued on next page
wood typically begins to occur when the
moisture content of the wood exceeds
20%. This level of moisture, which
provides sufficient resources for wood-
attacking fungal hyphae (rot) to stay active
and cause wood-cell material destruction,
can be achieved by leakage, or by repeated
wetting and drying in service.
As discussed in Part 2 of this series, ends
of timber elements (e.g. roof trusses)

bearing in pockets in masonry walls are
typically the most vulnerable to the effects
of moisture absorbed by the masonry.
To compound the issue, bearing ends of
the roof-structure timbers are typically
in the vicinity of the roof gutters; any
associated leakage or masonry saturation
could further contribute to deterioration
of the roof-structure timbers.
Wood is generally a very ductile material Portland International Airport,
that behaves well under loading; how- Terminal Access Program,
Portland, OR
ever, decay significantly affects the cell
structure of the wood, which causes a
loss in strength and ductility. Significant SUPPORTING
INNOVATION
deterioration can cause timbers to fail
suddenly, in a brittle manner, without Seattle • Tacoma • Lacey • Portland • Eugene •
undergoing large displacements or giving Sacramento • San Francisco • Walnut Creek •
early warning before the ensuing collapse. IN ARCHITECTURE Los Angeles • Long Beach • Pasadena • Irvine •
San Diego • Boise • Phoenix • St. Louis •
Also, because of the lack of redundancy in Chicago • New York
KPFF is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
timber trusses and roof framing, failure of www.kpff.com
even one member can have catastrophic

Fungal deterioration at truss bearing. Truss reinforcement.
(and can result in unintended snow accumula- Relieving timber trusses of the existing dead
Renovation Effects tion), also requiring consideration. loads is a significant undertaking. Shoring and
Renovations of these types of structures often lifting of roof trusses from below can be quite
include a decision to insulate the ceiling above intensive and in some cases even cost pro-
the worship space to help reduce costs associ-
Strengthening hibitive due to large ceiling heights (40 feet
ated with heating and cooling. While adding In some cases, strengthening of the truss or more) and potentially large reaction loads
insulation may help the energy efficiency of members may be necessary due to alterations associated with truss lifting. Shoring systems
the building (if installed properly), it may (addition of insulation, HVAC equipment, will need to be designed by an experienced pro-
also result in unintended consequences on change of roofing type, etc.), or to address fessional to verify that the shoring can support
the performance of the roof structure. existing distress or deterioration of the the intended loads, and will remain stable. The
The majority of historic houses of worship timbers. Strengthening can often be accom- actual jacking of the loads out of the trusses
were not constructed with a significant heat- plished by reinforcing the existing members (and into the new, supplemental members
ing or cooling source. Often, the only heat with additional wood framing, steel plates, such as tie-rods) can be very involved, and may
source may have been a single wood or coal- or channels. The reinforcing is commonly result in unwanted damages if not carefully
fired stove. In northern climates, any heat attached to the existing timbers using through performed and monitored. Similar to closing
generated within the building would even- bolts or lag screws. To arrive at an effective slipped truss joints, an experienced engineer
tually escape through the ceiling and roof, strengthening solution, compatibility of dis- and contractor are needed to perform this work
and help melt any snow accumulation on the placements, load sharing, or any geometric to determine the appropriate jacking loads,
roof; intended or not, this can help keep the or other constraints introduced to the exist- jack locations, and to monitor the trusses for
roof snow loads fairly minimal. The addition ing structure need to be carefully examined. movement to help to avoid unwanted damages.
of insulation, however, effectively traps the Also, if temporary removal of truss elements
heat within the worship space and prevents is needed, shoring, load transfer sequencing,
it from reaching the roof; the exterior roof and temporary lateral bracing of often tall
Closure
surface remains cold, potentially allowing and slender masonry walls need to be consid- Trusses and other timber frames have been
snow build-up and increasing the snow load. ered. Finally, if any change in the overall truss successfully used to support roof systems in
If not anticipated and addressed, the increase behavior is introduced (e.g. when tie rods are houses of worship for centuries, and, with
in snow load can cause overstressing of timber added to prevent further spreading of scissor proper maintenance and repairs, they should
members and connections, unanticipated trusses), all members and their connections continue to serve as reliable and effective roof
deflections, or in some cases even partial or along the load path should be examined to framing systems for years to come. Proper
full collapse of the roof structure. If adding determine if they are adequate to resist the understanding of the material behavior, struc-
insulation to the ceiling of a house of worship new loads (in some cases compression mem- tural characteristics, and system limitations
is being considered, consult with a structural bers become tensile members, etc.). is needed to enable designers and builders to
engineer experienced with timber framing and Since the dead loads from the roof are develop effective remedial or strengthening
an engineer experienced in building science already being supported by the existing truss solutions in historic restoration or renovation
to develop appropriate details. framing, the reinforcing is typically designed projects. While ultimately aimed at address-
Renovations may also include changing the to only support the live loads (snow, wind, ing the changing needs of the congregation,
roofing type (e.g. from asphalt shingles to slate seismic) and any new dead loads (HVAC careful consideration and good implementa-
tiles). The slate tiles and any associated water- equipment, catwalks, lighting, etc.). If the tion of available restoration options can also
proofing will significantly increase the load existing structural dead loads need to also extend the remaining useful service life of
on the roof structure, which then needs to be be carried by the reinforcing (e.g. due to the these important buildings.
carefully evaluated to determine if any roof amount of overstress or due to deterioration), Future articles will include review of material
members or connections need to be reinforced. the existing dead loads will need to be taken and structural performance of architectural com-
Similarly, different roofing materials may pro- out of the system by a combination of jack- ponents in houses of worship (e.g. wood floors,
vide for different resistance against snow sliding ing, temporary shoring, and other methods. trim, plaster ceilings, roofing, finishes, etc.).▪

