Chapter 3

BFC 10403
FLUID MECHANICS
Noor Aliza Ahmad
aliza@uthm.edu.my
BFC10403‐ FLUID MECHANICS Noor Aliza
1
Ahmad , aliza@uthm.edu.my
Learning Outcome
• At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
– Understand and analyze basic equations in fluid
mechanics
– List out and apply Bernoulli Equation and
Momentum Equation
BFC10403‐ FLUID MECHANICS
2
Noor Aliza Ahmad , aliza@uthm.edu.my
Chapter 3:
BASIC EQUATIONS IN FLUID
MECHANICS
3
INTRODUCTION
Flow often referred as

an ideal fluid. We
presume that such a
fluid has no viscosity.
However, this is an
idealized situation that
does not exist.
4
Real fluid, the effects
of viscosity are
introduced into the
problem
5
Classification of types of flow
Incompressible fluid flow assumes the fluid
has constant density ( = constant), though
liquids are slightly compressible we usually
assume them to be incompressible
6
Steady flow means steady with respect t time.
Thus all properties of the flow at every point
remain constant with respect to time.
Uniform flow happened when the cross
section ( shape and area) through which the
flow occurs remains constant
7
Path line is the trace made by a single particle
over a period of time. The path line shows the
direction of the velocity.
8
Stream line shows the mean direction of a
number of particles at the same instant time.
Flowrate is known as quantity of fluid flowing
per unit time across any section. The flowrate
can be expressed in terms of
i) Volume flow rate ( discharges)
BG – cfs (cubic per second), gpm ( gallon
per minute, mgd ( million gallon per day)
SI – m3/d
9
ii) mass flow rate
BG – slugs per second
SI – kg/s
iii) weight flow rate

BG – pounds per second
SI – kN/s
Incompressible fluid – volume flow rate

Compressible fluid – weight & mass flowrate
10
Mean
velocity at
Point P = u,
volume
flow rate
passing
through the
element of
area dA is
Noor Aliza Ahmad , aliza@uthm.edu.my 11
dQ = u. dA
= ( u cos  ) dA
= u ( cos  dA )
= u. dA’
dA’ = projection of dA on the plane normal to

the direction of U.
This indicates that the…

Volume flow rate = Q = magnitude of the
mean velocity multiplied by the flow area at
right angle to the direction of the mean
velocity.
Q   udA  AV (4.3)
A
How to calculate mass flow rate( m) and
weight flow rate (G) ???

Q m G
V    (4.6)
A  A A
Write the mean velocity,V for circular
pipe.
14
#Activity -1#
The velocity of a liquid (s =1.4 m) in a 150
mm pipeline is 0.8 m/s. Calculate the rate of
flow in L/s, m3/s, kg/s and kN/s.
Solution:
Q  AV
  0.075  0.8
2
3 Convert to L/s
 0.01414 m Known 1000 L = 1 m3
s
3 1000 L
Q  0 . 01414 m 
s 1m 3
 14 . 14 L
s
16
Solution:

m  Q
 1.4 1000kg / m 3 0.01414m 3 / s 
 19.79kg / m 3
G  Q
 1.4  9.81kN / m 0.01414m / s 
3 3
 0.1942kN / s
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
(PERSAMAAN KESELANJARAN)
Figure shows the short length

of stream tube where no fluid
can leave or enter the stream
tube except at the ends.
The fixed volume between two

section ① and ② is a control
volume 
Steady flow
 
min  m out (control volume)
1 A1V1   2 A2V2
Gin  Gout (control volume)
 
g m1  g m 2
 1 A1V1   2 A2V
19
Incompressible flow (  = constant) for
both steady and unsteady flow
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q (4.17)
20
# Activity – 2 #
Water flows in a river at 9.00 am the flow

past bridge 1 is 37.2 m3/s. At the same
instant the flow past bridge 2 is 26.9 m3/s. At
what rate is water being stored in the river
between the two bridges at this instant?
21
Solution:
① ②
dV
Q1  Q2 
dt
37.2  26.9 m s 
3 dV
dt
dV
 10.30 m 3 s
dt
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Consider frictionless steady flow of an ideal

fluid along the streamline as shown below.
We shall consider the forces acting in the
direction of the streamline on a small
element of the fluid in the stream tube and
we shall apply Newton’s second law, that is
F = ma.
The cross-
sectional area of
the element at
right angles to
the streamline
may have any
shape and varies
Element moving along
from A to A + dA
streamline( ideal fluid)
In steady flow the velocity does not vary at a
point (local acceleration = 0). but that it may
vary with position (convective acceleration 
0).
One-dimensional Euler Equation:

2
dp
 dz  d V 0
 2g
(5.6)
Incompressible fluid
For the case of an incompressible fluid (=

constant), we can integrate Eq. (5.6) to give
26
Incompressible fluid
If we multiply each term first by g and then by ,

we obtain the following alternate forms:
# Activity-3 #
Glycerin (specific gravity 1.26) in a

processing plant flows in a pipe at a rate of
700 L/s. At a point where the pipe diameter is
600 mm, the pressure is 300 kPa. Find the
pressure at a second point where the pipe
diameter is 300mm if the second point is
1.0 m lower than the first point. Neglect head
loss.
For an incompressible fluid (= constant),
we can integrate directly.
Integrating from some point 1 to another point 2 on

the same streamline, where the distance between
them is L, we get for an incompressible real fluid
30
Element moving along
streamline( real fluid)
# Activity – 4 #
If h = 10.5 m in Fig. X5.3.4 and the pressures

at A and B are 170 and 275 kPa respectively,
find the direction of flow and the pipe friction
head loss in meters of liquid. Assume the
liquid has a specific gravity of 0.85.
Solution:
1.Water Discharge From An Orifice
(Example 5, 6 )
2.Velocity Measurement by A Pitot Tube
(Example 7)
3. Flow Measurement Using Meter Venturi
(Example 8)
#Activity – 5 #
A large tank open to the
atmosphere is filled with
water to a height of 5 m
from the outlet tap. A tap
near the bottom of the tank
is now opened, and water
flows out from the smooth
and rounded outlet.
Determine the water
velocity at the outlet.
Solution:
We take point 1 to be at the free surface of

water so that P1 = Patm (open to the
atmosphere), V1 = 0 (the tank is large relative
to the outlet), and z1 = 5 m and z2 = 0 (we
take the reference level at the center of the
outlet). Also, P2 = Patm (water discharges into
the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation
simplifies to
The relation V is called the Toricelli equation.
# Activity-6 #
A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in

one of its vertical sides. The tank contains oil to
a depth of 0.61m above the centre of the orifice
and the pressure in the air space above the oil is
maintained at 13780 N/m2 above atmospheric.
Determine the discharge from the orifice.
(Coefficient of discharge of the orifice is 0.61,
relative density of oil is 0.9).
Solution:
Apply Bernoulli,
Take atmospheric pressure as 0,
#Activity- 7#
A piezometer and a Pitot

tube are tapped into a
horizontal water pipe, as
shown, to measure static
and stagnation (static
dynamic) pressures. For the
indicated water column
heights, determine the
velocity at the center of the
pipe.
Solution:
We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of
the pipe, with point 1 directly under the
piezometer and point 2 at the tip of the Pitot
tube. This is a steady flow with straight and
parallel streamlines, and the gage pressures at
points 1 and 2 can be expressed as
Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus
v2=0 and z1=z2, the application of the Bernoulli
equation between points 1 and 2 gives
# Activity- 8 #
A Venturimeter of throat diameter 0.076m is

fitted in a 0.152m diameter vertical pipe in
which liquid of relative density 0.8 flows
downwards. Pressure gauges are fitted to the
inlet and to the throat sections. The throat being
0.914m below the inlet. Taking the coefficient of
the meter as 0.97 find the discharge when the
pressure gauges read the same.
Solution:
By continuity:
MOMENTUM EQUATIONS
But since the flow we are considering is steady.

from continuity,m1= m2= 1Q1 = 2Q2 = Q. Also.
using the vector relations of Fig. 6.lb, let us for
convenience write V = V2- V1.
Using these. Eq. (6.5) becomes
Steady flow m(AV) = Q(V) = Q(V2 — V1) (6.6)

APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM EQUATIONS
a) Structure open to the atmosphere

(Example 9 & 10)
b) Force of Pressure Conduits and Bend
( Example 11 )
c) Force of A Stationary Vane or Blade
(Example 12,13 &14)
d) Force of Nozzle ( Example 15)
#Activity- 9 #
The water passage in Fig.

