Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 1

The Morpho-syntactic Features of have, be and do as Lexical Verbs and Auxiliary Verbs

Kathleen Austin 316103085

Kim John-Baptiste 03614388

Hassan Basarally 806007430

Christobelle Simpson 311500164

Lyandra Williams-Stiell 312103823

LING 6008: Introductory Morphology and Syntax for Graduate Students

The University of the West Indies, Open Campus

Dr. Nicole Scott

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 2

Introduction

Language learning and language teaching are the critical components of a language

teacher’s job as they signify that teacher’s competency in both capacities. It is imperative,

therefore, that the training of teachers – specifically English language teachers – ought to be

as thorough and grounded in the rules of how the language works. Indeed, as Halliday (1975)

posits, “we learn about a language, we learn language and we learn through language”, and

this is true for the language learner-teacher. Understanding the premises by which the

language operates requires a thorough understanding and analysis of its main branches:

phonology, semantics, morphology, and syntax. The latter two concern this paper.

Research Problem

Verbs can pose an area of concern for learners and teachers of the language, given that,

just as with every other word; morpho-syntactic features guide their use. Many English

language student-teachers express trepidation when called upon to teach the rules of the verb,

its types and its possible structures in the corpus. This paper aims to address the difficulty in

distinguishing lexical and auxiliary verbs.

Definition of Terms

The focus of this paper, therefore, is on distinguishing the features of two types of verbs:

auxiliary verb and the lexical verb. According to the Glossary of Linguistic Terms, (2017) an

auxiliary verb is “a verb which: accompanies the lexical verb of a verb phrase, and expresses

grammatical distinctions not carried by the lexical verb, such as person, number, tense,

aspect, and voice”. On the other hand, a lexical verb is “a member of the open class of verbs

which form the primary verb vocabulary of a language” (Glossary of Linguistic Terms, 2017)
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 3

Research Question

It is against these distinctions that the research problem arises, with the primary question

being, “What are the morpho-syntactic features that distinguish lexical verbs and auxiliary

verbs in English?” A secondary research question therefore, is, “What are the morpho-

syntactic features of the auxiliary uses of ‘have,’ ‘be’ and ‘do’ in the data and how do these

features differ in their lexical uses?” To accomplish this research, corpus collected from

university students will be carefully analysed with the aim of identifying the morpho-

syntactic features of the auxiliary uses of ‘have’, ’be’, and ‘do’, as well as how these features

differ in their lexical uses.

Organisation of Research Paper

This research paper is organised in the following way: the introduction, giving the focus of

the paper, the research problem, and the aim thereof; a review of the existing literature on the

auxiliary and lexical uses of the verbs, ‘have’, ’be’, and ‘do’, in addition to the differences in

their features; a summary of functionalism, the theoretical framework guiding this paper; the

discussion of the qualitative research methodology by which the findings are analysed; a

presentation on the findings of the research; the analysis and discussion of these findings and

how they answer the research question; the conclusion of the findings and a restatement of

the aim of the paper, and an alphabetically- arranged list of references.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 4

Literature Review

The literature is replete with studies detailing the distinction between lexical and auxiliary

verbs, evidence that this aspect of the English grammar is a problematic area in the teaching-

learning arena. In a study investigating the written errors of usage in the present tense

auxiliary, ‘be’, Jishvethaa, Tabitha, and Kalahi (2013), reveal that the errors students made

were classified under Tense shift, Agreement, and Misuse – areas which have implications

for English language teachers.

Falk (1984), in a comprehensive study of the English auxiliary argues that, like ‘have’,

‘do’ is a helping verb. He assigns several properties to helping verbs: they inflect like verbs;

they appear in verbal positions when non-finite, they appear in modal positions when finite,

and they have a value for the feature auxiliary. Falk posits that both modals and verbs inflect

and that this inflection is because of lexical rules. Sledd (1959), adds that ‘have’, ‘be’ and do

are three English primary non-modal auxiliaries that have different forms which can be

grouped into present, past and past participle tenses.