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names are trademarks of their respective owners.
Historic T
he Bollman Truss was the first widely complicating the problem; and the structure is
adopted cast and wrought iron rail- so simple, that all the wrought iron work can
road bridge in the United States. It be executed by the commonest blacksmith. The
structures
was designed and patented by Wendel bridge has been thoroughly tested, and fully
Bollman (STRUCTURE, February 2006) on proves the correctness of the principles upon
January 6, 1852 after he built several on the which it is based.”
B&O Railroad. Richard Osborne built an earlier
In other words, it was just the opposite of
iron bridge in 1845 on the Reading Railroad at
significant structures of the past Whipple’s truss that used a lower chord ten-
Manayunk, a portion of which is now on display
sion member to keep the thrust of the arches
at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. It
from spreading the ends, in that he used top
consisted of three cast iron trusses with wrought
chord compression member to keep the tension
iron verticals. James Milholland also built a
ties from pulling the end of the truss inwards.
50-foot long wrought iron riveted girder bridge
Knowing Whipple’s method of determining
for the Baltimore & Susquehanna Railroad at
the force in each member, he could size them
Bolton Station in Baltimore in 1846.
efficiently. Whipple, however, in his book, deter-
As Bollman’s patent application drawing shows, it
mined that the most efficient angle for any tie
could be built either as deck or a through truss. As
in a truss was 45°; Bollman, especially in long
in the Whipple Bridge (STRUCTURE, December
trusses, had some very flat angles on his ties, thus
2014), all compression members were of cast iron
reducing their efficiency.
and all tension members of wrought iron.
Bollman began his bridge building career as a
He called his top compression chord a “stretcher”
carpenter on the B&O Railroad in 1837, work-
that could be
ing on Benjamin Latrobe’s and Lewis Wernwag’s
built of iron or
Harper’s Ferry Bridge (STRUCTURE, August
Bollman Truss at Harper’s Ferry
wood. If of iron,
2014). By 1840, Bollman was named by Latrobe
he recommended
to be “Master of Road” that placed him in charge
hollow tubes. His
of all bridges on the line. Some time late in the
cast iron verticals,
1840s, Wendell looked into the design of an
By Frank Griggs, Jr., struts, which had different shapes for the deck
iron bridge. Trussed beams had been utilized
Dist. M. ASCE, D. Eng., or through versions, had a “shoe” at the bottom
for years but usually consisted of one beam,
P.E., P.L.S. under which an eyebolt projected to pick up
one vertical post and a wrought iron bar drop-
diagonal wrought iron bars that ran from the
ping from the ends of the beam down under
bottom of the strut up to each end of the stretcher.
the post. This system created a simple truss.
In addition, he had cross bracing in each panel
Bollman extended this system by adding several
to retain the geometry of his truss. He wrote in
posts to a top stretcher with asymmetric rods
his patent application,
supporting the posts. Robert Vogel, in his fine
“This bridge has the advantage of great paper on Bollman, wrote, “he was perhaps the
strength and perfect security, with very little most successful of the latter class [self taught]...
weight of metal; all the forces can be calcu- He may be said to be a true representative of
lated with absolute certainty, and without the transitional period between intuitive and
Dr. Griggs specializes in the
restoration of historic bridges,
having restored many 19th Century
cast and wrought iron bridges. He
was formerly Director of Historic
Bridge Programs for Clough,
Harbour & Associates LLP in
Albany, NY, and is now an
independent Consulting Engineer.
Dr. Griggs can be reached at
fgriggs@nycap.rr.com.
Bollman Patent No. 8,624.
48 February 2015
exact engineering Actually, his designing The wrought-iron requires little workman- jointed in the simplest manner; at one
was a composite of the two methods. While ship, the rods from the centre to abutments end of each length is a tenon, at the
making consistent use of mathematical having but an eye at one and a screw at other a socket. The latter is bored out,
analysis, he was at the same time more or the other end, with a weld or two between and the tenon and its shoulder turned
less dependent upon empirical methods. according to length. The long counter-rods off in a lathe to fit the socket; thus, when
For years, B&O employees told stories of have two knuckles and one swivel for thoroughly joined, to form one continu-
his [Bollman’s] sessions in the tin shop of adjustment of strain and convenience in ous pipe between abutments. The ends
the railroad’s main repair facility at Mount welding, as well as in raising the whole. of the sections of cylinders, inserted to
Clair in Baltimore, where he built models of those contiguous, are slightly rounded,
The cast-iron stretcher is octagonal
bridges from scraps of metal and then tested to allow a small angular movement
without, circular within, and averages
them to destruction to locate weaknesses. It without risk of joint fracture…
one inch of metal. It is cast in lengths
seems most likely, however, that the empiri-
according to the length of panel, and continued on next page
cal studies were used solely as checks
against the mathematical.” Bollman
built his first bridge, The Little Patuxent
Bridge, near Laurel, Maryland in 1850
and replaced the Winchester & Potomac
THE INDUSTRY LEADER
IN SEISMIC AND WIND SOLUTIONS
124-foot span of the Harper’s Ferry
Bridge in 1851. In 1852, he built his
IS NOW EVEN STRONGER.

third bridge at Bladensburg, Maryland
over the Anacostia River. Many others
followed in the 1850s and 1860s, but this Nearly two decades ago Hardy Frames created the first steel shear wall
article will primarily discuss the Harper’s system and revolutionized the residential building industry. Today the
Ferry Bridge across the Potomac River. name Hardy Frame® remains the most trusted name in seismic and wind
The B&O Railroad and the Winchester solutions.
& Potomac Railroad built their cov-
ered wooden bridge directly across the As part of MiTek’s new Builder Products Division, the Hardy Frame®
Potomac River in 1837. Several years Shear Wall System, along with USP Structural Connectors® and the
Z4 Tie-Down System, can offer you better, stronger structural solutions.
later, the B&O built a “Wye” span to
continue its line to the west. In 1850, Contact us today and let us create the right solution for you.
they decided to upgrade the westerly

span, sometimes called the Washington
Branch, and chose to utilize the
Bollman design, as the Little Patuxent
Bridge had proved satisfactory. It was
a through span to match the existing
wooden spans. They built three masonry hardyframe.com/solutions
towers, rather than cast iron towers, on 800 754.3030
the end pier and the westerly abutment
to support the span. Bollman wrote a
pamphlet on this span entitled, Iron sus-
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for the Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road Co.
at Harper’s Ferry, and on the Washington
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Baltimore and dated 1852. Bridge engi-
neers used pamphlets in those days as a
means of advertising their designs and
showing their cost effectiveness.
In his pamphlet Bollman wrote,
“This bridge was erected in 1852, from
the designs of Wendel Bollman, C.E.,
Inspector of Repairs, Baltimore and
Ohio Railway. The span is 124 feet
between abutments. The length of cast-
iron in stretcher, 128 feet. The weight of Better Technology. Better Building.SM
cast-iron in the R. R. truss, 65,137 lb.;
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Harper’s Ferry Bridge post 1868 from Maryland side,
C&O Canal in foreground. Courtesy of HAER.
Bollman Bridge, Savage, Maryland. Courtesy of HAER.
This system, perfect in itself, is addition- action, that the load did not cover the
ally connected by diagonal rods in each entire length of bridge by about 13 feet,
panel; also by light hollow castings, acting yet the excess of weight in the middle, and
as struts. The diagonal side rods might at a speed of about eight miles per hour,
be safely dispensed with, for the peculiar produced no greater deflection than 13/8
merit of the truss is its perfect indepen- inch at the centre post, and 9/16 inch at
dence of such provision. They are therefore the first post from abutment.”
used as a safeguard only in case of the
Squire Whipple didn’t like it, writing in the
fracture of any of the principal suspen-
American Railroad Journal that it was, “a
sion rods.
sort of mongrel bridge, something between
By this combination of cast and wrought a Suspension Bridge and a truss bridge and
iron, the former is in a state of compres- partaking in a measure of the character and Bollman Truss, cast iron columns and top chord,
sion, the latter in that of tension, – the qualities of both...” He had discussed a similar wrought iron diagonals. Courtesy of HAER.
proper condition of the two metals. It idea in his 1847 book but concluded, “it was
unites the principles of the suspension and fully and conclusively demonstrated, that the Yankees burned the bridge when Lee was
of the truss bridges. Each bar performs its main principle and idea involved was utterly invading the north on the way to Gettysburg.
own part in supporting the load in propor- worthless, as it regarded Truss bridges. Not The bridge was rebuilt and in July 1864
tion to its distance from the abutment; so meaning that a safe and useful bridge cannot General Jubal Early burned it after his failed
that the entire series of suspending rods be made in this way; but that it can only be invasion of the north that was stopped outside
transmits the same tension to the points of done at a much greater expense than is required of Washington after a battle at the Monacacy
support as would be equally transmitted to make an equally safe and useful bridge, on River. After the War in 1868, the bridge was
from thence to the centre of bridge…” other plans and principles.” It was, he wrote, “A entirely rebuilt with Bollman iron trusses.
mere fossil of one of Whipple’s discarded prin- The Winchester Span was documented by
And after presenting his method of analysis
ciples.” Herman Haupt, however, who headed the National Park Service’s Historic American
he concluded,
a committee to report on the bridge, wrote, Engineering Record (HAER) (WVA, 19,
“This bridge, it will be seen, is composed
“the bridge constructed by Wendel Bollman HAER, 28) based upon iron retrieved from
of seven independent trusses, which trans-
possesses every essential requisite of an efficient the river after the 1936 flood that washed
fer the weight concentrated on each floor
structure, and that no arrangement of parts in away the entire bridge, and early drawings
beam directly to the abutments, without
general use can be considered superior to it, or by Bollman. Bollman trusses were used on
aid from any other connection; and not
promising more satisfactory results.” many B&O bridges, as well as approach spans
from panel to panel, as in general use…
The bridge remained with a single iron span in two major Mississippi River crossings at
In case of fire, the floor may be entirely and 7 wooden spans until June 14, 1861. Quincy, Illinois and Bellaire, Ohio and at
consumed without any injury to the when General Joseph Johnston blew up and Clinton, Iowa as a swing bridge. The only
side truss… burned the wooden spans as he evacuated surviving Bollman Bridge is at Savage Station
Harper’s Ferry early in the civil war. The only in Maryland across the Little Patuxent River.
In an experiment undertaken to prove the
thing remaining was the Bollman Truss and It was originally built in 1869 for the B&O
rigidity of this structure, three first-class
the piers. The military then built a pontoon and moved to its existing site in 1887 and is
tonnage engines, with three tenders, were
bridge for their use and the B&O built a used only for pedestrians. It was documented
first carefully weighed, and then run upon
wooden trestle for their purpose. In July and by HAER in 1985.
the bridge, at the same time nearly cover-
August 1862, the B&O replaced some of the Bollman’s plan was widely used as a cast and
ing its whole length, and weighing in the
trestlework with two Bollman spans. Shortly wrought iron railroad bridge between 1850
aggregate 273,5501b. or 136 1850/2000
after, the reb’s burned the bridge again when and 1870, especially on the B&O Railroad,
tons nett, being over a ton for each foot in
retreating from the battle of Antietam on but was generally replaced starting in the late
length of the bridge.
September 18, 1861. The B&O then built 1870s by Fink and Whipple Iron Double
From this test it was found, according to three Bollman spans in September and Intersection Trusses that made a more effi-
gauges properly set and reliable in their November 1862. On July 20, 1863, the cient use of the iron.▪

