Weather
Weather
Weather
WEATHER
Global Awareness Tour
PROBLEM-BASED
CLASSROOM MODULES
MATERIALS You get to pick where the group will play, based on
Most of this activity is based on the TRMM and other these guidelines:
Internet sites. ● Use TRMM and other sources to select locations in
World maps for each team and push pins/flags for the United States and elsewhere in the world
each team’s map where each of these conditions can be found.
Post-it notes or index cards ● You need to give a reason why you selected each
location.
Action Item DW1 For you to begin your your information. What does this information tell you?
research, you must first learn how to find, interpret, and What images are provided? Do they help you to inter-
describe weather data. To begin, find the current weath- pret the data? Why or why not? Describe what you see.
er for your location (or a nearby location). Record the Provide references.
information below, being sure to include the source of
Temperature
Air pressure
Wind direction
Wind speed
Sky cover
Relative humidity
Precipitation
Other conditions
Action Item DW2 Select some locations around information on a “post-it” note or index card, then place
the world where you might schedule your “Global it on the world map with a push pin or flag. What is the
Awareness Tour” and describe the present weather in source of your information? What did you find out?
those areas. (As a guide to what to look for, use the Why did you select these locations?
weather variable list from Action Item DW1.) Write this
Now it’s time to choose some potential sites for your Action Item DW3 Using the knowledge you have
“Global Awareness Tour.” For the start of the concert gained in your research and information from the NASA
tour, you might want to choose locations that have TRMM satellite, identify three possible locations that
great weather. would have the fine weather conditions you’d like for
your concert. Be sure to provide supporting informa-
tion for your selection.
Action item EW1 In trying to learn as much as you found? Why is this satellite different from others?
you can about world weather patterns, a local meteor- Remember, you were selected to organize this concert
ologist has provided you with some limited guidance. because of your reputation for detail.
You have been told that data obtained from the TRMM Computers have been able to put together millions of
satellite will be very helpful for your research. However, TRMM observations into one map that shows precipita-
this is all you’ve been told. You’ll need to learn more tion over the first five-year period of this satellite’s oper-
about this satellite, the type of information it provides, ation. Make sure you include this map in your research:
and why it is especially useful to you. The only guidance http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/5-year_TRMM_
you’ve received on this satellite is its name. Where do climo.gif
you go to get information on the satellite? What have
Often, extreme weather events in distant parts of the Other important connections you might want to know
world are related to each other. TRMM can help identify about, so you can help others know more through the
these connections. For example, did you know that “Global Awareness Tour,” are the well-established ones
flooding in South America and drought in Indonesia between extreme weather and certain diseases: http://
and Northern Australia almost always occur when there trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/overview_dir/climate_disease.html
is an El Niño? You can read more about these connec-
tions at: http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/overview_dir/ Action Item EW2 Use your TRMM satellite
variability_el_nino.html research and other sources to identify parts of the world
Drought can occur for several reasons. In some places, that now or in the recent past have experienced:
global climatic conditions cause permanent drought. ● FLOODING
One such example would be over the Sahara Desert in ● DROUGHTS
North Africa. Do the TRMM climatology images show Then, use the chart on this page to list your location
this? Where else would you find such long-term drought selection for each of the listed categories, the reasons
conditions? In other locations, droughts may exist for you selected those locations, and your supporting
shorter periods. What parts of the world are experiencing references.
drought now? What might be causing these conditions?
FLOODING now
FLOODING in the
recent past
DROUGHT now
DROUGHT in the
recent past
Do any of the areas you identified seem to have flooding or drought during particular times of the year? What might
explain these patterns? Are there any extreme events like this taking place now? If so, where? How do you know?
Action Item EW3 Use the information you gath- the source of your data. On another sheet of paper,
ered for the chart on p. 6 to identify one location in the write a summary of your observations and conclusions,
United States and one location elsewhere in the world using the knowledge you have gained from your
where flooding is taking place now. Be sure to include research.
