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Button Mushroom Cultivation

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 Button Mushroom
Cultivation

Nazir A. Munshi
Gh. Hassan Dar
M.Y. Ghani
Shaheen Kauser
Najeeb Mughal

Division of Plant Pathology

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology of Kashmir
Shalimar, Srinagar-191 121 (J&K) India
 Printed : May 2010

Published by : Communication and Publication Centre

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology of Kashmir
Shalimar
Srinagar 191 121
Jammu and Kashmir

Laser typeset by Xpedite Computer Systems, D-20, 2nd Floor, Ranjit Nagar Commercial
Complex, New Delhi 110 008 and printed at M/s Print Process, 225 DSIDC Complex,
Phase-I, Okhla Industrial Area, New Delhi 110 020.
 Foreword

Mushrooms are high protein low fat fungi of great economic value. In
modern times when human being is concerned about cholesterol and
coronary health conditions mushrooms serve as a very good diet
supplement. For vegetarian people mushrooms are the gift of Nature.
Several kinds of edible mushrooms are available in the country, many of
them are grown in-house and many like Guchi collected from forests
and fetch good income to the people involved in this business. Button
mushroom are widely cultivated and marketed as people like it most.
However, flat head Pleurotus mushrooms are commercially cultivated
and marketed. Chinese people have a great liking for Pleurotus as well
as button mushrooms.
The Division of Plant Pathology as advised took initiative and established
mushroom production, training and research unit under the aegis of
SKUAST-K at Shalimar. Mushroom Research and Training Centre (MRTC)
has trained a good number of people from all corners of Kashmir valley;
many of them, including women, are producing and marketing mushrooms
as self-employment activity. MRTC prepares a substantial quantity of spawn
thus facilitates mushroom production activity in Kashmir valley.
I am very happy that experience at Shalimar on button mushroom
production has been documented in the form of a technical bulletin. It is
very informative, comprehensive and well-written and provides relevant
details about all aspects of button mushroom cultivation in temperate
regions. I compliment Prof. G.H. Dar and Dr. N.A. Munshi and their
associated for this publication. I am sure that mushroom growers and
traders will find it informative and useful.

Prof. Anwar Alam

Vice-Chancellor
 Contents

1. Introduction 1
2. Cultivation of Button Mushroom 3
– Compost preparation 4
– Spawn-run 12
– Casing 14
– Cropping and harvesting 16
– Marketing 19

3. Common Diseases and Pests of Mushroom and their 20

Management
– Mushroom diseases and their management 20
– Mushroom pests and their management 25

4. Economics of Mushroom Cultivation 28

 Introduction

The cultivation of edible mushrooms is a biotechnological intervention

for the conversion of various lignocellosic agro-wastes into proteins. The
commercial mushroom cultivation is an appropriate agribusiness, suiting
the agro-climatic conditions of Jammu and Kashmir State. Its cultivation
involves low-cost eco-friendly technology wherein locally available farm
wastes are utilized as raw material. The temperate climate conditions
prevailing in Kashmir valley are quite conducive for mushroom cultivation
almost throughout the year. Added advantage is that the venture is least
dependent on electricity. Being a labour intensive indoor activity,
mushroom cultivation generates sufficient employment for unemployed
youth and provides support to women folk and other weaker section of
the society.
Mushrooms not only contribute in meeting the human food requirement
but also have enormous medicinal and pharmaceutical value. Mushrooms
are well-suited to supplement diets which lack proteins and in sense
they are rightly called “vegetable meat”. Carbohydrate and fat contents of
edible mushrooms are quite low. Owing to these attributes, these serve
as low-caloric diet recommended to heart patients. The absence of starch
in mushroom makes it an ideal food for diabetic patients and owing to its
cholesterol-reducing property, mushrooms are ideal for the persons
worried about their fattiness. The polysaccharides present in mushrooms
have anti-tumour and immunological properties. The vitamin contents in
mushrooms are comparable with most vegetables. Mineral contents in
mushrooms are higher than fruits and vegetables.
In advanced countries like USA, Japan and China a large number of
medicines (mushroom neutriceuticals) are prepared from mushrooms in
the form of tablets, capsules and extracts which fetch revenue worth
billions of dollars. This second potential use of mushroom industry is
expected to become a dominant segment as the trend to use mushrooms
for medicinal use is on rise with wider consumer satisfactions and
acceptability. These two segments of mushroom industry will not compete
but will compliment each other.
About 2,000 species of macrofungi are reported to be prime edible

1
mushrooms, but only about 80 species are grown experimentally, 40
cultivated economically, around 20 cultivated commercially and only 5
produced on an industrial scale. Among the commercially cultivated
mushrooms, white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is extensively
cultivated throughout the world and contributes more than 40% of the
total 4.0 million metric tonnes of mushrooms produced world-wide.