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Integral Crystalline Waterproofing

The Future of Concrete Durability
By Alireza Biparva, M.A.Sc., LEED Associate
I
n a building landscape where the surface applied waterproofing membranes
expected lifespan of a structure is longer do have limitations:
than usual, the durability of the materi- • are at risk to puncture damage;
als that encompass the structure become • application takes time and is labor
more critical. Sustainability is key for any intensive;
structures viability in today’s construction • lifespan of the membrane is usually less When reacting with water and cement, an ICW
world, which means new technologies are of than desired structure life; and creates millions of needle-like crystals that block the
great value to not only the project teams, but • is difficult to repair since it can be ingress of water. Courtesy of Kryton International Inc.
also the environment. inaccessible and hard to locate the
Concrete is currently the most used human- failed area. The ability to reactivate in the presence of
made material in the world, used twice as External membrane failure can occur in a water gives crystalline-treated concrete the
much as all other materials combined. number of different situations, most as a ability to improve self-sealing. When cracks
Concrete is used so much because it has result of design errors, installation mistakes, form due to drying shrinkage, settling, seis-
a relative low cost, is versatile, has unique or material limitations and defects. This is mic activity, etc., water entering through
engineering properties and its ingredients are why simplifying the process by making the them causes new crystals to form and grow,
widely available. This often makes concrete concrete itself serve as the waterproofing bar- blocking and filling the cracks. Improving the
more attractive to the construction indus- rier can prove valuable for a project. self-sealing ability of concrete is one of crys-
try than other materials like steel or wood. talline technology’s most unique and useful
Moreover, a key advantage to concrete is that Integral Crystalline features, and can help to dramatically reduce
it can be molded or formed into virtually any the long-term maintenance and repair costs
shape when freshly mixed and, when hard-
Waterproofing of a concrete structure.
ened, becomes a strong and durable material Integral Crystalline Waterproofing (ICW)
capable of a long lifespan. prevents the movement of water through
In most instances, deterioration of concrete the concrete by plugging or blocking the
Main Benefits of ICW
is due to a lack of adequate durability, rather natural pores, capillaries and micro cracks, ICW contributes many beneficial properties
than deficient strength. Concrete structures can thereby making concrete its own waterproof- to a given project, including:
become unserviceable due to gradual weaken- ing barrier. This stands in contrast to more • Continual Protection – One of the
ing arising from concrete deterioration and conventional means of waterproofing, which unique traits of an ICW admixture is
steel corrosion. Reducing concrete deteriora- usually involves applying a coating or mem- its ability to improve the self-sealing
tion by increasing its durability has become a brane to the concrete surface. The process ability of concrete. Due to the potency
challenging problem facing the industry. is sometimes also attempted through densi- of the crystalline chemicals, only a
In most every case of concrete degradation, fication of the concrete. The ICW method small portion is required to facilitate
the root cause of the issue is the presence of concrete waterproofing has been proven a large amount of crystal growth. The
of moisture or water within the concrete. effective through successful use in virtually chemicals lay dormant so when future
The ingress of deleterious substances into every country in the world. cracks occur, triggering new crystal
concrete takes place through the pore system growth that seals the crack;
in the concrete matrix, or through micro- • Easy To Apply – ICW comes in a
cracks. In order to effectively ensure a concrete
The Science powder form and is conveniently and
structure’s durability, which leads to a longer ICW technology is based on principles that easily added to new concrete at the
lifespan and a more sustainable building, the are very similar to the processes that occur time of batching, either in a ready-mix
concrete must first be effectively waterproofed. during concrete hydration. truck or at the plant. The chemicals
When ICW products are added or applied create a powerful water barrier, which
to concrete, crystalline chemicals facilitate a leaves no need for any surface applied
Surface Applied Membranes reaction that causes long, narrow crystals to product at the jobsite;
As is the case in business, there are often form, filling the pores, capillaries and hairline • Sustainable & Reliable – ICW is
several options to choose from; concrete cracks of the concrete mass. As long as mois- a permanent solution to concrete
waterproofing is no different. One of the ture remains present, crystals continue to grow waterproofing needs. It is impervious
options available on the market is an external throughout the concrete. Once the concrete to physical damage or deterioration,
surface-applied membrane. The membrane has dried, the crystalline chemicals sit dormant and can reduce shrinkage cracking.
is installed after concrete has hardened to until another dose of water (such as through a It’s non-toxic, safe for use in portable
prevent the ingress of water into basements, new crack) causes the chemical reaction known water and contains no volatile organic
foundations, walls, and roofs. However, as crystallization to begin again. compounds (VOCs); and

Concrete pores with ICW. Using an ICW improves the matrix of a concrete Concrete pores without ICW. Courtesy of the University of Seoul.
mix, blocking the flow of moisture. Courtesy of the University of Seoul.
• Saves time & Money – The use of These products are suitable for damproof- provide on-site service and support for major
an ICW admixture can accelerate a ing or above grade water repellency, but projects anywhere in the world.
project’s schedule by eliminating the not suitable for below grade waterproof-
need for a traditional surface applied ing applications.
membrane. Backfilling can begin right An ideal concrete waterproofing system
Conclusion
after concrete has set, lowering the cost should: Integral Crystalline Waterproofing is the
of labor and materials. ICW can also • Reduce the permeability; future of concrete waterproofing worldwide.
be used with structural shotcrete. • Reduce the chance of cracking; and With sustainable building practices increasing
• Improve Self-Sealing ability. in importance, and the lifespan of a structure
Furthermore, the concrete waterproofing intrinsically connected to this movement, a
Where Can ICW Be Used industry redefined their terminology a reliable waterproofing solution that will last
ICW systems have been used in a wide variety short time ago. In fact, American Concrete for the intended life of the concrete structures
of concrete structures across the world. The Institute’s (ACI) 212.3R-10 Report on becomes very important.▪
most common applications include: Chemical Admixture document devoted
• Below-grade foundations, parking Chapter 15 to Permeability Reducing Alireza Biparva, M.A.Sc., LEED
garages, elevator pits, basements; Admixtures that outlines PRAH and PRAN Associate, is research and development
• Bridges & dams; classifications. Permeability Reducing manager/concrete specialist at Kryton
• Tunnels & pipelines; Admixture – Hydrostatic Conditions or International Inc. Alireza oversees several
• Water containment & Aquatic PRAH products are sufficiently able to resist research projects focusing primarily on
facilities; and water under hydrostatic pressure penetration concrete permeability studies and the
• Marine Structures. and are suitable for watertight construction. development of innovative products
ICW has proven to be most effective in areas Conversely, damproofing admixtures are and testing methods for the concrete
exposed to high-hydrostatic pressure, such now referred to as Permeability Reducing waterproofing and construction industries.
as is found in below-grade foundations and Admixture – Non-Hydrostatic Conditions He can be reached at alireza@kryton.com.
water containment tanks. or PRAN. PRAN admixtures reduce water
absorption by repellent chemicals (soap, oils)
or partial pore blocking (densifiers). These The online version of this article
What ICW to use? admixtures are not suitable for concrete contains detailed references. Please visit
A number of companies offer integral exposed to water under pressure and cannot www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
waterproofing products for new and exist- protect in the presence of hydrostatic pressure.
ing concrete structures. These products have Waterproofing against hydrostatic pressure
different chemistries and, more importantly, is an important distinction that sets PRAHs
StruWare, Inc
different levels of performance. When select- apart from PRANs.

