TEDDS Reference Guides EC

Tekla Structural Designer
2015i
Reference Guides (Eurocode)
January 2016
© 2016 Trimble Solutions Corporation – part of Trimble Navigation Ltd.

Table of Contents
Analysis Limitations and Assumptions ................................................................................... 1
Linear analysis of structures containing material nonlinearity ...................................... 1
Nonlinear spring supports ............................................................................................... 1
Tension only, or compression only elements ................................................................ 1
Nonlinear axial spring, or nonlinear torsional spring elements ................................. 1
Tension only cross braces ................................................................................................ 1
Analysis of structures containing geometric nonlinearity ............................................... 2
Analysis of structures containing curved beams .............................................................. 2
Story Shears............................................................................................................................ 2
Member Deflections .............................................................................................................. 2
Unstable Structures............................................................................................................... 3
Flat Slab Structures ............................................................................................................ 3
Analysis Verification Examples ................................................................................................ 4
1st Order Linear - Simple Cantilever ................................................................................... 4
Problem Definition ............................................................................................................ 4
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................... 4
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 4
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 4
1st Order Linear - Simply Supported Square Slab ............................................................ 5
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................... 5
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 5
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 5
1st Order Linear - 3D truss ................................................................................................... 6
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 6
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 6
1st Order linear - Thermal Load on Simply Supported Beam......................................... 7
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................... 7
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 7
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 7
1st Order Nonlinear - Simple Cantilever ............................................................................ 8
iii
Reference Guides (EC)

Assumptions ....................................................................................................................... 8
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 8
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 8
1st Order Nonlinear - Nonlinear Supports ........................................................................ 8
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................... 9
Key Results .......................................................................................................................... 9
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 9
1st Order Nonlinear - Displacement Loading of a Plane Frame ................................... 10
Problem Definition ..........................................................................................................10
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................10
Key Results ........................................................................................................................10
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................10
2nd Order Linear - Simple Cantilever ...............................................................................11
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................11
Key Results ........................................................................................................................11
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................11
2nd Order linear - Simply Supported Beam .................................................................... 12
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................12
Key Results ........................................................................................................................12
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................13
Reference ..........................................................................................................................13
2nd Order Nonlinear - Tension Only Cross Brace .......................................................... 14
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................14
Key Results ........................................................................................................................14
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................15
2nd Order Nonlinear - Compression Only Element ....................................................... 15
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................15
Key Results ........................................................................................................................15
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................15
1st Order Vibration - Simply Supported Beam................................................................ 16
iv
Table of Contents

Assumptions .....................................................................................................................16
Key Results ........................................................................................................................16
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................16
1st Order Vibration - Bathe and Wilson Eigenvalue Problem ....................................... 17
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................17
Key Results ........................................................................................................................17
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................17
References ........................................................................................................................17
2nd Order Buckling - Euler Strut Buckling .......................................................................18
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................18
Key Results ........................................................................................................................18
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................18
2nd Order Buckling - Plane Frame ....................................................................................19
Assumptions .....................................................................................................................19
Key Results ........................................................................................................................19
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................20
References ........................................................................................................................20
Loading -Eurocode 1 ...................................................................................................................21
Eurocode Loading....................................................................................................................21
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) .........................................................................21
gamma factors .....................................................................................................................21
psi factors..............................................................................................................................22
Load Cases................................................................................................................................23
Loadcase Types ....................................................................................................................23
Self Weight ............................................................................................................................24
Imposed and Roof Imposed Loads ...................................................................................24
Imposed Load Reductions ..............................................................................................24
Definition of psi factors for imposed load cases......................................................... 25
Definition of psi factors for roof imposed load cases ................................................ 25
Snow and Snow Drift Loads ...............................................................................................26
Definition of psi factors for snow and snow drift load cases .................................... 26
Wind Loads ...........................................................................................................................26
v
The EC1-4 Wind Wizard ...................................................................................................26

Simple Wind Loading.......................................................................................................26
Definition of psi factors for wind load cases ............................................................... 26
Patterning of Imposed Loads ................................................................................................27
Combinations ...........................................................................................................................27
Manually Defined Combinations .......................................................................................27
Equivalent Horizontal Forces (EHF) ...................................................................................28
Apply Imposed Load Reductions .......................................................................................29
The Combinations Generator ............................................................................................29
Combination Generator - Initial Parameters ............................................................... 29
Combination Generator - Combinations ......................................................................30
Combination Generator - Service Factors .................................................................... 32
Combination Generator - Wind/EHF Directions .......................................................... 32
Combination Generator - EHF........................................................................................32
Combination Classes ...........................................................................................................32
Combination Classes .......................................................................................................32
Construction Stage Combination ..................................................................................33
Gravity Combinations......................................................................................................33
Lateral Combinations ......................................................................................................34
Seismic Combinations .....................................................................................................34
Vibration Mass Combinations ........................................................................................34
Concrete Design - Eurocode 2 ...................................................................................................35
Concrete Design to EC2 ..........................................................................................................35
Design Codes and Variants ....................................................................................................35
Code Variants .......................................................................................................................35
Loading Codes ......................................................................................................................35
General Parameters ................................................................................................................35
Shrinkage and Creep ...........................................................................................................35
Permanent Load Ratio ....................................................................................................35
Relative Humidity .............................................................................................................36
Age of Loading..................................................................................................................36
Reinforcement Anchorage Length Parameters .............................................................. 36
Max. Bond Quality Coefficient .......................................................................................36
Plain Bars Bond Quality Modifier ..................................................................................37
Type-1 Bars Bond Quality Modifier ...............................................................................37
Beam Design to EC2 ................................................................................................................37
vi
Table of Contents
Limitations and Exclusions .................................................................................................37

Materials ...............................................................................................................................38
Slender Beams .....................................................................................................................38
Cover to Reinforcement......................................................................................................38
Design Parameters for Longitudinal Bars ........................................................................39
Design Parameters for Longitudinal Bars .................................................................... 39
Minimum and Maximum Diameter of Reinforcement............................................... 39
Minimum Distance between Bars .................................................................................40
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars ...............................................................................40
Minimum Area of Reinforcement ..................................................................................41
Maximum Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................42
Side Reinforcement in Beams............................................................................................43
Effective Depth of Section ..................................................................................................43
Design for Bending ..............................................................................................................43
Design for Bending for Rectangular Sections .............................................................. 43
Design for Bending for Flanged Sections .....................................................................45
Design for Shear ..................................................................................................................47
Design Shear Resistance .................................................................................................48
Minimum Area of Shear Reinforcement ......................................................................49
Spacing of Shear Reinforcement ...................................................................................50
Shear between Flanges and Web of Flanged Beams ................................................. 50
Additional Tension Reinforcement................................................................................51
Design for Torsion ...............................................................................................................51
Design values of the shear resistance and torsional resistance moment .............. 51
Additional reinforcement for torsion............................................................................53
Deflection Check ..................................................................................................................54
Column Design to EC2 ............................................................................................................56
Materials ...............................................................................................................................56
Design Parameters for Longitudinal Bars ........................................................................57
Minimum Longitudinal Bar Diameter ...........................................................................57
Minimum Longitudinal Bar Spacing1............................................................................57
Maximum Longitudinal Bar Spacing .............................................................................58
Minimum Longitudinal Total Steel Area2 .....................................................................58
Maximum Longitudinal Total Steel Area3 .................................................................... 58
vii
Long Term Compressive Strength Factor4 .................................................................. 58

Design Concrete Compressive Strength for Shear5 ................................................... 58
Ultimate Axial Load Limit....................................................................................................59
Effective Length Calculations .............................................................................................59
Clear Height ......................................................................................................................59
Effective Length ................................................................................................................60
Fixed Column Base ..........................................................................................................61
Pinned Column End .........................................................................................................61
No Effective Beams Found .............................................................................................61
Column Stack Classification ...............................................................................................62
Slenderness ratio .............................................................................................................62
limiting slenderness ratio ...............................................................................................62
Resistance Moment Calculations ......................................................................................64
Step 1 .................................................................................................................................65
Step 2 .................................................................................................................................65
Step 3 .................................................................................................................................65
Step 4 .................................................................................................................................66
Step 5 .................................................................................................................................66
Step 6 .................................................................................................................................67
Step 7 .................................................................................................................................67
Step 8 .................................................................................................................................67
Step 9 .................................................................................................................................67
Design for Shear ..................................................................................................................67
Design Parameters for Shear Design ............................................................................67
Wall Design to EC2...................................................................................................................71
Materials ...............................................................................................................................71
Design Parameters for Vertical Bars .................................................................................72
Minimum Vertical Bar Diameter ....................................................................................72
Minimum Vertical Bar Spacing1.....................................................................................72
Minimum Reinforcement Area2 ....................................................................................72
Maximum Reinforcement Area3 ...................................................................................73
Design Parameters for Horizontal Bars ...........................................................................74
Minimum Horizontal Bar Diameter...............................................................................74
Minimum Horizontal Bar Spacing1 ...............................................................................74
viii
Table of Contents
Maximum Horizontal Bar Spacing2 ..............................................................................74

Ultimate Axial Load Limit....................................................................................................74
Effective Length and Slenderness Calculations............................................................... 74
Resistance Moment Calculations ......................................................................................75
Design for Shear ..................................................................................................................75
Slab Design to EC2...................................................................................................................76
Materials ...............................................................................................................................76
Reinforcement Parameters ................................................................................................76
Limiting Reinforcement Parameters .................................................................................77
Limiting Reinforcement Parameters .............................................................................77
Minimum and Maximum Loose Bar Diameter ............................................................ 77
Minimum Clear Spacing ..................................................................................................78
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars (all slabs) ............................................................. 78
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars (h> 200mm) ........................................................ 79
Minimum Area of Reinforcement ..................................................................................80
Maximum Area of Reinforcement .................................................................................80
Basic Cross Section Design.................................................................................................81
Matching Design Moments to Reinforcement Layers ................................................ 81
Design for Bending ..............................................................................................................82
Deflection Check ..................................................................................................................84
Punching Shear Checks.......................................................................................................84
Punching Shear Basics ....................................................................................................84
Length of the loaded perimeter u0 ...............................................................................85
Columns and Walls not perpendicular to slabs .......................................................... 90
Loaded perimeter near slab edges ...............................................................................90
Length of the basic control perimeter u1 .................................................................... 90
Control Perimeters ..........................................................................................................92
Modification of control perimeters to take account of slab openings .................... 92
User Limit on b for Internal Columns/walls ................................................................. 93
References ................................................................................................................................93
Steel Design - EC3 and EC4 ........................................................................................................95
Steel Design to EC3 and EC4 ..................................................................................................95
Basic Principles ........................................................................................................................95
Definitions.............................................................................................................................95
ix
Convention for member axes ............................................................................................97

Deflection checks .................................................................................................................97
Relative and Absolute Deflections .................................................................................97
Steel Beam Deflections ...................................................................................................98
Steel Beam Design to EC3 ......................................................................................................98
Design method .....................................................................................................................98
Ultimate Limit State - Strength ..........................................................................................98
Classification .....................................................................................................................98
Shear Capacity ..................................................................................................................99
Moment Capacity .............................................................................................................99
Axial Capacity..................................................................................................................100
Cross-section Capacity ..................................................................................................100
Ultimate Limit State - Buckling.........................................................................................101
Compression buckling...................................................................................................101
Lateral Torsional Buckling ............................................................................................102
Combined buckling ........................................................................................................103
Design Control................................................................................................................104
Web Openings ....................................................................................................................106
Composite Beam Design to EC4 ..........................................................................................108
Design method ...................................................................................................................108
Overview .............................................................................................................................108
Construction stage design checks ...............................................................................108
Composite stage design checks ...................................................................................109
Profiled metal decking ......................................................................................................109
Construction stage design ................................................................................................111
Construction stage design ............................................................................................111
Section classification .....................................................................................................112
Member strength checks ..............................................................................................112
Lateral torsional buckling checks ................................................................................112
Deflection checks ...........................................................................................................113
Composite stage design ...................................................................................................113
Composite stage design................................................................................................113
Equivalent steel section - Ultimate limit state (ULS) .................................................113
Section classification (ULS) ...........................................................................................113
Member strength checks (ULS) ....................................................................................114
Minimum area of transverse reinforcement .............................................................116
x
Table of Contents
Shear connectors (ULS) .................................................................................................116

Lateral torsional buckling checks (ULS) ......................................................................118
Section properties - serviceability limit state (SLS) ...................................................118
Deflection checks (SLS)..................................................................................................119
Stress checks (SLS) .........................................................................................................120
Natural frequency checks (SLS) ...................................................................................120
Cracking of concrete (SLS) ............................................................................................120
Web Openings ....................................................................................................................120
Application of NCCI PN002 to Partial Shear Connection .............................................122
Steel Column Design to EC3.................................................................................................123
Design method ...................................................................................................................123
Simple Columns .................................................................................................................123
Ultimate Limit State Strength...........................................................................................124
Ultimate Limit State Strength .......................................................................................124
Classification ...................................................................................................................124
Axial Capacity..................................................................................................................124
Shear Capacity ................................................................................................................124
Moment Capacity ...........................................................................................................125
Combined Bending and Axial Capacity .......................................................................125
Ultimate Limit State Buckling ...........................................................................................126
Ultimate Limit State Buckling .......................................................................................126
Compression buckling...................................................................................................126
Lateral Torsional Buckling ............................................................................................129
Combined Buckling........................................................................................................129
Serviceability limit state ....................................................................................................130
Steel Brace Design to EC3 ....................................................................................................131
Design method ...................................................................................................................131
Classification.......................................................................................................................131
Axial Tension ......................................................................................................................131
Axial Compression .............................................................................................................131
Compression Buckling ......................................................................................................131
References ..............................................................................................................................132
xi
Analysis Verification Examples
Analysis Limitations and Assumptions
Linear analysis of structures containing material nonlinearity

If a structure containing nonlinear springs/elements is subjected to a linear (i.e. 1st or
2nd order linear, 1st order vibration, or 2nd order buckling) analysis, then the nonlinear
springs/elements are constrained to act linearly as described below:
Nonlinear spring supports
In each direction in which a nonlinear spring has been specified, a single value of
stiffness is applied which is taken as the greater of the specified -ve or +ve stiffness.
Any specified maximum capacities of the spring are ignored.
Tension only, or compression only elements
If either tension only or compression only element types have been specified, they are
constrained to act as truss element types instead.
Nonlinear axial spring, or nonlinear torsional spring elements
If either of these element types have been specified, they are constrained to act as
linear axial spring, or linear torsional spring element types instead.
A single value of stiffness is applied which is taken as the greater of the specified -ve or
+ve stiffness.
Any specified maximum capacities of these spring elements are ignored.
Tension only cross braces
If tension only cross braces have been specified, the program determines which brace
in each pair to put into tension by pushing the structure simultaneously in the positive
direction 1 and positive direction 2.
The brace that goes into tension retains its full stiffness, while the compression brace
becomes inactive.
If the above process fails to determine which of the pair goes into tension then a shear
is applied to the structure and the braces are re-assessed.
1
Analysis of structures containing geometric nonlinearity

It is assumed that where secondary effects are significant (for example the structure is
close to buckling), the engineer will elect to undertake a 2nd order analysis. If a 1st
order analysis is performed any secondary effects will be ignored.
Analysis of structures containing curved beams

The member analysis for curved members in the plane of the curve is approximated by
joining the values at the nodes, which are correct. For detailed analysis of curved
members it is your responsibility to ensure sufficient discretization. More refined
models can be achieved, if required, by decreasing the maximum facet error.
Story Shears
The storey shears that are output are obtained by resolving the loads at column nodes
horizontally into Direction 1 and Direction 2. Any loads associated with V & A braces are
not included because these occur at mid-beam position and not at column nodes.
Member Deflections
There is a known issue when calculating member deflection profiles in combinations
which can affect the following analysis types:
• 2nd Order Linear
• 1st Order Nonlinear
• 2nd Order Nonlinear
This occurs when the structures behaviour is significantly nonlinear because the
deflection profile is currently based on linear superposition of the load cases within it.
Clearly as structural response becomes more nonlinear the assumption that deflections
can be superposed becomes less valid. This can cause a deflected profile to be
calculated which deviates from the correct profile. The deviation can become significant
if load cases fail to solve, but the combination succeeds in solving, as components of the
deflected shape are missing entirely. It is suggested that for the three analysis types
listed member deflections in combinations be used with caution and engineering
judgment.
It should be noted that this limitation only affects member deflection profiles between
solver nodes. All other results, including member force profiles and deflection at the
solver nodes are correct
2
Unstable Structures
Flat Slab Structures
If a concrete structure exists with only flat slabs and columns (i.e. no beams and no
shear walls), and the slab is modelled with a diaphragm this is an unstable structure,
assuming that the concrete columns are pinned at the foundation level (current
default).
To prevent the instability you should mesh the slabs, as the resulting model does then
consider the framing action that results from the interaction of the slabs and columns.
3

A small number of verification examples are included in this section. Our full automatic
test suite for the Solver contains many hundreds of examples which are run and
verified every time the Solver is enhanced.
These verification examples use SI units unless otherwise stated.
1st Order Linear - Simple Cantilever

Problem Definition
A 4 long cantilever is subjected to a tip load of 20,000.
Assumptions
Flexural and shear deformations are included.
Key Results
Result Theoretical Theoretical Solver %

Formula Value Value Error
Support -P 20,000 20,000 0%

Reaction
Support PL -80,000 -80,000 0%

Moment
Tip Deflection -0.0519 -0.0519 0%
Conclusion
An exact match is observed between the values reported by the solver and the values
predicted by beam theory.
4
1st Order Linear - Simply Supported Square Slab

Problem Definition
Calculate the mid span deflection of an 8x8 simply supported slab of 0.1 thickness
under self-weight only. Take material properties E=2x1011, G=7.7x1010 and ρ=7849.
Assumptions
A regular triangular finite element mesh is used with sufficient subdivision. Flexural and
shear deformation is included, and the material is assumed to be isotropic.
Key Results
The mid-span deformation is calculated using Navier's Method.

Result Theoretical Comparison 1 Solver %
Value Value Error
Mid-span 7.002x10-3 6.990x10-3 7.031x10-3 0.43%

deflection
Mid Span 23616 23708 23649 0.14%

Moment
Conclusion
An acceptable match is observed between the theoretical values and the solver results.
An acceptable match is also observed between the solver results and those obtained
independently.
5
1st Order Linear - 3D truss

Problem Definition
Three truss members with equal and uniform EA support an applied load of -50 applied
at the coordinate (4, 2, 6). The start of each truss member is fixed and are located at (0,
0, 0), (8, 0, 0) and (0, 6, 0) respectively. Calculate the axial force in each element.
Key Results
The results for this problem are compared against those published by Beer and
Johnston and against another independent analysis package
Result Beer and Comparison 1 Solver %
Johnston Value Error
(0, 0, 0) - (4, 2, - 10.4 10.4 10.4 0%

6)
(8, 0, 0) - (4, 2, - 31.2 31.2 31.2 0%

6)
(0, 6, 0) - (4, 2, - 22.9 22.9 22.9 0%

6)
Conclusion
An exact match is observed between the values reported by the solver those reported
by Beer and Johnston.
6
1st Order linear - Thermal Load on Simply Supported Beam

Problem Definition
Determine the deflection, U, due to thermal expansion at the roller support due to a
temperature increase of 5. The beam is made of a material with a thermal expansion
coefficient of 1.0 x 10-5.
Assumptions
The roller pin is assumed to be frictionless.
Key Results

Translation at 5 x 10-4 5 x 10-4 0.0%

roller
Conclusion
An exact match is shown between the theoretical result and the solver result.
7
1st Order Nonlinear - Simple Cantilever

Problem Definition
A 4 long cantilever is subjected to a tip load of 20,000.
Assumptions
Flexural and shear deformations are included.
Key Results

Support -P 20,000 20,000 0%

Reaction
Support PL -80,000 -80,000 0%

Moment
Tip Deflection -0.0519 -0.0519 0%
Conclusion
predicted by beam theory.
1st Order Nonlinear - Nonlinear Supports

Problem Definition
A 10 long continuous beam is simply supported by three translational springs as shown.

All springs have a maximum resistance force of 500. Calculate the reaction forces and
deflection at each support.
8
Assumptions
Axial and shear deformations are ignored.
Key Results
Result Comparison Solver

1 Value
LHS Reaction 250 250
Centre Reaction 500 500
RHS Reaction 250 250
LHS -0.025 -0.025

Displacement
Centre -0.797 -0.797

Displacement
RHS -0.025 -0.025

Displacement
Conclusion
An exact match is shown between the solver and the independent analysis package.
9
1st Order Nonlinear - Displacement Loading of a Plane Frame

Problem Definition
Calculate the reaction forces of the plane moment frame shown below with the applied
displacement U.
Assumptions
All elements are constant and equal EI. Axial and shear deformations are ignored; to
achieve the former analytically the cross sectional area was increased by a factor of
100,000 to make axial deformation negligible.
Key Results
Results were compared with two other independent analysis packages.