FLOODING
U.S. LOCATION SOURCE
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES 2. How prepared are you for a flood? Design a safety
1. How likely is flooding where you live? Try to deter- campaign to help your family, schoolmates, and
mine what weather or climate conditions can cause community get ready in case of a flood in your area.
this natural hazard. http://www.redcross.org/disaster/safety/floods.html
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/ffbro.htm
Action Item EW4 Use the information you gath- the source of your data. On another sheet of paper,
ered for the chart on p. 6 to identify one location in the write a summary of your observations and conclusions,
United States and one location elsewhere in the world using the knowledge you have gained from your
where drought is taking place now. Be sure to include research.
DROUGHT
U.S. LOCATION SOURCE
Action Item EW5 Applying the same process you Based on that research, identify parts of the world that
used for drought and floods, now research: now or in the recent past have experienced wind and
dust storms, now or in the recent past have had hurri-
● WIND & DUST STORMS
canes/typhoons, and now or in the recent past have
● HURRICANES/TYPHOONS been affected by severe lightning. Then, use the chart
● LIGHTNING below to list your location selection for each of the list-
ed categories, the reasons you selected those locations,
and your supporting references.
HURRICANES/
TYPHOONS now
HURRICANES/
TYPHOONS in the
recent past
LIGHTNING now
LIGHTNING
in the recent past
Do any of the areas you identified seem to have extreme weather during particular times of the year? What might
explain these patterns? Are there any extreme events like this taking place now? If so, where? How do you know?
Action Item EW6 Use the information you gath- and dust storms are taking place now. Be sure to include
ered for the chart on p. 8 to identify one location in the the source of your data. On another sheet of paper, write
United States and one elsewhere in the world where wind a summary of your observations and conclusions, using
the knowledge you have gained from your research.
WIND & DUST STORMS
U.S. LOCATION SOURCE
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES what QuikSCAT does. How well do the two sets of
1. Another satellite that provides data about global data support each other’s accuracy?
winds is NASA’s QuikSCAT: http://winds.jpl.nasa. 2. Can pollution particles carried by winds and dust
gov/missions/quikscat/quikindex.html. Write a brief storms reduce the amount of precipitation? Use
comparison between what TRMM can detect and TRMM resources to answer this question.
Action Item EW7 Use the information you gath- sure to include the source of your data. If no storm is
ered for the chart on p. 8 to identify one location in the taking place now, you can go into the archives to make
United States and one location elsewhere in the world these selections. On another sheet of paper, write a
where hurricanes or typhoons are taking place now. Be summary of your observations and conclusions, using
the knowledge you have gained from your research.
HURRICANES/TYPHOONS
U.S. LOCATION SOURCE
TRMM also carries a Lightning Image Sensor (LIS). This droplets and ice in updrafts and downdrafts. Falling
instrument is the first satellite-borne system to observe streams create a negative charge that accumulates in
the global extent of lightning strikes in the tropics. The the lower parts of clouds, while rising streams create
data obtained by LIS provide important new informa- positive charges that accumulate in the upper parts.
tion about the electrodynamic nature of our planet, A lightning discharge neutralizes these differences.
connections between lightning and precipitation, and
many other discoveries. Lightning is one of the most Action Item EW8 Use the information you gath-
dangerous weather phenomena in the U.S. and around ered for the chart on p. 8 to identify one location in the
the world, killing hundreds and injuring thousands United States and one location elsewhere in the world
each year. So the more we know, the better we can where lightning is taking place now. Be sure to include
design protection techniques. the source of your data. If no storm is taking place now,
At its simplest level, lightning is caused by the buildup you can go into the archives to make these selections.
of an electrical charge in large, vertically developing On another sheet of paper, write a summary of your
clouds. A cloud can build up an electrical charge observations and conclusions, using the knowledge you
through the rising and falling of air currents. Raindrops, have gained from your research.
hailstones, and ice pellets collide with smaller water
LIGHTNING
U.S. LOCATION SOURCE
EXTENSION ACTIVITIES 3. Where can you learn more about the dangers of
lightning and what to do about it?
1. Examine TRMM lightning images carefully. Answer
the following questions: The National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
● What parts of the world get a lot of lightning?