Muir (1972), also agrees that the English primary auxiliary verbs are ‘be’, ‘have’ and

‘do. He describes these verbs as elements of structure, which may precede the lexical

element in any construction. According to him, the morphology of auxiliary verbs differs

from that of lexical verbs as the auxiliary verbs either have more or less forms than the

lexical verbs. He also classifies these auxiliary verbs (‘be’, ‘have’, ‘do’) into four main

criteria: Negation, Inversion, Substitution and Marked positive. In the case of negation, the

auxiliary ‘do’ is frequently contracted with the adverb ‘not’ and there is also a similar

occurrence with the auxiliaries ‘have’ and ‘be’’.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 5

Reid (1991), discusses the auxiliary verb ‘do’ as a verb that is used to show emphasis, to

ask questions and to make denials. Biber, Conrad & Leech (2002), also agree that ‘do’ is

used to emphasize the meaning of a lexical verb.

Although there are marked differences between the lexical and auxiliary verbs,

Adejare & Adejare (1996), among other grammarians, are of the opinion that the auxiliary

verbs ‘have’, ‘be’ and ‘do’ can function both as auxiliary and lexical verbs.

The auxiliary and lexical verbs, ‘have’, ’be’, and ‘do’, have attracted scholarly

investigation into their morphological and syntactic properties from early linguists and the

intensity of the research has not abated even in contemporary times.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 6

Theoretical Framework

Functionalism demonstrates that language becomes the communicative tool through

which individuals are able to express their thoughts with each other within a speech

community. Berns (1990), postulates that various aspects of language are purposeful and

useful among members within a system. Furthermore, proponents of this theory are of the

strong view that the function of a language is highly hinged on the form that the language

maintains.

In the sphere of linguistics, the major tenets of functionalism are function, meaning

and sociocultural influences which affect the interpretation of contextual language. Hence,

the knowledge of phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics are the overarching

principles on which these tenets are founded. As a result, this theory will be used in this

research to explain the primary and secondary questions mentioned earlier.

The theoretical framework of ‘Functionalism’ permits this research paper to explain

the functional aspects of the verbs ‘have’ ‘be’ and ‘do’ as lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs as

presented in the corpus provided. The basis for this research is to assist English Language

teachers in comprehending the form and function of these verbs in varying situations.

In the final analysis the core group of teachers will be able to use the information

gleaned from the research to enhance the teaching and learning of language and by extension

the role of the verbs ‘have’ ‘be’ and ‘do’ in both written and oral communication. Butler

(2003), claims that the knowledge of the organisation of language will allow for competency

in the language.
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 7

Research Methodology

The approach employed in this research paper was the qualitative technique. The

qualitative approach brings convergence and synergism to research programming, monitoring

and evaluation (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003).

The descriptive research design, which finds out and reports the way things are, was used

to analyse the data. Gay (1981), describes descriptive research as a process of collecting data

in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the status of the subjects in the

study.

The data gathered through recordings formed part of a repository of conversations of

university students as they waited for class.The data obtained will enable the researchers to

better plan and structure the grammatical content to teach the group of English teachers. The

findings of the data obtained will be used to teach the morpho syntactic features of the verbs,

‘have’, ‘do’, and ‘be’ as lexical and auxiliary verbs.

The qualitative approach was more suitable for this corpus as it allowed the researchers to

conduct thematic analysis. The first approach to this task will be to examine the corpus given

and categorise the sentences into declarative, interrogative, negative and contractive

statements. Following that, an in-depth analysis of the usage of each verb will be examined

to demonstrate the contextual use of the verbs as well as the distinguishing features among

them. Thereafter, examples will then be used to fully explain the features inherent in the

verbs as they were utilized in various sentence types. Finally, an evaluation of the entire body

of corpus will be completed with the aim of arriving at a conclusion that will indicate the

form and function of the verbs.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 8

Presentation of Findings

The corpus of twenty-eight questions was tagged based on the uses and identification of

the morpho-syntactic features of the auxiliaries ‘have’, ‘be’ and ‘do. This is submitted in

tabular form using descriptive narrative, and references to the cardinal numbering of each

sentence in the corpus. (See Appendix).