Result Comparison 1 Comparison 2 Solver
Value
LHS Vertical 6.293 6.293 6.293

Reaction
LHS Moment -906.250 -906.250 -906.250

Reaction
RHS Vertical -6.293 -6.293 -6.293

Reaction
Conclusion
An exact match is shown between the solver and the two independent analysis
packages.
10
2nd Order Linear - Simple Cantilever

Problem Definition
A 10 long cantilever is subjected to a lateral tip load of 45 and an axial tip load of 4000.
Assumptions
Shear deformations are ignored. Results are independent of cross section area;
therefore any reasonable value can be used. Second order effects from stress stiffening
are included, but those caused by update of geometry are not. The beam is modelled
with only one finite element, (if more elements had been used the result would
converge on a more exact value).
Key Results
Results were compared with an independent analysis package.

Result Comparison Solver
Value
Tip Deflection -0.1677 -0.1677
Base Moment -1121 -1121

Reaction
Conclusion
reported in “Comparison”.
11
2nd Order linear - Simply Supported Beam

Problem Definition
Determine the mid-span deflection and moment of the simply supported beam under
transverse and tensile axial load.
Assumptions
Shear deformations are excluded. Results are independent of cross section area;
therefore any reasonable value can be used. The number of internal nodes varies from
0-9.
Key Results
The theoretical value for deflection and moment are calculated as:
Where U is a variable calculated:

No. internal Solver Deflection Error Solver Moment Error
nodes Deflection % Moment %
1 -0.116 0.734% -0.901 8.631%
3 -0.115 0.023% -0.984 0.266%
5 -0.115 0.004% -0.986 0.042%
7 -0.115 0.001% -0.986 0.013%
9 -0.115 0.000% -0.986 0.005%
12
Conclusion
As the element is subdivided the result converges to the correct theoretical value.
Reference
Timoshenko. S. 1956. Strength of Materials, Part II, Advanced Theory and Problems. 3rd
Edition. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. New York, NY.
13
2nd Order Nonlinear - Tension Only Cross Brace

Problem Definition
Calculate the axial forces of the elements a-e shown in the 5x5 pin jointed plane frame
shown below. Elements d and e can resist tensile forces only.
Assumptions
All elements are constant and equal EA. A smaller value of EA will increase the influence
of second order effects, whereas a larger value will decrease the influence.
Key Results
Under the applied loading element e becomes inactive. The theoretical formulas
presented below are obtained using basic statics. Note that a positive value indicates
tension. These results assume no 2nd order effects; this requires the value of EA to be
sufficiently large to make the 2nd order effect negligible.
a 0 0 0 0
b -P -100 -100 0
c -P -100 -100 0
d 141.42 141.42 0
e 0 0 0 0
14
Conclusion
predicted using statics. A 1st order nonlinear analysis can be used, with any section
sizes, to confirm this result without second order effects.
2nd Order Nonlinear - Compression Only Element

Problem Definition
Calculate the reaction forces for the compression only structure shown below.
Assumptions
All elements are constant and equal EA, and can resist only compressive forces
Key Results
Under the applied loading the element on the left becomes inactive, therefore all
applied loading is resisted by the support on the right.
Result Theoretical Theoretical Solver
Formula Value Value
LHS Reaction 0 0 0
RHS Reaction -P -1000 -1000
Conclusion
An exact match is observed between the values reported by the solver and the
theoretical values.
15
1st Order Vibration - Simply Supported Beam

Problem Definition
Determine the fundamental frequency of a 10 long simply supported beam with

uniform EI and mass per unit length equal to 1.0.
Assumptions
Shear deformations are excluded. The number of internal nodes varies from 0-5.
Consistent mass is assumed.
Key Results
The theoretical value for the fundamental frequency is calculated as:
With m is the total mass of the beam.

No. internal Solver % Error
nodes Value
0 1.0955 10.995%
1 0.9909 0.395%
2 0.9878 0.081%
3 0.9872 0.026%
4 0.9871 0.011%
5 0.9870 0.005%
Conclusion
16
1st Order Vibration - Bathe and Wilson Eigenvalue Problem

Problem Definition
A 2D plane frame structure has 10 equal bays each measuring 6.096m wide and 9
stories 3.048m tall. The column bases are fully fixed. All beams and columns are the
same section, which have a constant mass/unit length equal to 1.438. Calculate the first
three natural frequencies (in Hz) of the structure under self-weight.
Assumptions
Shear deformations are excluded. Each beam/column is represented by one finite

element. Consistent mass is assumed.
Key Results
The results for this problem are compared with those published by Bathe and Wilson
and against an independent analysis package.
Mode Bathe and Comparison Solver
Wilson Value
1 0.122 0.122 0.122
2 0.374 0.374 0.375
3 0.648 0.648 0.652
Conclusion
The results show a good comparison with the original published results and against the
other analysis packages.
References
Bathe, K.J. and E.L. Wilson. 1972. Large Eigen Values in Dynamic Analysis. Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division. ASCE Vol. 98, No. EM6. Proc. Paper 9433. December.
17
2nd Order Buckling - Euler Strut Buckling

Problem Definition
A 10 long simply supported beam is subjected to an axial tip load of P.
Assumptions
Shear deformations are excluded. The number of internal nodes varies from 0-5.
Key Results
The theoretical value for the first buckling mode is calculated using the Euler strut
buckling formula:
With P = -1.0 the following buckling factors are obtained

No. internal Solver %
nodes Value Error
0 12.000 21.59%
1 9.944 0.75%
2 9.885 0.16%
3 9.875 0.05%
4 9.872 0.02%
5 9.871 0.01%
Conclusion
18
2nd Order Buckling - Plane Frame

Problem Definition
Calculate the buckling factor of the moment frame shown below.
Assumptions
All elements are constant and equal EI. Axial deformations are ignored; to achieve this
the cross section area is set to 1000. The number of elements per member is varied
between 0 and 5.
Key Results
The theoretical buckling load is calculated by
where
19
Which can be solved using Newtons method and five iterations

No. internal Solver %
nodes/member Value Error
0 6.253 0.17%
1 6.243 0.01%
2 6.242 0.00%
3 6.242 0.00%
4 6.242 0.00%
5 6.242 0.00%
Conclusion
A good match is shown between the solver and theory. The discrepancy decreases as
the level of discretization is increased.
References
Timoshenko, S. and J. M. Gere. 1961. Theory of Elastic Stability. 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
20
Loading -Eurocode 1
Eurocode Loading
This handbook provides a general overview of how loadcases and combinations are
created in Tekla Structural Designer when the head code is set to the Base Eurocode, or
Eurocode with a specific National Annex applied. The Eurocode Combination Generator
is also described.
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs)

The Eurocode has differing NDP’s for the Eurocode (Base) and for each of Eurocode
(UK), Eurocode (Irish) etc. These are defined in the relevant country's National Annex.
Gamma (γ) factors and psi (ψ) factors for each National Annex are listed below:
gamma factors
Factor EC Base UK Value Irish Value Singapore Malaysia
value Value Value
EQU combs
γGj,sup 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
γGj,inf 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
γQ (fav) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
STR combs
γGj,sup 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35
γGj,inf 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
γQ (fav) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
ξ 0.85 0.925 0.85 0.925 0.925
GEO combs
21
γGj,sup 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
γGj,inf 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
γQ 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
psi factors
Factor EC Base UK Value Irish Value Singapore Malaysia
value Value Value
ψ0 ψ1 ψ2 ψ0 ψ1 ψ2 ψ0 ψ1 ψ2 ψ0 ψ1 ψ2 ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Category A - 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
imposed
domestic/residential
Category B - 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
imposed office
Category C - 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6
imposed
congregation
Category D- 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6
imposed shopping
Category E- 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8
imposed storage
Category H- 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0.6 0 0 0.7 0 0 0.7 0 0

imposed roofs
Snow Loads < 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0
1000m
Wind Loads 0.6 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0 0.6 0.2 0 0.6 0.5 0 0.6 0.5 0
22
Loading -Eurocode 1
Load Cases
Loadcase Types
The following load case types can be created:
Loadcase Calculated Include in the Imposed Load Pattern
Type Automatically Combination Reductions Load
Generator
self weight yes/no yes/noI N/A N/A

(beams,
columns and
walls)
slab wet yes/no N/A N/A N/A
slab dry yes/no yes/no N/A N/A
dead N/A yes/no N/A N/A
imposed N/A yes/no yes/no yes/no
roof imposed N/A yes/no N/A N/A
wind N/A yes/no N/A N/A
snow N/A yes/no N/A N/A
snow drift N/A yes/no N/A N/A
temperature N/A N/A N/A N/A
settlement N/A N/A N/A N/A
seismic N/A yes N/A N/A
As shown above, self weight loads can all be determined automatically. However other
gravity load cases have to be applied manually as you build the structure.
23
Self Weight
Self weight - excluding slabs loadcase
Tekla Structural Designer automatically calculates the self weight of the structural
beams/columns for you. The Self weight - excluding slabs loadcase is pre-defined for
this purpose. Its loadcase type is fixed as ‘Selfweight’. It can not be edited and by default
it is added to each new load combination.
Self weight of concrete slabs
Tekla Structural Designer expects the wet and dry weight of concrete slab to be defined in
separate loadcases. This is required to ensure that members are designed for the
correct loads at construction stage and post construction stage.
The Slab self weight loadcase is pre-defined for the dry weight of concrete post
construction stage, its loadcase type is fixed as ‘Slab Dry’.
There is no pre-defined loadcase for the wet weight of concrete slab at construction
stage, but if you require it for the design of any composite beams in the model, the
loadcase type should be set to ‘Slab Wet’.
Tekla Structural Designer can automatically calculate the above weights for you taking
into account the slab thickness, the shape of the deck profile and wet/dry concrete
densities. It does not explicitly take account of the weight of any reinforcement but will
include the weight of decking. Simply click the Calc Automatically check box when you
create each loadcase. When calculated in this way you can’t add extra loads of your own
into the loadcase.
If you normally make an allowance for ponding in your slab weight calculations, Tekla
Structural Designer can also do this for you. After selecting the composite slabs, you are
able to review the slab item properties - you will find two ways to add an allowance for
ponding (under the slab parameters heading). These are:
• as a value, by specifying the average increased thickness of slab
• or, as a percentage of total volume.
Using either of these methods the additional load is added as a uniform load over the
whole area of slab.
Imposed and Roof Imposed Loads

Imposed Load Reductions
Reductions can be applied to imposed loads to take account of the unlikelihood of the
whole building being loaded with its full design imposed load. Reductions can not
however be applied to roof imposed loads.
24
Loading -Eurocode 1
If the imposed load is considered as an accompanying action (i.e. a ψ factor

is applied to the imposed load case in a combination) then as stated in the
Base Eurocode Cl3.3.2, the imposed load reduction can not be applied at the
same time - see “Apply Imposed Load Reductions”.
Although the code allows for imposed load reductions to be applied to floors (beams),
Tekla Structural Designer does not implement this, imposed loads are only reduced on:
• Vertical columns (both RC and steel)
• Vertical walls (RC)
If a level is not set to be a floor (in the Construction Levels dialog) then no reductions
are accounted for at that level and it will not be counted as a floor in determining the
amount of reduction to make.
A floor that has loads that do not qualify for imposed load reduction does
not count in the storey count. (Unlike the approach for the BS 5950 design
code.
The method used for determining the reductions is dependant on the National Annex:
• In the Base Eurocode a formula is given in Clause 6.3.1.2(11), this is also used if the
Irish or Singapore National Annex is selected.
• In the UK, and Malaysia the NA permits an alternative method of reduction using NA
2.6.
Definition of psi factors for imposed load cases
Imposed loads are categorised as follows:

• Category A - domestic/residential
• Category B - office
• Category C - congregation
• Category D - shopping
• Category E - storage
The default values of ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 vary depending on the category selected and also
with the National Annex being worked to. The values can be edited if required.
Definition of psi factors for roof imposed load cases
Roof imposed loads are not categorised so the default values of ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 only vary
depending on the National Annex being worked to. Again, the values can be edited if
required.
25
Snow and Snow Drift Loads

Definition of psi factors for snow and snow drift load cases
The default values of ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 can vary depending on the National Annex being
worked to. The values can be edited if required.
Snow drift loads are considered to be accidental load cases and are
combined in the Accidental combinations.
Wind Loads
The EC1-4 Wind Wizard
The Wind Wizard used for automatic wind loadcase generation is fully
described in the Wind Modelling Engineer’s Handbook.
The Wind Wizard is run to create a series of static forces that are combined with other
actions due to dead and imposed loads in accordance with BS EN 1990.
The following assumptions/limitations exist:-

• The shape of the building meets the limitations allowed for in the code.
• It must be a rigid structure.
• The structure must be either enclosed or partially enclosed.
• Parapets and roof overhangs are not explicitly dealt with.
Simple Wind Loading
If use of the Wind Wizard is not appropriate for your structure then wind loads can be
applied via element or structure loads instead.
Definition of psi factors for wind load cases
The default values of ψ0, ψ1 and ψ2 vary depending on the National Annex being worked
to. The values can be edited if required.
26
Loading -Eurocode 1
Patterning of Imposed Loads

EC pattern loading presents different factors for the loaded and unloaded spans when
pattern loading is applied depending on the clause selected:
Code Clase Load Combination Loaded Spans UnLoaded Spans
Str – 6.10 Str1 - γGj,supD+γQI+ γQRI 1.35D+1.5I+1.5RI 1.35D+1.5RI
“ Str2 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS 1.35D+1.05I+1.5S 1.35D+1.5S
Str – 6.10a&b Str1 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+ γQψ0RI 1.35D+1.05I+1.05RI 1.35D+1.05RI
“ Str2 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S 1.35D+1.05I+0.75S 1.35D+0.75S
“ Str3 - ξγGj,supD+γQI+γQRI 1.249D+1.5I+1.5RI 1.249D+1.5RI
“ Str4 - ξγGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS 1.249D+1.05I+1.5S 1.249D+1.5S
Combinations
Once your load cases have been generated as required, you then combine them into
load combinations; these can either be created manually, by clicking Add... - or with the
assistance of The Combinations Generator, by clicking Generate...
The Foreword to the Singapore National Annex to EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions

has a minimum horizontal load requirement (1.5% characteristic dead
weight).
Therefore if this National Annex has been applied, we are assuming that the
wind load applied in manually defined combinations, or via the combination
generator, satisfies this minimum horizontal load requirement.
If this is not the case the user needs to consider manually creating a
minimum horizontal load combination.
Manually Defined Combinations

As you build up combinations manually, the combination factors are automatically
adjusted as load cases are added and removed from the combination.
If you add/remove a load case type from a combination - the factors are defaulted as
follows:
27
• 'Self weight' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Slab Dry' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Dead' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Imposed'- default Strength factor = 1.5, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Roof Imposed'- default Strength factor = 1.05, default Service factor = 1.0
• With an Imposed load case
• 'Wind' - default Strength factor = 0.75, default Service factor = 0.5
• 'Snow' - default Strength factor = 0.75, default Service factor = 0.5
• With No Imposed load case
• 'Wind' - default Strength factor = 1.5, default Service factor = 1.0
• With Wind load case
• With no Wind load case
• 'Temperature'- default Strength factor = 1.0, default Service factor = 1.0
• ‘Settlement'- default Strength factor = 1.0, default Service factor = 1.0
Equivalent Horizontal Forces (EHF)

EHF’s are used to represent frame imperfections. The Eurocode requires they are
applied to all combinations. (Lateral wind combinations therefore should also have
EHF’s applied).
EHF’s are automatically derived from the factored load cases within the current
combination. They are applied in the analysis as a horizontal force at each beam
column intersection with a magnitude of 0.5% of the vertical load in the column at the
column/beam intersection.
They are applied to the structure in the X and Y global directions as follows:
• EHF X+
• EHF X-
• EHF Y+
• EHF Y-
However they are then combined to act in the +Dir1, -Dir1, +Dir2 and -Dir2 directions,
(because many structures do not have their primary axes along X and Y).
This is achieved by applying the loads themselves in global X and Y as above, and then
using the combination factors to set them in Dir1 and Dir2 as required.
So if the angle between X and Dir1 is +60 degs - Tekla Structural Designer applies +X
factor 0.5 and +Y factor 0.866.
28
Loading -Eurocode 1
The net result is that any combination is able to have up to 2 Notional Loads applied
within it - one from X (+ or -) and one from Y (+ or -).
In addition, you are able to set up the combinations manually and apply factors to each
as required.
Apply Imposed Load Reductions

All imposed load cases can be set to have ‘imposed load reductions’ calculated.
However, reductions can not be applied if the imposed load case is an ‘accompanying
action’ within the combination (i.e. if ψ0 has been applied).
If you define load combinations manually it is therefore your responsibility to check the
Apply Imp. Reductions box if required when the combination is defined.
If you use the combinations generator to automatically create your load combinations,
the imposed load reductions will only be applied to those combinations where ψ0 is not
used.
The Combinations Generator

Accessed via the Generate... button, this automatically sets up combinations for both
strength and serviceability.
Combination Generator - Initial Parameters
At the start of the generator, you need to define certain parameters so that the correct
combinations are created - these are described below:
Combination for design of structural members (STR)
You can chose between:

• Table A1.2(B) - Eq 6.10, or
• Table A1.2(B) - Eq 6.10,a&b
Eq 6.10 is always equal to or more conservative than either 6.10a or 6.10b. The most
economic combination of 6.10a or b will depend on if permanent actions are greater
than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads).
Include GEO combinations - Table A1.2(C) - Eq 6.10
The Eurocode version of Tekla Structural Designer does not currently design foundations,
however if you require the foundation design forces reporting you should check this
option.
Include Accidental combinations - Table A2.5 Eq 6.11a&b
If you have defined an accidental load type such as Snow drift you should check this
option for the correct load combinations to be generated.
29
The Combinations Generator refers to the relevant National Annex when

determining the g factors to apply in the above combinations, as they may
vary from the Base Eurocode values.
Include Seismic combinations - Table A2.5 Eq 6.12a&b
If you have defined seismic loads you should check this option for the correct load
combinations to be generated.
Temperature and settlement load case types not included in the Generator at
all - these have to be added manually.
Combination Generator - Combinations
The second page of the generator lists the combinations applicable (with appropriate
factors) for the selections made on the first page. Any factors in bold will be multiplied
by the relevant psi factors for that load case.
The type of structure chosen on the previous page affects which combinations default
to being generated.
The combination names are automatically generated as per the table below:
No. BS EN 1990 Type Load Combination
State and
Eqn
1 Str – 6.10 Gravity Str1 - γGj,supD+γQI+ γQRI
2 “ “ Str2 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS
3 “ Lateral (EHF) Str3.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQRI+EHF
4 “ “ Str4.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0S+EHF
5 “ “ Str5.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+EHF
6 “ Lateral (Wind) Str6.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0S+γQψ0W+EHF
7 “ “ Str7.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+γQψ0W+EHF
8 “ “ Str8.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S+γQW+EHF
9 “ Uplift Str9.n - γGj,infD+γQW+EHF
30
Loading -Eurocode 1
1 Str – 6.10a&b Gravity Str1 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+ γQψ0RI
2 “ “ Str2 - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S
3 “ “ Str3 - ξγGj,supD+γQI+γQRI
4 “ “ Str4 - ξγGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS
5 “ Lateral (EHF) Str5.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0RI+EHF
6 “ “ Str6.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S+EHF
7 “ “ Str7.n - ξγGj,supD+γQI+γQRI+EHF
8 “ “ Str8.n - ξγGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0S+EHF
9 “ “ Str9.n - ξγGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+EHF
10 “ Lateral (Wind) Str10.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S+γQψ0W+EHF
11 “ “ Str11.n - ξγGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0S+γQψ0W+EHF
12 “ “ Str12.n - ξγGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+γQψ0W+EHF
13 “ “ Str13.n - ξγGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S+γQW+EHF
14 “ Uplift Str14.n - γGj,infD+γQW+EHF
1 Geo - 6.10 Lateral (EHF) Geo1.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQRI+EHF
2 “ “ Geo2.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0S+EHF
3 “ “ Geo3.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+EHF
4 “ Lateral (Wind) Geo4.n - γGj,supD+γQI+γQψ0W+γQψ0S+EHF
5 “ “ Geo5.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQS+γQψ0W+EHF
6 “ “ Geo6.n - γGj,supD+γQψ0I+γQψ0S+γQW+EHF
7 “ Uplift Geo7.n - γGj,infD+γQ,1W+EHF
1 Acc 6.11 Lateral (EHF) Acc1.n - G+Ad+ψ1I+EHF
2 “ Lateral (Wind) Acc2.n - G+Ad+ψ2I+ψ1W+EHF
31
Seis 6.12 Seismic Seis.n - G+AEd+ψ2RI+ψ2S+EHF
Seis.n - G+AEd+EHF
Combination Generator - Service Factors
This page indicates which combinations are to be checked for serviceability and the
factors applied.
Combination Generator - Wind/EHF Directions
This page is used to select which EHF direction goes with each combination containing a
specific wind load case.
All wind load cases are listed vertically, and the four EHF options (+Dir1, -Dir1, +Dir2, -
Dir2) are each displayed with a factor (default 1.000).
By default (on first entry), none of the directions are set for any wind load case. You are
required to set at least one for every wind load case and can set two, three or all four if
you wish- these are then used when generating the combinations.
Combination Generator - EHF
The last page is used to set up the equivalent horizontal forces. You can specify EHF’s
and factors in each of four directions. For each direction selected a separate EHF
combination will be generated.
Any combination with wind in is automatically greyed as all the required information
has already been set via the previous page.
Click Finish to see the list of generated combinations.
Combination Classes
Combination Classes
Having created your combinations you classify them as: Construction Stage, Gravity,
Lateral, Seismic or Vibration Mass.
If generated via the Combinations Generator they are classified for you
automatically.
Then (where applicable) you indicate whether they are to be checked for strength or
service conditions, or both.
You also have the option to make any of the combinations inactive.
32
Loading -Eurocode 1
Construction Stage Combination
A Construction Stage load combination is only required for the purpose of designing
any composite beams within the model. It is distinguished from other combinations by
setting its ‘Class’ to Construction Stage.
Typically this combination would include a loadcase of type ‘Slab Wet’, (not ‘Slab Dry’),
other loadcases being included in the combination as required.
If you add/remove a load case type from this combination - the factors are defaulted as
follows:
• 'Self weight' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Slab Wet' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Dead' - default Strength factor = 1.35, default Service factor = 1.0
• 'Imposed'- default Strength factor = 1.5, default Service factor = 1.0
The Slab Wet loadcase type should not be included in any other combination.
Gravity Combinations
These combinations are considered in both the Gravity Sizing and Full Design processes.
They are used in the Gravity Sizing processes as follows:

• Design Concrete (Gravity) - concrete members in the structure are automatically
sized (or checked) for the gravity combinations.
• Design Steel (Gravity) - steel members in the structure are automatically sized (or
checked) for the gravity combinations.
• Design All (Gravity) - all members in the structure are automatically sized (or
They are also used during the Full Design processes as follows:
• Design Concrete (All) - concrete members in the structure are automatically sized
(or checked) for the gravity combinations.
• Design Steel (All) - steel members in the structure are automatically sized (or
• Design All (All) - all members in the structure are automatically sized (or checked)
for the gravity combinations.
Quasi Permanent SLS Gravity Combination
In order to cater for the quasi-permanent SLS load combination, a gravity combination
is permitted to have two SLS sets of factors.
33
The quasi permanent combination is only used for the spacing of reinforcement
calculation for RC beams (and nothing else).
Lateral Combinations
These combinations are not used in the Gravity Sizing processes.
They are used during the Full Design processes as follows:

• Design Concrete (All) - concrete members in the structure are automatically sized
(or checked) for the lateral combinations.
• Design Steel (All) - steel members in the structure which have not been set as
Gravity Only are automatically sized (or checked) for the lateral combinations.
• Design All (All) - all concrete members and all steel members which have not been
set as Gravity Only are automatically sized (or checked) for the lateral combinations.
Seismic Combinations
Although included in this documentation, these are only available for use in
regions where seismic design is required.
These combinations are only considered during the Full Design process. They are
not used in the Gravity Sizing process.
Vibration Mass Combinations
For vibration analysis, you are required to set up specific ‘vibration mass’ combinations.
Provided these combinations are active they are always run through the vibration
analysis.
It is always assumed that all loads in the load cases in the combination are
converted to mass for vibration analysis.
You are permitted to add lumped mass directly to the model.
34
Concrete Design - Eurocode 2
Concrete Design to EC2

This handbook describes how BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 (Ref. 1) is applied to the design of
concrete members in Tekla Structural Designer.
Unless explicitly noted otherwise, all clauses, figures and tables referred to are from
BS EN 1992-1-1:2004
Within the remainder of this handbook BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 is referred to as EC2.
Design Codes and Variants
Code Variants
The current release includes design in accordance with:
• Eurocode 2 and the following National Annexes
• UK
• Ireland
• Malaysia
• Singapore
Loading Codes
Loading codes appropriate to the design code variants will be used
General Parameters
Shrinkage and Creep

The following design parameters can be specified individually as part of each member’s
properties set.
Permanent Load Ratio
This is the ratio of quasi-permanent load to design ultimate load.

i.e. SLS/ULS = (1.0Gk + ψ2Qk) / (factored Gk + factored Qk*IL reduction)
35
If Qk is taken as 0 then:
SLS/ULS = (1 / 1.25) = 0.8
Hence, setting the permanent load ratio to 0.8 should provide a conservative upper
bound for all cases.
When determining this ratio more precisely, consideration should be given to the
amount of IL reduction specified, for example (assuming Gk = Qk and ψ2 = 0.3):
For 50%IL reduction,

SLS/ULS = (1 + 0.3) / (1.25 + 1.5*0.5) = 0.65
For no IL reduction,
SLS/ULS = (1 + 0.3) / (1.25 + 1.5) = 0.47
The program defaults to a permanent load ratio of 0.65 for all members -
you are advised to consider if this is appropriate and adjust as necessary.
Relative Humidity
Typical input range 20 to 100%
Age of Loading
This is the age at which load is first applied to the member.
The Age of Loading should include adjustments necessary to allow for cement type and
temperature as defined in EC2 Annex B.
The program defaults the Age of Loading to 14 days for all members - you
are advised to consider if this is appropriate and adjust as necessary.
Reinforcement Anchorage Length Parameters

Max. Bond Quality Coefficient
Acceptable input range 0.5 to 1.0
In the bond stress calculation (Cl 8.4.2), the bond quality coefficient η1 can be either 1.0
or 0.7 depending on section depth. Where 0.7 is used the bond strength is reduced and
laps are extended.
Specifying a maximum of 1.0 for the Bond Quality Coefficient allows the coefficient to
vary between 0.7 and 1.0 as required, hence lap lengths will vary accordingly.
Some users may prefer to specify a maximum of 0.7 (which actually fixes the coefficient
at 0.7), the effect is to standardise on the use of extended lap lengths throughout.
Further conservatism can be introduced in all lap lengths by using a value as low as 0.5.
36
Plain Bars Bond Quality Modifier
In the EC2 Cl 8.4.2 bond stress calculation, there is no factor relating to the rib type of
reinforcement, and no guidance on what adjustments if any should be made for plain
bars.
In Tekla Structural Designer a factor “T” has been introduced (as in BS8110) to allow for
this adjustment. It is the users responsibility to enter a suitable value for plain bars.
(Until further guidance becomes available, we would suggest that as per BS8110 a value
of 0.5 would be reasonable.)
Type-1 Bars Bond Quality Modifier
In the EC2 Cl 8.4.2 bond stress calculation, there is no factor relating to the rib type of
reinforcement, and no guidance on what adjustments if any should be made for Type 1
bars.
In Tekla Structural Designer a factor “T” has been introduced (as in BS8110) to allow for
this adjustment. It is the users responsibility to enter a suitable value for Type 1 bars.
(Until further guidance becomes available, we would suggest that as per BS8110 a value
of 0.8 would be reasonable.)
Beam Design to EC2
Limitations and Exclusions

The following general exclusions apply:
• Seismic design,
• Consideration of fire resistance. [You are however given full control of the minimum
cover dimension to the reinforcement and are therefore able to take due account of
fire resistance requirements.]
• Openings in the beam web.
• Bundled bars.
• Lightweight concrete.
• Design for minor axis bending and shear.
• Design for axial forces.
In addition, for beams classified as ‘deep beams’:

• all beams with a ratio of 1.5 < span/overall depth ≤ 3.0 are designed but with an
appropriate Warning
• beams with a ratio of span/overall depth ≤ 1.5 are ‘Beyond Scope’
37
Materials
Concrete
Only normal weight is included in the current release. (Lightweight concrete is
excluded).
Reinforcement
The reinforcement options are:
• Loose reinforcing bars,
• Loose reinforcing bars bent to form links.
Slender Beams
Second order effects associated with lateral instability may be ignored if beams are
within the geometric limits given by the following;
L0t ≤ 50*bcomp/(h/bcomp)1/3
and
h/bcomp ≤ 2 .5
where
L0t = the distance between torsional restraints, which in Tekla
Structural Designer is taken as the distance between the faces of
the supports
h = the total overall depth of the beam at the centre of L0t
bcomp = the width of the compression flange of the beam

( = bw for rectangular sections and beff for flanged beams)
If either of the above checks fail then a Warning is displayed.
Cover to Reinforcement
The nominal concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement
closest to the nearest concrete surface (including links and surface reinforcement
where relevant) and the nearest concrete surface.
38
You are required to set a minimum value for the nominal cover, cnom, u, for the top,
bottom, sides and ends of each beam in the beam properties.
These values are then checked against the nominal limiting cover, cnom,lim which depends
on the diameter of the reinforcement plus an allowance for deviation, Δcdev (specified in
Design Options > Beam > General Parameters).
Generally, the allowance for deviation, Δcdev is a NDP.1 The recommended value is
10mm, but under strict controls it can be reduced to 5mm.
If cnom,u < cnom,lim then a warning is displayed in the calculations.

1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 cl 4.4.1.3 (1)P
Design Parameters for Longitudinal Bars

For each of these parameters, the user defined limits (specified in Design Options
> Beam > Reinforcement Settings) are considered in addition to the EC2 or NA
recommendations.
Minimum and Maximum Diameter of Reinforcement
At Section 8.8 of BS EN 1992-1-8:2004, additional rules are specified when ‘large

diameter bars’ are used in the design. A ‘large diameter bar’ is defined as being a bar
with a diameter larger than φlarge where φlarge is an NDP value.
For design in accordance with EC2 Recommendations;
φlarge = 32 mm
For design in accordance with UK NA, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore NA;
φlarge = 40 mm
39
In the current release the provisions of Section 8.8 are not implemented. If the design
results in a bar size with φ > φlarge then a warning is displayed.
Minimum Distance between Bars
The minimum clear horizontal distance between individual parallel bars, scl,min, is given
by;1
scl,min ≥ MAX [k1*φ, dg+k2, scl,u,min, 20 mm]
where
k1 = the appropriate NDP
dg = the maximum size of aggregate
φ = the maximum diameter of adjacent bars, φi and φj
scl,u,min = user specified minimum clear distance between bars
To allow you to make decisions regarding access for concrete compaction or size of
aggregate, a value for the minimum clear distance between bars is specified in Design
Options > Beam > Reinforcement Settings - separate values being set for bars in the
top of the beam and for those in the bottom of the beam.
The minimum clear vertical distance between horizontal layers of parallel bars, scl,min, is
given by;
scl,min ≥ MAX[k1*φ, dg+k2, 20 mm]
For design in accordance with UK NA,EC2 Recommendations, Irish NA, Malaysian

NA and Singapore NA;
k1 = 1.0
k2 = 5.0 mm
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2(2)
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars
The maximum centre to centre bar spacing for crack control, scr,max, is dependent on the
maximum allowable crack width, wmax, specified in the beam properties from a menu of
values which are: 0.20mm, 0.30mm or 0.40mm with a default value of 0.30mm.
The service stress in the reinforcement, σs, is given by;

σs = (As,reqd/As,prov)*(fyk/γs)*RPL
where
As,reqd = the area of reinforcement required for the maximum design Ultimate Limit
State bending moment, MEd
As,prov = the area of reinforcement provided
RPL = the permanent load ratio
40
In the beam properties you are required to supply a value for the permanent load ratio,
RPL. A default of 0.65 has been assumed, but you are advised to consider if this is
appropriate and adjust as necessary.
The maximum allowable centre to centre bar spacing, scr,max, is then obtained by looking
up the calculated value of the service stress in the reinforcement, σs, from the following
table using interpolation between values of σs
Steel Service Max Allowable bar Spacing, scr,max
Stress,
σs (N/mm2) wmax = 0.40 mm wmax = 0.30 mm wmax = 0.20 mm
≤ 160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 Warning
360 100 50 Warning
>360 Warning Warning Warning
Minimum Area of Reinforcement
The minimum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement, As,min, is given by;1

As,min ≥ MAX[kmin1*bw*d*(fctm/fyk), kmin2*bw*d]
where
kmin1 = the appropriate NDP value
fctm = mean value of the axial tensile strength of the concrete
fyk = characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement

kmin1 = 0.26
kmin2 = 0.0013
Note that there is no requirement to have a minimum area of compression

reinforcement.
41
The minimum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement for crack control, As,min,cr is
given by;2
As,min,cr ≥ 0.4*k*fctm*Act/σs
where
k = 1.0 when h ≤ 300
= 0.65 when h ≥ 800
fctm = mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete
= 0.38*fck(2/3) for concrete grades ≤ C50/60
= 2.12*ln(1+((fck+8)/10)) for concrete grades > C50/60
σs = the interpolated reinforcement service stress from appropriate for the bar
spacing of the reinforcement provided
Act = area of concrete in tension just before formation of first crack
= b*y
where
y = the distance of the Elastic NA from bottom of beam
The minimum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement required, As,min,reqd, is then

given by;
As,min,reqd ≥ MAX (As,min, As,min,cr)
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.1.1(1)
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 7.3.2(2)
Maximum Area of Reinforcement
The maximum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement, Ast,max, is given by;1

Ast,max ≤ kmax*Ac
The maximum area of longitudinal compression reinforcement, Asc,max, is given by;

Asc,max ≤ kmax*Ac
where
kmax = the appropriate NDP value
Ac = the cross sectional area of the beam
= h*bw

kmax = 0.04
42
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.1.1(3)
Side Reinforcement in Beams

To control cracking in beams with a total depth ≥ 1000 mm, side bars are provided in
the side faces of the beam as per BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 7.3.3(3).
Effective Depth of Section

For the design of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, the effective depth of a
section, d is defined as the distance from the extreme concrete fibre in compression to
the centre of gravity of the longitudinal tension reinforcement.
For the design of the longitudinal compression reinforcement, the effective depth in
compression, d2 is defined as the distance from the extreme fibre in compression to the
centre of gravity of the longitudinal compression reinforcement.
Design for Bending
Although BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 permits the limited redistribution of the

elastic global analysis bending moments at ultimate limit state (ULS) in
beams this is beyond scope in the current release of Tekla Structural
Designer.
Design for Bending for Rectangular Sections
Calculate the value of K from;

K = MEd/(fck*bw*d2)
43
Then calculate the limiting value of K, known as K’ from;

K’ = (2*η*αcc /γC)*(1 – λ*(δ – k1)/(2*k2))*( λ*(δ – k1)/(2*k2)) for fck ≤ 50 N/mm2
K’ = (2*η*αcc /γC)*(1 – λ*(δ – k3)/(2*k4))*( λ*(δ – k3)/(2*k4)) for fck > 50 N/mm2
where
ki = moment redistribution factors
δ = moment redistribution ratio ( = 1.0 in the current release)
γC = the NDP partial safety factor for concrete
αcc = coefficient to take account of long term effects on compressive strength of

concrete
λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 50 N/mm2
= 0.8-(fck-50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 N/mm2
η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 N/mm
= 1.0-(fck-50)/200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 N/mm2
γC = 1.5
αcc = 0.85

γC = 1.5
αcc = 1.0
IF K ≤ K’ THEN compression reinforcement is not required.
Calculate the lever arm, z from;

z = MIN(0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K/(η*αcc/γC))0.5], 0.95*d)
The area of tension reinforcement required is then given by;

Ast,reqd = MEd/(fyd*z)
where
fyd = fyk/γS
γS = the NDP partial safety factor for reinforcement
The depth to the neutral axis, xu is given by;

xu = 2*(d-z)/λ
44
For design in accordance with UK NA, EC2 Recommendations, Irish NA, Malaysian
γS = 1.15
IF K > K’ THEN compression reinforcement is required.
Calculate the depth to the neutral axis from;

xu = d*(δ-k1)/k2 for fck ≤ 50 N/mm2
xu = d*(δ-k3)/k4 for fck > 50 N/mm2
Calculate the stress in the reinforcement from;

fsc = MIN(Es*εcu3*(1-(d2/xu), fyd)
where
d2= the distance from the extreme fibre in compression to the c of g of the
compression reinforcement
Calculate the limiting bending strength, M’ from;

M’ =K’*fck*bw*d2
Calculate the lever arm from;

z = 0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K’/(η*αcc/γC))0.5]
The area of compression reinforcement required, As2,reqd is given by;

As2,reqd = (MEd-M’)/(fsc*(d-d2))
The area of tension reinforcement required, Ast,reqd is given by;

Ast,reqd = M’/(fyd*z) + As2,reqd*fsc/fyd
Design for Bending for Flanged Sections
IF hf < 0.1*d THEN treat the beam as rectangular.

hf = MIN(hf,side1, hf,side2)
where
hf,sidei = the depth of the slab on side ‘i’ of the beam
45

K = MEd/(fck*beff*d2)

z = MIN(0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K/(η*αcc/γC))0.5], 0.95*d)
Calculate the depth of the rectangular stress block, λ*x from;

λ*x = 2*(d-z)
IF λ*x ≤ hf THEN the rectangular compression block is wholly in the depth of the flange
and the section can be designed as a rectangular section by setting bw = beff.
IF λ*x > hf THEN the rectangular compression block extends into the rib of the flanged
section and the following design method is to be used.
The design bending strength of the flange, Mf is given by;

Mf = fcd*hf*(beff-bw)*(d-0.5*hf)
The area of reinforcement required to provide this bending strength, Asf,reqd is given by;
Asf,reqd = Mf/(fyd*(d-0.5*hf))
The remaining design moment, (MEd-Mf) is then taken by the rectangular beam section.

K = (MEd-Mf)/(fck*bw*d2)


z = MIN(0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K/(η*αcc/γC))0.5], 0.95*d)

Asr,reqd = (MEd-Mf)/(fyd*z)
46
The total area of tension reinforcement required, Ast,reqd is then given by;
Ast,reqd = Asf,reqd+Asr,reqd

xu = 2*(d-z)/λ


fsc = MAX(Es*εcu3*(1-(d2/xu), fyd)
where
d2 = the distance from the extreme fibre in compression to the c of g of the

M’ =K’*fck*bw*d2

z = 0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K’/(η*αcc/γC))0.5]

As2,reqd = (MEd-Mf-M’)/(fsc*(d-d2))
The area of tension reinforcement required, Asr,reqd is given by;

Asr,reqd = M’/(fyd*z) + As2,reqd*fsc/fyd
The total area of tension reinforcement required, Ast,reqd is then given by;
Ast,reqd = Asf,reqd+Asr,reqd
Design for Shear
47
Design Shear Resistance
The design value of the shear resistance of a concrete section with vertical shear
reinforcement, VRd,max is given by;
VRd,max = 0.9*αcw*bw*d*ν1*fcwd/(cotθ + tanθ)
where
θ = MIN {θmax, MAX[0.5*sin-1[2*VEd,max/( αcw*bw*0.9*d*ν1*fcwd)], θmin]}
fcwd 1 = αccw*fck/γC
αcw = 1.0 (assuming no axial load in the beam)
αccw = 1.0
γC = 1.5
ν1 = 0.6*(1 – (fck/250)) fck in N/mm2
The limits of θ are given by 1 ≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5 which gives;
θmax = tan-11
θmin = tan-1(0.4)
IF VEd,max > VRd,max
where
VEd,max = the maximum design shear force acting anywhere on the beam
THEN the shear design process FAILS since the section size is inadequate for shear (the
compression strut has failed at the maximum allowable angle).
The design shear capacity of the minimum area of shear links actually provided, Vnom is
given by2;
Vnom = (Asw,min,prov /sl ) * 0.9 * d * fywd * cotθ
where
Asw,min, prov is the area of shear reinforcement provided to meet the minimum
requirements.
fywd = fywk/γS
48
NA and Singapore NA the limiting values of θ are given by;
1 ≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5
and: γS = 1.15
The maximum possible value for the shear resistance provided by this area of shear
reinforcement will be when the angle of the compression strut is the minimum value i.e.
cotθ = 2.5 and therefore Vnom can be simplified to;
Vnom = (Asw,min,prov/sl) * 2.25 * d * fywd
In any region, i;
IF
VEd,i > Vnom
where
VEd,i = the maximum shear in region i
THEN shear links are required in the region.
For designed shear links in shear region Si, first calculate the angle of the compression
strut from;
θSi = MIN{θmax, MAX[0.5*sin-1[2*VEd,Si /( αcw*bw*0.9*d*ν1*fcd)], θmin]}
The area of links required in shear region Si is then given by;
(Asw,reqd/s)Si = VEd,Si/(0.9*d*fywd*cotθSi)
where
VEd,Si = the maximum shear force in shear region Si

1. Eqn (3.15) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 3.1.6(1)P
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.3(3) Eqn (6.8)
Minimum Area of Shear Reinforcement
The minimum area of shear reinforcement required, Asw,min is given by1;

Asw,min = MAX[sl*ρw,min*bw, Asw,min,u]
where
sl = the spacing of the shear reinforcement along the longitudinal axis of the beam
Asw,min,u = the total minimum area of the shear reinforcement calculated from data
supplied i.e. maximum spacing across the beam, minimum link diameter and
number of legs
49
ρw,min = (0.08*√(fck))/fyk
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.2(5) Eqn (9.4)
Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
NA and Singapore NA the longitudinal spacing, sl between the legs of shear reinforcement is given by;
sl,min,u ≤ sl ≤ MIN[0.75*d, sl,max,u]
where
sl,max,u = the maximum longitudinal spacing specified
sl,min,u = the minimum longitudinal spacing specified
If compression reinforcement is required for bending, for design in accordance with UK