2
 Cultivation of
Button Mushrooms
Button mushrooms can be cultivated commercially anywhere in the valley
as the essential environmental conditions required are easy to maintain
and requisite raw material, both substrate and supplement, are readily
and locally available. Mushroom cultivation involves two types of activities
viz., outdoor and indoor activities.
Outdoor activities: These include pre-wetting of substrate and
composting which can be done in any season. But during indoor activity
temperature requirement for spawn-run (vegetative growth) is 22 to 25°C
and for crop production (fructification) 14 to 18°C. If temperature is too
low, spawn-run will be either retarded or arrested and if it is too
high, weed-fungi (competitor fungi) will grow. The mushroom
requires nearly saturated atmosphere with moisture (relative humidity of
85–90%). However, direct application of water on compost during
spawn-run is injurious to the crop. To ensure healthy crop, production
rooms must have proper ventilation as it maintains congenial environmental
conditions and circulates adequate fresh air. During crop production CO2
level should not go more than 0.10 to 0.15% which can be maintained by
giving 4 to 6 air charges/hour or introducing 10 cubic ft fresh air per sq ft
bed area/hour. Drought must be avoided as it will cause rapid desiccation.
At the same time rooms should have sufficient protection and insulation
so that it is not subjected sudden fluctuation in temperature.
The congenial environmental conditions for spawn-run and crop
production in the valley is observed from 15th February to 15th May and
from 1st September to ending November (a temperature of 22-25°C for
first 15 days can be maintained with the help of sawdust-based heating
stoves locally called ‘bukharies’). It means that composting for first crop
should start in the first week of January and for second crop in the last
week of July.
For cultivation of white button mushroom following steps are required:
(i) Compost preparation
(ii) Spawn-run
(iii) Casing
(iv) Cropping and harvest
(v) Marketing
3
 COMPOST PREPARATION

Compost is a selective decomposed substrate for growing white button

mushroom. Composting leads to indefinite microbial degradation of organic
wastes. The process of composting involves microbial decomposition of
organic material, synthesis of microbial protein and conditioning of fibrous
materials to absorb and retain moisture. The microbial action not only
induces changes in the physical and chemical properties of compost but
also minimizes the growth of competitive microbes.
The quality of mushroom compost depends on:
● Nature and quality of basic material

● Organic and in organic supplements

● Management of compost during composting

● Nature and quality of basic material: The basic raw material for

mushroom production is straw. Traditionally, mushroom producers

use wheat straw and mule dung from stables. But now a day’s baled
straw and poultry manure is used as substitutes to mule dung.
Complete omission of mule dung gave birth to “synthetic compost”.
In Kashmir wheat or paddy straw is mostly used as substrate for
mushroom production. However, SKUAST-K has developed
technology for utilization of low-cost agro-wastes like linseed straw,
maize straw, soybean straw, paddy husk and fallen leaves of chinar,
apple, poplar and mulberry for the production of button and dhingri
mushrooms.
● Organic and inorganic supplements: In synthetic compost, the

nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium should be present in a definite

ratio. For good compost, the C : N ratio must be about 17 : 1. The
amount of nitrogen supplement is calculated in such a way so as to
maintain total nitrogen content of 2.0 to 2.5% in the starting material.
Organic nitrogen sources are always better than inorganic ones because
they, besides nitrogen, supply carbon, potassium, phosphorus and exhibit
better heating capacity. Cotton seed meal, linseed meal, soybean meal
wheat bran, wheat flour, ground rye grains, rice bran, molasses, corn
syrup and fruit concentrates are easily available organic nitrogen sources.
Inorganic nitrogen substances like ammonium salts, cyanomide and urea
are also used but special precautions are required for using nitrates.
The poultry manure can be used as replacement to some part of the
organic nitrogen supplement to achieve good yield. It also adds a
significant amount of fine dry matter to the compost which helps in the
improvement of its texture. The compost should have definite dry matter:
water: air ratio during composting in order to have an optimum heating
4
of compost. If straw in synthetic compost is very fine, less poultry manure
should be used. The composting process must, therefore, be regulated in
such a manner which yields higher amounts of protein and minimum
ammonia.
Keeping all the requirements in view SKUAST-K have evolved two
composting formulae SK-3A and SK-3B based on locally available
substrates and supplements for optimal production of quality mushroom.
The quantity of ingredients required in SK 3-A for preparing compost for
65 polythene bags of 10 kg capacity is as under:

Ingredient Quantity

Wheat straw 300 kg

Poultry manure 200 kg
Rice bran 50 kg
Corn liquor 5 litres obtained from 5 kg maize grain
Linseed meal 7 kg
Urea 5 kg
Potash 2 kg
Gypsum 10 kg

In case of SK 3-B the ingredients are same except that 300 kg wheat
straw is replaced with 400 kg paddy straw and the amounts of poultry
manure and gypsum are enhanced from 200 kg to 300 kg and 10 kg to 15
kg, respectively.
● Management of compost during composting: There are two main

methods of composting, viz., long method and short method. The

long method takes about 35 to 40 days whereas short method takes
only 22 to 26 days.