S6.1 is 3 m wide normal to
the plane of the figure.
Determine the horizontal
force acting on the shaded
structure. Assume ideal
flow.
Solution:
Free Body Diagram
# Activity- 10#
Flow occurs over the spillway of constant section

as shown in Fig. X6.4.4. Given that y1, = 4.2 m
and y2 = 0.7 m, determine the horizontal force on
the spillway per meter of spillway width
(perpendicular to the spillway section). Assume
ideal flow.
Energy: 4.2 + V12/(2x9.81) = 0.7 + V22/(2x9.81) (1)
Continuity per m: 4.2 V1 = 0.71V2 (2)
Substituting (2) into (1) yields:

V1 = 1.401 m/s, V2 = 8.40 m/s ; Q = A1V1 = 5.88 m3/s
per meter
Eq. 6.7a: F = F1-F2- Fx = Q(V2x-V1x)
9810(2.1)4.2 — 9810(0.35)0.7 — Fx =
1000(5.88)(8.40 — 1.401)
= +42 900 N/m to the left.
Water (Fw/s)x acts on spillway to the right with 42.9
kN/m.
Force of Pressure Conduits and Bend
Consider the case of horizontal flow to the right
through the reducer of Fig. 6.3a. A free-body
diagram of the forces acting on the fluid mass
contained in the reducer (the control volume
(CV) is shown in Fig. 6.3b. We shall apply Eq.
(6.7a) to this fluid mass to examine the forces
that are acting in the x direction.
Applying Eq. (6.7a) and assuming the fluid is
ideal with F directed as shown, since the entry
and exit velocities are parallel to the x direction,
we get
Fx = P1A1 – P2A2 –Fx = Q(V2-V1) (6.10)
Fx = P1A1 -P2A2- Q(V2-V1) (6.11)
If the fluid undergoes a change in both direction
and velocity, as in the reducing pipe bend,
with applying Eq (6.7a) by summing up x-
forces acting on the fluid in the CV, and
equating them to the change in fluid momentum
in the x direction, gives
Fx = P1A1 – P2A2cos –Fx = Q(V2x-V1x)(6.12)
Known that V2x = V2 cos and V1x = V1,
Fx = P1A1 – P2A2cos- Q(V2cos  - V1) (6.13)
in the y direction,
Fy = 0 – P2A2sin + Fy = Q(V2y - V1y) ( 6.14)
Known that V2x = V2 sin and V1y = 0,
Fx = P2A2sin + Q(V2sin  ) (6.15)
#Activity-11#
A water flows in a pipe which bend P2
to the horizontal axis at 450 . The A2
inlet pipe’s diameter is 600mm 2
and reduce to 300mm in the end. v2

Given the inlet’s pressure and flow v  = 450
P1
rate are 140kPa and 0.425 m3/s 1
A1 1
respectively. Neglecting the
friction, calculate the resultant
force at the bend..
Solution:
v1 = Q/A1 = 0.425/ ( (0.6)2/4) = 1.5 m/s
v2 = Q/A2 = 0.425/ ( (0.3)2/4) = 6.0 m/s
A1 = ( (0.6)2/4) = 0.282 m2
A2 = ( (0.3)2/4) = 0.071 m2
1) Apply Bernoulli Eqn. at Point 1 and 2
(P1/g) + (v12/2g) + (z1) = (P2/g) + (v22/2g) + (z2)
Placed in the horizontal axis, z1= z2
(140 x 103/ 103 x 9.81) + (1.52/ 2 x 9.81) =
(P2/ 103 x 9.81) + (62/ 2 x 9.81)
 P2 = 1.23 x 105 N/m2
Fx = Momentum Changes in x direction
P1A1 – P2A2kos  - Fx = Q(v2kos  - v1)
(140 x 103)( 0.282) – (123x 103) ( 0.071) ( kos 45) – Fx
= (103) ( 0.425) ( 6 kos 45 -1.5)
Fx = 32260 N
Fy = Momentum Changes in y direction

– P2A2sin  + Fy = Q(v2sin  - 0)
– 123x 103) ( 0.071) ( sin 45) + Fy =
(103) ( 0.425) ( 6 sin 45)
Fy = 7970 N
F =  Fx2 + Fy2
=  (32260)2 + (7970)2
= 33230 N
= 33 kN
Direction,  = tan-1 Fx /Fy

= tan-1 32260 /7970
= 13.90 (to horizontal)
#Activity- 12#
Refer to Fig. P6.15. Assuming ideal flow in a

horizontal plane, calculate the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force on the stationary
blade. Note that the jet (Vj, = 12 mIs, D = 150
mm) is divided by the splitter so that one-third of
the water is diverted toward A.
71
Solution:
# Activity-13 #
Refer to Fig. X6.6.6. Assume that friction is

negligible, that  =115°, and that the water
jet has a velocity of 25 m/s and a diameter
of 40 mm. Find
(a)the component of the force acting on the
vane in the direction of the jet;
(b)the force component normal to the jet; and
(c) the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force exerted on the blade.
Solution:
Example 14
A water jet strikes on a vane at 1500. If
water flows and velocity are 0.68 kg/s and
24 m/s respectively, calculate:
a) Resultant force at stationary vane
b) Resultant force at vane if the vane moving
at velocity 8m/s in jet direction
c) Output Power if (b) replaced by the set of
vanes
NOOR ALIZA AHMAD 77

APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM EQUATIONS
(Cont’d)
Solution:
y a) Jika bilah pegun
x
Direction x , v1x = 24 m/s
v
1 v2x = - v1x kos 30
1500
=- 24 m/s kos 30
v
v = v2x- v1x
2 = (-24 m/s kos 30) – 24 m/s
= -44.8 m/s
NOOR ALIZA AHMAD 78

Given,
Flow =0.68kg/s
Fx = Flow x v
=0.68kg/s x-44.8 m/s
= -30.45 N ( )
Direction y,v1y = 0 m/s Given,
v2y = - v sin 30 Flow =0.68kg/s
v = v2y- v1y Fy = Flow x v
= (-24 m/s sin 30) – 0 m/s =0.68kg/s x-12 m/s
= -12.0 m/s = -8.16 N ( )
F =  Fx2 + Fy2
=  (30.45)2 + (8.16)2
= 31.5 N ( magnitude) x
150
Direction,  = tan-1 Fy /Fx

= tan-1 8.16 /30.45 y
= 150
80
b) Resultant force at vane if the vane moving at
velocity 8m/s in jet direction
Given,
Flow =0.68kg/s= av
0.68 kg/s = 103 x a x v
a = 0.68kg/s / 103 x v Moving vane,
= 2.83 x 10-5 m2 flow =a(v-u)
= 103 x 2.83 x 10-5 ( 24-8)
= 0.453 kg/s
Direction x ,
Initial velocity, v1x = v-u = 24 -8 = 16 m/s
Final Velocity, v2x = - v1x kos 30
=- 16 m/s kos 30
v = v2x- v1x
= (- 16 m/s kos 30) – 16 m/s
= -29.86 m/s
 Resultant force , Fx = flow x v
=0.453kg/s x-29.86 m/s
= -13.5 N ( )
Direction y ,
Initial velocity, v1y = 0 m/s
Final Velocity v2y = - (v-u) sin 30
=- 16 m/s sin 30
v = v2x- v1x
= (- 16 m/s sin 30) – 0 m/s
= -8 m/s
 Resultant force, Fy = flow x v
=0.453kg/s x-8 m/s
= -3.6 N ( )
F =  Fx2 + Fy2
=  (13.5)2 + (3.6)2
= 14 N
Direction,  = tan-1 Fy /Fx x

150
= tan-1 3.6 /13.5
= 150
y
c) Output Power if (b) replaced by the set
of vanes
Notes:
• Vanes move at 8 m/s.
• Water jet strikes in x direction
Direction x ,
Initial velocity, v1x = v-u = 24 -8 = 16 m/s
Final velocity v2x = - v1x kos 30
=- 16 m/s kos 30= -13.86
v = v2x- v1x
= (- 16 m/s kos 30) – 16 m/s
= -29.86 m/s
Fx = flow x v
=0.68kg/s x-29.86 m/s
= -20.3 N ( )
Output Power = Fx x u
= 20.3 N x 8m/s
= 162.4 Nm/s
= 162.4 watt
87

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BFC 10403

Flow often referred as

iii) weight flow rate

Incompressible fluid – volume flow rate

dA’ = projection of dA on the plane normal to

This indicates that the…

Figure shows the short length

The fixed volume between two

Water flows in a river at 9.00 am the flow

Consider frictionless steady flow of an ideal

One-dimensional Euler Equation:

For the case of an incompressible fluid (=

If we multiply each term first by g and then by ,

Glycerin (specific gravity 1.26) in a

Integrating from some point 1 to another point 2 on

If h = 10.5 m in Fig. X5.3.4 and the pressures

We take point 1 to be at the free surface of

A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in

A piezometer and a Pitot

A Venturimeter of throat diameter 0.076m is

But since the flow we are considering is steady.

Using these. Eq. (6.5) becomes

Steady flow m(AV) = Q(V) = Q(V2 — V1) (6.6)

a) Structure open to the atmosphere

The water passage in Fig.

Flow occurs over the spillway of constant section

Substituting (2) into (1) yields:

Fx = P1A1 -P2A2- Q(V2-V1) (6.11)

and reduce to 300mm in the end. v2

Fy = Momentum Changes in y direction

Direction,  = tan-1 Fx /Fy

Refer to Fig. P6.15. Assuming ideal flow in a

Refer to Fig. X6.6.6. Assume that friction is

NOOR ALIZA AHMAD 77

NOOR ALIZA AHMAD 78

Direction,  = tan-1 Fy /Fx

Direction,  = tan-1 Fy /Fx x

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