Chapter 1

Research in Education

Chap ter Objecti ves

In this chapter, the reader will

✦✦ understand the need for scientific inquiry or research in education.
✦✦ be able to describe the research-to-practice gap.
✦✦ identify how research can be used at both the policy and classroom levels.
✦✦ distinguish between experimental and descriptive research.
✦✦ define terms related to experimental and descriptive research.
✦✦ describe quantitative and qualitative methods.
✦✦ identify the steps of the research process.

The field of education is full of debates on many topics. As Chester Finn (2000) said,
Phonics or whole language? Calculators or no calculators? Tracked or mixed-
ability classrooms? Should teachers lecture or “facilitate”? Ought education be
content-centered or child-centered? Do high-stakes exams produce real gains or
merely promote “teaching to the test”? Which is the most effective reform:
Reducing class size? Expanding pre-school? Inducing competition through
vouchers? Paying teachers for performance?
And on and on and on. Within each debate, moreover, we regularly hear each
faction citing boatloads of “studies” that supposedly support its position. Just
think how often “research shows” is used to introduce a statement that winds up
being chiefly about ideology, hunch or preference. (para 1–2)

1
2 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

Conducting Research in Education:

Art or Science? –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Ideology, hunch, or preference often seems to drive the debates in education. One
reason is that people often disagree about the professionalism of education. Is
teaching truly a profession like medicine, where knowledge is built by studying
certain phenomena and determining the most effective and efficient ways to deal
with them, or is teaching more of a creative vehicle for individuals doing what they
think is right? Different groups answer this question in different ways, usually
incorporating varying degrees of science and art.
If arguing that teaching is art or craft, then a body of educational knowledge
would be developed by individuals potentially through idiosyncratic means.
Unfortunately, this concept of teaching limits it as a profession. That is, if knowledge
of teaching and effective practices were only transmitted by individual trial and error
and not through data-based inquiry, then it would be very difficult to call teaching a
true “profession” similar to law, medicine, engineering, and others. Merriam-
Webster defines profession as “a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often
long and intensive academic preparation” (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,
2003). Moreover, knowledge is defined as applying to “facts or ideas acquired by
study, investigation, observation, or experience” (Merriam-Webster’s). Thus, for a
profession to have specialized knowledge, the facts and ideas of that field must be
validly and reliably documented, generalized, and shared—something that is impos-
sible on any scale using only individual trial and error. That is why science and sci-
entific inquiry are so important to the field of education.
Science is an approach to the development of a consistent, documented system
of knowledge, based on rigorous, systematic, objective observations that lead to
hypotheses or theories that are then tested and refined in an iterative process
(Vaughn & Damman, 2001). To identify effective practices for teaching students,
for instance, scientific inquiry or research is essential.
Research, then, is a broad term that usually means the systematic and rigorous
process of posing a targeted question, developing a hypothesis or focus, testing
the hypothesis or focus by collecting and analyzing relevant data, and drawing
conclusions. Research methods vary, but the goal of research is almost always the
same: to answer a question or group of related questions. The questions may range
from “Does A cause B?” to “What is A like?” Researchers answer these questions
by using a systematic process of identifying relevant phenomena and evaluating
them. Educational research answers questions important to students, teachers,
administrators, parents, and other stakeholders. Table 1.1 lists several examples of
the uses of educational research.
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 3

Table 1.1   Example Uses of Research in Education

Level Purpose Research Question

Policy To address grant proposal What components are necessary for effective
criteria reading instruction?

To develop curriculum What components are necessary for effective

guidelines reading instruction at all grade levels?

To guide systemic changes What components of modified block scheduling

are most effective for a middle school?

Classroom To identify problems Is Johnny’s behavior out of the ordinary?

To monitor progress Has Johnny’s behavior improved since I moved

him away from his best buddy?

To change instruction or Johnny’s behavior has not improved since I moved

practice him. Will it change if I implement an incentive
program?