NA, EC2 Recommendations, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore NA the
longitudinal spacing, sl between the legs of shear reinforcement is given by;
sl,min,u ≤ sl ≤ MIN{MIN[0.75*d, 15*Φcomp] , sl,max,u}
where
Φcomp = the minimum diameter of the compression reinforcement1
NA and Singapore NA the transverse spacing, st between the legs of shear reinforcement is given by;
st ≤ MIN[0.75*d, 600, st,max,u]
where
st,max,u = the maximum link leg spacing across the beam
1. Looking for the smallest value therefore use minimum diameter
Shear between Flanges and Web of Flanged Beams
The shear strength of the interface between the flanges and the web of a flanged beam
is checked and, if necessary, transverse reinforcement is provided as shown in the
diagram below.1
50
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2001 Section 6.2.4
Additional Tension Reinforcement
In BS EN 1992-1-1:2004, the method of designing for vertical shear is based on a truss

analogy with a diagonal strut acting at an angle θ. This strut action means that there
must be a tension force developed in the longitudinal reinforcement which is additional
to that arising from bending action.
To resist this tension force, an area of reinforcement additional to that required to resist
bending is required.
The total area of longitudinal tension reinforcement in each of the regions then
becomes;
Astt,reqd,i = Ast,reqd,i + Aswa,reqd,i
where
Ast,reqd,i = the area of longitudinal reinforcement required to resist bending as
appropriate in region ‘i’
Aswa,reqd,i = the area of longitudinal reinforcement required to resist the additional
tension force from vertical shear in region ‘i’
Design for Torsion

Design values of the shear resistance and torsional resistance moment
The design value of the shear resistance of a concrete section with vertical shear
reinforcement, VRd,max is given by;
VRd,max = 0.9*αcw*bw*d*ν1*fcwd/(cotθ + tanθ)
where
θ = MIN{θmax, MAX[0.5*sin-1[2*VEd,max/( αcw*bw*0.9*d*ν1*fcwd)], θmin]}
fcwd1 = αccw*fck/γC
51
The maximum design value of the torsional resistance moment, ΤRd,max is given by;
ΤRd,max = 2*ν1*αccw*fcwd*Ak*tef*sinθ*cosθ
where
Ak = (h-tef)*(bw-tef)
and
tef = MAX(A/u, 2*(h-do))2
where
A = h*bw
u = the outer circumference of the cross-section
= 2*(h+bw)
do = the effective depth of the outer layer of longitudinal reinforcement
αcw = 1.0
αccw = 1.0
γC = 1.5
ν1 = 0.6*(1 – fck/250) fck in N/mm2
The limits of θ are given by 1 ≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5 which gives;
θmax = tan-11
θmin = tan-1(0.4)
The design value of the torsional resistance moment of a concrete section with no shear
reinforcement, ΤRd,c is given by3;
ΤRd,c = 2*Ak*tef*fctd
where
fctd = the design tensile strength of the concrete
= αct*fctk,0.05/γC
If the maximum torsional moment acting on the beam, TEd,max is less than the ignorable
torque limit then no further calculations are necessary.
Otherwise:
If (ΤEd,max,i/ΤRd,max) + (VEd,max,i/VRd,max) ≤ 1.0
then the torsion design process can proceed.
ELSE the torsion design FAILS since the section size is inadequate for torsion.
1. Eqn (3.15) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 3.1.6(1)P
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.3.2(1).
3. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eqn (6.26) with τt,i = fctd
52
Additional reinforcement for torsion
The design value of the shear resistance of a concrete section with no shear
reinforcement, VRd,c is given by;1
VRd,c = νmin * bw * d
CRd,c = 0.18/γC
γC = 1.5
νmin = 0.035 * k1.5 * fck0.5
where
k = MIN(1 + √(200/d), 2.0) d in mm
αct = 1.0
γC = 1.5
If (ΤEd,max/ΤRd,c) + (VEd,max/VRd,c) ≤ 1.0
THEN no additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion is required.
IF (ΤEd,max/ΤRd,c) + (VEd,max/VRd,c) > 1.0
THEN additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion, AslT,reqd is required in some or all
regions.
The additional longitudinal reinforcement is given by;

AslT,reqd = (ΤEd * uk* cotθ)/(2 * Ak * fyd)
where
uk = 2*((h-tef)+(bw-tef))
This reinforcement is in addition to that required for bending and tension arising from
vertical shear and it is distributed in each of the four faces of the beam in proportion to
the length of the face of the cross-section.
The area of the additional link reinforcement that is required to resist torsion is given
by;
Aswt/s = (ΤEd)/(2 * Ak * 0.9 * fywd* cotθ) per leg
1. The design value of the shear resistance is calculated ignoring the longitudinal
reinforcement as it is not known if this reinforcement is adequately anchored beyond
the point under consideration. This is a conservative approach.
53
Deflection Check
The deflection of reinforced concrete beams is not directly calculated and the
serviceability of the beam is measured by comparing the calculated limiting
span/effective depth ratio L/d to the maximum allowable values as given by;1
IF ρ ≤ ρ0
(L/d)max = Kss*f1*f2*(11+1.5*(fck)1/2*(ρ0/ρ)+3.2*(fck)1/2*(( ρ0/ρ)-
1)3/2)*(500*Ast,prov/(fyk*Ast,reqd))
IF ρ > ρ0
(L/d)max = Kss*f1*f2*(11+1.5*(fck)1/2*(ρ0/(ρ-ρ’))+(1/12)*(fck)1/2*(
ρ’/ρ0)1/2)*(500*Ast,prov/(fyk*Ast,reqd))
where
ρ = the designed tension reinforcement ratio at mid-span (or at support for
cantilevers) required to resist bending
= Ast.reqd/(bw*d) for rectangular beams
= Ast,reqd/(beff*d) for flanged beams
ρ’ = the designed compression reinforcement ratio at mid-span (or at support for

= As2,reqd/(bw*d) for rectangular beams
= As2,reqd/(beff*d) for flanged beams
Ast,reqd = the designed area of tension reinforcement at mid-span (or at support for
Ast,prov = MIN(the area of tension reinforcement provided at mid-span (or at support for
cantilevers), f3*Ast,reqd)
As2,reqd = the designed area of compression reinforcement at mid-span (or at support for
f1 = 1.0 for rectangular beams
= 1.0 for flanged beams with beff/bw ≤ 3.0
= 0.8 for flanged beams with beff/bw > 3.0
f2 = 1.0 IF Leff ≤ 7 m
= 7/Leff IF Leff > 7 m with Leff in metre units
Leff = the length of the beam between the centre of its supportsA
54
f3 = an NDP factor as given below
Kss = the structural system factor which is an NDP and is given below
A
This definition of effective length will return conservative results when the width of the support is greater than the depth of the
beam – see BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 5.3.2.2(1)
For design in accordance with EC2 Recommendations the NDP value of f3 is given by 2;
f3 = 1.5
For design in accordance with UK NA, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore NA the
NDP value of f3 is given by 3;
f3 = 1.5
NA and Singapore NA the NDP value of Kss is given by the following table:
Span Detail LH End Fixity RH End Fixity Kss
LH End Span Fixed Fixed 1.3
Fixed Pinned 1.0
Pinned Fixed 1.3
Pinned Pinned 1.0
Internal Span Fixed Fixed 1.5
Fixed Pinned 1.3
Pinned Fixed 1.3
Pinned Pinned 1.0
RH End Span Fixed Fixed 1.3
Fixed Pinned 1.3
Pinned Fixed 1.0
Pinned Pinned 1.0
Cantilever 0.4
Chapter
55
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 7.4.2
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 is silent on the recommended value to use therefore adopt 1.5

since if f3 is greater than 1.5 no benefit arises.
3. For Irish NA refer to Table NA.3 and for other others refer to Table NA.5
Column Design to EC2

• Seismic design,
fire resistance requirements.],
• Lightweight concrete,
• Chamfers,
• Multi-stack reinforcement lifts.
Materials
Concrete
excluded).
Reinforcement
56
You are required to set a minimum value for the nominal cover, cnom, u, for each column
in the column properties.
These values are then checked against the nominal limiting cover, cnom,lim which depends
on the diameter of the reinforcement plus an allowance for deviation, Δcdev (specified in
Design Options > Column > General Parameters).
Generally, the allowance for deviation, ∆cdev is a NDP.1 The recommended value is
10mm, but under strict controls it can be reduced to 5mm.
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 cl 4.4.1.3 (1)P

For some of the longitudinal reinforcement design parameters, additional user defined
limits can be applied - where this is the case minimum and maximum values are
specified in Design Options > Column > Reinforcement Layout.
Minimum Longitudinal Bar Diameter

φlong,min = 8mm
For design in accordance with Malaysian NA;

φlong,min = 10m
For design in accordance with UK NA, Irish NA and Singapore NA;

φlong,min = 12mm
Minimum Longitudinal Bar Spacing1
For design to EC2 Recommendations, UK NA, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore
NA;
57
scl,min ≥ MAX[ maximum longitudinal bar diameter, 20mm, dg + 5mm ]
Where dg is the maximum aggregate size.
Maximum Longitudinal Bar Spacing
You are given control over this value by specifying an upper limit in Design Options
> Column > Reinforcement Layout.
Minimum Longitudinal Total Steel Area2
NA;
If NEd >= 0 (i.e. compression)

Asl,min = MAX[ (0.1 * NEd) / fyd, 0.2% * column area ]
Else
Asl,min = 0.45% * column area
It has been decided that in the tension case, in the absence of clear guidance
by EC2, it is responsible and conservative to adopt the 0.45% used by
BS8110.
Maximum Longitudinal Total Steel Area3
NA;
Asl,max = 4% * column area (8% in lap regions)
Long Term Compressive Strength Factor4
αcc = 0.85

αcc = 1.0
Design Concrete Compressive Strength for Shear5
NA;
fcd = αcc* fck /γC
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.2(2)
3. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.2(3)
4. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 3.1.6(1)
58
5. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 3.1.6(1)
Ultimate Axial Load Limit

This limit is when the section is under pure compression (i.e. no moment is applied). It is
observed that for non-symmetric arrangements, applying a small moment in one
direction may increase the maximum axial load that can be applied to a section because
the peak of the N-M interaction diagram is shifted away from the N-axis (i.e. the zero
moment line). Checking that the axial load does not exceed the ultimate axial load limit
of the section ensures that there is always a positive moment limit and a negative
moment limit for the applied axial load for the section.
The ultimate axial load limit of the section, assuming a rectangular stress distribution, is
calculated from:
Nmax = (0.9 * Ac * fcd * η) + ∑(As,i * fs,i)
Given that,
Ac = A – ∑As,i
fs,i = εc * Es,i
Where
A is the overall area of the section,
Ac is the area of concrete in the section,
As.i is the area of bar i,
fcd is the design compressive strength of the concrete,
η is a reduction factor for the design compressive strength for high strength
concrete for the rectangular stress distribution,
εc is the strain in the concrete at reaching the maximum strength,
fs,i is the stress in bar i when the concrete reaches the maximum strength,
Es,i is the modulus of elasticity of the steel used in bar i.
The 10% reduction for reduced concrete area towards the extreme
compression fibre is included even though there is no extreme compression
fibre in this calculation. The inclusion creates a conservative result.
Effective Length Calculations

Clear Height
The clear height is the clear dimension between the restraining beams at the bottom of
the stack and the restraining beams at the top of the stack. The clear height may be
different in each direction.
59
If, at an end of the stack, no effective beams or flat slab to include are found, then the
clear height includes the stack beyond this restraint, and the same rules apply for
finding the end of the clear height at the end of the next stack (and so on).
Effective Length
The effective length, l0 is calculated automatically - you also have the ability to override
the calculated value.
From EC2, cl. 5.8.3.2, the equations for calculating the effective length are as follows.
For stacks designated as “braced”, the effective length is given by1:

l0 = 0.5 * l * √(1 + (k1 / (0.45 + k1))) * √(1 + (k2 / (0.45 + k2)))
In addition Tekla Structural Designer imposes the following limits for stacks that are
designated as braced:
0.5 ≤ l0 / l ≤ 1
For stacks designated as “bracing”, the effective length is the larger of2:
l0 = l * √(1 + (10 * k1 * k2 / (k1 + k2)))
Or
l0 = l * (1 + (k1 / (1 + k1))) * (1 + (k2 / (1 + k2)))
Where
k1 and k2 are the relative flexibilities of rotational restraints at ends 1 and 2
respectively, in the direction under consideration. Which way the ends are
numbered is irrelevant to the result. The program uses the bottom end of the stack
as end 1 and the top end as end 2.
The value of k, which may refer to either k1 or k2 depending on which end of the stack is
being examined, is defined by3:
k = (θ / M) * (E * I / l)
Where
M is the moment applied to the restraining members by the buckling member or
members,
θ is the rotation of the joint at the end of the stack considered for the bending
moment M,
(E * I / l) is the bending stiffness of the compression member or members
considered to be buckling.
It is recommended to take “θ / M” for the beams as “l / (2 * E * I)”.
The standard approximation4 for “θ / M” is between “l / (4 * E * I)” and “l / (3 * E * I)”, so

to allow for cracking the value is increased. Also, “E * I / l” is the sum of the stiffness of
column stacks joining at the connection.
The above equation then becomes:

k = ∑(E * I / l)cols / ∑(2 * E * I / l)beams
60
If there are any adjacent stacks beyond the joint at the end of the restrained length
under consideration, then it must be considered whether these adjacent stacks are
likely to contribute to the deflection or restrain it. If the stiffness are similar then the
stiffness of the adjacent stacks can be ignored, and the guidance in PD6687 suggests
that this range of similarity of stiffness can be taken as 15% above or below the stiffness
of the stack being designed. Therefore:
If
0.85 ≤ ∑((E * I / l)stacks beyond this joint) / (E * I / l)stack under consideration ≤ 1.15
Then
∑(E * I / l)cols = (E * I / l)stack under consideration
Else
∑(E * I / l)cols = (E * I / l)stack under consideration + ∑(E * I / l)stacks beyond this joint
These stacks can be part of the same column length or another column length.
Note that as the restrained length may be multiple stacks, “E * I” for this stack are the
values for the stack being designed, and l is the restrained length. For the stacks beyond
the restraint, “E * I” are the values for the stack attached to the restraint, and l is the
restrained length that the stack exists within.
Any beams framing into the end of the stack within 45 degrees of the axis being
considered are said to be restraining beams for the stack in that direction.
There is a lower limit5 for the value of k:

k ≥ 0.1
Additionally, Tekla Structural Designer imposes an upper limit:

k ≤ 20
For bracing stacks, a warning is displayed when the calculated value of k exceeds this
limit.
Fixed Column Base
k = 0.1 for fixed bases in Tekla Structural Designer. There is no clear guidance in EC2, but
the Concrete Centre guidance suggests that this is suitable.
If you have set the bottom of the column to be “fixed” but the support as
“pinned”. The program will always assume that the support is fixed and
therefore only ever consider the fixity applied to the column.
Pinned Column End
In any situation where the end of a column anywhere in the structure is pinned, k = 20.
No Effective Beams Found
61
If no effective beams are found to restrain the end of the stack in the direction in
question, then the program will consider whether there is a flat slab restraining the
stack at this end. If a flat slab is found it will either be considered as a restraint, or not,
in each direction at each end of the stack - this is controlled by checking the option Use
slab for stiffness calculation... located as a ‘Stiffness’ setting in the column properties.
If there are no effective beams and there is no flat slab (or any flat slab is not to be
considered), then the program looks for the far end of the stack on the other side of the
joint, and look at the restraints there, and so on until a restraint with an effective beam
or flat slab to be considered is found.
If the stack is restrained by a flat slab, then the slab will be considered to act as a beam
in this direction – note that it is one beam in the direction and NOT a beam on each side
of the column.
If the stack is an end stack and there are no supports, beams or flat slabs considered to
restrain the stack at this end in the direction, the end is therefore free in this direction
and k = 20.
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 5.8.3.2(3)
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 5.8.3.2(3)
3. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 5.8.3.2(3)
4. PD 6687-1:2010 Section 2.11.2
5. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 5.8.3.2(3)
Column Stack Classification

Slenderness ratio
The slenderness ratio, λ, of the restrained length about each axis is calculated as
follows:
λ = l0 / i = l0 / √(I / A)
Where
l0 is the effective height of the stack,
i is the radius of gyration of the stack section about the axis under consideration,
I is the second moment of area of the stack section about the axis,
A is the cross-sectional area of the stack section.
The slenderness ratio λ is then checked against the limiting slenderness ratio λlim in each
direction. If the slenderness is less than this limit, then the member is short and
slenderness effects are ignored,.otherwise it is slender.
limiting slenderness ratio

λlim = 20 * A * B * C / √n
62
Where
A = 1 / (1 + (0.2 * φef)) ≥ 0.7
B = √(1 + (2 * ω)) ≥ 1.1
C = 1.7 - rm
Where
φef is the effective creep ratio,
ω = As * fyd / (Ac * fcd),
fyd is the design yield strength of the reinforcement,
fcd is the design compressive strength of the concrete,
As is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement,
n = NEd / (Ac * fcd),
NEd is the design axial force between restrained floor levels in this direction,
rm = M1.1 / M2.1 ,
M1.1 and M2.1 are the first order moments at the ends of the stack about the axis being
considered, with |M2.1| ≥ |M1.1|.
If M1.1 and M2.1 cause tension in the same side of the stack then rm is positive and C ≤
1.7. If the converse is true then the stack is in double curvature, and it follows that rm is
negative and C > 1.7.
For braced stacks in which the first order moments arise only from transverse loads
(lateral loading is significant) or imperfections (Mimp.1 > |M2.1|), C must be taken as 0.7,
For
bracing stacks, C must be taken as 0.7,
For restrained lengths encompassing more than one stack, C is taken as 0.7.
The effective creep ratio, φef, is derived as follows:

fcm = fck + 8 (N/mm2)
h0 = 2 * Ag / u
Where
u is the section perimeter in contact with the atmosphere (assumed to be the full
section perimeter),
Ag is the gross section area.
α1 = (35 / fcm)0.7
α2 = (35 / fcm)0.2
α3 = (35 / fcm)0.5
If fcm ≤ 35 N/mm2,
βH = (1.5 * (1 + (1.2 * RH))18 * h0) + 250 ≤ 1500
Else,
63
βH = (1.5 * (1 + (1.2 * RH))18 * h0) + (250 * α3) ≤ 1500 * α3
Where
RH is the relative humidity, which is set under ‘Design parameters’ in the column
properties.
βc( t , t0 ) = ((t – t0) / (βH + t – t0))0.3
βt0 = 1 / (0.1 + t00.2)
βfcm = 16.8 / √fcm
Where
t0 is the age of column loading and defaults to 14 days, if required it can be changed
under ‘Design parameters’ in the column properties.
If fcm ≤ 35 N/mm2,
φRH = 1 + ((1 – (RH / 100)) / (0.1 * h01/3))
Else,
φRH = (1 + (((1 – (RH / 100)) / (0.1 * h01/3)) * α1)) * α2
Then,
φ0 = φRH * βfcm * βt0
φ(∞ , t0) = φ0 * βc(∞ , t0 )
If φ(∞ , t0) ≤ 2 and λ < 75 and Mmax.1 / NEd ≥ h and ω ≥ 0.25,

φef = 0
Else
φef = φ(∞, t0) * RPL
Where
Mmax.1 is the largest first order moment in the restrained length in this direction,
NEd is the design axial force in the restrained length in this direction,
RPL is the permanent load ratio.
You are required to supply a value for the permanent load ratio which is located under
‘Design parameters’ in the column properties. A default of 0.65 has been assumed, but
you are advised to consider if this is appropriate and adjust as necessary.
Tekla Structural Designer assumes that t∞ (t-infinity) is equal to 70 years (25550 days).
Resistance Moment Calculations

For each combination and for each analysis model the end moments in the two local
member directions, ‘1’ and ‘2’ are established. From these and the local load profile, the
moment at any position and the maximum axial force in the member can be
established.
64
Step 1
Calculate the ‘amplifier’ due to buckling in each of Direction 1 and Direction 21 from
Equ. 5.28 and Equ. 5.30 of EC2 as,
k5.28 = 1 + π2/(8*(NB/NEd – 1))
k5.30 = 1 + 1/(NB/NEd – 1)
Where
NB = the (Euler) buckling load in the appropriate direction
= π2 EI/lo2
lo = the effective length in the appropriate direction which for braced columns will be ≤
1.0L and for unbraced columns ≥ 1.0L.
NEd = the maximum axial compressive force in the column length under consideration
(stack)
When NEd ≤ zero i.e. tension, k5.28 and k5.30 are 1.0.
Step 2
Calculate the minimum moment due to non-concentric axial force in each of the two
directions from,
Mmin.1 = |NEd| * MAX(h/30, 20)
Where
h = the major dimension of the column in the appropriate direction
NEd = the maximum axial force (compression or tension) in the

column length under consideration (stack)
Step 3
Calculate the ‘first-order’ and ‘second-order’ imperfection moment in Direction 1 and