(NOAA) leads our efforts in lightning research. You
● What parts get none or very little lightning?
can find more interesting information about light-
● Are there any parts of the world where it surprises ning and thunderstorms at:
you to see that lightning commonly occurs or http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/ltg
doesn’t occur? http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/resources
● Do all locations along any given latitude experi- http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/researchitems/
ence the same amount of lightning? Along any thunderstorms.shtml
given longitude? http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/hazard
2. Try these two simple experiments to demonstrate 4. How would it feel to be struck by lightning?
how electrical charges can build up: You can read some survivor stories at:
● Take two balloons. First, just bring them together. http://www.science.nasa.gov/newhome/
What happens? Then rub them briefly. What hap- headlines/essd18jun99_1.htm
pens now when they are brought together?
Explain.
● With water running in a sink in a small thin
stream, run a comb through your hair several
times and place the comb near the water.
Describe and explain what happens.
THUNDER MATH EXTENSION ACTIVITY 1. Which student heard the thunder first? _______
You probably already know that you see lightning How long after seeing the lightning?
before you hear its thunder because light travels faster ____________ seconds.
than sound. You may also know that you can tell how
far away you are from the lightning by using a simple 2. Which student heard the thunder last? _______
“rule of thumb”: If you count how many seconds it
How long after seeing the lightning?
takes to hear thunder after you see a lightning stroke,
every five seconds equals a distance of one mile (or ____________ seconds.
1.6 kilometers). So, for example, if you see lightning
3. Which two students heard the thunder at the same
and then count ten seconds before you hear the thun-
time? _______ and _______ .
der, then the lightning was two miles (3.2 kilometers)
away (ten divided by five.) Here’s a simple math activi-
4. How far away from the storm was student B?
ty to understand more about this:
____________ miles.
During a storm, six students at locations A, B, C, D, E,
and F saw the lightning stroke at point L at the same 5. If the storm moved to directly above where student
moment. The scale on this map is: one centimeter E is and another lightning stroke occurred, how
equals one mile. As mentioned above, every five-sec- long would it take before student C heard it?
ond difference between when you see lightning and ____________ seconds.
when you hear thunder means a distance of one mile
(or 1.6 kilometers) between you and the storm. Use
this information to answer the following questions.
A
●
E
●
F
L ●
C
●
●D
●
B
0 1 2 3 4
SCALE: 1 centimeter = 1 mile (or 1.6 kilometers)
Centimeters
THIS IS IT!
It is now time to make your final decision. In the table below,
summarize your choices for locations in your “Global Awareness Tour.”
Then plot these on your world map with push pins or flags.
TYPE OF EVENT 2 POSSIBLE LOCATIONS TRMM /OTHER DATA THAT WHY DID YOU CHOOSE THESE SITES?
HELPED YOU LOCATE THEM
Fine weather
Flooding
Drought
Wind or
dust storm
Hurricane
or typhoon
Lightning
EXTENSION ACTIVITY: What songs would your favorite group perform at each location? Why?
DAILY WEATHER
Action Item DW1 Action Item DW3
● Student obtains current local weather using Internet Student identifies three locations to exemplify “fine
or other sources (e.g., television, radio). weather” and provides supporting reasons.
● Student records data correctly, including citation of
sources.
Extension Activities
1a. Student locates appropriate information about
● Student attempts to describe/interpret data and
environmental satellites.
images.
b. Student provides a suitable comparison/contrast of
Action Item DW2 polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites. This
● Student obtains weather from international locations could be done through an essay, a poster, a
using Internet or other sources (e.g., television, radio). PowerPoint presentation, or other format.
● Student records data correctly, including citation of 2. Student provides a suitable comparison/contrast of
sources. TRMM and TOPEX/Poseidon or JASON satellites. This
● Student identified location on world map. could be done through a format described above.
● Student attempts to describe/interpret data and 3. Student provides suitable answers for the “Think
images. about....” questions.
EXTREME WEATHER
Action Item EW1 locations somewhere in the world currently experi-
● Student accesses TRMM Web site and explores infor- encing flooding, and cites source(s).
mation and images available there.
Extension Activities (Flooding)
● Student describes examples of what makes TRMM
special for studying world weather. 1. Student identifies likelihood of local flooding, includ-
ing conditions under which it is most likely.