Long method composting

The compost is prepared on well-cleaned, preferably cemented floor,
either in open field or under a shed. If composting in done in open field
then heap has to be protected from rains by covering it with water or
terpelene. Composting can also be done inside in a well ventilated room.
Straw is first chopped into pieces of 20 to 30 cm size. Then straw is either
spread on floor and wetted thoroughly by sprinkling water over it or
kept overnight in water filled drums or tubs. Poultry manure, rice bran
and other ingredients except gypsum are mixed with wet straw and stacked
into piles of 1.5 m height and 1.0 m width. The heap is then compressed
by applying light pressure. The ingredients can also be applied to wet
straw layer by layer while raising the pile.

5
 The pile can also be made with the help of a wooden mould. It has
three wooden boards, one end board and two side boards. The side
boards can be attached with the end boards by clamps. The mixed compost
ingredients are put in the mould and slightly compressed. The side boards
are detached from the end board and are moved forward length-wise.
Again mixed ingredients are put in the mould. This way long pile of
compost can be made. If a long pile is made then perforated pipes are
placed vertically in the pile for aeration. It is essential to turn the pile
many times as per the below given schedule. The turning should be given
in such a manner that every portion of compost should come in the centre
where faster decomposition occurs and compost is subjected to maximum
heating which is necessary for management of pests and diseases.

Stack the heap 0 day

1st turning 7th day
2nd turning 14th day
3rd turning 21st day
4th turning 28th day add 10 to15 kg gypsums
5th turning 32nd day spray with meinaticide
Final turning 35th day spray with insecticide

After each turning, water should be sprinkled to make up the water

loss due to evaporation. Compost when ready for spawning should have
following qualities:
● Light brown in appearance

● No smell of ammonia

Chopping of paddy straw

6
 Wetting of chopped paddy straw

Keeping chopped paddy straw over night in drums filed with water

Making compost (with hands)

7
 When lightly squeezed in the hand the moisture in compost should be
released in the form of little dampness only and the compost fragments
should only just bind together.

The compost should be fully decomposed and have C : N ration of

17 : 1 and moisture contents of 65–70%. If during composting moisture is
low, bacterial action is arrested and nitrogen escapes as ammonia

Pressing compost pile (with the help of wooden boards)

Staking compost pile (with the help of wooden mould)

8
 Compost staked into pile (about 1½ meter in height)

Turning of compost pile Opening compost pile (after observing brown

colour, checking NH3 smell and pH value)

9
 Compost pile opened

and other volatile forms of nitrogen. At a very high moisture

level, anaerobic conditions set in and which brings down the
decomposition process.

Short method composting

The process of conversion of straw mixture into a suitable selective
medium through composting (or fermentation) occurs in two distinct
phases, viz., phase-I and phase-II.
In phase-I after pre-wetting and mixing of raw material, as in long
method, heap is induced to initiate the quick composting process. The
stacks are made in open or under open-sided compost sheds. The material
is turned several times. This phase lasts for 10–12 days after pre-wetting.
The temperature of the central portion of stack reaches 65–70°C, enough
to kill most of the pests and competitor/ parasitic moulds. However, the
outer layers of pile do not attain such temperature.
Phase-II composting is referred as ‘peak-heating or pasteurization or
sweat-out’. The composting process is carried out under controlled
environmental conditions and continued until compost is judged
nutritionally suitable and selective for the growth of mushroom
mycelium. This phase normally lasts for 10–12 days. It is primarily
the control of environment that distinguishes phase-II from phase-I.
The conditioning of compost takes place at approximately 52°C.

10
This process is mostly performed in specially designed bulk chambers
or pasteurization rooms. Since this facility is not available with our
growers in rural areas SKUAST-K has developed a low cost method
for carrying out phase-II composting. The procedure of composting is
as under:

Chopping : Straw is chopped into pieces of 20–30 cm length.

Pre-wetting : Chopped straw is spread on the floor and thoroughly wetted
by sprinkling water over it or kept over-night in water filled
drums or tubs.

Phase-I
Day-4 All ingredients, except urea and gypsum, are mixed
with wetted straw. Heap of mixed straw is raised in
such a manner that after every 30 cm thick layer, mixed
straw in heap is pressed tightly to favour anaerobic
fermentation.
Day-2 1st turning is given, urea mixed and compressed heap
again raised.
Day-0 2nd turning is given and pile made without any pressure
to favour aerobic decomposition.
Day-2 3rd turning
Day-4 4th turning
Day-6 5th turning

Phase-II
Day-8 Sixth turning is given and heap completely covered
with double layer of black plastic terpelene. Perforated
pipes (10 cm dia.) one kept in the pile horizontally
and vertically at a distance of 30 cm in such a way that
reach to the interior of heap so as to favour continuous
fresh air circulation for aerobic decomposition. Proper
aeration helps in conversion of ammonia into microbial
protein and pasteurization kills pests and pathogens
and makes the substrate suitable only for mushroom
growth.