ing Integral Crystalline Waterproofing Also, select a crystalline waterproofing Structural Engineering Software
products, it is important not to confuse supplier who can demonstrate a repeated
The easiest to use software for calculating
them with: history of long term success. The manu-
wind, seismic, snow and other loadings for
• Hydrophobic or water repellent facturer should offer a long term warranty
IBC, ASCE7, and all state codes based on
products; such as, water repellent and have the company history to back it.
these codes ($195.00).
soaps, fatty acids (stearates), mineral The manufacturer should be able to provide
oils etc.; accredited third party test results and have CMU or Tilt-up Concrete Walls with &
• Finely divided solids known as achieved industry recognized certifications without openings ($75.00).
densifiers intended to “take up space” for product quality and performance. Floor Vibration for Steel Bms & Joists ($75.00).
and densify the concrete; and Most importantly, because of the ongoing
• Products based on silicates, clays, value of close technical support, be sure to Concrete beams with/without torsion ($45.00).
bentonite, silica or polymers; these select a product from a manufacturer who has Demos at: www.struware.com
offer temporary waterproofing at best. demonstrated the willingness and ability to

Are you taking the
SE exam in April 2015?
Make sure you have the latest design standards before exam day.
The latest design standards are used to develop and score the SE exam. Download the
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core requirements and lifelong learning for structural engineers Education issuEs
Leading the Charge
By Uchenna T. E. Okoye, P.E., LEED AP and Eric Borchers, S.E.
D
o you remember what inspired
you to become a structural
engineer? Did you love build-
ing blocks and toy construction
sets when you were little? Maybe you had a
relative who was an engineer or an architect.
Maybe you loved problem solving, or you
just wanted to build big things.
However you managed to get involved with
this profession of ours, we remain a relatively
small and unique selection of the general pop-
ulation. Our profession is typically not very
well known or en vogue, but it has a strong
impact on the lives of countless people. It is up
to each of us to grow our profession by help-
ing to mold the next generation of engineers
and leaders within the industry. Without a
strong corps of professionals volunteering EAA finalists display their bridges prior to lead testing. Courtesy of EAA.
to teach the next generation, it is possible
that we may inadvertently stifle innovation, and the architecture, engineering, construction The High School Outreach program rep-
suppress fees, and by extension, wages, and (AEC) industry in general. resents a relatively short-term program that
reduce the talent pool due to attrition and The High School Outreach program is can reach multitudes of students and com-
lack of leadership. defined by a 1 to 1½ hour workshop put on munities with the strength of its volunteer
Volunteering in schools is a great way to by design professionals in local schools during core. Start one of your own, or contact your
have a positive impact on students’ lives and the school day. The workshop is generally local MO about getting involved. NCSEA
improve the long-term well-being of our composed of two parts. The first part is a short has even created a guide available on the
profession. Many engineers are already part but comprehensive presentation on structural resources page of their website. The High
of outreach programs that seek to introduce engineering and the AEC industry. The pre- School Outreach Start-Up Guide includes a
students to structural engineering in fun sentation may be customized to emphasize sample presentation and a step-by-step rubric
and meaningful ways. You too can make a engineering challenges typical to the area, for building a base of schools interested in the
difference in as little as a single classroom e.g. earthquakes in California, large snow program. This guide is available for download
session by using the High School Outreach drifts in Montana, or hurricanes in Florida. at www.ncsea.com/resources/documents/.
Program provided by the National Council The second part is a hands-on activity used
of Structural Engineering Associations to strengthen the students’ understanding of
(NCSEA). Engineers Alliance for the Arts some of the structural engineering principles
Engineers Alliance for the Arts
(EAA) and the Architecture Construction detailed in the presentation. This is usually the Another extraordinary way to engage younger
Engineering (ACE) Mentor Program feature fun part. Example activities include gum-drop members of the community is through the
the opportunity for students to learn about and toothpick towers, and chocolate chip Engineers Alliance for the Arts (EAA) organi-
the engineering and design process over a pudding concrete. zation. EAA was founded in 2000 by several
longer in-depth program. All of these pro- The High School Outreach Program is per- San Francisco Bay Area structural engineers
grams serve as catalysts for us to get involved fectly suited to be created and sustained by to introduce engineering concepts specifi-
in raising the next generation of engineers at a volunteering committee within your MO. cally to visual and performing arts students.
varying levels of personal commitment. However, the program excels when a cham- This organization seeks to bridge the gap
pion is found to actively recruit schools with between art-and-architecture and structural
willing teachers, and to organize the volun- engineering, thereby aiding in the develop-
High School Outreach Program teers. Young Members Groups in several ment of well–rounded, unique minds capable
One way to get involved in helping to ensure states have taken on the task of implement- of understanding the world through both an
the longevity of structural engineering, and to ing this program with great success, and engineering and artistic framework.
give back to the community, is to participate in many MO’s have adapted the same basic The flagship program within the organiza-
a High School Outreach Program within your program for both high school students and tion is called the Student Impact Project,
local NCSEA member organization (MO). This middle school students. The recent article in in which volunteer engineers teach in a
program is a simple, fun way for design profes- the August 2014 issue of STRUCTURE by classroom once per week for ten weeks.
sionals to engage with students and teachers and, Barnes and Dos Santos describes one adapta- Volunteers are equipped with a curricu-
in the process, demystify structural engineering tion for the middle school level. lum that has been developed by the EAA

Boston area students race against the clock to build the tallest tower during a Science and craft combine as an EAA bridge begins to take form.
High School Outreach program workshop. Courtesy of EAA.
curriculum committee and is approved by each been successfully used by many design
several school districts in California. The
ACE Mentor Program professionals to inspire and develop some of the
curriculum begins with general engineering The ACE Mentor Program was founded by bright young engineers in firms throughout the
concepts, but students quickly dive deeper Charles Thornton in 1994 in New York City, country today. However, they are by no means
into specific structural systems as they build and it has grown into a national program that exhaustive. If you have a particularly ambi-
and test prototype girder, arch, and suspen- every year mentors over 8,000 high school tious venture, note that NCSEA has recently
sion bridges. Along the way, students also students who are interested in Architecture, launched a grant program whereby interested
learn about efficiency, scale, sustainability, Construction and Engineering. ACE Teams members can apply for funds to advance the
and presentation skills. The program cul- consist of 20-25 students and industry mentors profession through research, outreach, or other
minates with a final project – a physical that represent the project owner (client), the creative means. Any program that can help
scale model bridge and presentation that design disciplines (architecture, civil, structural, introduce developing minds to the profes-
represents each student team’s entry into a mechanical, electrical, and plumbing), and con- sion certainly deserves consideration for such
realistic design competition based on a spe- struction managers. Over the course of a school a grant, whether you wish to begin a brand new
cific scenario. A final competition is held in year, ACE teams develop a design project that program or expand upon any of the oppor-
which students must present their bridge to covers all disciplines, and most teams construct a tunities mentioned in this article. The grant
a group of design professions and sell their model of their design project. At the end of the application can be found at the NCSEA web-
idea as the best. Projects are judged based on season, each team gives a presentation explaining site: www.ncsea.com/resources/documents/.
several factors including structural efficiency, their design to other teams, family members, Applications are due on February 15, 2015,
aesthetics, and student presentation. teachers, prospective mentors, and ACE Board and grants will be awarded on March 15, 2015.
The program is held in such high regard Members and company principals. The actions of engineers like you are what
that there is a long wait list for teachers at The ACE Mentor Program has active will lead our profession to new heights. By
multiple schools around the San Francisco Affiliates in most states that each comprise volunteering your time and expertise, you will
Bay Area. EAA has recently expanded to multiple teams. Each team meets after school become the leader that directs our profession
other U.S. cities due to overwhelming for 2 hours, either weekly or bi-weekly, from and new leaders for decades to come. You have
demand for programs like this from schools, October through May. Many teams have more power than you realize. Take action.
teachers, students, and structural engineering company sponsors which provide funds for Get involved. You will not regret it. It may
professionals alike. As a 10-week program, model materials and refreshments at team even be more fun than running calculations.▪
volunteers make strong connections with the meetings. In addition to developing a proj-
students, but without the commitment of ect, teams take field trips to construction
a full school year. It does take a few hours sites or construction trade apprenticeship Uchenna T. E. Okoye, P.E., LEED AP,
out of your workday, but working with stu- facilities. Finally, many ACE Affiliates offer is an independent professional engineer
dents in local schools and teaching them the college scholarships for promising graduates based in San Francisco currently working
fundamentals of engineering is a reward- of the program who go on to study architec- with Arup Americas. Uchenna is a
ing experience. Finally, by volunteering for ture, construction, or engineering. If you are member of the NCSEA Basic Education
this program you get to ensure the future interested in volunteering, find a local ACE Committee. Uchenna may be reached at
of our profession while also meeting other Affiliate at the ACE Mentor Program Website, uokoye@gmail.com.
design professionals from your area. Please www.acementor.org.
Eric Borchers, S.E., is a senior structural
do not hesitate to start or participate in an
engineer with Arup in San Francisco.
EAA program near you. Visit EAA’s website, Find Your Fit and Eric is a member of the NCSEA Basic
www.eaabayarea.org, for an overview of the
organization and contact EAA Executive
Fund Your Find Education Committee. Eric may be
reached at eric.borchers@arup.com.
Director Kelly Bitzer at eaa@eaabayarea.org These options, which represent a range of
for opportunities to participate in your region. opportunities and time commitments, have