Direction 2 as,
Mimp.1 = NEd * ei
Mimp.2 = Mimp.1 * k5.28
Where
Mimp.1 = the ‘first-order’ imperfection moment in a given direction
Mimp.2 = the ‘second-order’ imperfection moment in a given direction
ei = the effective length in the appropriate direction divided by 400
65
= lo/400
NEd = the maximum axial compressive force in the column length

under consideration (stack)
When NEd ≤ zero i.e. tension, Mimp.1 and Mimp.2 are zero.
Step 4
For rectangular and circular sections2, the second-order moment, M2.curv, using the
Curvature Method is calculated for each direction.
M2.curv = NEd * e2
Where
e2 = the deflection due to the maximum curvature achievable with

the given axial force
= (1/r) lo2/c

When NEd ≤ zero i.e. tension, M2.curv is zero.
Step 5
For all section shapes, the second-order moment, M2.stiff, using the Stiffness Method is
calculated in each direction based on the maximum first-order moment in the mid-fifth
of the column, Me.1, in the appropriate direction.
M2.stiff = Me.1 * (π2/(8*(NB/NEd – 1))
Where
Me.1 = the maximum absolute moment in the mid-fifth of the column

length under consideration (stack) in the appropriate direction

When NEd ≤ zero i.e. tension, M2.stiff is zero.
66
Step 6
For the current design combination, for each direction using the member analysis
routines, check for point(s) of zero shear within the column length. If none exist or are
within the mid-fifth of the column length then this design case is designated as having
lateral loads that are ‘not significant’. Else the lateral loads are considered as
‘significant’.
Step 7
Calculate the design moment at the top of the column in each direction (for both braced
and unbraced columns) taking into account if lateral loads that are ‘significant’, or ‘not
significant’.
Step 8
Calculate the design moment at the bottom of the column in each direction (for both
braced and unbraced columns) taking into account if lateral loads that are ‘significant’,
or ‘not significant’.
Step 9
Calculate the design moment in the mid-fifth of the column in each direction (for both
braced and unbraced columns) taking into account if lateral loads that are ‘significant’,
or ‘not significant’.
1. Direction 1 and Direction 2 are referring here to the member local axes as defined
by the user.
2. This could be extended to include any bisymmetric section e.g. circular and
polygonal.
Design for Shear

Design Parameters for Shear Design
For some of the shear design parameters, additional user defined limits can be applied -
where this is the case minimum and maximum values are specified in Design Options
> Column > Reinforcement Layout.
Minimum Shear Link Diameter

φw,min = MAX[ 6mm, 0.25 * largest longitudinal bar diameter ]
Maximum Span Region Shear Link Spacing1

For design to UK NA, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore NA:
φw,max = MIN[ 20 * smallest longitudinal bar diameter, lesser column dimension,

400mm ]
67
For UK NA when concrete class > C50/60 there are separate calculations in
clause 9.5.3(3). These are not implemented but a warning is displayed in this
situation.
For design to EC2 Recommendations:
φw,max = MIN[ 20 * smallest longitudinal bar diameter, lesser column dimension,

400mm ]
Maximum Support Region Shear Link Spacing2

For support regions, the maximum link spacing is reduced by 40%.
Long Term Compressive Strength Factor for Shear, αccw3

NA:
αccw = 1.0
Design Concrete Compressive Strength for Shear, fcwd

fcwd = αccw * MIN (fck , 50) /γC
fcwd = αccw * fck /γC
Factor4 CRd,c
NA:
CRd,c = 0.18 / γC
Factor5 k1
NA:
k1 = 0.15
Cracked Concrete Reduction Factor6, v
68
NA:
v = 0.6 * (1 – (fck / 250))
Cracked Concrete Reduction Factor7, v1

v1 = v* (1 – (0.5 * cos(α))
α is the inclination of links.
Note that links in columns are always assumed to be at 90° to column direction.
Therefore v1 = v
v1 = v
Minimum Shear Reinforcement Ratio8, ρw,min

NA:
0.08 * √(fck) / fyk
Maximum Angle of Compression Strut9, θmax

NA:
cot(θ) = 1
θ = 45°
Minimum Angle of Compression Strut10, θmin

NA:
cot(θ) = 2.5
θ = 21.8°
Angle of Compression Strut11, θ
69
If NEd ≥ 0 i.e. compression
θ = 0.5 * arcsin(2 * vEd / (0.9 * αcw * v1 * fcwd))
else
cot(θ) = 1.25
θ = 38.7°
θ = 0.5 * arcsin(2 * vEd / (0.9 * αcw * v1 * fcwd))
Stress State Factor, αcw

NA:
If σcp ≤ 0
αcw = 1.0
else if 0 < σcp ≤ 0.25 * fcd
αcw = 1.0 + (σcp / fcd)
else if 0.25 * fcd < σcp ≤ 0.5 * fcd
αcw = 1.25
else if 0.5 * fcd < σcp ≤ fcd
αcw = 2.5 * (1.0 – (σcp / fcd))
Minimum Shear Strength12, vmin

NA:
0.035 * k1.5 * fck0.5

Chapter
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.3(3)
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.3(4)
3. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 3.1.6(1)
4. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.2(1)
5. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.2(1)
6. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.2(6)
7. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.3(3)
70
8. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.2(5)
9. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 6.2.3(2)
10. clause 6.2.3(2)
11. clause 6.2.3(2)
12. clause 6.2.2(1)
Wall Design to EC2

Tekla Structural Designer will design wall panels to resist axial load combined with shear
and bending in each of the two planes of the wall.

• Seismic design,
fire resistance requirements],
• Lightweight concrete,
• Multi-stack reinforcement lifts.
Materials
Concrete
excluded).
Reinforcement
• Mesh (Standard Meshes)
For 1 layer of reinforcement, the vertical bar is on the centre-line of the wall thickness,
the face of the horizontal bar is closest to the critical concrete face.
For 2 layers of reinforcement, the horizontal bars are placed outside the vertical bars at
each face.
71
The nominal concrete cover is measured to the face of the horz bar or any
link/containment transverse reinforcement that may be present.
You are required to set a minimum value for the nominal cover, cnom, u, for each wall in
the wall properties.
This value is then checked against the nominal limiting cover, cnom,lim which depends on
the diameter of the reinforcement plus an allowance for deviation, Δcdev (specified in
Design Options > Wall > General Parameters).
Generally, the allowance for deviation, ∆cdev is a NDP.1 The recommended value is 10mm, but under strict
controls it can be reduced to 5mm.

1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 cl 4.4.1.3 (1)P
Design Parameters for Vertical Bars

For some of the vertical bar parameters, additional user defined limits can be applied -
where this is the case minimum and maximum values are specified in Design Options
> Wall > Reinforcement Layout.
In the following, the concrete area is the gross area of the general wall, or the
gross area of the mid zone if one exists.
For the end zone the design criteria for a reinforced concrete column element
applies.
Minimum Vertical Bar Diameter

φv,min = 8mm
φv,min = 12mm
Minimum Vertical Bar Spacing1
NA;
scl,min ≥ MAX[ largest bar diameter, 20mm, dg + 5mm ]
Minimum Reinforcement Area2
Total minimum area of vertical reinforcement, As, min = ρ v,min*Acg
72
Where
Acg = gross area of the concrete wall
NA;
ρ v, min = 0.002
Where 2 layers are specified distributed equally to each face, this is a minimum of
0.001*Acg placed at each face.
You are given control over the minimum reinforcement ratio value via a user limit in
Design Options > Wall > Reinforcement Layout (default 0.004).
For walls subjected to ‘predominantly out-of-plane bending’, the minimum area rules for
‘slabs’ apply if they are more critical than the above, [ cl 9.3 and reference to cl 9.2.1.1
(1) (2) and (3) ], so an additional check for any value of minor axis bending is applied.
As, min = max [(2*0.26*fctm*lwp*d/fyk) , ( 2*0.0013*lwp*d) , (ρ v, min*Acg)]
This applies for the general wall length, or the mid zone if it exists.
For a general wall panel length, lwp = lw
Gross area of the wall, Acg = lw*hw
For a mid zone panel length, lwp = lmz
Gross area of the mid zone, Acg, mz = lmz*hw
Effective depth of the cross section, d, is the dimension of the extreme concrete
compression fibre to the centroid of reinforcement layer on the tension side, which for
a wall is the line of the vertical reinforcement.
It does not apply for the end zones, since these are subject to the minimum
reinforcement requirements as a column section.
Gross area of each end zone, Acg, ez = lez*hw

Length of each end zone, lez
Maximum Reinforcement Area3
Total maximum area of vertical reinforcement, As, max = ρ v,max*Acg
Where
Acg = gross area of the concrete wall
NA;
ρv, max = 0.04

You are given control over the maximum reinforcement ratio value via a user limit in
Design Options > Wall > Reinforcement Layout (default 0.02).
73
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.2(2)
3. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.5.2(2)
Design Parameters for Horizontal Bars

For some of the horizontal bar parameters, additional user defined limits can be applied
- where this is the case minimum and maximum values are specified in Design Options
Minimum Horizontal Bar Diameter
The suggested minimum for design in accordance with EC2 Recommendations, UK

NA, Irish NA, Malaysian NA and Singapore NA;
φh,min = 8mm
Minimum Horizontal Bar Spacing1
NA;
scl,min ≥ MAX[ largest bar diameter, 20mm, dg + 5mm ]
Maximum Horizontal Bar Spacing2
To satisfy the slab condition if ‘predominantly out-of-plane bending’;
Limiting maximum horizontal spacing, scr, max = min (3*hw , 400 mm)
You are given control over this value by specifying a user limit in Design Options > Wall
> Reinforcement Layout.
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2
2. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2
Ultimate Axial Load Limit

The axial resistance calculations for walls are the same as for columns. (See Column
Design -).
Effective Length and Slenderness Calculations

The slenderness calculations for walls are generally the same as for columns. (See
Column Design - and ) , except that for walls:
74
Where the criteria for each axis is:
If λ < λlim, section is ‘non-slender’
Elseif λ ≥ λlim, section is ‘slender’
Since the wall panel has a rectangular plan shape, the calculation can be simplified:
In-plane,
Slenderness, λy = l0, y / iy
Radius of gyration, iy = lw/(12)0.5
Effective length, l0, y

Length of wall panel, lw
Out-of-plane,
Slenderness, λz = l0, z / iz
Radius of gyration, iz = hw/(12)0.5
Effective length, l0, z

Thickness of wall panel, hw
Pre-selection of Bracing Contribution:

The significant parameter within the slenderness criteria is a choice of how a wall (or
column) is contributing to the stability of the structure.
In-plane direction, a wall is usually considered to be a bracing member.

Out-of-plane direction, a wall is usually considered to be braced by other stabilizing
members.
These are the default settings but can be edited.
Resistance Moment Calculations

For each combination, a set of member end forces are returned from one or more sets
of analyses, in the same way as for columns. (See Column Design - ).
Design for Shear

The shear design calculations are the same whether the design element is a column or
a wall.
See Column Design - ).
Chapter
75
Slab Design to EC2

• Seismic design
fire resistance requirements]
• Lightweight concrete
Materials
Concrete
excluded).
Reinforcement
• Loose reinforcing bars
• Mesh (Standard Meshes)
• Loose reinforcing bars bent to form links
Reinforcement Parameters
Note that when panel and patch reinforcement is considered in combination it is

possible that there will be more than one bar size used in a layer, so for the purposes of
the calculations in the sections below:
76
φtop1 = the diameter of the largest longitudinal reinforcing bar in top layer 1 (the bars
nearest to the top surface of the slab)
φtop2 = the diameter of the largest longitudinal reinforcing bar in top layer 2
φbot1 = the diameter of the largest longitudinal reinforcing bar in bottom layer 1 (the
bars nearest to the bottom surface of the slab)
φbot2 = the diameter of the largest longitudinal reinforcing bar in bottom layer 2
Slab design will always consider a rectangular section of unit width:
h = overall slab depth
b = unit width
for EC2 design the unit width of slab is 1m, and so the design cross section will always
be a rectangular section where b = 1000mm
You are required to set a minimum value for the nominal cover, cnom, u, for each slab panel. These
values for top and bottom cover are specified in ‘Reinforcement properties’ section of the slab panel properties.
This value is then checked against the nominal limiting cover, cnom,lim which depends on
the diameter of the reinforcement plus an allowance for deviation, Δcdev (specified in
Design Options > Slab > General Parameters).
1
Generally, the allowance for deviation, ∆cdev is a NDP. The recommended value is 10mm, but under strict
controls it can be reduced to 5mm.

1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 cl 4.4.1.3 (1)P
Limiting Reinforcement Parameters

Limiting Reinforcement Parameters
Limiting reinforcement parameters are specified in Design Options > Slab >
Reinforcement Layout.
The parameters applied to ‘flat slab’ design are held separately to those for ‘beam and
slab’ design.
Minimum and Maximum Loose Bar Diameter
Minimum Loose Bar Diameter
77
For ‘flat slab’:

φmin = 8mm (default)
For ‘beam and slab’:

Maximum Loose Bar Diameter
For ‘flat slab’:

For ‘beam and slab’:

Minimum Clear Spacing
The minimum clear horizontal distance between individual parallel bars, scl,min, is given
by;1
scl,min ≥ MAX[k1*φ, dg+k2, scl,u,min, 20 mm]
where
dg = the maximum size of aggregate (default 20mm)
φ = the maximum diameter of bars in the layer
scl,u,min = user specified min clear distance between bars (default 100mm in “beam and
slab” and 50mm in “flat slab”)
NA;
k1 = 1.0
k2 = 5.0mm
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 8.2(2)
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars (all slabs)
In accordance with clause 7.3.3(1) of EC2 for slabs not exceeding 200mm in overall
depth and not subjected to significant axial tension the maximum limit on CENTRE to
CENTRE bar spacing is governed by clause 9.3 only and there is no need to perform
specific checks on the bar spacings to control cracking. These limits are applied to all
slabs and then the additional limit in the next section are applied to slabs greater than
200mm thick.
From clause 9.3 the maximum limit on bar spacings can be somewhat subjective so
these limits will be user definable with conservative defaults as follows :-
78
Principal bars (NDP) (cl. 9.3.1.1(3))
smax = 2h but <= 250mm
Secondary bars (NDP) (cl. 9.3.1.1(3))
smax = 3h but <= 400mm
Bars are classed as “secondary” if both the following are true:
1. The design moment for bars in this direction is lower than the design moment for
bars in the other direction.
2. The calculated reinforcement requirement based on the design moment is less than
the minimum reinforcement requirement.
Maximum Spacing of Tension Bars (h> 200mm)
The maximum centre to centre bar spacing for crack control, scr,max, is dependent on the
maximum allowable crack width, wmax, specified in the beam properties from a menu of
values which are: 0.20mm, 0.30mm or 0.40mm with a default value of 0.30mm.
The service stress in the reinforcement, σs, is given by;

σs = (As,reqd/As,prov)*(fyk/γs)*RPL
where
As,reqd = the area of reinforcement required for the maximum design
Ultimate Limit State bending moment, MEd
As,prov = the area of reinforcement provided
RPL = the permanent load ratio
In the slab properties you are required to supply a value for the permanent load ratio,
RPL. A default of 0.65 has been assumed, but you are advised to consider if this is
appropriate and adjust as necessary.
The maximum allowable centre to centre bar spacing, scr,max is then obtained by looking
up the calculated value of the service stress in the reinforcement, σs, from the following
table using interpolation between values of σs
Steel Service Max Allowable bar Spacing, scr,max
Stress,
σs (N/mm2) wmax = 0.40 mm wmax = 0.30 mm wmax = 0.20 mm
≤ 160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
79
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 Warning
360 100 50 Warning
>360 Warning Warning Warning
Minimum Area of Reinforcement
The minimum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement, As,min, is given by;1

As,min ≥ MAX[kmin1* b* d * (fctm/fyk), kmin2* b * d]
where
fctm = mean value of the axial tensile strength of the concrete
fyk = characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement

kmin1 = 0.26
kmin2 = 0.0013
Note that there is no requirement to have a minimum area of compression

reinforcement.
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.1.1(1)
Maximum Area of Reinforcement
The maximum area of longitudinal tension reinforcement, Ast, max , is given by1
Ast, max ≤ kmax*Ac
The maximum area of longitudinal compression reinforcement, Asc, max , is given by
Asc, max ≤ kmax*Ac
where
kmax = the appropriate NDP value
Ac = the cross sectional area of the slab design section
= h*b
80
NA;
kmax = 0.04
1. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Section 9.2.1.1(3)
Basic Cross Section Design

Regardless of whether design is being carried out for a slab panel or a patch, a unit
width of slab is always designed for a known design force.
h = overall slab depth
b = unit width
for EC2 design the unit width of slab is 1m, and so the design cross section is a
rectangular section where b = 1000mm
Matching Design Moments to Reinforcement Layers
In any panel or patch potentially up to 4 sets of Design Bending Moments are

established:
• Mdx-top - used to determine the reinforcement requirement of the x-direction bars
in the top of the slab.
• Mdy-top - used to determine the reinforcement requirement of the y-direction bars
in the top of the slab
• Mdx-bot - is used to determine the reinforcement requirement of the x-direction
bars in the bottom of the slab.
• Mdy-bot - is used to determine the reinforcement requirement of the y-direction
bars in the bottom of the slab.
For each set of design bending moments, the effective depths d and d2 are established -
taking account of the direction of the outer bar layer (as specified in the ‘Reinforcement
properties’ section of the slab panel properties).
81
Design for Bending

For the design moment under consideration the appropriate d and d2 are calculated as
described above. The design is then basically the same as employed for the design of
rectangular beams

K = MEd/(fck*b*d2)
b = )1000mm

where
ki = moment redistribution factors
δ = moment redistribution ratio ( = 1.0 in the current release)
γC = the NDP partial safety factor for concrete
αcc = coefficient to take account of long term effects on compressive

strength of concrete
λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 50 N/mm2
= 0.8-(fck-50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 N/mm2
η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 N/mm
= 1.0-(fck-50)/200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 N/mm2
k 1 = 0.40
k 2 = 1.0*(0.6+0.0014/εcu2)
k 3 = 0.40
k 4 = 1.0*(0.6+0.0014/εcu2)
γC = 1.5
αcc = 0.85

k 1 = 0.44
k 2 = 1.25*(0.6+0.0014/εcu2)
k 3 = 0.54
k 4 = 1.25*(0.6+0.0014/εcu2)
γC = 1.5
82
αcc = 1.0

z = MIN(0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K/(η*αcc/γC))0.5], 0.95*d)

Ast,reqd = MEd/(fyd*z)
where
fyd = fyk/γS
γS = the NDP partial safety factor for reinforcement

xu = 2*(d-z)/λ
γS = 1.15


fsc = MIN(Es*εcu3*(1-(d2/xu), fyd)
where
d2 = the distance from the extreme fibre in compression to the c of g of the

M’ =K’*fck*b*d2
83
z = 0.5*d*[1 + (1 – 2*K’/(η*αcc/γC))0.5]

As2,reqd = (MEd-M’)/(fsc*(d-d2))
The area of tension reinforcement required, Ast,reqd is given by;
Ast,reqd = M’/(fyd*z) + As2,reqd*fsc/fyd
Deflection Check
The span-effective depth check only applies to "Beam and Slab" panels. The basic
principle is the same as used for beams.
See Beam Design - ).
Punching Shear Checks

Punching Shear Basics
There are a number of perimeters associated with Punching Shear

• Loaded perimeter - perimeter around the loaded area - eg face of the wall or column
• Basic control perimeter - is the check punching shear perimeter 2d from the loaded
perimeter
• Outer perimeter - the first perimeter at which the punching check passes with no
need for shear reinforcement - equal to or outside the basic control perimeter
(equal to if the check passes at the basic control perimeter).
84
Length of the loaded perimeter u0
Loaded perimeter for Columns

The length of the loaded perimeter at the column face is calculated in accordance with
clause 6.4.5(3) of EC2 as determined below.
Note - for columns which have a re-entrant corner, ie where an internal angle is greater
than 180 degrees, the length of a side and the slab/column interface is adjusted as
indicated in the sketches below with the perimeter taken as the shortest distance
around the column.
The following are the loaded perimeters for the possible column shapes. Each has a
bounding rectangle or circle to aid in the design calculations.
Note all columns shown at 0 deg orientation looking down on column - face A to the top
of each depiction.
Rectangular (D and B)
u0 = 2 x (D + B)
Bounding rectangle Dbound = D
Bounding rectangle Bbound = B
Bounding rectangle perimeter - u0bound = 2 x (Dbound + Bbound)
Circular (D)
u0 = π x D
Bounding circle Dbound = D
Bounding circle perimeter - u0bound = π x Dbound
L section (D, B, TH and TV)
85
u0 = D + B +TV + TH + Sqrt((B-TV)2 + (D-TH)2)

T section (D, B, Tstem, Tflange and Dstem)
u0 = B + 2xTflange + Tstem + Sqrt ((Dstem2+(D-Tstem)2) + Sqrt((B-Tstem-Dstem)2+(D-Tstem)2)

C section (D, B, Tweb, Ttop flange and Tbottom flange)
u0 = 2 x (B + D)
Elbow (D, B, T, angle)
86
u0 = B + D + 2 x T + Sqrt((B + D x Sin(angle-90)-T x Cos(angle-90))2 + (D x Cos(90-angle)

- T)2)
Bounding rectangle Dbound = D Sin(180-Angle) x T Cos(180-Angle)
Bounding rectangle Bbound = B + D Cos(180-Angle)
Trapezium (D, Bbottom, Btop, angle)
u0 = Btop +Bbottom + 2 x D / sin(Angle)

Bounding rectangle Bbound = max(Bbottom, Btop)
I section (D, Btop, Bbottom, Tweb, Ttop flange, Tbottom flange)
u0 = Bbottom + Btop + 2 x Sqrt(((Bbottom-Btop)/2)2 + D2) (approx)