11
Day 20 Removal of terpelene covering 7th turning and mixing
of gypsum.
Day 22 Turning and opening of pile.
Day 23 Filling of compost in containers. Spawning should be
done immediately with a rapid decline of compost
declines temperature to 25°C.
Note: Chopped straw is better than unchopped as the straw length of
composting period is influenced by the nature and size of fibrous material
as well as by the aeration of compost pile. Further, the size of pile also
affects the yield. Smaller piles have relatively large surface area for
exposure thus almost all the parts of pile receive good aeration. At each
turning watering is done to favour faster decomposition.

Heap covered with double layered polythene and pipes inserted for aerobic decomposition
(after 6th turning)

SPAWN-RUN

Once the compost has been prepared either by long or short method, it
is ready for spawning with mushroom mycelium. Spawn (mushroom
mycelium) is prepared on sterilized wheat grains which needs
regular quality check and is produced only in well established
spawn laboratories by concerned specialists. The success of mushroom

12
cultivation and its yield much depends on the purity and quality of the
spawn used.
Spawning is the process of mixing the spawn with compost. Spawn is
added to compost at the rate of 0.5% by weight and intimately mixed.
Depending up on the growing system employed spawning is done by
various methods.
1. Double layer spawning: Spawning is done in two stages, 1st by
scattering the spawn on beds when half-filled with compost and
then after the complete filling of containers. The spawn is gently
pressed and containers covered with newspaper sheets.
2. Top layer spawning: In this case the spawn is planted just on the
surface after filling the container with compost up to brim. Then a
thin layer of compost is spread out over the spawn. This method is
preferred if compost is more wet.
3. Through spawning: The spawn grains are mixed throughout the
compost.
4. Shake up spawning: In this case compost is thoroughly shaken
up after one week of spawning and replaced in containers. After
that either it is cased at once or few days later.
5. Spot spawning: The grain spawn is put in the holes at certain
distance with a pointed stick or fingers. Care is taken to ensure the
close contact of inoculum with the surrounding compost so that
mycelium develops quickly.
The environmental conditions required for successful spawn-run are:
(i) A compost temperature of about 24°C;
(ii) High relative humidity to prevent the compost from drying;

Spawn of white button mushroom

13
 Spawning and filing of compost in polythene bags

(iii) Carbon dioxide level up to 2% which can be achieved by re-

circulating air within the spawn running room;
(iv) Room temperature of 22 to 25°C during spawn-run;
(v) Watering, if necessary, to be done by spraying water on
paper;
Spawn-run takes 10 to 15 days for complete colonization of the compost.
Spawn taken directly from the growing room (fresh spawn) grows faster
than the spawn kept stored at 2°C.

CASING

To promote sporophore production in button mushroom, a relatively

biological inert material is added as surface layer to the fully colonized
compost. This casing layer is usually 3.8 to 5.0 cm deep and usually
applied after approximately 2 weeks of spawning. This casing layer must
have a neutral or alkaline pH. In addition to the stimulation of fruiting,
the casing provides anchorage for the sporophores and serves as water
holding reserves. Casing layer prevents quick drying of spanned compost.
After casing is complete, a period called “case-running” follows wherein
casing itself is colonized by mycelium. Optimal environmental conditions
for two mycelial-run phases are essentially the same. A bacterium named
Pseudomonas putida has been found active in promoting the fruiting in
button mushroom. The activity of P. putida in casing soil is the result of

14
environment created by growing mycelium. It is suggested that P. putida
releases iron which stimulates fructification.
A number of mixtures could be used as casing soil. They are:
1. Soil: peat mixture in 2 : 1 or 3 : 1 ratio
2. Soil and sand mixture in 2 : 1 ratio
3. Well-rotten cow dung mixed with light soil in 3 : 1 ratio.
It is advisable to procure soil from barren land.

Characteristics of casing material

(a) It should have good water holding capacity;
(b) It should have good aeration capacity;
(c) Its texture should not be altered by watering;
(d) It should be neutral in reaction (pH between 7.0 and 7.5);
(e) It should be free from diseases, insects and un-decomposed
vegetables matter.

Sterilization of casing soil

Soil is home of many micro-organisms including competitor and parasitic
moulds. To use it as a casing material it is essential to sterilize it in such
a way that harmful micro-organisms get killed. Sterilization of casing
material is done either by chemicals or heat. Sterilization may also be
done by passing steam from boiler into soil through perforated pipes.
The temperature is raised to 60°C and maintained for 5 hours.

Chemical sterilization
Soil is commonly sterilized by the application of 2% formalin
(formaldehyde). About 500 ml formalin is diluted with 10 liters of water

Peat

15
 Casing soil (Mixing peat and garden soil)

and used for 1 cubic meter of casing soil. The casing material is spread
over a plastic sheet and sprayed with formalin. The treated soil is piled
up in a heap and covered with another plastic sheet for 48 hours. The
soil is then uncovered and stirred frequently to remove the traces of
formalin fumes. This casing material is fit for use on week after treatment,
when it is free form smell of formalin.