Table 1

The verb ‘have’

Morpho-syntactic features Tagged sentences from corpus

Have as a lexical verb in declarative I have my hands full. (3)
sentences I do not have my hands full. (12)

Have as an auxiliary verb in declarative We have received the final assignment. (25)
sentences
Yes and no interrogative sentences using Have some of the world’s languages been
subject-auxiliary inversion classified as ergative/obsolutive languages?
(11)
Have the children gone to bed? (14)
Have we received the final assignment?
(24)
Auxiliary verb have in negative The children haven’t gone to bed. (16)
contractions We haven’t received the final assignment.
(17)

Table 2

The verb ‘be’

Morpho-syntactic features Tagged sentences from corpus

Lexical verb in declarative sentence He is on the committee. (1)

Lexical verb with positive contractions We’re in the same office. (2)

Lexical subject- inversion with negative We aren’t in the same office. (9)
contractions
Closed questions using subject-auxiliary Is he on the committee? (8)
inversion
Are we in the same office? (15)
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 9

Table 3

The verb ‘do’

Morpho-syntactic features Tagged sentences from corpus

Lexical verb in declarative sentences They do their mental preparations before

each match. (5)

He does it without being asked. (10)

Lexical interrogative sentence Does a single constituent substitute for X in
construction? (23)

Do these classes have two facilitators? (27)

Auxiliary verb in a sentence Did John run into the street? (20)

Pro-verb replacing a verb phrase Do they do their mental preparations before

each match? (6)

Does he do it without being asked? (19)

Negative contraction He didn’t get to the meeting on time. (4)

He doesn’t do his job without being asked.

(13)
John didn’t run into the street. (21)

These classes don’t have two facilitators.

(28)
‘Do’ preceded by the adverb ‘not’ A single constituent does not substitute for
X in the construction. (7)

I do not have my hands full. (12)

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 10

Discussion and Analysis of Findings

The verbs ‘have’, ‘be’, and ‘do’, with each functioning either as a lexical or an

auxiliary verb, can be identified by certain morpho-syntactic features. The discussion will

distinguish the two, provide examples from the corpus, and identify the morpho-syntactic

features of both verb types.

The verb ‘have’

Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are function words, a type of word class which is

constituted of words that have a grammatical function as opposed to content word, which are

an open class of lexical words. An auxiliary verb adds functional or grammatical content to

the information expressed by another verb, considered the main verb. It gives more meaning

to the main verb.

‘Have’ as an auxiliary verb:

The use of "have" in perfect sentences:

25. We have received the final assignment.

26. These classes have two facilitators.

The auxiliary verb helps the main verb to complete the sentence. The auxiliary verb and the

principal verb accomplish the task of sentence formation by joint action making the sentence

grammatically correct. The sentence :

25. We have received the final assignment.

shows that the primary auxiliary “have” is used as a helping verb; have is an auxiliary or

helping verb because it aids the principal verb "received" making the sentence grammatically

correct. In the sentence:

26. These classes have two facilitators

the verb “have” exists on its own as lexical apart from it auxiliary function as a helping verb.
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 11

Oluwole and Rose (1996), Quirk, et al (1972, 1985), Young (1980) and Bamgbose (1990)

among others, all have similar opinions on the English primary auxiliary verbs. They opine

that this type of auxiliary verb is such that contains words that are used along with the main

verbs to make up a verbal group in a given clause. According to them, the fact that they co-

occur in a verbal group in a sentence is what earns them the name “helping verbs” Each of

these grammarians identified ‘Be’ ‘Have’ and ‘Do’ as the English primary auxiliary verbs

which function both as auxiliaries and lexical verbs.