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award winners and outstanding projects Spotlight
Krishna P. Singh Center for Nanotechnology
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
By Brian Falconer, P.E., S.E., SECB
Courtesy of Albert Večerka/Esto.
Severud Associates Consulting Engineers, PC
was an Award Winner for the Krishna P.
Singh Center for Nanotechnology – University
of Pennsylvania project in the 2014 NCSEA
Annual Excellence in Structural Engineering
awards program (Category – New Buildings
$30M to $100M).
A
s a leader in the emerging field of
nanotechnology, the University of
Pennsylvania has opened a ninety- transmission electron microscope (TEM) is The monumental stair is unusual because it is
two million dollar research and housed in a completely isolated, six-sided box a 55-foot long free span stair stringer supported
educational center that will enable researchers construction protected by a three-foot concrete by a twenty-four-inch deep, twenty-foot long
from different disciplines to transcend traditional plinth tied into bedrock and an internal float- cantilever. Though deflection and strength were
boundaries of engineering, medicine, and the ing concrete slab on gravel. This design isolates considerations, similar to the forum, vibra-
sciences. Weiss/Manfredi designed this cutting- the TEM from both vibration and under-slab tion parameters controlled the design. Five
edge building with Severud Associates, a New drainage. In contrast, the clean room bays and twenty-four-inch deep wide flange steel mem-
York City-based structural engineering firm. chase have 52-foot free span beams overhead, bers frame the ten-foot wide stair.
A number of innovative structural design which create a column free space for maxi- The team sought to seamlessly integrate
solutions were used to create the functional and mum flexibility. The general labs are stacked on the architecture and structure together into
aesthetic features of the architecturally complex framed floors. The 34-foot floor beams used in a cohesive whole, both aesthetically and func-
Krishna P. Singh Center for Nanotechnology. the general labs make the space flexible and also tionally. Highly visible public areas such as
The seventy eight thousand square-foot facil- enhance the vibration performance enough to the galleria, forum, and monumental stairs
ity ascends as a spiral to its highest elevation exceed the articulated design criteria. embody some of the most challenging design
ending at the forum, a meeting space that can- Another challenge to constructing the labs elements with major structural components
tilevers 68 feet over the quad and the building’s below grade was the groundwater table, that are strategically concealed. The more
most complex structural design feature. The located only eight feet below grade. To address private laboratory spaces including the char-
forum will be used for lectures, meetings, and this issue, a water-tight, concrete structural acterization, clean room bays, and general labs
receptions that may include activities such as tub was employed to resist the hydrostatic had the most stringent structural performance
dancing, making strength and vibration of pressure of the groundwater. requirements, including column free spans
the floor under dynamic human loading the The galleria and the monumental stair are and strict vibration criteria.
controlling structural design criteria for this two additional structural features requiring Early in the design process, architects devel-
space. The vibration of the floor beams and creative design approaches. The galleria’s oped a three dimensional digital model of the
the overall rhythmic vibration of the room stepping façade – designed as a prefabricated building, which the structural engineers used
are controlled by the stiffness of the trusses, module system to expedite fabrication and to generate a three dimensional structural
the lateral restraint of the braced frame, and installation – has a sloping roof on the south model for analysis and framing. SAP 2000
the caisson foundations. Vertical loads are car- side which slices through the curtain wall was used to perform dynamic modeling for
ried by the two triangular cantilevering trusses plane in two directions. A horizontal truss the vibration analysis of the cantilever.
with hangers to pick up the floor below, and diaphragm is employed at the sloping roof The structurally innovative Center for
horizontal loads are carried by the cantilevering plane to resist the horizontal wind loads on Nanotechnology brings together researchers
metal deck diaphragm at the roof and concrete the curtain wall. The south side of the hori- from both the School of Arts and Sciences and
on metal deck diaphragm at the floor. zontal truss is supported by steel columns on the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
The sensitivity of nanotechnology research, the foundation wall. The north side of the offering them spaces to interact and share their
which requires complete isolation from horizontal truss is more structurally dynamic; knowledge about different disciplines.▪
surrounding elements such as vibration, elec- it is supported by cantilevered beams with
tromagnetic interference, and UV light waves, hanging columns that suspend the truss from Brian Falconer, P.E., S.E., SECB, is a
posed another significant design challenge. above. The hangers and columns are all archi- Principal in the firm Severud Associates.
Strict vibration tolerances had to be observed tecturally exposed structural steel (AESS). In He participates in multiple committees
in order to create a suitable environment for order to match the construction tolerances of the Structural Engineering Institute
researchers’ labs, so the building is setback a of the AESS, slip connections are provided and the Structural Engineers Association
considerable distance from the street and the where the hangers meet the upper roof steel. of New York. Brian can be reached at
elevator cores of surrounding buildings. As The lower roof between the hangers and the bfalconer@severud.com.
the most sensitive of all the equipment, the columns is constructed with AESS tolerances.

GINEERS
EN
ASS
2015 NCSEA Membership NCSEA recognizes and thanks its Partnering

RAL
OCIATI
STRUCTU
Organizations and the following companies,

O NS
NATIONAL COUNCI L
organizations, and structural engineering firms

Partnering Organizations for their Associate, Affiliate and Sustaining
News form the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
memberships in 2014-2015. For information on

CASE SEI (Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE)
becoming an Associate, Affiliate or Sustaining
member, contact Susan Cross at 312.649.4600,
Associate Members ext. 204, or email scross@ncsea.com.
AISC Insurance Institute for Business A listing of all of these members, including
& Home Safety contact information, can be found at
American Wood Council
International Code Council
www.ncsea.com/members/more/.
Bentley Systems, Inc.
Metal Building Manufacturers Assn. Simpson Strong-Tie
Fabreeka International
Schuff Steel Company Steel Tube Institute
Five Star Products
Affiliate Members
AZZ Galvanizing Fibrwrap Construction, L.P. New Millenium Building Systems
Bekaert Headed Reinforcement Corp. (HRC) Powers Fasteners
Blind Bolt Hilti, Inc. Red Seat Software
Cast Connex Corporation Independence Tube Corporation RISA Technologies
Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute ITW Commercial Construction SE Solutions, LLC
North America
Construction Tie Products, Inc. SidePlate Systems, Inc.
Lindapter USA
CSC, Inc. Steel Joist Institute
Microsol
DECON USA Strand7
Nemetschek Scia
Design Data Tekla
Sustaining Members
ARW Engineers DiBlasi Associates, P.C. Martin/Martin, Inc.
Ballinger Dominick R. Pilla Associates Omega Structural Engineers, PLLC
Barter & Associates DrJ Engineering R & S Tavares Associates
NCSEA News
Bennett & Pless, Inc. Dunbar, Milby, Williams, Pittman Ruby & Associates, Inc.
& Vaughan
Blackwell Structural Engineers Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc.
Engineering Solutions, LLC
Burns & McDonnell Sound Structures, Inc.
Gilsanz Murray Steficek
Cartwright Engineers Structural Engineers Group, Inc.
The Harman Group, Inc.
STV, Inc.
Cowen Assoc. Consulting
The Haskell Company
Structural Engineers TGRWA, LLC
Holmes Culley
Criser Troutman Tanner Thornton Tomasetti
Consulting Engineers Kevcor
United Structural Systems Ltd., Inc.
CTL Group Krech Ojard & Associates
Wallace Engineering
DCI Engineers LBYD, Inc. Structural Consultants
Degenkolb Engineers Mainland Engineering Consultants Wheaton & Sprague Engineering, Inc.