Soil solarization
Solarization of casing material reduces the population of competitor
and parasitic moulds to a large extent. Casing material is spread over
plastic sheet to a depth of 5 cm after light spray with water over casing
material. It is covered by transparent polythene sheet and kept in such
condition of 30 days.
Casing should be done evenly otherwise the portions where casing
soil is thin, mycelium will come up and stoma will be formed which may
hinder the pin head formation. Further in case of uneven casing, watering
will also be uneven.

CROPPING AND HARVEST

Once the mycelium has reached the surface of casing, mushroom is

induced to fruit by reducing air temperature to 16–18°C and carbon dioxide
concentration in air to 1,000 ppm. A fine spray of water should be given
over the casing to maintain 70–80% humidity. It is essential that fresh air

16
should circulate over and around the container or tiers. Excessive humidity
during cropping should be avoided because it results in heavy
concentration of carbon dioxide. More the volume of mushroom grown
in a room, more will be the need of fresh air.
Mushroom fruiting occurs in well-defined flushes or breaks. The first flush
begins about 3 weeks after casing and continues to do so at almost weekly
intervals. It generally takes 7 to 8 days to reach button stage from the first
appearance of pin heads. The humidity of mushroom house will determine
whether there is any need of watering the bed. If the atmosphere is dry
then frequent watering is essential. Watering should be done in the form of
gently spray with a fine jet, otherwise the casing soil may get disturbed,
hard pans on the surface may develop and oxygen supply will be affected.
Mushrooms are picked up by gentle twisting of mushroom head clock-
wise and anti-clock-wise and then mushroom is pulled up very softly. If
there are many pin heads around a mushroom to be picked, then it is
advisable to cut the mushroom with the help of a sharp-edged knife, so
that nearby pins do not get disturbed. When all the mushrooms of the
desired size have been picked up, the holes formed should be filled up
with sterilized soil immediately. The surface of bed should be kept leveled
and wherever new casing has been disturbed it should be made firm by
giving a gently pat. The duration of cropping varies depending up the

Mushroom crop in polythene bags Mushroom crop in aluminum trays

Mushroom crop baskets Mushroom crop in plastic trays

17
 Mushroom crop in wooden trays

Mushroom crop in plastic trays kept on shelves in a well ventilated bit room

prevailing circumstances. In case of tray system it varies from 6 to 7

weeks and in case of shelf system from 6 to 8 weeks. In large commercial
farms four or five flushes are picked before the crop is removed to make
raise next crop. The individual flushes tend to produce progressively
fewer mushroom. The greatest weight of mushroom are normally produced
in the first flush.
In Kashmir valley mushroom cultivation is done as an indoor activity
in rooms of residential houses. But specially built mushroom houses
without any environmental control system or provision of pasteurization

18
 Mushroom crop in plastic trays kept on shelves in a well ventilated bit room

facilities also exist. Growers use tray system, shelf system or bag system.
Trays vary considerably in size but are mostly of 0.9 × 1.2 m size and
15–23 cm deep. In shelf system compost is filed into shelves, about three
or four tiers high. Presently mushroom cultivation is mostly done in
polythene bags of 10 kg capacity. However, mushroom cultivation may
be done in any type of container whether polythene bag, polythene
trays, plastic trays, aluminum tray, wooden boxes, used fruit boxes cement
bags and in peeled willow baskets (covered with polythene sheet).

MARKETING

Mushrooms are sold either in fresh form or canned/freeze-dried form.

Fresh mushroom are packed in low density polythene bags and sold in
open market. Their shelf life is barely 2 days. Cannel and freeze-dried
mushrooms can remain even for one year but freeze drying is costly
technology.

19
Common diseases and pests of
mushroom and their management
Like other agricultural crops, mushrooms are also subject to many biotic
and abiotic stresses which hinder its profitable cultivation. Among the
various biotic agents inflicting considerable damage to mushrooms include
fungi, bacteria, nematodes, insects and mites. Abiotic factor such as
temperature, relative humidity and high or low moisture content in
compost and casing may exhibit adverse effects on mushroom
growth and development and render the crop vulnerable to diseases and
pests.