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Current Research-to-Practice Gap

In a recent study, Landrum, Cook, Tankersley, and Fitzgerald (2002) asked a group
of teachers to rate the trustworthiness, usability, and accessibility of intervention
information from colleagues, workshops or inservices, college courses, and profes-
sional journals. The authors categorized colleagues and workshops or inservices as
less research based than college courses and professional journals. Interestingly,
teachers rated information from colleagues and workshops significantly higher on
all three characteristics than college courses and professional journals. This is one
example of what professionals in education call the research-to-practice gap.
Carnine (1997) described three main reasons why many educators do not rely
on research. First, some educational research lacks trustworthiness because of a
lack of quality in design and implementation. Second, research often lacks usabil-
ity; results are not always written clearly, and methods sometimes are not ade-
quately described. Third, it is often quite difficult for practitioners to obtain research
information quickly and efficiently. Greenwood and Abbott (2001) reiterated these
causes and added there is a “lack of ongoing opportunities for practitioners and
researchers to receive regular input from each other and to engage in professional
development” (p. 281).
How should the research-to-practice gap be bridged? There have been many
responses to this question. One was from Boudah, Logan, and Greenwood (2001),
4 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

who analyzed the results of five research-to-practice projects funded by the

Office of Special Education Programs. They concluded that successful research-to-
practice work required the following:

•• An up-front commitment by researchers and teachers, as well as an ongoing,

honest relationship
•• Intensive work by researchers and teachers
•• Extensive, sustained effort
•• Building-level (although not necessarily district-level) administrative support
•• The involvement of key individuals
•• Financial resources and teacher recognition (p. 296)

All of these components add more time and hard work to an already long school
day. The overriding purpose, however, is to improve outcomes for students and
contribute to professional growth.
Congress has tried to reduce or bridge the research-to-practice gap through
legislation. Both the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act as the No Child Left Behind Act and the reauthorization of the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act require that schools be held
accountable for student progress and the use of instructional methods derived
from scientifically based research. Therefore, it is imperative that education
professionals know what scientifically based instruction is, how to determine
if a practice is research based, how to implement it in schools, and how to
document its effectiveness.
The connectedness of research with practice is vital for sustaining and improv-
ing both teaching specifically and education in general. Therefore, the primary
purpose of this book is to help you understand, conduct, and share research. The
secondary purpose is to aid in the development of practitioners who conduct and
use scientific inquiry to better the field of education, whether they be administra-
tors, teachers, guidance counselors, or other educational service providers.

Examples of Research at the Policy

and Classroom Levels ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Some very practical examples do exist regarding the impact that relevant research
can have on instruction at both the policy and classroom levels. For example, in
2000 the National Reading Panel (NICHD) issued a report, Teaching Children to
Read, which identified the effective components of early reading instruction. The
Panel reviewed 100,000 studies of reading to determine that
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 5

•• phonemic awareness can be taught and learned.

•• systematic and explicit phonics instruction is more effective than nonsystem-
atic or no phonics instruction.
•• repeated and monitored oral reading improves reading fluency and overall
reading achievement.
•• children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday
experiences with oral and written language.
•• text comprehension can be improved by instruction that helps readers use
specific comprehension strategies.

Thus, programs that do not include the elements of phonemic awareness, pho-
nics instruction, oral reading, vocabulary instruction, and reading comprehension
instruction were largely dismissed as ineffective. Combined in a coherent pro-
gram, these effective components have improved the reading performance of all
types of students. These elements are now the basis of the evaluation of reading
programs at many levels, including those that have received grants through the
Department of Education.
Careful review of research has given teachers the tools for effective early read-
ing instruction. However, it is often difficult for teachers to give up programs or
practices they feel comfortable with, even if the practices do not have the elements
identified by the National Reading Panel. This is why objective evaluation of prac-
tices and decisions about instructional techniques are needed. This is why educa-
tors and other stakeholders must collect data about student performance as part of
professional practice. When evidence indicates students are not improving, educa-
tors need to find better alternatives.

Examples at the Classroom Level

The previous reading research example is geared toward broad education policy
and its effects on practice. Research, however, is not just for the upper levels of
education policy making; it can and should be part of everyday classroom events.
For example, teachers may begin with statements such as these:

•• Johnny is defiant.
•• Madeleine can’t read at grade level.
•• Esmerelda just can’t get it in my class.