As taken from the corpus “have” acts as a lexical verb in some sentences. ‘Have’ as

an auxiliary verb, is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal part of another verb to

express some particular mode and of the being action, or passion.

The use of "have" in negative sentences and questions:

28. These classes don’t have two facilitators.

12. I do not have my hands full.

14. Have the children gone to bed?

24. Have we received the final assignment?

There must be a relationship between the auxiliary verb and the main verb; the

auxiliary verb must match the main verb. The main auxiliary verbs are 'have', 'do', and 'be'.

The relationship that exists among the auxiliary verbs : ‘have’ , ‘be’ and ‘do’ is that "do"

exists in the simple tense, ‘have’ in the perfect tense and ‘be’ in the continuous tense.

The verb ‘be’

The morpho-syntactic feature of the verb ‘be’ as used in the corpus indicates that the

verb is functioning as a lexical verb. The distinguishing feature that provides this evidence is

highlighted in sentence one and eight of the corpus.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 12

1. He is on the committee.

8. Is he on the committee?

Both declarative and interrogative sentences respectively, demonstrate that the verb ‘be’

functions independently in both situations. In addition, the syntactic frame allows for the

mobility of the verb ‘be’ regardless of the sentence type. In this regard, it is seen that both

subject and verb can trade places to facilitate the intended function of the verb ‘be’.

In the area of negative statements, the syntactical approach to utilising the verb ‘be’

requires that the adverb ‘not’ be positioned after the verb in question. More so, negation of

the verb can result in a contraction whereby the subject in the declarative statement becomes

affixed to the verb. This approach facilitates our understanding that the verb ‘be’ in the

sentences below are lexical in nature.

8. We’re in the same office.

9. We aren’t in the same office.

Based on the given corpus provided for this research, both lexical and auxiliary verbs

are different in various ways. As posited by Burton-Roberts (2011), lexical and auxiliary

verbs differ in questions and negative aspects. In following this syntactic rule, the sentence

will be grammatically correct. In addition, the negated form of the verb can be contracted in

the auxiliary form thereby changing the morphological aspect of the word. It can therefore be

stated that lexical verbs are supported in the negative form, and the negative form must be

placed after the verb e.g.

9. We are not in the same office. (Grammatical)

*We not are in the same office. (Ungrammatical)

A feature that is different in the lexical use of the verb “to be” is the construction of

questions. When interrogative sentences are formed from statements that contain the verb
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 13

‘be’, the subject is placed after the verb ‘be’. This syntactic approach ensures that the

sentence is grammatical in its construction. The corpus highlighted that with questions the

subject is placed after the verb when the verb is in its lexical form. Conversely, when the

verb ‘be’ is in the auxiliary form, formation of questions from statement is totally different.

To ensure that the syntax of the interrogative sentence is correct, the auxiliary verb is placed

first followed by the subject and finally the main verb:

1. He is on the committee. (Lexical statement)

8. Is he on the committee? (Lexical question)

He is reading a book. (Auxiliary statement)

Is he reading a book? (Auxiliary question)

In summary it can be stated that the lexical and auxiliary format of the verb ‘be’

function differently based on the types of statements used and the intended meaning the

speaker wishes to convey. The positioning of the verb with regards to negative sentences is

syntactically fixed thus facilitating contractions. Likewise, with interrogative statements a

fixed syntactic structure also accommodates contractions. In the final analysis it can be stated

that the morphological structure of the verb ‘be’ determines its communicative function.

The verb ‘do’

The verb ‘do’ functions as both a lexical and auxiliary verb in English. Lexical verbs

are characterised by certain properties that allow the verb to give meaning or express an

action. The first morpho-syntactic feature, the verb ‘do’ in the lexical form is that it takes a

direct object or an indirect object followed by a direct object (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2002).