MUSHROOM DISEASES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Many deleterious fungi are encountered in compost and casing materials
during the cultivation of white button mushroom. Some of them act as
competitor moulds and the influence spawn-run whereas others attack
fruiting bodies at various stages of growth. Depending upon the stage
and severity of infection, quality of compost and the prevailing
environmental conditions, these moulds often cause complete crop failure.
In Kashmir valley piles are raised in open on un-cemented floor during
mushroom cultivation. Pasteurization of compost and casing is not done
properly. Spawn-run and mushroom production is done in the same
room. These rooms are generally ill-ventilated and possess ill-hygienic
standards. The crop is subjected to the vagaries of temperature fluctuation
as no proper insulating material is used. The growers are untrained, a
situation inviting a number of weed fungi, parasitic moulds and
abnormalities. The most common diseases and abnormalities are as under:

Weed fungi or competitors

Green mould (Trichoderma viride)

This mould disease appears as thick cushioned white patch with
greenish fungal growth on spawned and cased bags which gradually
change to bluish green in colour. If this fungus attacks the spawned
trays, the spawn-run is affected. If it appears on casing soil, the pin-head
formation of mushrooms is retarded. The green mould fungus is a vigorous

20
colonizer of organic material and dead mushroom tissue. Improper phase-
II composting and high humidity are also responsible for the spread of
this disease. The spores of this fungus are carried away by air, water and
careless handling.

False truffle disease (Pseudobalsamia microspora or Diehliomyces

microspora)
This disease is more prevalent in summer. The fruiting body of this
fungus appears in mushroom beds as a round, cream-coloured, wrinkled
and convoluted surface depicting brain-like appearance. The mushrooms
in bed and top of casing soil are characteristically small (resembling
fused pinheads). These bodies on maturity turn reddish brown and release
spores. Lack of ventilation and high humidity are the main factors favouring
the appearance of this disease. The only control measures are to minimize
temperature fluctuations and provide adequate ventilation. The spawn-
run temperature and cropping bed temperature should not exceed 22°C.
High humidity in mushroom houses should be avoided.

Brown plaster mould (Populaspora byssina)

The disease appears as large roughly circular patches of white mould
on the surface of casing material. These patches later on turn brown and
form powdery granules which can be easily recognized under a hand
lens. The fungus also colonizes compost. The presence of fungus has
been associated with wet compost. This disease is commonly found in
mushroom farms of the valley and if uncontrolled it cause drastic reduction
in mushroom production. For disease control prepare compost properly.
Also, provide proper watering and maintain suitable temperature during
spawn-run and cropping.

Inky caps (Coprinus spp.)

The fungi with long slender stalks and thin cap appear either on compost
heap or in compost bags before casing in production room. The fungus
develops rapidly and decays in a black liquid. The mycelium of this
fungus is grey and in-distinguishable from mushroom mycelium. Inky
cap appearance is considered as an indication of under-composting and
presence of excessive ammonia or high nitrogen in compost. These fungi
deplete food material from compost and hamper spawn run and yield.

Cinnamon mould (Peziza spp.)

The association of Cinnamon mould is attributed to the use of peat in
casing mixture. This mould appears as small dark brown, gelatinous

21
disc- or cup-shaped circular structures (apothecia) which are about 1 cm
across. Mostly few solitary fruiting bodies are produced but in some
cases un-restricted growth of fungus appear as circular colonies which
are initially grey white but soon turn brown. Cinnamon mould is a nuisance
besides causing crop loss.

Parasitic moulds (parasitic diseases)

Wet bubble disease (Mycogone perniciosa)

Wet bubble disease is characterized by the development of white felt-
like mycelial growth on fruiting bodies of button mushroom. It spreads
and covers the entire cap. The sporophores are eventually reduced to a
white, soft and foul smelling mass. The disease is also characterized by
the development of distorted masses of mushroom tissues, which initially
are white and fluffy but become brown with age and then decay. These
distorted mass called ‘Sclerodamoid mass’ when mature may be up to 10
cm across. Mushrooms are attacked at the base of stalk and disease may
cause brown discoloration and decay.

Dry bubble disease (Verticillium fungicola, V. malthousei, V. psalliotae)

Dry bubble disease symptoms vary with the age of mushroom. In case
of early infection disease appears on mushrooms as small and
undifferentiated masses of tissue upto 2 cm in dia. When disease affects
the crop at later stage they are often imperfectly formed with partially
differentiated cap or with distorted stipes and titled caps. Such affected
mushrooms are covered in a fine white grey mycelial growth and although
discoloured they are dry and do not rot. Occasionally, more fully
differentiated mushrooms are affected and they show small pimple like
out-growth from the top of cap or blue grey spots (1–2 cm dia.) on the
cap surface. Such spots often have yellow or bluish-grey halo around
them. Downward splitting of stipe gives it shattered appearance.
Contaminated casing is probably the most common initial source of
Verticillium on mushroom farms. Primary introduction may also be
through air borne spores as well as by the spores carried by flies, mites
or pickers.

Cobweb disease (Cladobotryum dendroides syn. Dactylium dendroides)

The disease exhibits characteristic coarse mycelial growth over the
affected mushroom, hence is named as cobweb disease. Mushrooms are
attacked at any developmental stage. The pathogen rapidly colonizes
mushroom which eventually turns brown and rots. The mycelium colour

22
of pathogen changes to pink or red and the cobweb appearance is replaced
by a mycelial mat. Brown or pink-brown spots with poorly defined edge
are associated with the disease. The pathogen is a soil inhabiting fungus
and may be introduced into casing through soil or through spores or
mycelium of the pathogen spread on debris. Unless the spore inoculum
is heavy the disease mostly appears in later flushes of crop.