The reality is that these statements do not provide anyone with much informa-
tion. What does it mean to say Johnny is defiant? How often is he defiant? What
does he do? Are there certain times and situations in which Johnny is defiant?
6 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

Does Johnny’s behavior occur in other classrooms or situations? The same is true
for the statements about Madeleine and Esmerelda. How would anyone make a
decision about instructional solutions based on these statements?
Defining problems and conducting classroom-based or high-quality “action
research” allows teachers and others to (a) make data-based decisions, (b) monitor
student progress, (c) change instruction, and (d) reflect on practice (Crockett,
2004). In addition, school-based educators can implement a systematic process for
carrying out Response to Intervention (RTI) (e.g., Deshler, Mellard, Tollefson, &
Byrd, 2005).
Making Data-Based Decisions. The statements about Johnny, Madeleine, and
Esmerelda are probably not based on data but on a teacher’s response to events or
anecdotes from the classroom. The information collected in an anecdote is affected
by a teacher’s tolerance level, the classroom setting, and the content, but the infor-
mation collected from reliable data should not be affected by these factors. When
a teacher makes these kinds of statements about students, she is indicating that
they are somehow standing out in the classroom. Collecting data about how the
students stand out will then help the teacher to make more objective and more
effective decisions about what to do.
For example, clearer, more data-based statements would be these:

•• Johnny shouts out 10 times during 15-minute intervals of teacher instruction

in social studies class.
•• Madeleine reads 45 words per minute with 5 errors in second-grade text. Her
peers (on average) read 75 words per minute with no errors.
•• Esmerelda is unable to complete any math problems correctly when direc-
tions are given orally.

When data are presented, as in the examples just given, they remove much of
the potential misinterpretation or teacher bias in defining student behavior. Many
a teacher has been humbled to find that the defiant child actually shouted out no
more than the gifted child. We are all human in our preferences, but when making
decisions about students, we, as education professionals, must attempt to create
clearer understanding and eliminate bias as best we can.
Monitoring Progress. Once a classroom or school situation has been docu-
mented with data, strategies can be put into place to help the student. Are the
strategies working? By collecting data similar to that collected when the problem
was identified, a teacher would be able to answer that question. So, to continue
with Madeleine, the teacher decides to try repeated readings with her to improve
her fluency. After trying this strategy, the teacher assesses Madeleine’s reading
progress by having her read connected text in a second-grade book for 1-minute
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 7

intervals. Two weeks later, she is reading at 55 words per minute with 2 errors—
still below her peers but making gains.
Changing Instruction. If Madeleine’s teacher did not administer timed readings,
she may not have a valid way of knowing whether Madeleine’s reading was
improving. If the teacher knows Madeleine’s reading is not improving, however,
he would know it was time to make an instructional change. In another example,
if students must pass an end-of-year writing exam, a teacher can monitor the prog-
ress of the students on the appropriate skills by testing periodically and tracking
performance. Fuchs and Fuchs (2002) found that teachers who used data to make
instructional decisions made more changes to their instruction than those who did
not. Their students also showed greater academic gains.
Reflecting on Practice. Data can also come from records that teachers keep
about their teaching. These records can be in many forms, but typically teachers
compile student grades, test scores, and other information in response to their
practice. This allows teachers to document, for example, how instruction went,
what disasters occurred, and what successes they might want to repeat. In addition
to allowing a teacher to review areas of strength and weakness, keeping this type
of data allows teachers to compare practices and outcomes across classrooms and
students.
Therefore, in an effort to encourage research-based instruction and promote
better informed policy and systemic decision making, many university teacher and
administrator education and school-related programs require graduate students
(and sometimes undergraduate students) to conduct research in order to learn its
value and to practice the necessary skills. For example, individuals who are
working toward Master of Education, Master of Teaching, Master of Science in
Administration, Doctor of Education, and similar degrees are generally required
to complete a project that involves identifying a relevant question, reviewing the
literature base for information, developing a research or project plan, collecting
and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This book is intended to help gradu-
ate students and school-based educators who want to engage in research so that
they can be systematic and data based in their decision making. This text provides
guidance in the following:

•• Developing a research question

•• Searching and understanding the literature for the current state of knowledge
on a topic
•• Developing a research plan
•• Collecting and analyzing data
•• Drawing conclusions
•• Sharing the conclusions with others
8 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

It is important to note that it would be impossible to include everything you

need to know about research in one handbook. Therefore, consider this book a
supplement, extension, or guide to a standard educational research or statistical
textbook. The goal is to help with the step-by-step implementation of a research
project in a school or clinic setting.