Bounding rectangle Bbound = max(Bbottom, Btop)
Parallelogram (Dangle, B, angle)
87
u0 = 2 x (B + Dangle)
Bounding rectangle Dbound = D x sin(Angle)
Bounding rectangle Bbound = B + Dangle x cos(Angle)
Polygon (D, n) - n >4
u0 = 2 x n x D/2 x sin (180/n)

Bounding circle Dbound = n x D/π x sin (180/n) (equivalent perimeter)
Bounding circle perimeter - u0bound = π x Dbound
Lozenge (D, B)
u0= 2 x (B - D) + π D
Loaded perimeter for Walls

The length of the loaded perimeter at the wall face may be calculated in accordance
with clause 6.4.5(3) of EC2 as determined below.
Rectangular (D and B)
88
u0 = 2 x (D + B)
Loaded perimeter for Point Loads

The length of the loaded perimeter at the point load may be calculated in accordance
with clause 6.4.5(3) of EC2 as determined below.
u0 = 2 x (Dload + Bload)
Bounding rectangle Dbound = Dload
Bounding rectangle Bbound = Bload
Additional Loaded perimeter drops

The additional loaded perimeter for a column/wall with a drop is defined by the
perimeter of the rectangular drop
u0drop = 2 x Bdrop x Ddrop
The equivalent perimeter

Note that we use an equivalent rectangle or circle in the calculations for non rectangular
and non circular columns to allow us to handle openings and moments in a slightly
simplified manner.
The equivalent rectangle or circle has the same u0 and u1 value as the "true" punching
shape. So for axial loads the identical answer is given. For openings and moments, then
there is a small deviation from the "true" result - but in the context of punching, the net
effect will be small.
For "circular" shapes of column (circle and polygon with n sides), the equivalent
perimeter -
• Dequiv = Dbound x u0 / u0bound
89
For "rectangular" shapes of column (all except circle and polygon of n sides) and walls,
the equivalent loaded perimeter -
• Dequiv = Dbound x u0 / u0bound
• Bequiv = Bbound x u0 / u0bound
The equivalent perimeter is used in three situations

• adjustment of the loaded perimeter length/shape u0 for edge and corner
columns/walls
• in calculation of beta for edge and corner columns/walls.
• Reduction in VEd
Columns and Walls not perpendicular to slabs
EC2 only provides specific design guidance for rectangular columns which are
perpendicular to slabs. The program treats all columns and walls that are not
perpendicular to slabs as if they are for the punching areas developed.
This is conservative as the punching area/perimeter will be smaller than that for the
angled column or wall.
Loaded perimeter near slab edges
EC2 only provides specific design guidance for rectangular columns with this guidance
being further limited, for the case of edge and corner columns, to those cases where
the edge(s) of the slab coincide with the edge(s) of the column. In the program the
equations for other column shapes and scenarios are therefore obtained by modifying
those equations presented in EC2. It is considered that the modified equations result in
either the correct perimeter length being obtained or a conservative value i.e. an
underestimate of the perimeter length.
Length of the basic control perimeter u1
Basic control perimeter without drops
90
The length of the column/wall basic control perimeter is the length as determined
below.
• For all internal column/wall shapes and point loads
u1 = u0 + 4 π d
• For all corner column/wall shapes and point loads
u1 = A + B + C
where
for a rectangle
A = dist from centroid to edge along local y
B = c1/2 + π x d + c2/2
C = dist from centroid to edge along local z
For a circle
A = dist from centroid to edge along local y
B = π x (4 x d + c)/4
C = dist from centroid to edge along local
• For all edge column/wall shapes and point loads
u1 = A + B + C
where
For a rectangle
A = dist from centroid to edge along local y or local z
B = c 1 + 2 x π x d + c2
C = dist from centroid to edge along local y or local z
For a circle
A = dist from centroid to edge along local y or local z
91
B = π x (4 x d + c) / 2
C = dist from centroid to edge along local y or local z
If a basic control perimeter passes across a slab edge then only the perimeter length in
the slab is counted in u1.
Note if a slab around a column/wall/point load changes depth, the thinnest slab and its
"d" values above is used.
Control Perimeters
The calculations are beyond scope in the following situations:

• If two control areas touch then both areas are set to Beyond Scope.
• If an edge or corner area contains another column or wall then both areas are set to
Beyond Scope.
Modification of control perimeters to take account of slab openings
If any openings have been defined in the slab and if the nearest opening edge is not
greater than 6d from the face of the column then the length of the loaded perimeter at
the column face, u0, and the length of the basic control perimeter, u1, are both reduced
to take account of the presence of the opening(s) in accordance with fig. 6.14 of EC2.
When a perimeter length has been reduced to cater for openings - as the
exact position of the opening in relation to the reinforcement strips is not
known, the calculations conservatively ignore any patch reinforcement in the
punching checks - only the slab reinforcement is used.
User Modification of control perimeters

If you want to consider the effect of openings, but do not want to place them in the slab,
this can be done by defining the following properties:
• u0 - user reduction
• u1 - user reduction
92
When applied, the length of the respective shear perimeters (except that at the
column/wall face) are reduced by the specified amount.
User Limit on b for Internal Columns/walls
If you want to set a lower limit on the magnification factor β, this can be done by
checking the following box:
• Beta - user limit
When checked, the calculated value of β will be a minimum of 1.15 or greater.

Chapter
References
1. British Standards Institution. BS EN 1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2: Design of
concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI 2004.
2. British Standards Institution. NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2: Design of

93
Steel Design - EC3 and EC4
Steel Design to EC3 and EC4

Tekla Structural Designer designs steel members and composite members to a range of
international codes. This reference guide specifically describes the design methods
applied in the software when the BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 (Ref. 1) and BS EN 1994-1-1:2004
(Ref. 4) codes are selected.
Within the remainder of this handbook BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 and BS EN 1994-1-1:2004

are referred to as EC3 and EC4 respectively.
EC3; apart from the Composite Beam section, within which references are to EC4 unless
stated.
Topics in this section

• Basic Principles
• Steel Beam Design to EC3
• Composite Beam Design to EC4
• Steel Column Design to EC3
• Steel Brace Design to EC3
Basic Principles
Definitions
The following terms are relevant when using Tekla Structural Designer to design to the
Eurocodes.
National Annex (NA)
Safety factors in the Eurocodes are recommended values and may be altered by the
national annex of each member state.
Tekla Structural Designer currently has the following EC3 national annex options are
available:
• EC3 Europe
95
• EC3 UK NA
• EC3 Ireland NA
• EC3 Ireland NA
• EC3 Malaysia NA
• EC3 Singapore NA
You can select the desired National Annex as appropriate, in which case the nationally
determined parameters are automatically applied (see next section), or if you choose
EC3 Europe, the Eurocode recommended values are applied.
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDP’s)
NDP’s are choices of values, classes or alternative methods contained in a National

Annex that can be applied in place of the base Eurocode, EC3 Europe.
Partial Factors for Buildings
The partial factors γM for buildings as described in Clause 6.1(1) Note 2B should be
applied to the various characteristic values of resistance as follows:
• resistance of cross-sections irrespective of class: γM0
• resistance of members to instability assessed by member checks: γM1
• resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture: γM2
Depending on your choice of National Annex the above partial factors for buildings are
set as follows:
Factor EC3 Base UK Ireland Malaysia Singapore
value
γM0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
γM1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
γM2 1.25 1.10* 1.25 1.20 1.10
NOTE - for connection design BS EN1991-1-8 - γM2 = 1.25
96
Glossary
Convention for member axes

The sign convention for member axes when designing to Eurocodes is as shown below.
Section axes - (x is into the page along the centroidal axis of the member).
Deflection checks
Relative and Absolute Deflections
Tekla Structural Designer calculates both relative and absolute deflections. Relative
deflections measure the internal displacement occurring within the length of the
member and take no account of the support settlements or rotations, whereas absolute
deflections are concerned with deflection of the structure as a whole. The absolute
deflections are the ones displayed in the structure deflection graphics. The difference
between relative and absolute deflections is illustrated in the cantilever beam example
below.
Relative Deflection Absolute Deflection
97
Relative deflections are given in the member analysis results graphics and are the ones
used in the member design.
Steel Beam Deflections
Deflections of steel beams in design are calculated from first order linear results since
these are SLS deflections that are compared with standard limits such as span/360. This
means that the effects of any non-linearity such as a continuous beam sitting on sinking
supports i.e. non-linear springs are not taken into account in design. If these springs are
linear this is not an issue.
Steel Beam Design to EC3
Design method
Unless explicitly stated all calculations are in accordance with the relevant sections of
EC3 (Ref. 1) and any associated National Annex.
A basic knowledge of the design methods for beams in accordance with the code is
assumed.
Ultimate Limit State - Strength

The strength checks relate to a particular point on the member and are carried out at
regular intervals along the member and at ‘points of interest’.
Classification
General
The classification of the cross section is in accordance with EC3 Cl. 5.5 Table 5.2
A steel non-composite beam can be classified as:

• Plastic Class = 1
• Compact Class = 2
• Semi-compact Class = 3
• Slender Class = 4
Class 4 sections are unacceptable and are either failed in check mode or rejected in
design mode.
Implementation of the below clauses is as follows:

• Classification is determined using 5.5.2 (6) and not 5.5.2 (7).
• 5.5.2 (9) is not implemented as clause (10) asks for the full classification to be used
for buckling resistance.
• 5.5.2 (11) is not implemented.
98
Glossary
The note at the end of Cl. 5.5.2 is not implemented. A brief study by CSC of UK rolled
UBs and UCs showed that flange induced buckling in normal rolled sections is not a
concern. No study was undertaken for plated sections.
Hollow sections
The classification rules for SHS and RHS relate to “hot-finished hollow sections” only
(“cold-formed hollow sections” are not included in this release).
Shear Capacity
Major and minor axis shear
checks are performed according to clause 6.2.6 (1) for the absolute value of shear force
normal to each axis at the point under consideration.
Web Shear buckling
the 6.2.6 (6) limit is checked and if exceeded a warning is given. The warning indicates
that additional calculations to EN 1993-1-5 are not carried out.
The following points should be noted:

• No account is taken of fastener holes in the flange or web - see 6.2.6 (7)
• Shear is not combined with torsion and thus the resistance is not reduced as per
6.2.6 (8)
Moment Capacity
Major and minor axis bending checks are performed in accordance with equation 6.9.
Major axis bending
For the low shear case the calculation uses equation 6.13 for class 1 and 2 cross
sections and equation 6.14 for class 3 cross sections. In the high shear case equation
6.29 is used for class 1 and 2 cross sections and equation 6.14 for class 3 cross sections.
Where the high shear condition applies, the moment capacity calculation is made less
complicated by conservatively adopting a simplified shear area.
Minor axis bending
For the low shear case the calculation uses equation 6.13 for class 1 and 2 cross
sections and equation 6.14 for class 3 cross sections. High shear in the minor axis is
beyond the current program scope.
Fastener holes in the flange or web are not accounted for in the calculations.
99
Axial Capacity
Axial Tension
checks are performed according to equation 6.5

• Cl 6.2.3 (3) - is not considered
• Eqn 6.7 is not considered for steel non-composite beams.
Axial Compression
Checks are performed according to equation 6.9.
Cross-section Capacity
The cross-section capacity check covers the interaction of axial load and bending.
Class 1 and 2 cross sections
Equation 6.41 is applied. Note that in these calculations the combined effects of axial
load and bending are assessed - clause 6.2.9 (4) is not considered
Also note that the current "reduced plastic moduli" approach that is used in the
published tables is adopted and not the approximate method given in 6.2.9.1(5). The
latter is less conservative than the current approach at low levels of 'n'.
Class 3 cross sections
Equation 6.42 is applied.
Axial and bending interaction checks are beyond the current program scope
if coexistent high shear is present in the major axis.
100
Glossary
Ultimate Limit State - Buckling
Classification for buckling checks - For rolled I sections, RHS and SHS
classification varies along the member length due to the section forces
changing along the member length - for Combined Buckling, the worst
classification of the whole member should be used. In theory it should be the
worst classification in the ‘check length’ considered for buckling. However, the
‘check lengths’ for Lateral Torsional Buckling, minor axis Strut Buckling and
major axis Strut Buckling can all be different. It is simpler and conservative
therefore to use the worst classification in the entire member length.
Compression buckling
Beams must be checked to ensure adequate resistance to buckling about both the
major and minor axes and they must also be checked in the torsional mode over an
associated buckling length. Since the axial force can vary throughout the beam and the
buckling lengths in the two planes do not necessarily coincide, all buckling modes must
be checked. There may be circumstances where it would not be safe to assume that the
Combined Buckling check will always govern (see below).
Effective lengths
In all cases Tekla Structural Designer sets the default effective length to 1.0L, it does not
attempt to adjust the effective length in any way. Different values can apply in the major
and minor axis. It is your responsibility to adjust the value from 1.0 where you believe it
to be justified.
It is assumed that you will make a rational and ‘correct’ choice for the
effective lengths between restraints. The default value for the effective length
factor of 1.0L may be neither correct nor safe.
Coincident restraint points in the major and minor axis define the 'check length' for
torsional and torsional flexural buckling (which also has an effective length factor but is
assumed to be 1.0L and cannot be changed).
All intermediate major and minor restraints in a cantilever span are ignored.
Any major or minor Strut Buckling 'check length' can take the type 'Continuous' to
indicate that it is continuously restrained over that length. There is no facility for
specifying torsional or torsional flexural buckling 'check lengths' as 'Continuous'.
There is no guidance in EC3 on the values to be used for effective length factors for
beam-columns.
beam-columns.
101
Compression resistance
The relevant buckling resistances are calculated from Eqn 6.47.
These consist of the flexural buckling resistance about both the major and minor axis
i.e. Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd over the buckling lengths Lyy and Lzz and where required the buckling
resistance in the torsional or flexural-torsional modes, Nb,x,Rd.
The elastic critical buckling load, Ncr for flexural buckling about major and minor axes is
taken from standard texts. The elastic critical buckling loads for Torsional, Ncr.T and for
Torsional Flexural buckling, Ncr.TF are taken from the NCCI “Critical axial load for torsional
and torsional flexural buckling modes” available free to download at www.steel-
ncci.co.uk.
All section types are checked for flexural buckling. It is only hollow sections that do not
need to be checked for torsional and torsional-flexural buckling.
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Lateral torsional buckling checks are required between supports, or LTB restraints on a
flange which is in bending compression, for all lengths that are not continuously
restrained.
Note that coincident LTB restraints (i.e. top & bottom flange) are the equivalent of a
support and will define one end of a 'check length' for both flanges regardless of
whether a particular flange is in compression or tension at the coincident restraint
position. However, note also that in a cantilever all intermediate restraints are ignored.
Tekla Structural Designer allows you to 'switch off' LTB checks for either or both flanges
by specifying that the entire length between start and end of the beam span is
continuously restrained against lateral torsional buckling. If you use this option you
must be able to provide justification that the beam is adequately restrained against
lateral torsional buckling.
All intermediate LTB restraints in a cantilever span are ignored.
When the checks are required you can set the effective LTB length of each 'check length'
by giving factors to apply to the physical length of the beam. Any individual 'check
length' less than the full span length can be continuously restrained in which case no
LTB check will be carried out for that 'check length' provided all segments of the 'check
length' have been marked as Continuous. Each 'check length' which is not defined as
being continuously restrained for its whole length is checked in accordance with clause
6.3.2.3.
The formula for elastic critical buckling moment, Mcr is taken from standard texts. The
moment factor C1 that is part of the standard formula has been derived analytically.
LTB does not need to be checked for the following sections,

• circular and square hollow sections,
• equal and unequal flanged I/H sections loaded in the minor axis only.
102
Glossary
Effective lengths
The value of effective length factor is entirely the choice of the engineer. The default
value is 1.0. There is no specific factor for destabilizing loads - so you will have to adjust
the 'normal' effective length factor to allow for such effects.
Combined buckling
Combined buckling in Tekla Structural Designer is limited to doubly symmetric sections (I,
H, CHS, SHS, RHS). In the context of Combined Buckling beams are assumed to be
dominated by moment with axial force.
Restraints are treated as described previously and summarized as follows:

• Each span is assumed to be fully supported at its ends (i.e LTB, y-y and z-z restraint) -
this cannot be changed.
• Tension flange LTB restraints are ignored unless they are coincident (see next point).
• Coincident top and bottom flange restraints are considered as 'torsional' restraints
i.e. as good as the supports.
• All intermediate LTB and strut restraints in a cantilever span are ignored.
For each span of the beam, the design process is driven from the standpoint of the
individual LTB lengths i.e. the LTB lengths and the y-y lengths that are associated with
each LTB length and the z-z lengths associated with the y-y length. Thus a 'hierarchy' is
formed - see the “Design Control” section below for details. Both Equ. 6.61 and Equ.
6.62 are evaluated recognizing that the Combined Buckling check is carried out for both
the top flange and the bottom flange.
Effective lengths
attempt to adjust the effective length in any way. Different values can apply in the major
and minor axis. It is your responsibility to adjust the value from 1.0 where you believe it
to be justified.
It is assumed that you will make a rational and ‘correct’ choice for the
effective lengths between restraints. The default value for the effective length
factor of 1.0L may be neither correct nor safe.
Combined buckling resistance
Equations 6.61 and 6.62 are used to determine the combined buckling resistance.
With regard to these equations the following should be noted:

• The ‘k’ factors used in these equations are determined from Annex B only, and
reported as follows:
• kyy is reported as components k’yy and Cmy where k’yy is simply the Annex B term for kyy
with Cmy excluded
103
• kyz is reported as k’yz, a multiple of k’zz (see below)

• kzy is reported as k’zy, a multiple of k’yy (see above), but only for members not
susceptible to torsional deformations (i.e. SHS and CHS sections at all times, and I or H
sections which have both flanges continuously restrained for LTB). For members
which are susceptible to torsional deformations kzy is reported per Table B.2 (i.e. with
CmLT included)
• kzy,LT1 is a factor reported for columns only and is the Table B.2 term for kzy with CmLT
set to 1.0
• kzz is reported as components k’zz and Cmz where k’zz is simply the Annex B term for kzz
with Cmz excluded.
• The note to Table B.3 that Cm should be limited to 0.9 is not applied.
Equations 6.61 and 6.62 are limited to doubly symmetric sections and do not
consider torsional or torsional flexural buckling. Should either of these
buckling modes govern the compression buckling check, you should
consider very carefully whether the calculations provided by Tekla
Structural Designer for combined buckling can be considered valid.
Design Control
Principles
There are multiple check lengths to deal with (LTB, y-y buckling and z-z buckling) all of
which can be contained within or overlapped by their associated lengths. Consequently,
a 'hierarchy' of checks is defined. In the approach taken the LTB segment length is taken
as the driver and the other lengths whether overlapping or contained by this segment
are mapped to it.
Design Example
The following example illustrates how the checks are applied to I- and H-sections with
equal flanges..
104
Glossary
The beam (span) is 10.2 m long and has torsional restraints at each end. The top flange
is restrained out-of-plane at 0.7m, 4.2m and 6.6 m – these provide restraint to the top
flange for LTB and to the beam as a whole for out-of-plane strut buckling. The bottom
flange has one restraint at mid-span and this restrains the bottom flange for LTB and
the beam as a whole for in-plane strut buckling. (This is probably difficult to achieve in
practice but is useful for illustration purposes.)
Note that the top flange LTB restraints and z-z restraints are coincident in this example
but will not always be coincident.
Tekla Structural Designer identifies the following lengths and checks. (in this example all
the effective length factors are assumed to be 1.0 for simplicity.)
LTB Segment Equation In-plane Out-of-
strut plane strut
segment segment
length (m) length (m) length (m)
Top Flange 6.61 0 – 5.1 0 – 0.7

0 – 4.2
(first restraint 6.62 0 – 5.1 0 – 0.7
ignored since
top flange is in 6.61 0 – 5.1 0.7- 4.2
tension at this
point) 6.62 0 – 5.1 0.7- 4.2
Top Flange 6.61 0 – 5.1 4.2 – 6.6
105
4.2 – 6.6 6.62 0 – 5.1 4.2 - 6.6
6.61 5.1 - 10.2 4.2 - 6.6
6.62 5.1 - 10.2 4.2 - 6.6
Top Flange 6.61 5.1 - 10.2 6.6 - 10.2

6.6 - 10.2
6.62 5.1 -10.2 6.6 - 10.2
Bottom Flange 6.61 0 – 5.1 0 – 0.7

0 – 10.2
6.62 0 – 5.1 0 – 0.7
6.61 0 – 5.1 0.7- 4.2
6.62 0 – 5.1 0.7- 4.2
6.61 0 – 5.1 4.2 - 6.6
6.62 0 – 5.1 4.2 - 6.6
6.61 5.1 - 10.2 4.2 - 6.6
6.62 5.1 - 10.2 4.2 - 6.6
6.61 5.1 - 10.2 6.6 - 10.2
6.62 5.1 - 10.2 6.6 - 10.2
Web Openings
Circular Openings as an Equivalent Rectangle