Management of Weed fungi and Parasitic Moulds

The effective management of diseases caused by competitator and
parasitic moulds can be achieved by following the practices mentioned
as under:
Prophylactic measures: It is always preferable to prevent the entry
of pathogenic inoculum into the mushroom production chain. Once the
pathogens gain entry, it is difficult to eliminate them without chemical
use—a practice which needs to be avoided in a crop to be consumed
within a short period (a few days) after harvest. The various prophylactic
measures need to be adopted:
1. Proper sanitation and maintaining hygienic conditions are primary
requirements for successful mushroom production. Keep away all
the materials which may help in the establishment of pathogenic
organisms/insect-pests in mushroom production chain. The
mushroom production rooms and trays should be sterilized with 2%
formaldehyde solution after every crop;
2. Use clean water for wetting the straw during compositing;
3. Prepare compost under roof cover and turning of compost should
be in such a manner that the whole pile gets decomposed otherwise
there is every apprehension that any undecomposed material left in
pile may harbour pathogenic organisms/pests. Improper
decomposition also hampers the spawn-run and mushroom
development.
4. Maintain proper moisture content in compost. High or low moisture
content in compost may favour development of unwanted fungi.
5. Don’t prepare compost directly on bare soil surface. It should be
prepared either on cemented or puka floor.
6. Pasteurize and condition the compost properly so that pathogenic
inoculums and other pests are eliminated.
7. Maintain proper temperature and relative humidity during spawn-
run and casing. It ensures optimum production of mushrooms and
also restricts the growth of unwanted fungi.

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 Table 1. Management practices against common diseases of button
mushroom

Disease Causal organism Management

Dry bubble (i) Verticillium • Heat treatment of infected casing layer at
fungicola 63°C for one hour.

(ii) V. malthousei • Use Dithane Z-78 @ 0.25–0.5% at the time

of casing, pin head formation and after the
(iii)V. psalliotae crop flushes.

Wet bubble Mycogone perniciosa • Remove diseased mushrooms and sterilize

beds with 2% formalin;
• Spray benomyl @ 0.5 g/m2 immediately
after casing.

Cinammon Peziza sp. • Apply Dithane Z-78 @ 0.25–0.5% after

mould casing;
• Maintain proper moisture content in casing
layer.

Inky caps Coprinus sp. • Use properly pasteurized compost and

casing material;
• Avoid excessive watering;
• Rogue-out fruiting bodies of weed fungi
to avoid further spread.

Brown plaster Populaspora byssina • Ensur e proper composting and use

mould sufficient gypsum in compost;
• Spray crop beds with 1% formalin;
• Apply carbendazim @ 0.0.05% or Dithane
Z-78, mancozeb, captan or thiram @ 0.25–
0.5%.

False truffle Pseudsbodasamia • Avoid high temperature (26–27°C) during

disease microspora or spawn-run and after casing;
Dichdiomyces • Remove af fected truf fles and apply
microspora formaldehyde @ 2% solution on the
affected patches.

Green mould Trichoderma viride • Spray Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% or carbendazim

@ 0.05%.

Cobweb Cladobotrym • Apply Benomyl @ 1 g in 0.5–1.0 L water/

dendrrides m2 or
• Prochlorag manganese complex
(sporogon) 1.5 g a.i/m 2 of bed 9 days after
casing.

24
 8. Treat the casing material with 2% formaldehyde and cover it with
polythene sheets for 48 hours. Then turn the casing material, again
cover it for 48 hours and then leave it open. The casing material
should have no fumes at the time of casing.
Chemical management: The use of chemicals/fungicides in a crop
which is consumed generally within 2-4 days after harvest is not generally
advocated. However, it sometimes becomes imperative and unavoidable
to recommend chemical use for safe commercial mushroom production
as well as to save the crop from further losses. The use of biological
agents and botanicals are still in infancy so can not be relied upon
authoritatively for efficient management of mushroom diseases. The
diseased mushrooms should be removed promptly and beds/ mushrooms
sterilized with 2% formalin.
The management of various diseases in mushroom can be achieved
with the use of fungicides as mentioned in Table 1.

MUSHROOM-PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

The pests affecting successful commercial mushroom farming include

insects, mites and nematodes. These pests inflict huge economic losses
to mushroom growers throughout the world. In Kashmir also insects and
nematodes damage mushroom and are a persistent menace to mushroom
growers. The important insects and nematodes associated with mushroom
cultivation and their management is as under:

Nematodes
Two important nematodes associated with mushroom farming in
Kashmir are Aphelonchoides spp. and Rhabiditida spp.

Aphelonchoides spp.
This parasitic nematode (Aphelonchoides spp.) causes degeneration of
mushroom mycelium in compost. If nematodes are present in compost at
spawning, the mycelium of spawn grows slowly and degenerates thus
mushrooms are not formed. Mycelium in affected areas is completely
destroyed and compost turns black. The surfaces of nematode-infested
areas sink and depict irregular appearance as a result of compost
decomposition.