NCSEA News
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new Webinar Subscription Plan. For just $750, you can receive
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and has a guarantee that a minimum of ten webinars, and up attend just 10, your cost is $75 per webinar, a savings
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News from the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations

SE Exam Review Course set for
‘Make Your Mark’ Poster Available February and March
The NCSEA SE Exam Review Course, offered by NCSEA in
conjunction with Kaplan Engineering, will be held in February
and March. The Vertical Course is scheduled for February 8–9,
and the Lateral Course will held March 8–9.
The National Council of Examiners for Engineering and
Surveying (NCEES) recently released a code change, so the review
courses are being updated for the April 17–18, 2015 SE exam.
This targeted review assists engineers in preparing for the SE
A terrific new student outreach tool is now available from Exam and includes:
NCSEA. The ‘Make Your Mark’ poster, produced by the Over 28 hours of instruction with an emphasis on building
NCSEA Students & Teachers Advocacy committee, along design:
with the Structural Engineering Institute, can be used to • Including sessions on exam strategy and bridge design
encourage students to pursue a career in structural engineering. • Key topics of structural code
Limited quantities of the poster are available to NCSEA • Efficient analytical methods
Member Organizations and MO members. Contact Joyce • New material in the 16-hour Structural exam
VanWieren, joyce@ncsea.com, with the quantity you would • Typical exam questions
like and the shipping information. • Problem solving techniques
Electronic versions of the poster, along with other resources • Exam day skills
to promote structural engineering to students, can be found • 24/7 playback within a 6 month period - study anytime
on the NCSEA website under the Resources tab, including There are significant discounts available for groups taking the
a sample Outreach Presentation and a new High School course. Log on to www.ncsea.com under Education, for more
Outreach Start-Up Guide. information and to register for the course.
March 31, 2015

NCSEA Webinars AWC’s 2015 Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic
February 10, 2015 – Overview and Changes from Previous Editions
Practical Solutions to Frequently Asked Michelle Kam-Biron, P.E., S.E., SECB, M.ASCE
Welding Questions
More detailed information on the webinars and a registration
Duane K. Miller, Sc.D., P.E.
link can be found at www.ncsea.com.
February 26, 2015
L
EN
RA
The Structural Engineer’s Role in Building

GIN
TU
These courses will award 1.5 hours of continuing education.

UC
EE
STR
RS
NCSEA GINEERS
EN
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ON
IN
NU
ATI
Community Resilience
NTI
Approved for CE credit in all 50 States through the NCSEA

UC
CO
ED
Diamond
Reviewed
ASS
RAL
Chris Poland, S.E. Diamond Review Program. Time: 10:00 AM Pacific, 11:00 AM
OCIATI
STRUCTU
Mountain, 12:00 PM Central, 1:00 PM Eastern.

O NS
NATIONAL COUNCI L

Structures Congress 2015 Technical Sessions
Thursday April 23, 2015
Bridge emerging Trends in Building codes

The Newsletter of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE
Track Bridge PracTice research BlasT and imPacT Technologies educaTion and sTandards
Track Chair Bruce Peterson Cheng Lok Hing Shalva Marjanishvili Colby Swan Sam Kiger Mustafa Mahamid
8:00 AM – Bridge Loads Bridge Assessment and Computational Analysis for Advances in Sustainable The Art and Feel of The State of Design
9:30 AM Health Monitoring Blast Loads Structural Materials Structural Engineering – Loads – a Discussion of
Part 2: Classical Methods ASCE 7-10 Seismic and
of Analysis Proposed Tsunami Loads
10:00 AM – Bridge Analysis Tsunami Structure Validating the Performance Experimental Testing Innovations in Educating What is Next for ASCE
11:30 AM Interaction of Structural Protection with High-Performance Structural Engineers and 7 and ASCE 37?
Against Explosive and Non- Materials Architects
Explosive Threats
2:00 PM – Bridge Design Innovative Bridge Overview of Updates to Emerging Concepts Engineering Education: New Performance-Based
3:30 PM Systems, Analysis “Structures to Resist Effects for Damage-Limiting Innovative Methods Standards for Structures
Techniques and of Accidental Explosions” Seismic Concrete for Preparing the 21st Subject to Fire
Construction UFC 3-340-02, Change 1 Building Systems Century Structural
Methodologies Engineer
4:00 PM – Bridge Replacement and Application of Behavior of Damaged Seismic Centering for Structural Optimization: Verification,
5:30 PM Rehabilitation Remotely Operated Structures Enhanced Resilience From Research/Practice Refinements and
Devices in Assessment to Structural Engineering Background on Codes
of Bridges Education and Loadings
Friday April 24, 2015

concreTe
Bridge disProPorTionaTe emerging comPosiTe and sTrucTural
Track Bridge PracTice research collaPse Technologies cold-formed sTeel
Track Chair Taka Kimura Dennis Mertz Robert Smilowitz Colby Swan Sarah Vaughan Cook Mustafa Mahamid
8:30 AM – Behind the Scenes: Bridge Seismic Design Case Studies of Performance Based Assessing Risk, Innovative Structural Steel
10:00 AM Design and Construction Disproportionate Design of Structures: Developing Strategies, Seismic-Resisting Systems
of the World’s Longest Collapse Analysis Evolution, State-of- and Improving
Floating Bridge the-art, and Understanding of Older
State-of-Practice Concrete Buildings
10:30 AM – New Bridges in Portland Bridge Seismic Analysis Recent Research Performance-Based Concrete Expectations Advances in
12:00 PM on Resistance to Eng. Approaches for Understanding of
Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation of Single Steel Connections
and Multiple Hazards
1:30 PM –
Structural Columns
Historic Bridge Innovative Low Progressive Collapse Corrosion and The Art and Science of Advances and
3:00 PM Rehabilitation in the Damage Bridge Structural Degradation Composite Construction Applications in the
Pacific Northwest Systems for Accelerated SSRC Guide to Stability
Construction in Design Criteria for
Seismic Regions Metal Structures
3:30 PM – Oregon Bridge Seismic Accelerated Bridge The Philosophy Behind Bridge Corrosion Empowering Next The New AISC Design
5:00 PM Retrofit Program Construction the SEI Disproportionate and Deterioration Generation Sustainable Guide 29: Vertical
Collapse Mitigation Standard System Design in Bracing Connections –
Cold-Formed Steel Analysis and Design
Framed Buildings
Saturday April 25, 2015
Bridge emerging Wind and flood

Track Bridge PracTice research BlasT Technologies loading Wind ToPics
Track Chair Taka Kimura Dennis Mertz Shalva Marjanishvili Colby Swan Brian McElhatten Mustafa Mahamid
8:00 AM – Timber Bridges – Design Bridge Innovative Blast Protection of Bridges Measurement, The State of Design Computational and
9:30 AM and Performance Issues Solutions Identification, Loads – a Discussion of Physical Modeling of
and Assessment of ASCE 7-10 Wind and Non-Synoptic Winds
Structural Performance Flood Loads and ASCE (Thunderstorms)
24 Flood Resistant Design
10:00 AM – Case Studies: Results Bridge Foundations Security FaÇades Fire Resilience of Modeling, Understanding, Wind Loading on
11:30 AM of Practical Sensing, and Soil Interaction Bridge Structures: and Designing for Multi-Layered Building
Identification, and Evaluation and Design Wind Effects Envelope and
Monitoring Projects Roofing Systems
Register early and save. For more information including registration and housing,
visit our website at www.structurescongress.org.