Action Item EW2 2. Student designs appropriate safety campaign con-
● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify cerning flooding. This might include presentation to
locations experiencing flooding, currently or in the a class or community group.
past, and cites source(s).
Action Item EW4
● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify
locations experiencing drought, currently or in the ● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify
past, and cites source(s). locations in the U. S. currently experiencing drought,
and cites source(s).
● Student identifies suitable locations for “global tour,”
provides appropriate reason for selection, and marks ● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify
them on world map. locations somewhere in the world currently experi-
encing drought, and cites source(s).
● Student answers questions concerning seasonal pat-
terns with appropriate supporting data. Extension Activity (Drought)
Action Item EW3 ● Student provides appropriate answer to question
concerning why areas of drought may occur in prox-
● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify
imity of oceans.
locations in the U. S. currently experiencing flooding,
and cites source(s). ● Student describes possibilities of utilizing desalina-
tion to provide potable water, and also discusses
● Student utilizes TRMM or other resources to identify
constraints on such methods.
T
he Problem-Based Learning (PBL) model of teach- vide a good guide for both teachers and students, to
ing is a lot like it sounds; students learn by solving ensure that the students are continually kept on the
a problem. While this occurs in all classrooms to a right track.
different extent, the PBL learning model causes a dras-
tic shift in the roles of students and teachers. In tradi- Why use PBL?
tional teaching methods, the teacher acts as director Traditional teaching methods focus on providing
of student learning, which is commonly passive. With students with information and knowledge. The PBL
PBL, these roles shift. Students become active and model also adds “real-world” problem-solving skills to
responsible for their own learning, and the activity is the classroom. It teaches students that there is some-
student-centered; the teacher becomes more of a times more than one possible answer, and that they
facilitator or guide, monitoring student progress. have to learn how to decide between/among these
By using this model, the students gain information answers.
through a series of self-directed activities in which the
students need to solve a problem. These problems Students and PBL
drive the learning process and are designed to help Students are broken up into groups and are pre-
students develop the skills necessary for critical think- sented with a poorly structured, complex problem.
ing and problem solving. Students learn that in the Students should have enough background knowledge
real world, problems, and their solutions, are not to understand the problem, but should not be experts.
always cut and dried, and that there may be different Any one, specific solution to the problem should not
possible answers to the same problem. They also learn be evident. The students will need to determine what
that as they continue to gain information, they need the problem is that they need to solve. Some organiza-
to readjust their plan. In other words, they must per- tional questions they may ask themselves are:
form self-assessment. ● What do we know about this problem?
A PBL lesson starts with a problem posed directly to ● What do we need to know?
the students. These problems are poorly structured to
● How/where do we get the information needed to
reflect real-world situations. Students (most commonly
solve the problem?
in small, cooperative groups) are then left to deter-
The next step for the students is to determine a
mine what steps need to be taken in order to solve the
problem statement. From the information given to
problem. The teacher does not give the students the
them in the problem, they should determine what
information needed prior to the activity. However, the
they need to know and then plan a course of action to
teacher does need to make sure the students have
get the information they need to propose a solution.
enough prior knowledge to be able to interpret the
In implementing this plan, they will have to gather
problem and determine a plan of action.
information to help them solve the problem. They will
A key component of PBL is constant feedback. While
need to be sure that the resources they use are cur-
the students are constantly assessing their work, and
rent, credible, accurate, and unbiased. As information is
in turn adjusting their plan, teachers also need to pro-
gathered and interpreted, they then apply their new
vide continual, immediate feedback. Without feedback,
knowledge, reevaluate what they know, and redeter-
students may be uncomfortable with this type of
mine what they need to know to solve the problem.
activity, because they do not know what is expected of
Once all the information is gathered, interpreted, and
them. Teacher feedback provides reinforcement for
discussed, the group works together to propose a final
student learning. Feedback should be an authentic,
solution.
performance-based assessment. Students need to
Benefits of PBL
By using the Problem-Based Learning method, stu-
dents gain more than just knowledge of facts. They
develop critical thinking skills while working in collab-
orative groups to try to solve a problem. In doing this,
they learn how to:
● interpret the question/problem,
● develop a problem statement,
● conduct research, reevaluating prior knowledge as
new knowledge is gained,
● determine possible solutions, and
● pick the best possible solution based on the infor-
mation they have gathered.