Research Types, Designs, and Methodologies––––––––––––––––––––––––

Before learning more about how to conduct educational research, it is important

to understand basic research types and designs, as well as their uses. It is also
important to understand some basic research terminology. Table 1.2 outlines the
research types and designs included in the text.

Types of Research
For ease of discussion, research is categorized into two major types:
experimental and descriptive. Within each type, there are varying designs and
methodologies.
Experimental Research. Simply stated, the goal of experimental research is to
identify cause-and-effect relationships; whether by doing X, the result is Y.
Following is an example of an experimental study that includes many important
associated terms and ideas presented in bold.
A teacher named Jennifer may want to know if using Technique A will increase
the number of words read by second graders in 1 minute. In this example,
Technique A is the independent variable—the variable that is manipulated and
controlled by the researcher in the hope of causing an effect. The dependent

Table 1.2   Research Types and Designs Included in This Text

Type of Research Specific Design

Experimental/Quasi-experimental Group designs (posttest only, pretest-posttest, comparison

group, time series)

Single subject designs (ABA, multiple baseline)

Descriptive Qualitative (case study, grounded theory)

Survey research

Correlational research
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 9

variable—the variable that may change because of the independent variable—

would be the number of words read by each student in grade-level text in 1 minute.
The students included in the study are the sample chosen from a population or
group with certain identifying characteristics. In experimental research, a
researcher usually chooses a representative sample, or one that has similar char-
acteristics to the population, so that the results of the experiment can be considered
applicable to all individuals in the population. Thus, one related goal of experi-
mental research is to produce results that are generalizable to the population and
not just results that are descriptive of a single sample.
Jennifer develops Technique A for improving reading fluency. She makes sure
that Technique A actually focuses on reading fluency or is like a technique that has
been proven effective in other studies. In this way, Jennifer is making sure that
Technique A has some aspect of validity. Jennifer also practices giving the oral
reading fluency assessment so that she can use it in the same way with all students
in the sample. In this way, Jennifer is making sure her measurement of the depen-
dent variable has reliability.
Now that the preparations are completed, Jennifer is ready to conduct the study.
She puts the names of all of the second graders in three local elementary schools
in a hat and draws them out, one by one, assigning each student to a classroom. In
this way, she is randomly assigning students to classes, meaning every child has
an equal chance to be in any of the classrooms. After the students are assigned,
Jennifer trains several teachers to use Technique A and verifies that they can use
Technique A with fidelity. The students in the classrooms who receive instruction
using Technique A are participants in the experimental group. The students in the
classrooms who do not receive instruction using Technique A are participants in
the comparison group.
Jennifer administers the oral reading fluency assessment before and after teachers
use Technique A and then compares the students’ performance. Using statistics, she
can determine whether or not there is a statistically significant difference between
the students’ performance before and after, as well as between the experimental and
control group. For there to be a statistically significant difference in performance,
the change in the number of words read in 1 minute by the second graders must be
greater than a predicted change due to differences that may occur due to chance
when the assessment was given (e.g., didn’t eat breakfast that morning, fire drill just
before assessment, different background knowledge of students, etc.).
In this example, the teacher was able to exert a great deal of control over the
implementation of Technique A, and she was able to randomly assign students to
classrooms. It should be noted that random assignment is often difficult in school
settings. When random assignment is problematic or impossible, the research
10 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