Each circular opening is replaced by equivalent rectangular opening, the dimensions of
this equivalent rectangle for use in all subsequent calculations are:
do'= 0.9*opening diameter
lo = 0.45*opening diameter
Properties of Tee Sections
106
Glossary
When web openings have been added, the properties of the tee sections above and
below each opening are calculated in accordance with Section 3.3.1 of SCI P355(Ref.
8) and Appendix B of the joint CIRIA/SCI Publication P068(Ref. 9). The bending moment
resistance is calculated separately for each of the four corners of each opening.
Design
The following calculations are performed where required for web openings:
• Axial resistance of tee sections
• Classification of section at opening
• Vertical shear resistance
• Vierendeel bending resistance
• Web post horizontal shear resistance
• Web post bending resistance
• Web post buckling resistance
• Lateral torsional buckling
• Deflections
Deflections
The deflection of a beam with web openings will be greater than that of the same beam
without openings. This is due to two effects,
• the reduction in the beam inertia at the positions of openings due to primary
bending of the beam,
• the local deformations at the openings due to Vierendeel effects. This has two
components - that due to shear deformation and that due to local bending of the
upper and lower tee sections at the opening.
The primary bending deflection is established by 'discretising' the member and using a
numerical integration technique based on 'Engineer's Bending Theory' - M/I = E/R = σ/y.
In this way the discrete elements that incorporate all or part of an opening will
contribute more to the total deflection.
The component of deflection due to the local deformations around the opening is
established using a similar process to that used for cellular beams which is in turn
based on the method for castellated beams given in the SCI publication, “Design of
castellated beams. For use with BS 5950 and BS 449".
The method works by applying a 'unit point load' at the position where the deflection is
required and using a 'virtual work technique to estimate the deflection at that position.
For each opening, the deflection due to shear deformation, δs, and that due to local
bending, δbt, is calculated for the upper and lower tee sections at the opening. These are
summed for all openings and added to the result at the desired position from the
numerical integration of primary bending deflection.
107
Note that in the original source document on castellated sections, there are two
additional components to the deflection. These are due to bending and shear
deformation of the web post. For castellated beams and cellular beams where the
openings are very close together these effects are important and can be significant. For
normal beams the openings are likely to be placed a reasonable distance apart. Thus in
many cases these two effects will not be significant. They are not calculated for such
beams but in the event that the openings are placed close together a warning is given.
Composite Beam Design to EC4
Design method
The construction stage calculations are performed in accordance with the relevant
sections of EC3 (Ref. 1) and the associated UK (Ref. 2) or Irish (Ref. 3) National Annex.
The composite stage design adopts a limit state approach consistent with the design
parameters for simple and continuous composite beams as specified in EC4 (Ref. 4) and
the associated UK (Ref. 5) or Irish National Annex.
EC4.
A basic knowledge of EC3 and the design methods for composite beams in EC4 is
assumed.
Overview
Construction stage design checks
When you design or check a beam for the construction stage (the beam is acting alone
before composite action is achieved) the following conditions are examined in
accordance with EC3:
• section classification (EC3 Table 5.2),
• major axis shear capacity (EC3 Clause 6.2.6 (1)),
• web shear buckling (EC3 Clause 6.2.6 (6)),
• moment capacity:
• EC3 Equation 6.13 for the low shear condition,
• EC3 Equation 6.29 for the high shear condition,

• lateral torsional buckling resistance (EC3 Clause 6.3.2.3),
This condition is only checked in those cases where the profile decking does
not provide adequate restraint to the beam.
• construction stage total load deflection check.
108
Glossary
Composite stage design checks
When you design or check a beam for the composite stage (the beam and concrete act
together, with shear interaction being achieved by appropriate shear connectors) the
following Ultimate Limit State and Serviceability Limit State conditions are examined in
accordance with EC4, unless specifically noted otherwise.
Ultimate Limit State Checks

• section classification - the classification system defined in EC3 Clause 5.5.2 applies to
cross-sections of composite beams,
• vertical shear capacity in accordance with EC3 Clause 6.2.6,
• longitudinal shear capacity allowing for the profiled metal decking, transverse
reinforcement and other reinforcement which has been defined,
• number of shear connectors required (EC4 Clause 6.6.1.3 (5)) between the point of
maximum moment and the end of the beam, or from and between the positions of
significant point loads,
• moment capacity,
• web openings.
Serviceability Limit State Checks

• service stresses - although there is no requirement to check these in EC4 for
buildings (EC4 Clause 7.2.2), concrete and steel top/bottom flange stresses are
calculated but only reported if the stress limit is exceeded.
• deflections,
• self-weight,
• SLAB loadcase,
• dead load,
• imposed load,
• total deflections,
• natural frequency check.
Profiled metal decking

You may define the profiled metal decking to span at any angle between 0° (parallel)
and 90° (perpendicular) to the direction of span of the steel beam. You can also specify
the attachment of the decking for parallel, perpendicular and angled conditions.
Where you specify that the direction of span of the profiled metal decking to that of the
steel beam is >=45°, then Tekla Structural Designer assumes it is not necessary to check
the beam for lateral torsional buckling during construction stage.
109
Where you specify that the direction of span of the profiled metal decking to that of the
steel beam is < 45°, then you are given the opportunity to check the steel beam for
lateral torsional buckling at the construction stage.
This check is not mandatory in all instances. For a particular profile, gauge
and fixing condition etc. you might be able to prove that the profiled metal
decking is able to provide a sufficient restraining action to the steel beam
until the concrete hardens. If this is so, then you can specify that the whole
beam (or a part of it) is continuously restrained. Where you request to check
the beam for lateral torsional buckling during construction then this is
carried out in accordance with the requirements of EC3.
Where you specify that the direction of span of the profiled metal decking and that of
the steel beam are parallel, you again have the same opportunity to either check the
steel beam for lateral torsional buckling at the construction stage, or to set it as
continuously restrained.
Longitudinal shear and decking

The factors that influence the longitudinal shear capacity of your composite beam are:
• concrete strength, slab depth and slab width – you can not change these
independently for the longitudinal shear check, since they apply equally to the entire
composite beam design,
• the attachment (or lack of attachment) of the decking - not applicable for parallel
decks,
• the areas of Transverse and Other reinforcement which you provide in your beam.
Attachment of decking
There are six separate cases which are detailed in the following table:
Beam Decking Default setting
Type angle
Internal Perpendicular • Discontinuous but effectively attached

“Discontinuous and not effectively
attached” would be a more onerous
condition than the default.
Parallel • not applicable.
110
Glossary
Angled • Discontinuous but effectively attached

The comments for perpendicular and
parallel decking angles above apply to
the angled condition.
Edge Perpendicular • Discontinuous not effectively attached.

In this case you are expected to
manually detail the provision of U-bars
in accordance with SCI P333.
Parallel • Not effectively attached.
Angled • Not effectively attached.
Beam Decking Default setting

Type angle
Internal Perpendicular • Discontinuous but effectively attached

“Discontinuous and not effectively
attached” would be a more onerous
condition than the default.
Parallel • not applicable.
Angled • Discontinuous but effectively attached

The comments for perpendicular and
parallel decking angles above apply to
the angled condition.
Edge Perpendicular • Discontinuous not effectively attached.

In this case you are expected to
manually detail the provision of U-bars
in accordance with SCI P333.
Parallel • Not effectively attached.
Angled • Not effectively attached.
Construction stage design

Construction stage design
111
All checks are performed for this condition in accordance with EC3.
Section classification
Cross-section classification is determined using EC3 Table 5.2.
At construction stage the classification of the section must be Class 1, Class 2 or Class 3.
Sections which are classified as Class 4 are beyond scope.
Clause 5.5.2 (6) is implemented, not the alternative 5.5.2 (7).

Clause 5.5.2 (11) is not implemented
Clause 5.5.2 (12) is not implemented.
Member strength checks
Member strength checks are performed at the point of maximum moment, the point of
maximum shear, the position of application of each point load, and at all other ‘points
of interest’ along the beam.
Shear capacity
Shear capacity is determined in accordance with EC3 Clause 6.2.6 (1). Where the applied
shear force exceeds 50% of the capacity of the section, the high shear condition applies
to the bending moment capacity checks (see below).

• No account is taken of fastener holes in the flange or web - see EC3 6.2.6 (7)
EC3 6.2.6(8)
Web Shear buckling
the EC3 Clause 6.2.6 (6) limit is checked and if exceeded a warning is given. The warning
indicates that additional calculations to EN 1993-1-5 are not carried out.
Bending moment capacity
For low shear this is calculated to EC3 Equation 6.13. In the high shear case Equation
6.29 is used. Where the high shear condition applies, the moment capacity calculation is
made less complicated by conservatively adopting a simplified shear area.
Lateral torsional buckling checks
You can switch off lateral torsional buckling checks by specifying that the entire length
between the supports is continuously restrained.
If you use this option you must be able to provide justification that the beam
is adequately restrained against lateral torsional buckling during construction.
112
Glossary
When the checks are required you can position restraints at any point within the length
of the main beam and can set the effective length of each sub-beam (the portion of the
beam between one restraint and the next) either by giving factors to apply to the
physical length of the beam, or by entering the effective length that you want to use.
Each sub-beam which is not defined as being continuously restrained is checked in
accordance with EC3 Clause 6.3.2.3.
Deflection checks
Tekla Structural Designer calculates relative deflections. (see: )
The following deflections are calculated for the loads specified in the construction stage
load combination:
• the dead load deflections i.e. those due to the beam self weight, the Slab Wet loads
and any other included dead loads,
• the imposed load deflections i.e. those due to construction live loads,
• the total load deflection i.e. the sum of the previous items.
The loads are taken as acting on the steel beam alone.
The ‘Service Factor’ (default 1.0), specified against each load case in the construction
combination is applied when calculating the above deflections.
If requested by the user, the total load deflection is compared with either a span-over
limit or an absolute value The initial default limit is span/200.
Adjustment to deflections. If web openings have been defined, the calculated

deflections are adjusted accordingly. See:
Composite stage design

Composite stage design
Tekla Structural Designer performs all checks for the composite stage condition in
accordance with EC4 unless specifically noted otherwise.
Equivalent steel section - Ultimate limit state (ULS)
An equivalent steel section is determined for use in the composite stage calculations by
removing the root radii whilst maintaining the full area of the section. This approach
reduces the number of change points in the calculations while maintaining optimum
section properties.
Section classification (ULS)
Tekla Structural Designer classifies the section in accordance with the requirements of
EC3, 5.5.2 except where specifically modified by those of EC4.
113
A composite section is classified according to the highest (least favourable) class of its
steel elements in compression. The compression flange and the web are therefore both
classified and the least favourable is taken as that for the whole section.
Flanges of any class that are fully attached to a concrete flange are assumed to be Class
1. The requirements for maximum stud spacing according to Clause 6.6.5.5 (2) are
checked and you are warned if these are not satisfied.
There are a small number of sections which fail to meet Class 2 at the composite stage.
Although EC4 covers the design of such members they are not allowed in this release of
Tekla Structural Designer.
Member strength checks (ULS)
It is assumed that there are no loads or support conditions that require the web to be
checked for transverse force. (Clause 6.5)
Member strength checks are performed at the point of maximum moment, the point of
maximum shear, the position of application of each point load, and at all other points of
interest along the beam.
Shear Capacity (Vertical)
The resistance to vertical shear, VRd, is taken as the resistance of the structural steel
section, Vpl,a,Rd. The contribution of the concrete slab is neglected in this calculation.
The shear check is performed in accordance with EC3, 6.2.6.
Moment Capacity
For full shear connection the plastic resistance moment is determined in accordance
with Clause 6.2.1.2. For the partial shear connection Clause 6.2.1.3 is adopted.
In these calculations the steel section is idealised to one without a root radius so that
the position of the plastic neutral axis of the composite section can be determined
correctly as it moves from the flange into the web.
Where the vertical shear force, VEd, exceeds half the shear resistance, VRd, a (1- ρ) factor
is applied to reduce the design strength of the web - as per Clause 6.2.2.4.
Shear Capacity (Longitudinal)
The design condition to be checked is: vEd ≤ vRd

where
vEd = design longitudinal shear stress
vRd = design longitudinal shear strength (resistance)
vEd is evaluated at all relevant locations along the beam and the maximum value
adopted.
vRd is evaluated taking account of the deck continuity, it’s orientation and the provided
reinforcement.
114
Glossary
This approach uses the ‘truss analogy’ from EC2. (See Figure 6.7 of EC2).
In these calculations, two planes are assumed for an internal beam, and one for an
edge beam. Only the concrete above the deck is used in the calculations.
The values of vRd based on the concrete ‘strut’ and the reinforcement ‘tie’ are calculated.
The final value of vRd adopted is then taken as the minimum of these two values.
The angle of the strut is minimised to minimise the required amount of reinforcement -
this angle must lie between 26.5 and 45 degrees.
In the calculations of vRd the areas used for the reinforcement are as shown in the
following table.
Decking Reinforcement Area used
angle type
perpendicular transverse that of the single

bars defined or for
mesh the area of the
main wiresA
other that of the single

bars defined or for
main wires(a)
parallel transverse that of the single

bars defined or for
main wires(a)
other single bars have no

contribution, for
minor wiresB
A
These are the bars that are referred to as longitudinal
wires in BS 4483: 1998 Table 1.
B
These are the bars that are referred to as transverse
wires in BS 4483: 1998 Table 1.
If the decking spans at some intermediate angle (θr) between these two extremes then
the program calculates:
• the longitudinal shear resistance as if the sheeting were perpendicular, vRd,perp,
• the longitudinal shear resistance as if the sheeting were parallel, vRd,par,
115
• then the modified longitudinal shear resistance is calculated from these using the
relationship, vRd,perpsin2(θr) + vRd,parcos2(θr).
Minimum area of transverse reinforcement
The minimum area of transverse reinforcement is checked in accordance with Clause

6.6.6.3.
Shear connectors (ULS)
Dimensional Requirements
Various limitations on the use of studs are given in the code.
The following conditions in particular are drawn to your attention:

Parameter Rule Clause/Comment
Spacing Ductile connectors may be spaced 6.6.1.3(3) - not

uniformly over length between critical checked
cross-sections if:
- All critical cross-sections are Class 1
or 2
- The degree of shear connection, η is
within the range given by 6.6.1.2
and
- the plastic resistance moment of the
composite section does not exceed
2.5 times the plastic resistance
moment of the steel member alone.
Edge eD >= 20 mm 6.6.5.6(2) - not

Distance checked
eD ≤ 9*tf*sqrt(235/fy) 6.6.5.5(2) - applies if

bare steel beam
flange is Class 3 or 4 -
not checked
Location If can't be located in centre of trough, 6.6.5.8(3) - not

place alternately either side of the checked
trough throughout span
Cover The value from EC2 Table 4.4 less 6.6.5.2(2) - not
5mm, or 20mm whichever is the checked
greater.
116
Glossary
The program does not check that the calculated stud layout can be fitted in the rib of
the deck.
Design resistance of the shear connectors
For ribs parallel to the beam the design resistance is determined in accordance with
Clause 6.6.4.1. The reduction factor, kl is obtained from Equation 6.22.
For ribs perpendicular to the beam, Clause 6.6.4.2 is adopted. The reduction factor, kt is
obtained from Equation 6.23.
The factor kt should not be taken greater than the appropriate value of kt,max from the
following table;
No of Stud Thickness Studs with d ≤ 20 mm Profiled sheeting
Connectors of sheet, and welded through with holes and
per rib t mm profiled steel sheeting, studs with d=19 or
kt,max 22 mm, kt,max
nr = 1 ≤ 1.0 0.85 0.75
> 1.0 1.00 0.75
nr = 2 ≤ 1.0 0.70 0.60
> 1.0 0.80 0.60
Only the first column of values of kt.max is used from the above table since the
technique of leaving holes in the deck so that studs can be welded directly to
the beam is not used.
For cases where the ribs run at an angle, θr the reduction factor is calculated as:
kt*sin2θr + kl*cos2θr
Stud optimization is a useful facility since there is often some over conservatism in a
design due to the discrete changes in the size of the section.
If you choose the option to optimise the shear studs, then Tekla Structural Designer will
progressively reduce the number of studs either until the minimum number of studs to
resist the applied moment is found, until the minimum allowable interaction ratio is
reached or until the minimum spacing requirements are reached. This results in partial
shear connection.
The program can also automatically layout groups of 1 or 2 studs with constraints that
you specify.
The degree of shear connection is checked at the point of maximum bending moment
or the position of a point load if at that position the maximum utilisation ratio occurs.
117
During the selection process, in auto design mode point load positions are
taken to be ‘significant’ (i.e. considered as positions at which the maximum
utilisation could occur) if they provide more than 10% of the total shear on
the beam. For the final configuration and for check mode all point load
positions are checked.
To determine if the degree of shear connection is acceptable Tekla Structural Designer

applies the following rules:
• If the degree of shear connection at the point of maximum moment is less than the
minimum permissible shear connection, then this generates a FAIL status,
• If the point of maximum utilisation ratio occurs at a point that is not the maximum
moment position and the degree of shear connection is less than the minimum
permissible shear connection, then this generates a WARNING status,
• If the degree of shear connection at any other point load is less than the minimum
permissible shear connection, then this does not affect the status in any way.
Lateral torsional buckling checks (ULS)
The concrete slab is assumed to be laterally stable and hence there is no requirement
to check lateral torsional buckling at the composite stage. (Clause 6.4.1).
Section properties - serviceability limit state (SLS)
A value of the short term elastic (secant) modulus, Ecm is defaulted in Tekla Structural
Designer for the selected grade of concrete. The long term elastic modulus is
determined by dividing the short term value by a user defined factor - default 3.0. The
elastic section properties of the composite section are then calculated using these
values as appropriate (see the table below).
This approach is used as a substitute for the approach given in EC4 Equation 5.6 in
which a knowledge of the creep coefficient, φt, and the creep multiplier, ψL is required. It
is envisaged that you will make use of EN 1992-1-1(Ref. 6) when establishing the
appropriate value for the factor.
EN 1994-1-1, Clause 7.3.1.(8) states that the effect on deflection due to curvature
imposed by restrained drying shrinkage may be neglected when the ratio of the span to
the overall beam depth is not greater than 20. This relates to normal weight concrete.
Tekla Structural Designer makes no specific allowance for shrinkage curvature but does
provide you with a Warning when the span to overall depth exceeds 20 irrespective of
whether the concrete is normal weight or lightweight. Where you consider allowance
should be made, it is suggested that you include this as part of the 'factor' described
above.
Tekla Structural Designer calculates the deflection for the beam based on the following
properties:
118
Glossary
Loadcase Properties used

Type
self-weight bare beam
Slab Dry bare beam
Dead composite properties calculated using the

long term elastic modulus
Live composite properties calculated using the

effective elastic modulus appropriate to
the long term load percentage for each
load. The deflections for all loads in the
loadcase are calculated using the principle
of superposition.
Wind composite properties calculated using the

short term elastic modulus
Total loads these are calculated from the individual

loadcase loads as detailed above again
using the principle of superposition
Deflection checks (SLS)
Tekla Structural Designer calculates relative deflections. (see: )
The composite stage deflections are calculated in one of two ways depending upon the
previous and expected future load history:
• the deflections due to all loads in the Slab Dry loadcase and the self-weight of the
beam are calculated based on the inertia of the steel beam alone (these deflections
are not modified for the effects of partial interaction).
It is the Slab Dry deflection alone which is compared with the limit, if any,
specified for the Slab loadcase deflection.
• the deflections for all loads in the other loadcases of the Design Combination will be
based on the inertia of the composite section allowing for the proportions of the
particular load that are long or short term (see above). When necessary these will be
modified to include the effects of partial interaction.
Tekla Structural Designer reports the deflection due to imposed loads alone
(allowing for long and short term effects). It also reports the deflection for the
SLAB loadcase, as this is useful for pre-cambering the beam. The beam Self-
weight, Dead and Total deflections are also given to allow you to be sure that
119
no component of the deflection is excessive.
Adjustment to deflections. If web openings have been defined, the calculated

deflections are adjusted accordingly. See:
Stress checks (SLS)
There is no requirement to check service stresses in EC4 for buildings (Clause 7.2.2).
However, since the deflection calculations are based on elastic analysis then at service
loads it is logical to ensure that there is no plasticity at this load level.
Tekla Structural Designer calculates the worst stresses in the extreme fibres of the steel
and the concrete at serviceability limit state for each load taking into account the
proportion which is long term and that which is short term. These stresses are then
summed algebraically. Factors of 1.00 are used on each loadcase in the design
combination (you cannot amend these). The stress checks assume that full interaction
exists between the steel and the concrete at serviceability state. The stresses are not
reported unless the stress limit is exceeded, in which case a warning message is
displayed.
Natural frequency checks (SLS)
Tekla Structural Designer calculates the approximate natural frequency of the beam
based on the simplified formula published in the Design Guide on the vibration of floors
(Ref. 7) which states that:
Natural frequency = 18 / √ δ
where δ is the maximum static instantaneous deflection that would occur under a load
equivalent to the effects of self-weight, dead loading and 10% of the characteristic
imposed loading, based upon the composite inertia (using the short term elastic
modulus) but not modified for the effects of partial interaction.
Cracking of concrete (SLS)
In Clause 7.4.1(4) simply supported beams in unpropped construction require a

minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement over an internal support. This is not
checked by Tekla Structural Designer as it is considered a detailing requirement.
Web Openings
Circular Openings as an Equivalent Rectangle
120
Glossary
Each circular opening is replaced by equivalent rectangular opening, the dimensions of

this equivalent rectangle for use in all subsequent calculations are:
do'= 0.9*opening diameter
lo = 0.45*opening diameter
Properties of Tee Sections