Structural Columns
April 23– 25, 2015 – Portland, Oregon www.structurescongress.org
non Building
Tall Buildings Business and
sTrucTures &
Building case and analysis Professional naTural disasTer non sTrucTural
sTudies Wood ToPics ToPics PracTice and resilience comPonenTs
Mark Waggoner Brian McElhatten Paul Mlakar John Tawresey John Silva Greg Soules
Seismic Design of Building Pacific Northwest Optimization in Career Paths for Young Preparing for Natural Innovative Special
Structures in the Pacific Timber Topics Tall Buildings Professionals and Students Disasters Structures: Art in
Northwest Engineering Design
Portland’s South Waterfront Technology Advances and Tall Building Systems ATC-115. Integrating High The Oregon Resilience Advancing Design
Redevelopment Potential Opportunities for Strength Reinforcing Bar Plan – From Legislation to Approaches for Wind
Wood Structures into ACI 318 Bldg. Code; Action Plan Energy Structures
Bringing ACI 318 Bldg.
Code into the 21st Century
Forensic Case Studies Design Practice and Analysis and Design Understanding the Building Community Structural Design of
and Considerations Serviceability Concerns Considerations and Alternative Deliveries: Resilience Using Renewable Energy Systems
for CLT Techniques Discussion of Design/Build Performance-Based
and P3 through Case Study Engineering – Part 1
The Art of Steel Seismic Response of Challenging Issues in Non- Evolving Subjects for the Building Community Wind Loads on Solar Panels
Building Design Timber Buildings Linear Seismic Analysis – A Structural Engineer Resilience Using
Panel Discussion Performance-Based
Engineering – Part 2
non Building
case sPring risk Business and
The Newsletter of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE

sTrucTures and
Building case managemenT Professional naTural disasTer non sTrucTural
sTudies Building ToPics convocaTion PracTice and resilience comPonenTs
Mark Waggoner Brian McElhatten Paul Mlakar John Tawresey John Silva Greg Soules
Steel, Art and Society Vibrations Serviceability Addressing Hidden Risks in How the Future of Structure and Infrastructure Design Considerations for
Today’s Design Contracts Structural Engineering Resilience: Can It Be Structures Crossing or Close
Sees the Future of Quantified? to Fault-Rupture Zones
Structural Engineering
Building Case Studies Advances in Composite How to Succeed Without Advancing Structural Eng. Resilient Design Using Foundations for
Beams, Floors, and Risking it All! through Better Integration Performance-Based Eng. Nonbuilding Structures
Diaphragms of Practice, Education, and Advanced Information
and Research Technologies
Challenges and Complexity Reduction of Carbon Lessons Learned from I am a Structural Engineer – Risk-Based Methods in Performance of
of Air-Rights Structures Emissions from Structural Cases Now What? Structural Design and Ceiling Systems
Building Structures in Litigation Evaluation: Current
Practices and Perspectives
Innovative Building Innovative Technologies for SE Practice for Quality Ethics in Structural Challenges and Solutions Curtain Walls
Systems, Analysis Sustainable Tall Buildings and Profitability Engineering – Design and Towards Risk-Based
Techniques and Construction Inspection Structural and Infrastructure
Construction Performance Assessment
Methodologies and Decision Support
non Building
exPanding The Business and
sTrucTures and
Building case sTrucT. engineer’s Professional naTural disasTer non sTrucTural
sTudies masonry ToPics role in socieTy PracTice and resilience comPonenTs
Mark Waggoner Brian McElhatten John Tawresey John Tawresey John Silva Greg Soules
Design and Aesthetics New Techniques and The Role of Structural Structural Engineering Performance-Based Design Analysis and Testing of
of Non-Traditional Trends for Seismic Design Engineers in Sustainable Licensure for the Next for Extreme Events Nonstructural Components
Structural Materials and Retrofit of Masonry Development and 100 Years
Poverty Reduction
Evaluation and Retrofit Masonry Quality The Inherent Conflicts of Introduction to a New SEI/ Fire Following Earthquake: Floors and Partitions
of Low-Ductility Steel Assurance – Inspection and Litigation and Engineering ASCE Standard for Load and A Sequential Hazard
Braced Frames Testing Requirements and Resistance Factored Design Approach
Recommendations
View the interactive Technical Program, including all presenters

and abstracts at www.structurescongress.org

Donate to the CASE Scholarship Fund!
The ACEC Council of American Structural Engineers (CASE) In addition, the CASE scholarship offers an excellent oppor-
is currently seeking contributions to help make the structural tunity for your firm to recommend eligible candidates. If your
engineering scholarship program a success. The CASE scholar- firm already has a scholarship program, remember that potential
ship, administered by the ACEC College of Fellows, is awarded candidates can also apply for the CASE Scholarship or any other
to a student seeking a Bachelor’s degree, at minimum, in an ACEC scholarship currently available.
The Newsletter of the Council of American Structural Engineers
ABET-accredited engineering program. Your monetary support is vital in helping CASE and ACEC
We have all witnessed the stiff competition from other dis- increase scholarships to those students who are the future of
ciplines and professions eager to obtain the best and brightest our industry. All donations toward the program may be eligible
young talent from a dwindling pool of engineering graduates. for tax deduction and you don’t have to be an ACEC member
One way to enhance the ability of students in pursuing their to donate! Contact Heather Talbert at htalbert@acec.org
dreams to become professional engineers is to offer incentives to donate.
in educational support.
CASE Risk Management Tools Available

Foundation 1: Culture Foundation 2: Prevention & Proactivity
Create a Culture of Managing Risks & Preventing Claims Act with Preventative Techniques, Don’t Just React.
Tool 1-1: Create a Culture for Managing Risks and Tool 2-1: A Risk Evaluation Checklist
Reducing Claims Don’t overlook anything! A sample itemized list of things you
The most comprehensive CASE tool provides sample templates should look for when evaluating a prospective project.
and presentations that aid in creating a culture of risk manage-
Tool 2-2: Interview Guide
ment throughout the firm.
Getting “the right people on the bus” is one of the most impor-
This tool was updated in 2013 to include:
tant things we can do to mitigate risk management and yet we
• Revised PowerPoint presentations, scripts, and sample
never learn about interviewing skills in school. The tool will
statements that allow users to modify for their own use.
CASE in Point
help your firm conduct higher quality interviews and standardize

• Case studies that highlight best practices and procedures
the process among all your staff.
to manage liability and limit risk.
Tool 2-3: Employee Evaluation Templates
Tool 1-2: Developing a Culture of Quality
This tool is intended to assist the structural engineering office in
This tool was developed to identify ways to drive quality into
the task of evaluating employee performance. The evaluations
a firm’s culture. It is recognized that every firm will develop its
provide a method to assess employee performance and serve as
own approach to developing a culture of quality, but following
an integral part of the company’s risk management program.
these 10 key areas offer a substantial starting point. The tool
includes a white paper and customizable PowerPoint presenta- Tool 2-4: Project Risk Management Plan
tion to facilitate overall discussion. This plan will walk you through the methodology for managing
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All of these tools and more are available templates on how to record and track them.
at www.booksforengineers.com.
Tool 2-5: Insurance Management: Minimize Your
Professional Liability Premium
Follow ACEC Coalitions on This tool is designed as a guide to help you provide critical
additional information to the underwriter to differentiate your
Twitter – @ACECCoalitions. firm from the pack.