Examples from the corpus shows ‘do’ followed by a direct object can be seen in:

10. He does it without being asked.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 14

In this sentence, ‘it’ is the direct object. An example from the corpus of the verb followed by

an indirect and direct object is seen in:

5. They do their mental preparations before every match.

Here, ‘their’ is an indirect object and ‘mental preparations’ is the direct object.

Another feature of the lexical verb ‘do’ is that it functions as pro-verb which replaces a

Verb Phrase (VP). An example of this construction is in the sentence:

19. Does he do it without being asked?

In the example, ‘do it’ refers to whatever action is being performed as it replaces a VP that

could have been in the sentence. To illustrate this the following pair of sentence can be used:

Does he study for the examination without being asked?

Does he do it without being asked?

The easiest way to identify the verb ‘do’ in the auxiliary form is in negation and

negation morphology. Negation occurs with the negator ‘not’ preceding or following ‘do’.

From the corpus for analysis, this trait can be seen in:

12. I do not have my hands full.

In addition, the verb ‘do’ undergoes negation morphology with the suffix –n’t, which is a

contraction meaning ‘not’. This is seen in:

4. He didn’t get to the meeting on time.

In discussing, the use of the verb ‘do’ as an auxiliary verb, the concepts of affix hopping

and tense stranding must be understood. Affix hopping is described by Brinton (2000), as a

rule, which stipulates, “each affix attaches to the verbal element immediately following it and

forms the relevant word” (p. 200). This becomes pertinent when forming interrogative and

negative sentences with no auxiliary other than tense. The affix to show tense needs to attach

to a verbal element, but this cannot happen in the case of the interrogative as the Noun Phrase
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 15

(NP) follows and in the negative, ‘not’ follows. When this happens, ‘do’ is inserted to

provide an auxiliary or verbal element for the affix of the tense to attach to, this is termed do-

support.

The second morpho-syntactic feature of the auxiliary verb ‘do’ is the ability to move

to the initial position in a question or interrogative. Examples from the corpus can be seen in:

27. Do these classes have two facilitators?

20. Did John run into the street?

The auxiliary verb makes declarative sentences interrogative. These are sentences with

either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response, in other words the sentences are close ended. Therefore, a

simple test can be applied to determine whether the verb ‘do’ is lexical or auxiliary. If the

removal of ‘do’ at the beginning of a sentence changes it from interrogative to declarative

then is an auxiliary verb. For example:

Do these classes have two facilitators?

____These classes have two facilitators.

Another way to differentiate the lexical verb from the auxiliary verb is that the lexical

verb is the head of the verb phrase. In the case of a sentence that contains to verbs ‘do’ twice,

the verb in the VP would be lexical and the other one that is used to form the question would

be an auxiliary. For example:

6. Do they do their mental preparations before each match?

The VP is ‘do their mental preparation’; the verb ‘do’ here is lexical and indicates action. The

‘do’ at the beginning of the sentence makes it a question and is hence an auxiliary.

Biber, Conrad, & Leech (2002), also mention the auxiliary ‘do’ being used in the

emphatic case to emphasise the meaning of a lexical verb, or in the imperative, as a pro-verb
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 16

that stands in place of a VP and complement, and as a question tag. However, the corpus

studied did not contain examples of these uses.

The verbs ‘have’, ‘be’, and ‘do’ in both the lexical and auxiliary forms occur in

declarative form. The common morpho-syntactic features of the verbs in the auxiliary form

can be summarized as occurring in positive and negative contractions and at the head of

close-ended interrogative questions. Some unique morpho-syntactic features observed were

the lexical subject- inversion with negative contractions of the verb ‘be’, a pro-verb ‘do’

replacing a verb phrase and ‘do’ preceded by the adverb ‘not’.