study is then called quasi-experimental (Cook & Campbell, 1979). As with

experimental research, a primary goal of quasi-experimental research is to show
cause and effect. However, quasi-experimental research recognizes that random
assignment (and therefore, control of some related chance variables) is next to
impossible in most forms of social science research, including in education, where
real-life classroom settings present difficulties in randomly assigning students and
techniques. When done well, both experimental and quasi-experimental research
results can be generalized broadly, especially when other research studies find
similar results.
Descriptive Research. In descriptive research, unlike experimental research, the
researcher attempts to report what already exists. Moreover, the researcher’s purpose
is to understand and report the characteristics of a current or past situation. For
example, the results of a study may indicate that 80% of the teachers in elementary
classrooms in one state are white females and hold master’s degrees. Or, in a survey
of seventh graders, 3 out of 10 report having tried alcohol. Or in a review of census
data, 25% of Americans over the age of 70 live alone. The purpose of each of these
types of studies is not to determine cause and effect but to describe what already
exists. Following is an example of a descriptive study using survey methods.
Superintendent Andre wants to know how teachers in his district feel about their
jobs. He asks a group of teachers and administrators to tell him what types of
activities make up a teacher’s job (e.g., teaching classes, disciplining students,
paperwork, etc.). This group of teachers may be called a focus group, a group of
individuals with similar characteristics to those under study who give ideas about
concepts important to a study. Taking the input from the focus group, Andre creates
a survey with several questions about a teacher’s job. He asks teachers to rate their
satisfaction with each job aspect on a scale of 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 (very satis-
fied). He also asks for some demographic information such as age, number of years
teaching, number of years teaching in the district, etc. After piloting and revising it,
Andre asks all of the teachers in the district to complete the survey. In this way, he
is giving the entire population the opportunity to participate. About 75% of the
surveys are returned. Thus, his sample turns out to be a little bit less than the entire
population (although it’s still a pretty high return rate). The results are tabulated,
graphed, and reported to school administrators and the school board.
Descriptive research can be accomplished through many research methods, includ-
ing survey, qualitative, and correlational. Each method uses very different techniques.
Following is an example of a descriptive study using qualitative methods.
Tiana wants to describe the instructional actions of five middle school teachers
using a new curriculum. All of the teachers have attended a professional develop-
ment workshop, and they are now beginning to implement the curriculum in their
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 11

classrooms. Tiana observes each teacher and classroom on many occasions and for
a reasonable duration. She also interviews the teachers several times. She then
reviews the new curriculum guides. As Tiana collects the data from observations,
interviews, and document reviews, she examines them for themes, categories, and
theories about instructional actions. Tiana must identify and describe her proce-
dures for collection and analysis of her data in detail so that the study is judged to
be trustworthy or completed using appropriate techniques. After completing the
study, she will be able to describe these teachers’ actions in relation to their beliefs
and the curriculum, but because the sample size is so small, it may not broadly
generalizable.
In sum, the broad categories of experimental and descriptive provide an orga-
nizing framework for the purposes of research. To determine cause-and-effect
relationships, a study is either experimental or quasi-experimental. To provide
information about what exists, a study is descriptive. As presented in the research
examples, research also varies by the method used.

Research Methodologies
In addition to dividing research into experimental and descriptive, many educa-
tors organize research by the methods used and kinds of data collected. Here, two
broad categories of methods and data exist: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Methods. Quantitative methods are used in both experimental
and quasi-experimental research, as well as some forms of descriptive research.
Quantitative methods involve assigning numbers to sequential levels of variables
being studied for purposes of statistical analysis. For example, researchers may
use test scores (e.g., 86 on a scale of 0 to 100) to indicate reading achievement.
Participants may rate their level of exertion during activities (1 is no exertion, 2 is
mild exertion, 3 is moderate exertion, etc.).
Researchers compare these numbers for a variety of purposes. In experimental
or quasi-experimental research, the purpose may be to determine if an independent
variable led to a significant change in a dependent variable. For example, consider
these possible results from the earlier example of the second-grade reading inter-
vention: “Following intervention, there was a statistically significant difference in
the number of words read in one minute by second graders. This difference favored
the group that received Technique A.” In this example, Technique A was the inde-
pendent variable, and the number of words read per minute was the dependent
variable, measured quantitatively.
Now take a look at the possible outcomes of Superintendent Andre’s survey.
After analyzing the data, Andre may be able to say that the teachers in the sample
12 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