CASE in Point
NEW!! Standard of Care
White Paper
WANTED
Engineers to Lead, Direct, and Get
The CASE Guidelines Committee has developed a white paper
on Standard of Care now available for free on the CASE website: Involved with CASE Committees!
www.acec.org/case/news/publications/.
Many engineers are licensed and practice in many states; If you’re looking for ways to expand and strengthen your busi-
what is customary in one, may not be so in another. Codes ness skillset, look no further than serving on one (or more!)
and standards are becoming more standardized and national CASE Committees. Join us to sharpen your leadership skills
in nature, meaning more uniformity and perhaps a higher level – promote your talent and expertise – to help guide CASE
of engineering skills across the country. Gone may be the days programs, services, and publications.
when an engineer can really say that “we don’t do that around
We have a committee ready for your service:
here.” Having a good understanding of your legal responsibili-
• Risk Management Toolkit Committee: Develops and
ties is more important than ever!
maintains documents such as business practices manuals
and policies for engineers under CASE’s Ten Foundations
for Risk Management.
ACEC Business Insights Expectations and Requirements
Best Management Strategies in Business of
To apply, you should
Design Consulting Course
• be a current member of the Council of American
CASE is a part of the American Council of Engineering Companies

March 18 – 21, 2015 Dallas, TX
Structural Engineers (CASE)
ACEC’s highly regarded Business of Design Consulting course • be able to attend the groups’ two face-to-face meetings
is a unique playbook for building leadership and managing your per year: August, February (hotel, travel reimbursable)
firm at the most effective levels. The 3½-day agenda is taught by • be available to engage with the working group via email
an experienced faculty of industry practitioners and highlights and conference call
current strategies for a wide array of critical, need-to-know • have some specific experience and/or expertise to
business topics that will keep your business thriving despite a contribute to the group
churning business environment. Topics include how to manage Please submit the following information to htalbert@acec.org
change and build success in performance management, strategic • Letter of interest
planning and growth, finance, leadership, ownership transition, • Brief bio (no more than 2 paragraphs)
contracts and risk management, marketing, and more! Thank you for your interest in contributing to your profes-
For more information and to register for the course, sional association!
www.acec.org/calendar/calendar-seminar/business-of-design-
consulting-dallas-2015/.
CASE Risk Management Convocation in Portland, OR

The CASE Risk Management Convocation will be held in The following CASE Convocation sessions are scheduled to
conjunction with the Structures Congress at the Doubletree take place on Friday, April 24:
by Hilton Downtown Hotel and Oregon Convention Center
7:00 AM – 8:15 AM
in Portland, OR, April 23-25, 2015. For more information and
CASE Breakfast: The Future of Structural Engineering
updates go to www.seinstitute.org.
Sue Yoakum, Donovan Hatem
8:30 AM–10:00 AM
Addressing Hidden Risks in Today’s Design Contracts
Speakers – Rob Hughes, Ames & Gough;
Brian Stewart, Collins, Collins, Muir & Stewart
10:30 AM – 12 Noon
How to Succeed Without Risking It All!
Moderator – John DalPino, Degenkolb Engineers
1:30 PM – 3:00 PM
Lessons Learned From Structural Cases in Litigation
Speaker – Jeffrey Coleman, The Coleman Law Firm
3:30 PM – 5:00 PM
SE Practice for Quality and Profitability – Panel Discussion

Structural Forum opinions on topics of current importance to structural engineers
Is Structural Engineering Education Sustainable?

By Lawrence C. Bank, Ph.D., P.E.
W
ithin the broad field of or may not be covered. There is some exposure Neither of these approaches is likely to
civil engineering, struc- to computer codes, but very little use of the contribute significantly to sustainable devel-
tural engineers have perhaps design features of these codes. opment. The embodied energy in materials
been among the slowest to The master’s degree typically covers more of is a small fraction of the energy consumed
embrace and adopt the concepts of sustain- the same, except in somewhat greater detail over a building’s lifetime, which in turn is
ability in the built environment. Many sit by (e.g., nonlinearity, seismic design, more clas- only a small fraction of the commercial value
with mounting frustration as architects, other sical mechanics) and perhaps an independent of the property, not to mention the income
types of engineers, and urban planners have study or thesis. The doctorate is research- and health costs of the building occupants.
defined “green” agendas for their disciplines, based and typically deals with advanced topics The cost of the structural system in a build-
and successfully embraced and marketed them. of the same type (steel and concrete frames) ing is perhaps 15% of the initial construction
The reasons for this, which are perhaps in great depth and of little immediate value cost, so optimization is unlikely to yield great
understandable, can be traced to the way to the practicing engineer. sustainability benefits. In addition, there has
in which structural engineers are educated, In 1987, sustainable development was defined been significant consolidation in consulting
as well as to the fact that it has been dif- by committee in the United Nations (UN) firms over the last two decades, leading to less
ficult to identify an appropriate vision for Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, need for specialized designers for what are
incorporating sustainability principles into as “development that meets the needs of the now “routine” multi-story building frames.
our practice. In order to define the appropri- present without compromising the ability of One vision for a sustainable future for struc-
ate vision for the future of our profession, future generations to meet their own needs.” tural engineering is to align our teaching,
we need to understand how sustainability Less known is the latter part of the definition research, and practice with the first key con-
emerged from the environmental movement, that “contains within it two key concepts: the cept of sustainable development; i.e., reorient
where it currently is in terms of global devel- concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential our curricula to focus on the knowledge and
opment, and how structural engineers can needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding skills needed to address the needs for safe and
restructure and develop opportunities in this priority should be given; and the idea of limita- resilient infrastructure and housing for the
new sustainable world. tions imposed by the state of technology and three billion people earning less than five US
According to the Department of Labor, there social organization on the environment’s ability dollars per day, many living in informal and
are approximately 258,000 civil engineers in to meet present and future needs.” even illegal settlements. It is disgraceful that
the United States today. The total memberships Since then, sustainable development and sus- we as structural engineers do not yet know
of NCSEA, CASE, and SEI suggest that about tainability science have proceeded along two how to provide meaningful input to solve
40,000 are structural engineers, and most of distinct paths – one focused on the first key these human catastrophes that are a direct
those have a license to practice civil engineering concept, sometimes referred to as the “brown function of the built environment.
as a Professional Engineer (PE). A few states agenda,” including population, pollution, Such a focus will, of course, require a signifi-
require an additional license to practice as a public health, poverty, and property rights; and cant reprioritization and rethinking of every
Structural Engineer (SE). SEI’s report on A the other focused on the second key concept, part of the curriculum. It will require courses
Vision for the Future of Structural Engineering sometimes referred to as the “green agenda,” in social sciences, environmental sciences,
and Structural Engineers: A Case for Change including the Triple-Bottom-Line, P3, and geography, world cultures, and economics.
suggests that there is considerable angst in the LEED. Today these two streams are expressed However, it will bring back to the profession
SE community regarding the future. in the UN’s Millennium Development Goals – and especially to students – a sense of mis-
The structural engineering curriculum (MDG) and Intergovernmental Panel on sion and purpose, akin to those now studying
typically consists of courses in engineering Climate Change (IPCC) reports. environmental engineering and sustainability
mechanics and linear structural analysis. These In the US, sustainability in structural engi- sciences of various types. It will make us rel-
are often taught using textbooks first published neering has focused primarily on the second evant again.▪
in the 1960s (or earlier) and are based on the key concept and has worked toward the green
theory of structures from the late 18th century agenda. On the materials side, this has typi- Lawrence C. Bank, Ph.D., P.E.
to the early 20th century. There is usually only cally been manifested in life-cycle assessment (lbank2@ccny.cuny.edu), is a professor
one course in materials. Design of steel and (LCA) and embodied energy; decreasing in the Department of Civil Engineering at
concrete structures is taught from textbooks greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from the City College of New York. This article
from the 1950s and is based on the AISC and cement production; and using recycled mate- is based on the 2014 Landis Lecture in
ACI codes, respectively. The emphasis is on rials, primarily steel. On the structural side, Structural Engineering at the University
framed multi-story buildings and short-span the main effort has been the optimization of of Pittsburgh.
bridges. Other commonly used materials may framing systems to use less material.
Structural Forum is intended to stimulate thoughtful dialogue and debate among structural engineers and other participants in the design and
construction process. Any opinions expressed in Structural Forum are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of NCSEA,
CASE, SEI, C 3 Ink, or the STRUCTURE® magazine Editorial Board.

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