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 17

Conclusion

The findings suggest that there are distinguishing morpho-syntactic features of the

lexical and auxiliary verbs and also that there are differences in the auxiliary uses of the verbs

‘have’, ‘do, and ‘be’. These differences are evident in the use of these verbs in the areas of

tense, negation, word class, contractions, question forms, inflections and declarative and

interrogative statements. The comprehensive discussion of the morpho-syntactic features in

these verb forms provides greater clarity for the student-teachers thereby assisting them in

becoming better teachers of the English language. This would have a rippling effect, as their

students would be better English students with a good command of English Language usage.
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 18

References

Adejare, O. & Adejare, R. (1996). Tertiary English Grammar. Lagos: D. Faw Books.

Berns M. (1990) Functional Approaches to Linguistics. In: Contexts of Competence. Topics

in Language and Linguistics. Springer, Boston, MA
DOI https://doi-org.library.open.uwi.edu/10.1007/978-1-4757-9838-8_1
Online ISBN 978-1-4757-9838-8

Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Leech, G. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and
Written English. Essex, Pearson Education Limited.

Brinton, L. J. (2000). The Structure of Modern English: A linguistic introduction.

Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Burton-Roberts, N. (2011). Analysing Sentences An Introduction to English Syntax

(3rd ed.). New York, NY 10017.

Butler, C. S. (2003). Structure and Function - A Guide to Three Major Structural-Functional.

Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Falk, Y. (1984). The English Auxiliary System: A Lexical-Functional

Analysis. Language, 60 (3), 483-509. doi: 10.2307/413988
Gay, L. (1981) Educational Research: for analysis and application. Georgetown: Charles E.
Mairill Publishing Company.
Georgi, A. and Fabio, P. (1997) Tense and Aspect: From Semantics to Morphosyntax
Oxford: OUP.
Glossary of Linguistic Terms (2017). Retrieved from: http://www.glossary.sil.org/, October
27, 2017.
Halliday, M. (1975). Learning How to Mean, London: Edward Arnold.
Jishvithaa.M, J., M, T., & Rezvani Kalajahi, S. (2013). Teaching Grammar: The use of the
English Auxiliary “BE” Present Tense Verb Among Malaysian Form 4 And Form5
Students. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 4(2), 152-158. Retrieved
from http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/article/view/205/197
Mugenda, O. and Mugenda, A. (2003) Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches Nairobi: ACTS Press. Retrieved from:
http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/ grammar-lesson-auxiliary-verbs.ph
Muir, J. ((1972). A Modern Approach to English Grammar. London: B.T Batsford Ltd.
Quirk, R. et al (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London:
Longman.
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 19

Reid, W. (1991). Verb and Noun Number: A functional explanation. London: Longman.
Sledd, J. (1959). A Short Introduction to English Grammar. Chicago: Scott,
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Young, D.J. (1980) The Structure of English Clauses London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.
Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 20

Appendix

DATA

The sentences in the data were taken from a tape recorded conversation between college

students while they were waiting for their class to begin. The recording was transcribed and

the sentences that contain ‘have,’ ‘be’ and ‘do’ were isolated. Sentences that contain other

verbs were also isolated.

1. He is on the committee.

2. We’re in the same office.

3. I have my hands full

4. He didn't get to the to the meeting on time

5. They do their mental preparations before each match

6. Do they do their mental preparations before each match?

7. A single constituent does not substitute for X in the construction.

8. Is he on the committee?

9. We aren’t in the same office

10. He does it without being asked

11. Have some of the world’s languages been classified as ergative/absolutive languages?

12. I do not have my hands full

13. He doesn't do his job without being asked.

14. Have the children gone to bed?

15. Are we in the same office?

16. The children haven’t gone to bed

17. We haven’t received the final assignment

18. John ran into the street

Running head: MORPHO-SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF HAVE, BE, AND DO 21

19. Does he do it without being asked?

20. Did John run into the street?

21. John didn't run into the street

22. A single constituent substitutes for X in the construction.

23. Does a single constituent substitute for X in the construction?

24. Have we received the final assignment?

25. We have received the final assignment

26. These classes have two facilitators

27. Do these classes have two facilitators?

28. These classes don’t have two facilitators