have an average age of 40 and, on average, have taught for 5 years in the district.
The average rating of satisfaction with paperwork level is 3.5, in the satisfied
range. Andre may also be able to calculate correlations to let him know that the
older the teacher, the more satisfied with the level of paperwork. Andre is able to
describe quantitatively what exists among the teachers in his district but not to
determine cause-and-effect relationships since his was descriptive and not experi-
mental research. Chapters 5 and 9 provide guidance on experimental research, and
Chapters 7 and 11 detail descriptive research and methods.
Qualitative Methods. Qualitative methods are used in descriptive research.
Qualitative researchers analyze language, written or oral, and actions to determine
patterns, themes, or theories in order to provide insight into certain situations.
Qualitative data include personal interviews, observations, and document review.
The qualitative researcher works at “capturing what actually takes place and what
people actually say” (Patton, 2002, p. 26). There are many data analysis techniques
available in qualitative inquiry, including naturalistic inquiry, grounded theory,
case study analysis, and others. Consider a possible outcome of Tiana’s curriculum
investigation.
Tiana concludes that teachers using the new curriculum talk about its imple-
mentation using three general themes: (a) developing materials, (b) managing
students, and (c) creating interest. The instructional actions she observed included
many mundane tasks, such as teaching students where to find their folders, as well
as intriguing discussions based upon character analyses. Chapters 6 and 10 pro-
vide more direction on qualitative research and methods.

T e c h n o l o g y IN RESEAR C H

Technological advances in computers, voice recognition software, PDAs, and the

like have made conducting research somewhat easier than in the past. For exam-
ple, researchers who use qualitative methods used to glue text from interview
transcripts to index cards, which they would then sort into different categories.
In today’s research endeavors, software allows researchers to convert interview
tapes to text files, insert the text files into data management programs, and sort
and categorize data on their desktop computers. PDAs allow teachers and others
doing research in classrooms to record observations as events occur with little
intrusion. Most chapters include Technology in Research, a special feature that
gives a brief description of a technology relevant to the chapter’s topic. The
Technology in Research features are meant to introduce the topic and provide
selected resources for more information.
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 13

In Their Own Words

It is important to understand the theory behind conducting research in schools.
Understanding how to put the theory into practice, however, is critical to conducting an
effective study. In each chapter, you will meet graduate students, teachers, and sea-
soned researchers who describe how they make research work in the real world. Each
person will offer comments about successes and failures, as well as provide guidance
on some aspect of the topic included in the chapter. The bits of knowledge these
researchers provide can help make your research project flow smoothly.

Selected Organizations That Support

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Research in Education
Before the close of this chapter, I must note that there are many professional organi-
zations and groups in education. The organizations that focus on research in educa-
tion can provide valuable support and resources to beginning researchers. Some of
these groups have members from all aspects of education, and others serve subsec-
tions of education professionals. The appendix provides information about some of
these organizations, including their mission statements and goals, how they support
researchers, their sources of support (including funding), and where to find more
information. It was impossible to highlight all the groups that support educational
research, so groups were chosen based upon their commitment to research, their
accessibility, and the reputation they have attained in education.

Putting It All Together

Given the variety of questions and designs, there is no one way to conduct research in educa-
tional settings. What you will read over and over again in this book is that the research design
and methods must be appropriate to explore the initial research question. In other words, you
should not say, “I am a qualitative researcher,” or, “I am a quantitative researcher.” The reality
is that different types of research may work together coherently to achieve better understand-
ing of a research question or educational situation. The balance of this book begins with guid-
ance in developing and focusing research questions so that the most appropriate research type
and design will be apparent. Once you choose a type of research to answer a specific research
question, you can begin the task of designing the study using appropriate methods.

Steps in the Research Process

As noted at the beginning of this chapter, research is the systematic process of posing
a question, developing a hypothesis, and designing a study to test the hypothesis by
14 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

collecting and analyzing relevant data. This definition leads to an outline for the research
process that is broken down into seven important steps:

1. Identify a research problem and research question.

2. Determine what is already known about the problem or question.
3. Develop a hypothesis.
4. Identify a plan to test the hypothesis.
5. Put the plan into place (conduct the study).
6. Collect, analyze, and interpret the data collected.
7. Communicate the findings to others.

These steps are explained in detail in subsequent chapters. (See Figure 1.1 for the
alignment of steps and chapters.) It is important again to emphasize that this book is a
guide for the completion of less complex research projects, not a book that identifies and
describes every aspect of educational research. It will provide information both practical
and helpful to anyone completing a graduate-level research study in education.