Rhabiditida spp.
These nematodes are associated with the disappearance of spawn and
breakdown of compost into a black soggy mass. Normal-looking spawn-

25
run compost may be infested with high population of saprophytic
nematodes, even though mushroom production may appear good.
Saprophytic nematodes sometimes form moist glistening swarms which
appear as upright cylindrical aggregates swaying to and fro on the surface
of casing.
Nematodes are transported to crop through infested compost, peat
moss, soil, dust particles and mushroom files.

Management of nematodes
Mushrooms being highly sensitive to toxic nematicides practically leave
no room for the use of toxic nematicides. However, as mushrooms have
attained the status of ‘cash crop’, a need for non-toxic, non-persistent
and easy to apply nemeaticide is felt deeply. Out of many chemicals
nematicide is thionazin @ 80 ppm when spread on nematode infested
bed surface during spawn-run 4nhanced the sporophore production
manifolds and left no residues. The biological management is certain to
play a significant role in future to contain nematodes. Arthrobotrys
oligospora and A. superba reduce nematode count and increase yield
substantially. A. oligospora could be grown on compost only in presence
of nematode on which it feed and in absence of its host, the growth of
the fungus is restricted by A. bisporus. Efficient pasteurization of compost
and casing material and proper sterilization of cropping room after the
crop is over, indeed the best and most practical way nematode
management. Ensure strong mushroom mycelial growth in the compost
by efficient pasteurization and conditioning of the compost (55–60°C)
for 8 hours.

Mushroom flies
Sciarid fly (Lycoricella castanesens) and phorid fly (Megaselia spp.)
are two most important insect-pests of mushroom in Kashmir valley. If
unchecked they cause huge economic losses to commercial growers.
The flies reduce the yield by damaging compost and feeding on mycelium.
The flies are attracted by the odour of the substrate. High humidity and
compost moisture favour the egg and larval development. Adult flies
have long legs, thin wings and shiny black head. They look like bonsai
mosquitoes.
The larvae puncture the stem of mushrooms leaving black tunnels that
severely reduce crop yields. In addition these flies serve as vectors of
disease causing organisms, besides, and also create a significant nuisance
to the pickers.

26
Management of mushroom flies
Adult flies are attracted by the smell of growing mycelium, therefore
strict sanitary measures be vigorously followed for at least 4 weeks after
spawning. Spent compost should be removed from the mushroom house
and destroyed. The breeding and roosting sites of flies (grass surrounding
a mushroom farm and still water) must be eliminated and endosulfan
@ 0.05% be periodically applied. For adults flies insecticides like malathion
or dizinon @ 0.05% or neem oil extract be incorporated into the compost
or sprinkled over the casing.

27
 Economics of mushroom
cultivation
Economics of white button mushroom cultivated on small scale in
polythene bags is as under:

A. Non-recurring expenses (fixed) capital cost Rupees

1. Construction cost of growing rooms without = 1,22,400.00
insulation), size 34 × 18 × 9.5 (capacity 750 bags)
@ Rs 200/sq ft.
2. Scrab wooden shelves = 20,000.00
3. Miscellaneous cost = 5,000.00
Total = 1,47,400.00
B. Recurring expenditure Rupees
1. Paddy straw 45 q (@ Rs 120/q) = 6,400.00
2. Chicken manure 33 q (@ Rs 50/q) = 1,650.00
3. Rice bran 6 q (@ Rs 500/qt) = 3,000.00
4. Maize grain 57 kg (@ Rs 10/kg) = 570.00
5. Linseed meal 50 kg (@ Rs 12/kg) = 960.00
6. Urea 57 kg (Rs 61/kg) = 342.00
7. Potash 23 kg (@ Rs 5/kg) = 115.00
8. Gypsum 169 kg (@ Rs 4/kg) = 676.00
9. Casing soil = 5,000.00
10. Polythene bags (10 kg 15 kg (@ Rs 100/kg) = 1,500.00
capacity)
11. Fuel charges = 1,000.00
12. Electricity charges = 2,000.00
13. Labour for 3 months = 6,000.00
14. Miscellaneous costs = 3,000.00
Total = 32,213.00
C. Interest @ 15% per annum and depreciation @ = 36,850.00
10% per annum on ‘A’
D. Recurring expenses on 4 crops (32213 × 4) = 1,28,852.00
Total expenses (C+D) 36,850 × 1,28,852 = 1,65,702.00
Total production mushroom from 750 bags @ 1.75 kg/bag = 1,312.50
Total production from 4 crops/year = 5,250.00
Total income from sale of mushroom @ Rs 60/kg = 3,15,000.00
Net profit per year = 1,49,298.00
Benefit : cost ratio = 1 : 1.11

(Data based on information furnished by mushroom growers of Dabrun and Vesu

Anantnag and Pallipora Budgam)

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