By providing immediate student feedback, the stu-
dents can continually readjust their thinking, correct-
ing any misconceptions or errors before moving on.
By using PBL, students become more familiar with
“real-world” problems. They learn that there is not
always only one correct answer, and that they need to
work together to gather enough information to deter-
mine the best solution.
PBL Assessment
As the student groups work together to collect infor-
mation, they will need to constantly assess their own
progress and readjust their plan. As they do this, they
will need continual, immediate feedback from the
teacher. When they become more comfortable with
this model, they will learn to rely less on the teacher
and become more independent. By providing the stu-
dents with the grading rubric, it will serve as a guide
to ensure they are on the right track throughout the
activity.
Introduction to the Tropical Rainfall it reaches a level where it is cooled to its condensation
Measuring Mission (TRMM) temperature. Then the water vapor releases the energy
(540 calories per gram) it absorbed during the evapo-
R
ainfall is one of the most important weather and ration process. This “latent heat” release can occur
climate variables that determine whether thousands of kilometers from where the latent heat
mankind survives, thrives, or perishes. Water is so was originally absorbed.
ubiquitous on planet Earth that we often take it for
Water plays an additional critical role in weather and
granted. Too much water results in devastating floods,
climate: water vapor, it turns out, is the most abundant
and the famine caused by too little water (drought) is
and most important greenhouse gas! Greenhouse
repsonsible for more human deaths than all other nat-
gases trap some of the energy given off by the Earth’s
ural disasters combined. Water comprises more than
surface in the atmosphere. Therefore, the distribution
75 percent of our bodies and as much as 95 percent of
and quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere are
some of the foods we eat.
important in determining how well the Earth can emit
Water is essential to life, as it nourishes our cells and the energy it absorbs from the Sun back into space.
removes the waste they generate. Water determines Unless the Earth loses as much energy as it receives, it
whether plants produce food, or whether they wither will warm up. If the Earth loses more energy than it
from drought or rot from dampness. Water is essential receives, it will cool down. The distribution of water
to our homes and factories, to our production of food, vapor in the atmosphere also affects cloudiness; and
fiber, and manufactured goods, and to just about clouds play an important role in determining how
everything else we produce and consume. Although much solar energy reaches the Earth’s surface, as well
water covers more than 70 percent of the Earth’s sur- as how much heat can escape to space.
face, only about 3 percent is fresh water—and about
Perhaps it is now obvious that water, in all its forms,
75 percent of that is inaccessible because it is locked
plays a critical role in determining what we call weath-
up in glaciers and icecaps.
er and climate. Our understanding of the complicated
Another important aspect of rainfall, or any other interactions involving water is insufficient to permit us
precipitation, is its role in redistributing the energy the to forecast, with much skill, weather beyond several
Earth receives from the Sun. Evaporation of water from days and climate beyond a few months. Because the
the Earth’s surface, condensation of water vapor into occurrence of precipitation is highly variable in both
cloud droplets or ice particles, precipitation, runoff of time and space, and almost three-fourths of the Earth’s
the precipitation, and melting of snow and ice consti- surface has no rain gauges because it is covered by
tute what is known as the water cycle, or the hydrolog- the oceans, we have never been able to adequately
ical cycle. Evaporation, the process of changing water observe the global distribution of rain. Measurements
from liquid to gas form, absorbs 540 calories of energy from rain gauges on islands and satellite images of
per gram of water; while simply raising the tempera- clouds have led to estimates of global precipitation.
ture of a gram of water one degree Celsius—without But TRMM—the first satellite to measure precipitation
changing its phase— requires only one calorie of with the accuracy available from a radar in combina-
energy. Thus, much of the Sun’s energy that reaches tion with other remote sensors—represents a break-
the Earth’s surface is used to evaporate water instead through in our ability to monitor precipitation on a
of raising the temperature of the surface. The resulting global scale. This is already leading to improved fore-
water vapor is carried upward by the atmosphere until casts, as shown on the next page.
TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) Cloud and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES)
The TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) is a passive The Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System
microwave sensor that detects and images microwave (CERES) measures the amount of energy rising from
radiation emitted by water droplets, ice particles, and the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and clouds. Clouds can
the Earth’s surface. TMI detects radiation at five differ- have both a warming and cooling effect on the Earth,
ent frequencies, which helps to distinguish between trapping energy emitted by the Earth’s surface while
rainfall, bodies of water, and land. Data obtained from blocking energy from the Sun. Similarly, water vapor
this instrument is used to quantify the water vapor, also warms the Earth by trapping outgoing radiation,
cloud water, and rainfall intensity in the atmosphere. but also condenses to form clouds that sometimes
have a cooling effect. Data from this instrument helps
Precipitation Radar (PR) scientists learn more about how the Earth distributes
The Precipitation Radar (PR), an active sensor, is the the energy it receives from the Sun, as well as the
first space-based precipitation radar. PR emits radar effects of clouds and water vapor on the overall tem-
pulses toward Earth, which are then reflected by pre- perature and energy budget of the Earth. This informa-
cipitation particles back to the radar. By measuring the tion will help long-term climate models make more
strength of the returned pulses, the radar is able to accurate predictions.
estimate rainfall rates. Among the three main instru-
ments on TRMM, PR is the most innovative. Other Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS)
instruments similar to TMI and the Visible and The Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) is a powerful
Infrared Scanner (VIRS) have operated in space instrument that can detect and locate cloud-to-
before, but PR is the first radar launched into space for ground, cloud-to-cloud, and intra-cloud lightning. The
the purpose of measuring rainfall. Data obtained from information gained from this instrument is used to
this instrument: classify cloud types and, together with other TRMM
● provides three-dimensional storm structures; instruments, to correlate lightning flash rate with
storm properties, including rainfall rate. It’s also expect-
● helps to determine the intensity and three-dimen-
ed that the information provided from LIS will lead to
sional distribution of rainfall over land and water,
future advances in lightning detection and forecasting.
active TRMM sensors—A remote-sensing system that GOES satellite (Geostationary Operational
transmits its own radiation to detect an object or Environmental Satellite)—NASA-developed,
area for observation and receives the reflected or NOAA-operated series of satellites that:
transmitted radiation. Radar is an example of an • provide continuous day and night weather
active system. 1 The TRMM Precipitation Radar (PR) is observations;
an active sensor. 2 • monitor severe weather events such as hurricanes,
air masses—Large bodies of air, often hundreds or thunderstorms, and flash floods;
thousands of miles across, containing air of a similar • relay environmental data from surface collecting
temperature and humidity. Sometimes the differ- platforms to a processing center;
ence between air masses are hardly noticeable, but • perform facsimile transmissions of processed
if colliding air masses have very different tempera- weather data to low-cost receiving stations;
tures and humidity values, storms can erupt. 1 • monitor the Earth’s magnetic field, the energetic
anticyclone (high pressure system)—A high pressure particle flux in the satellite’s vicinity, and x-ray
area where winds blow clockwise in the northern emissions from the Sun;
hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern • detect distress signals from downed aircraft and
hemisphere. 1 ships. 1
See also: http://www.oso.noaa.gov/goes and
cold front—The leading edge of an advancing cold
http://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/goes
air mass that runs under and displaces the warmer
air in its path. Generally, with the passage of a cold latitude/longitude—Latitude (aka geodetic latitude)
front, the temperature and humidity decrease, the is the angle between a perpendicular at a location,
pressure rises, and the wind shifts (usually from the and the equitorial plane of the Earth. Longitude is
southwest to the northwest in the northern hemi- the angular distance from the Greenwich meridian
sphere). Precipitation is generally at and/or behind (0°), along the equator. This can be measured either
the front, and with a fast-moving system, a squall east or west to the 180th meridian (180°) or 0° to
line may develop ahead of the front. 3 360° W. 1
complex (occluded) front—A composite of two passive TRMM sensors—A system, or instrument,
fronts formed as a cold front overtakes a warm that uses only radiation emitted by the object being
front. A cold occlusion results when the coldest air is viewed, or reflected by the object from a source
behind the cold front. The cold front undercuts the other than the system or instrument. 1 The TRMM
warm front and, at the Earth’s surface, coldest air Microwave Imager (TMI), Visible Infrared Radiometer
replaces less-cold air. 1 (VIR), Cloud and Earth Radiant Energy Sensor
(CERES), and Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) are all
cyclones (low pressure systems)—An area of low
pressure where winds blow counterclockwise in the passive sensors. 2
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern radar—Acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging.