Summary

This chapter has highlighted how important research is to education and noted that the
purpose of this text is to guide your completion of a master’s degree or some doctoral-level
research studies. The current research-to-practice gap has contributed to too few educators
accessing and relying on proven, effective practices as they work with students and in
schools. Therefore, one of the important related purposes of this book is to help administra-
tors, teachers, and related service providers develop and use scientific inquiry in their
practice. This chapter identified two primary types of research, experimental and descrip-
tive, and highlighted quantitative and qualitative methods. It also introduced a number of
important terms and concepts commonly used in research, including the following:
Research Random assignment
Independent variable Experimental group
Dependent variable Control group
Sample Statistically significant
Population Quasi-experimental design
Representative sample Survey research methods
Generalize Focus group
Validity Trustworthy
Fidelity Qualitative research methods
Reliability Quantitative research methods

Please refer to the glossary at the end of the text for specific definitions.
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 15

Figure 1.1   Steps in the Research Process

Step 1: Identify a
Chapter 2: Identifying a Research Problem and Question and
research problem
Searching Relevant Literature
and question.

Step 2: Determine what is

Chapter 3: Understanding Relevant Literature and Writing a
already known about the
Literature Review
problem and question.

Step 3: Develop a
hypothesis.

Step 4: Identify a plan

Chapter 4: Issues in Validity and Trustworthiness
to test the hypothesis.

Chapter 5: Designing and Conducting Experimental Research

Step 5: Conduct Chapter 6: Designing and Conducting Qualitative Research
the study. Chapter 7: Designing and Conducting Descriptive Research
Chapter 8: Writing a Research Proposal

Step 6: Collect, analyze, Chapter 9: Analyzing and Interpreting Experimental Research

and interpret the data Chapter 10: Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Research
collected. Chapter 11: Analyzing and Interpreting Descriptive Research

Step 7: Communicate
Chapter 12: Writing Research Reports
the findings to others.

Finally, the chapter described the seven steps necessary in completing a research
project:

1. Identify a research problem or question.

2. Determine what is already known about the problem or question.
16 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

3. Develop a hypothesis.

4. Identify a plan to test the hypothesis.

5. Put the plan into place (conduct the study).

6. Collect, analyze, and interpret the data collected.

7. Communicate the findings to others.

Activity

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate term(s).

  1. ___________ methods are often used in experimental, quasi-experimental, and

descriptive research; methods involve assigning numbers to sequential levels of
variables being studied for purposes of statistical analysis.

  2. ___________ is a broad term that usually means the systematic and rigorous process
of posing a focused question, developing a hypothesis or focus, testing the hypoth-
esis or focus by collecting and analyzing relevant data, and drawing conclusions.

  3. The ___________ __________ is the variable that the researcher manipulates and
controls in the hope of causing an effect.

  4. ___________ is a term associated with a study that does what it claims to do.

  5. The ___________ ___________ is the group that receives the independent variable.

  6. ___________ methods are often used in descriptive research; these include per-
sonal interviews, observations, and document review.

  7. ___________ is a term associated with study methods that can occur similarly
across participants and time.

  8. The ___________ __________ is the variable that may change because of the
independent variable.

  9. ___________ is a term associated with experimental procedures in a study that are

done as intended.
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 17

10. The ___________ __________ is the group that does not receive the independent
variable.

11. ___________ is a term associated with qualitative procedures in a study that were
completed using appropriate techniques.

Answers can be found on page 20.

Please provide an example of the following research methods:

12. Quantitative research methods

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

13. Qualitative research methods

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

14. Quasi-experimental research methods

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

Your Research Project in Action

At this point in your reading, you should be thinking about how research fits into
your everyday practice. As you consider this, you will be able to determine an area
of focus that will be useful in developing your research study. Start by thinking about
the following questions:
18 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

•• Where do I go to find information about effective practices?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

•• Where do I look for research articles or to find out if a curriculum includes

research-based practices?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

•• Why would it be important for me to conduct research in my school or to be guided

by research findings?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

•• In what ways do I use anecdotal evidence instead of data-based evidence? How can
I change this?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

Further Reading

Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis

issues for field settings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
 Chapter 1   Research in Education 19

This classic research book is an excellent reference for finding examples of real-world
application research studies. This book also provides examples of problems previous
researchers have experienced and describes how to avoid those difficulties in one’s own
research. This book provides an excellent discussion of the advantages and limitations of
using quasi-experiment research methodologies. Knowing the advantages and limitations
helps researchers focus on what exactly they are hoping to find, achieve, or resolve and
how this particular methodology will facilitate that process.