When web openings have been added, the properties of the tee sections above and
below each opening are calculated in accordance with Section 3.3.1 of SCI P355(Ref.
8) and Appendix B of the joint CIRIA/SCI Publication P068(Ref. 9). The bending moment
resistance is calculated separately for each of the four corners of each opening.
Design at Construction stage

• Axial resistance of tee sections
• Lateral torsional buckling
• Deflections
Design at Composite stage

• Axial resistance of concrete flange
• Vertical shear resistance of the concrete flange
• Global bending action - axial load resistance
• Moment transferred by local composite action
• Deflections
121
Deflections
The deflection of a beam with web openings will be greater than that of the same beam
without openings. This is due to two effects,
• the reduction in the beam inertia at the positions of openings due to primary
bending of the beam,
• the local deformations at the openings due to Vierendeel effects. This has two
components - that due to shear deformation and that due to local bending of the
upper and lower tee sections at the opening.
The primary bending deflection is established by 'discretising' the member and using a
numerical integration technique based on 'Engineer's Bending Theory' - M/I = E/R = σ/y.
In this way the discrete elements that incorporate all or part of an opening will
contribute more to the total deflection.
The component of deflection due to the local deformations around the opening is
established using a similar process to that used for cellular beams which is in turn
based on the method for castellated beams given in the SCI publication, “Design of
castellated beams. For use with BS 5950 and BS 449".
The method works by applying a 'unit point load' at the position where the deflection is
required and using a 'virtual work technique to estimate the deflection at that position.
For each opening, the deflection due to shear deformation, δs, and that due to local
bending, δbt, is calculated for the upper and lower tee sections at the opening. These are
summed for all openings and added to the result at the desired position from the
numerical integration of primary bending deflection.
Note that in the original source document on castellated sections, there are two
additional components to the deflection. These are due to bending and shear
deformation of the web post. For castellated beams and cellular beams where the
openings are very close together these effects are important and can be significant. For
normal beams the openings are likely to be placed a reasonable distance apart. Thus in
many cases these two effects will not be significant. They are not calculated for such
beams but in the event that the openings are placed close together a warning is given.
Application of NCCI PN002 to Partial Shear Connection

An Apply NCCI PN002 check box is available on the Stud strength page of the Beam
Properties. When this option is selected Tekla Structural Designer calculates partial shear
limits described in PN002 for edge beams and SCI P405 for internal beams.
It should be noted that to obtain the benefits of this NCCI,

• for all deck types and orientation the design live load (γq qk) is limited to 9 kN/m2
• for all deck types and orientation the beam should be ‘unpropped’ at the
construction stage (this is a general assumption in Tekla Structural Designer for all
composite beams).
122
Glossary
• for perpendicular trapezoidal decks the studs should be placed on the ‘favourable’
side or in the central position.
• for perpendicular trapezoidal decks the reinforcement is assumed to be above the
head of the stud. Consequently, a reduction is made to the stud resistance in
accordance with NCCI PN001.
• for limits of maximum longitudinal stud spacing the relevant NCCI must be satisfied.
• for slab the nominal total depth must not exceed 180mm (depth of concrete over
the decking must not exceed 100mm)
• for all deck profiles the nominal height (to shoulder) must not exceed 80mm (applies
to SCI P405 only)
It is the user's responsibility to ensure compliance with the above since the program
makes no check on these items.
For perpendicular trapezoidal decks the reduction in stud resistance to which point 4
above refers, will be conservative if the reinforcement is placed in a more favourable
(lower) position. Even though the NCCI is relevant to the UK this option is also available
for all EC head-codes in Tekla Structural Designer.
More information is given in the PN001, PN002 and SCI P405 on www.steel-
ncci.co.uk and on http://www.steelbiz.org/
Steel Column Design to EC3
Design method
Unless explicitly stated all steel column calculations in Tekla Structural Designer are in
accordance with the relevant sections of EC3 (Ref. 1) and the associated National Annex.
A full range of strength, buckling and serviceability checks are carried out.
A sway assessment is also performed. This can optionally be de-activated for

those columns for which it would be inappropriate, by unchecking the Alpha
Crit Check box on the Column Properties dialog.
Simple Columns
A general column could be designated as a ‘simple column’ to indicate that it does not
have any applied loading in its length. Simplified design rules exist for such columns as
they are only subject to axial forces and moments due to eccentricity of beam reactions,
(moments due to frame action or due to member loading are assumed not to occur).
The simple column design rules have not yet been implemented in Tekla
Structural Designer: such columns are thus classed as ‘beyond scope’ when
they are designed.
123
Ultimate Limit State Strength

Ultimate Limit State Strength
Strength checks relate to a particular point on the member and are carried out at
5th points and ‘points of interest’, (i.e. positions such as maximum moment, maximum
axial etc.)
Classification
The classification of the cross section is in accordance with Table 5.2. General columns
can be classified as:
• Plastic Class = 1
• Compact Class = 2
• Semi-compact Class = 3
• Slender Class = 4
Class 4 sections are not allowed.

• Classification is determined using 5.5.2 (6) and not 5.5.2 (7).
• 5.5.2 (9) is not implemented as clause (10) asks for the full classification to be used
for buckling resistance.
• 5.5.2 (12) is not implemented. A brief study of UK rolled UBs and UCs showed that
flange induced buckling in normal rolled sections is not a concern.
Axial Capacity
The axial tension and compression capacity checks are performed according to Clause
6.2.3 and Clause 6.2.4 respectively.

Shear Capacity
The shear check is performed at the point under consideration according to Clause
6.2.6(1):
• for the absolute value of shear force normal to the y-y axis, Vy,Ed, and
• for the absolute value of shear force normal to the z-z axis, Vz,Ed

• No account is taken of fastener holes in the flange or web - see 6.2.6 (7)
124
Glossary
6.2.6 (8)
Shear buckling
When the web slenderness exceeds 72ε shear buckling can occur in rolled sections.
There are very few standard rolled sections that breach this limit. Tekla Structural
Designer will warn you if this limit is exceeded, but will not carry out any shear buckling
checks.
Moment Capacity
The moment capacity check is performed at the point under consideration according to
Clause 6.2.5(1):
• for the moment about the y-y axis, My,Ed, and
• for the moment about the z-z axis, Mz,Ed
The moment capacity can be influenced by the magnitude of the shear force (‘low shear’
and ‘high shear’ conditions). Where the high shear condition applies, the moment
capacity calculation is made less complicated by conservatively adopting a simplified
shear area.
The maximum absolute shear to either side of a point of interest is used to determine
the moment capacity for that direction.
High shear condition about y-y axis
The treatment of high shear is axis dependent. In this release for CHS, if high shear is
present, the moment capacity check about the y-y axis is Beyond Scope.
High shear condition about z-z axis
For rolled sections in this release, if high shear is present normal to the z-z axis then the
moment capacity check about the z-z axis is Beyond Scope.
For hollow sections, there is greater potential for the section to be used to resist the
principal moments in its minor axis. Of course for CHS and SHS there is no major or
minor axis and so preventing high shear arbitrarily on one of the two principal axes
does not make sense. Nevertheless, if high shear is present normal to the z-z axis then
in this release the moment capacity about the z-z axis is not calculated, the check is
Beyond Scope.
If high shear is present in one axis or both axes and axial load is also present, the
moment capacity check is given a Beyond Scope status.
If high shear and moment is present in both axes and there is no axial load (“biaxial
bending”) the moment capacity check is given a Beyond Scope status.
Combined Bending and Axial Capacity
125
The cross-section capacity check covers the interaction of axial load and bending to
Clause 6.2.9 appropriate to the type (for example – doubly symmetric) and classification
of the section.
If high shear is present in one axis or both axes and axial load is also present, the cross-
section capacity check is given a Beyond Scope status.
If high shear and moment is present in both axes and there is no axial load (“biaxial
bending”) the cross-section capacity check is given a Beyond Scope status.
The following additional points should be noted:

• the combined effects of axial load and bending are assessed and clause 6.2.9 (4) is
not considered.
• the current ‘reduced plastic moduli’ approach in the published tables is used and not
the approximate method given in 6.2.9.1(5). The latter is less conservative than the
current approach at low levels of 'n'.
Ultimate Limit State Buckling

Ultimate Limit State Buckling
Classification for buckling checks -

For rolled I sections, RHS and SHS classification varies along the member
length due to the section forces changing along the member length - for
combined buckling, the worst classification of the whole member (column
stack) should be used. In theory it should be the worst classification in the
segment length considered for buckling. However, the segment lengths for
lateral torsional buckling, minor axis strut buckling and major axis strut
buckling can all be different. It is simpler and conservative therefore to use the
worst classification in the entire member length (column stack).
Compression buckling
General columns must be checked to ensure adequate resistance to buckling about

both the major and minor axes and they must also be checked in the torsional mode
over an associated buckling length. Since the axial force can vary throughout the
column and the buckling lengths in the two planes do not necessarily coincide, all
buckling modes must be checked. There may be circumstances where it would not be
safe to assume that the Combined Buckling check will always govern (see below).
Restraints
Restraints to strut buckling are determined from the incoming members described
within Tekla Structural Designer. The buckling checks are based on these.
126
Glossary
Restraining members framing into either Face A or C will provide restraint to major axis
strut buckling. Members framing into either Face B or D will provide restraint to minor
axis strut buckling. Tekla Structural Designer determines the strut buckling restraints but
you can override these.
The program assumes that any member framing into the major or minor axis
of the column provides restraint against strut buckling in the appropriate
plane. If you believe that a certain restraint in a particular direction is not
effective then you can either override the restraint or adjust the effective
length to suit – to 2.0L for example.
Torsional and torsional flexural buckling restraint is only provided at points restrained
coincidentally against major and minor axis strut buckling.
Provided a level is restrained coincidentally against major and minor axis

strut buckling, the program assumes that any member framing into the
appropriate faces provides restraint against torsional and torsional flexural
buckling at that level. There are a number of practical conditions that could
result in torsional restraint not being provided at floor levels. At construction
levels this is even more possible given the likely type of incoming member and
its associated type of connection. You must consider the type of connection
between the incoming members and the column since these can have a
significant influence on the ability of the member to provide restraint to one,
none or both column flanges. For example, consider a long fin plate
connection for beams framing into the column web where the beam stops
outside the column flange tips to ease detailing. The fin plate is very slender
and the beam end is remote from the column flanges such that it may not be
able to provide any restraint to torsional or torsional flexural buckling. The
fact that a slab is usually present may mitigate this. You are expected to
override the ineffective restraint.
Tekla Structural Designer always assumes full restraint at the base and at the roof level
when carrying out buckling design checks – you are warned on validation if your
restraint settings do not reflect this. Restraints are considered effective on a particular
plane providing they are within ±45° to the local coordinate axis system.
127
Effective lengths
attempt to adjust the effective length in any way. You are expected to adjust the strut
buckling effective length factor (up or down) as necessary. Different values can apply in
the major and minor axis.
It is assumed that you will make a rational and ‘correct’ choice for the effective
lengths between restraints. The default value for the effective length factor of
1.0L may be neither correct nor safe.
As an alternative to providing the effective length factor you can enter a value (in m)
which is the actual effective length i.e. takes into account both the factor and the system
length.
The torsional and torsional flexural buckling effective length factor (1.0L) can not be
changed.
Any strut buckling effective length can take the type ‘Continuous’ to indicate that it is
continuously restrained over that length. There is no facility for specifying torsional, or
torsional flexural buckling effective lengths as ‘Continuous’.
beam-columns.
For general columns - The minimum theoretical value of effective length factor is
0.5 and the maximum is infinity for columns in rigid moment resisting (RMR) frames.
Practical values for simple columns are in the range 0.7 to 2.0 (see For simple
columns below). In theory, values less than 1.0 can be chosen for non-sway frames
or for sway frames in which the effects of sway are taken into account using either
the amplified forces method or P-Delta analysis. However, EC3 states that when
second-order effects are included in this way then the design “may be based on a
buckling length equal to the system length” i.e. an effective length factor of 1.0. The
program default of 1.0 matches this requirement but allows you flexibility for special
situations.
One such situation might be in RMR frames where the principal moments due to
frame action preventing sway are in one plane of the frame. There will often be little
or no moment out-of-plane and so, if using the amplified forces method, the
amplification of these moments has little effect on the overall design. Nevertheless
the stability out-of-plane can still be compromised by the lack of restraint due to
sway sensitivity in that direction. In such cases a value of greater then 1.0 (or
substantially greater) may be required. Similarly, in simple construction where only
eccentricity moments exist, it is only the brace forces that 'attract' any amplification.
Thus for the column themselves the reduced restraining effect of a sway sensitive
structure may require effective length factors greater than 1.0.
For Simple columns - There is no concept of simple columns in EC3 and hence no
information on effective lengths either. However, reference can be made to 'NCCI'
128
Glossary
on the subject of simple construction but none of this includes the clear guidance on
effective lengths of simple columns that was included as Table 22 in BS 5950-1:
2000. Again the program defaults the effective length factor to 1.0
Compression resistance
The relevant buckling resistances are all calculated from Equation 6.47.
These consist of the flexural buckling resistance about both the major and minor axis
i.e. Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd over the buckling lengths Lyy and Lzz and where required the buckling
resistance in the torsional or flexural-torsional modes, Nb,x,Rd.
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Effective lengths
The value of effective length factor is entirely your choice. The default value is 1.0 and is
editable for flanges A & C. Any individual segment (for either flange) can be
'continuously restrained' in which case no lateral torsional buckling (LTB) check is
carried out for that flange over that segment.
For a level to be treated as torsional restraint it must have both A and C restraint
and also be restrained for compression buckling in both the major and minor axis.
There is no specific factor for destabilizing loads - you can however adjust the 'normal'
effective length factor to allow for such effects.
Lateral torsional buckling resistance
The LTB resistance is calculated from Equation 6.55.
LTB does not need to be checked for the following sections,

• circular and square hollow sections,
• equal and unequal flanged I/H sections loaded in the minor axis only.
Combined Buckling
The column must be restrained laterally in two directions and torsionally, at the top and
bottom of the 'design length'. This equates to LTB restraint to faces A and C and
restraint to major and minor axis compression buckling all being coincident. A design
length is allowed to have intermediate restraint and if the restraint requirements are
not met at a particular floor then the design length does not have to be between
adjacent floors. Thus a stack can 'jump' floors or sheeting rails can be attached. It is
assumed that the restraints for compression buckling are fully capable of forcing the
buckled shape. Hence, the compression buckling resistance is based on the restrained
129
lengths whilst the LTB resistance ignores the intermediate restraint and hence is based
on the full design length.
It is conservative to ignore the intermediate restraints in this latter case.
Loading within the design length is allowed.
Effective lengths
Effective lengths for flexural (i.e. strut major and strut minor) and lateral torsional
buckling are as described in the appropriate section above.
Combined buckling resistance
The combined buckling resistance is checked in accordance with Equations 6.61 and
6.62. Both equations are evaluated at the ends of the design length and, except for
simple columns, at the position of maximum moment, if that lies elsewhere.
Eccentricity moments due to beam end reactions are added to the ‘real’ moments due
to frame action:
• in the first case the uniform moment factors are calculated from the real moments
and applied to the real moments. Eccentricity moments are only added if they are
more critical.
• in the second case all moments are ‘combined’ and all uniform moment factors are
based on the combined moments and applied to them.
Caution:
Equations 6.61 and 6.62 are limited to doubly symmetric sections and do not
consider torsional or torsional flexural buckling. Should either of these
buckling modes govern the compression buckling check, you should consider
very carefully whether the calculations provided by Tekla Structural Designer
for combined buckling can be considered valid.
Serviceability limit state

The column is assessed for sway and the following values are reported for each stack:
• Sway X (mm) and αcritx
• Sway Y (mm) and αcrity
• Sway X-Y (mm)
Depending on the reported αcrit the column is classified as Sway or Non sway
accordingly.
130
Glossary
A sway assessment is only performed for the column if the Alpha Crit
Check box is checked on the Column Properties dialog. If very short columns
exist in the building model these can distort the overall sway classification for
the building. For this reason you may apply engineering judgement to uncheck
the Alpha Crit Check box for those columns for which a sway assessment
would be inappropriate.
Steel Brace Design to EC3
Design method
Unless explicitly stated all brace calculations are performed in accordance with the
relevant sections of BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 (Ref. 1) (herein abbreviated to EC3) and the
associated National Annex.
A basic knowledge of the design methods for braces in accordance with the design code
is assumed.
Classification
No classification is required for braces in tension.
Braces in compression are classified according to Table 5.2 as either: Class 1, Class 2,
Class 3 or Class 4.
Class 4 sections are not allowed.
Axial Tension
An axial tension capacity check is performed according to Clause 6.2.3.(1)

Axial Compression
An axial compression capacity check is performed according Clause 6.2.4.(1)
Compression Buckling
If axial compression exists, the member is also assessed according to Clause 6.3.1.1(1)
for flexural buckling resistance about both the major and minor axis i.e. Nb,y,Rd and Nb,z,Rd
131
over the buckling lengths Lyy and Lzz and where required the torsional, or flexural-
torsional buckling resistance, Nb,x,Rd.
For single and double angles (both equal and unequal) there is also a compression
buckling check about the v-v axis, over the buckling length Lvv. For single angles, Lvv is the
system length L, while for double angles Lvv is L/3.
Different effective length factors can be applied for flexural buckling in the major and
minor axis. For single and double angles an effective length factor can also be applied in
the v-v axis. The default effective length is 1.0L in all 3 cases. You are expected to adjust
the effective length factor (up or down) as necessary.
The torsional and torsional flexural buckling effective length factor (1.0L) can not be
changed.
References
1. British Standards Institution. BS EN 1993-1-1:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. BSI 2005.
2. British Standards Institution. NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2005. UK National Annex to

Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings.
BSI 2005.
3. National Standards Authority of Ireland. I.S EN 1993-1-1 National Annex. Irish

National Annex (informative) to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings. NSAI 2007.

composite steel and concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings. BSI 2005.
5. British Standards Institution. NA to BS EN 1994-1-1:2004. UK National Annex to

Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures - Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings. BSI 2005.

7. The Steel Construction Institute. Publication 076. Design Guide on the Vibration of
Floors. SCI 1989.
8. The Steel Construction Institute. Publication P355. Design of Composite Beams

with Large Web Openings. SCI 2011.
132
Glossary
9. The Steel Construction Institute. Publication 068. Design for openings in the webs
of composite beams. SCI 1987.
133

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Tekla Structural Designer

© 2016 Trimble Solutions Corporation – part of Trimble Navigation Ltd.

Problem Definition ............................................................................................................ 8

Problem Definition ..........................................................................................................16

The EC1-4 Wind Wizard ...................................................................................................26

Limitations and Exclusions .................................................................................................37

Long Term Compressive Strength Factor4 .................................................................. 58

Maximum Horizontal Bar Spacing2 ..............................................................................74

Convention for member axes ............................................................................................97

Shear connectors (ULS) .................................................................................................116

Analysis Limitations and Assumptions

Linear analysis of structures containing material nonlinearity

Nonlinear spring supports

Any specified maximum capacities of the spring are ignored.

Tension only, or compression only elements

Nonlinear axial spring, or nonlinear torsional spring elements

Any specified maximum capacities of these spring elements are ignored.

Tension only cross braces

Analysis of structures containing geometric nonlinearity

Analysis of structures containing curved beams

Analysis Verification Examples

These verification examples use SI units unless otherwise stated.

1st Order Linear - Simple Cantilever

A 4 long cantilever is subjected to a tip load of 20,000.

Flexural and shear deformations are included.

Result Theoretical Theoretical Solver %

Support -P 20,000 20,000 0%

Support PL -80,000 -80,000 0%

Tip Deflection -0.0519 -0.0519 0%

1st Order Linear - Simply Supported Square Slab

The mid-span deformation is calculated using Navier's Method.

Mid-span 7.002x10-3 6.990x10-3 7.031x10-3 0.43%

Mid Span 23616 23708 23649 0.14%

1st Order Linear - 3D truss

(0, 0, 0) - (4, 2, - 10.4 10.4 10.4 0%

(8, 0, 0) - (4, 2, - 31.2 31.2 31.2 0%

(0, 6, 0) - (4, 2, - 22.9 22.9 22.9 0%

1st Order linear - Thermal Load on Simply Supported Beam

The roller pin is assumed to be frictionless.

Result Theoretical Theoretical Solver %

Translation at 5 x 10-4 5 x 10-4 0.0%

1st Order Nonlinear - Simple Cantilever

A 4 long cantilever is subjected to a tip load of 20,000.

Flexural and shear deformations are included.

Result Theoretical Theoretical Solver %

Support -P 20,000 20,000 0%

Support PL -80,000 -80,000 0%

Tip Deflection -0.0519 -0.0519 0%

1st Order Nonlinear - Nonlinear Supports

A 10 long continuous beam is simply supported by three translational springs as shown.

Axial and shear deformations are ignored.

Result Comparison Solver

LHS Reaction 250 250

Centre Reaction 500 500

RHS Reaction 250 250

LHS -0.025 -0.025

Centre -0.797 -0.797

RHS -0.025 -0.025

1st Order Nonlinear - Displacement Loading of a Plane Frame

Results were compared with two other independent analysis packages.