hemisphere. 1 An electronic instrument used to detect distant
objects and measure their range by how they scat-
Doppler radar—A radar that determines the velocity
ter or reflect radio energy. Precipitation and clouds
of falling precipitation either toward or away from
the radar unit by taking into account the Doppler are detected by measuring the strength of the elec-
tromagnetic signal reflected back. 3
shift (The change in wave frequency that occurs
when the emitter or the observer is moving toward stationary front—A front which is nearly stationary
or away from the other). 4 or moves very little. May be known as a quasi-
stationary front. 3
TRMM instruments —See Appendix E. phere to the ocean surface where much of it is
TRMM satellite —Greenhouse gases and global absorbed and causes the liquid water there to
warming continue to be one of the major environ- become the gas we call water vapor. The amount of
mental concerns in the U.S. and around the world. heat required to turn the liquid water into gas is
But the scientists still disagree on such big ques- called latent heat of evaporation. It is called latent
tions as: how much warming will there be? what because it is hidden away in the water vapor mole-
other quantities, such as rainfall, might be affected? cules, but can be released later on as the water
where will the changes occur? vapor rises into the atmosphere and condenses
To predict climate changes that might occur due back into liquid water droplets in the clouds or falls
to greenhouse gases, scientist use very sophisticat- back to Earth as rain. In the tropics, huge equatorial
ed computer models. They try to use all the data cloud clusters and hurricanes involving lots of vio-
they can possibly find to describe climate as it is lent convective thunderstorms are the visible evi-
today—and then they introduce changes into the dence of latent heat release.
models, such as the introduction of greenhouse By using TRMM measurements, scientists hope to
gases, and see what happens. Before they can do better understand what the climate system is today
this with confidence, however, they have to be sure and how the energy associated with rainfall inter-
that the models are properly describing the climate acts with other aspects of the global climate. 2
as it is today. Otherwise, the critics will ask: if the warm fronts—The leading edge of an advancing
models don’t even represent the current climate warm air mass that is replacing a retreating relative-
accurately, why should we believe predictions made ly colder air mass. Generally, as a warm front passes,
with them? Why cut down on greenhouse gases if the temperature and humidity increase, the pressure
they really aren’t a clear-cut problem? rises, and although the wind shifts (usually from the
The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) is southwest to the northwest in the northern hemi-
a NASA satellite that’s going to lend a hand by giv- sphere), it is not as pronounced as with a cold
ing more information both to test and to improve frontal passage. Precipitation, in the form of rain,
the models. TRMM is particularly devoted to deter- snow, or drizzle, is generally found ahead of the sur-
mining rainfall in the tropics and subtropics of the face front, as well as convective showers and thun-
Earth. These regions make up about two thirds of derstorms. Fog is common in the cold air ahead of
the total rainfall on Earth and are responsible for the front. Although fog usually clears after the front
driving our weather and climate system. TRMM will passes, some conditions may produce fog in the
contribute to a better understanding of where and warm air. 3
how much the winds blow, where the clouds form
and rain occurs, where floods and droughts will
1
Looking at Earth From Space: Glossary of Terms, 1993, NASA EP-302
occur, and how the winds drive the ocean currents.
2
NASA TRMM Home Page: http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov
TRMM will do this not just by providing rainfall data
3
The Weather Channel Home Page:
but, more importantly, by providing information on http://www.weather.com/glossary
heat released into the atmosphere as part of the 4
Ahrens, C. Donald. 1994. Meteorology Today. St. Paul, MN: West
process that leads to rain. Publishing Company
Most of the heat energy that drives the atmos-
pheric circulation comes as the result of evaporation
of water from the ocean surface. (Only about one-
fourth of the energy comes directly from the Sun.)
Energy from the Sun passes through the atmos-