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
This book is written to benefit a wide variety of audiences. Students, researchers, and even
practitioners can find this book beneficial to their research. This book focuses on the rising
interest in qualitative research methods. It addresses the main concepts of problem identifica-
tion, participant inclusion and observation, interviewing and note taking, decoding of mes-
sages, data analysis, and reporting of results. Included are interview guides and questions that
researchers can reference when conducting their own studies. In addition, Patton provides
personal narratives of his own experiences and struggles with research studies.

References

Boudah, D. J., Logan, K. R., & Greenwood, C. Finn, C. E., Jr. (2000). Foreword. In D. Carnine,
R. (2001). The research to practice proj- Why education experts resist effective
ects: Lessons learned about changing practices (and what it would take to make
teacher practice. Teacher Education and education more like medicine). Retrieved
Special Education, 24, 290–303. May, 5, 2010, from http://www.edexcel-
Carnine, D. (1997). Bridging the research-to- lence.net/detail/news.cfm?news_id=46
practice gap. Exceptional Children, 63, Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2002). Curriculum-
513–521. based measurement: Describing compe-
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi- tency, enhancing outcomes, evaluating
experimentation: Design and analysis treatment effects, and identifying treat-
issues for field settings. Boston: Houghton ment nonresponders. Peabody Journal of
Mifflin. Education, 77, 64–84.
Crockett, J. (2004). Taking stock of science in Greenwood, C. R., & Abbott, M. (2001). The
the schoolhouse: Four ideas to foster effec- research to practice gap in special educa-
tive instruction. Journal of Learning tion. Teacher Education and Special
Disabilities, 37, 186–188. Education, 24, 276–289.
Deshler, D. D., Mellard, D. F., Tollefson, J. M., Landrum, T. J., Cook, B. G., Tankersley, M., &
& Byrd, S. E. (2005). Research topics in Fitzgerald, S. (2002). Teacher perceptions of
responsiveness to intervention: Introduction the trustworthiness, usability, and accessibil-
to the special series. Journal of Learning ity of information from different sources.
Disabilities, 38, 483–484. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 42–28.
20 C o n d u c t i n g E d u cat i o na l R e s e a r c h

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research &
(2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
National Institute of Child Health and Human Oaks, CA: Sage.
Development (NICHD). (2000). Reportof Vaughn, S., & Damman, J. E. (2001). Science
the National Reading Panel: Teaching chil- and sanity in special education. Behavioral
dren to read. Retrieved May 5, 2010, from Disorders, 27, 21–29.
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/
nrp/smallbook.cfm

Activity Answers

  1. Quantitative methods are often used in experimental, quasi-experimental, and

descriptive research; methods involve assigning numbers to sequential levels of vari-
ables being studied for purposes of statistical analysis.
  2. Research is a broad term that usually means the systematic and rigorous process of
posing a focused question, developing a hypothesis or focus, testing the hypothesis
or focus by collecting and analyzing relevant data, and drawing conclusions.
  3. The independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates and controls
in the hope of causing an effect.
  4. Validity is a term associated with a study that does what it claims to do.
  5. The experimental group is the group that receives the independent variable.
  6. Qualitative methods are often used in descriptive research; these include personal
interviews, observations, and document review.
  7. Reliable is a term associated with study methods that can occur similarly across par-
ticipants and time.
  8. The dependent variable is the variable that may change because of the independent
variable.
  9. Fidelity is a term associated with experimental procedures in a study that are done as
intended.
10. The comparison group is the group that does not receive the independent variable.
11. Trustworthy is a term associated with qualitative procedures in a study that was com-
pleted using appropriate techniques.